Polytechnic Institute of New York University PhysicsLAB

PH2021&PH2031
IntroductoryPhysicsLaboratory
CourseRequirements
Polytechnic Institute of New York University PhysicsLAB

Disclaimer
The information supplied in the Introductory Physics Laboratory course materials is only
intended to assist students enrolled for courses PH2021 and PH2031 offered by Polytechnic
Institute of NYU (referred to below as NYUPoly) at the undergraduate physics laboratories
(referred to below as PhysicsLAB), reader discretion advised. This content cannot be used or
applied to material other than its intended purpose. Copying, printing and distributing this
manual without the authorization of the owner is strictly forbidden. Faculty, staff and students
enrolled to the PH2021 and PH2031courses of NYU-Poly are permitted to read and print this
manual without any further authorization. Failure to comply with this disclaimer may result
in legal action.

TableofContents
Disclaimer ............................................................................................................................ 2
Safety ................................................................................................................................... 3
Course Objective .................................................................................................................. 3
Policies ................................................................................................................................. 4
In Class ............................................................................................................................. 4
Lab Report ........................................................................................................................ 5
Report Format ...................................................................................................................... 6
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 6
2. Initial Data ..................................................................................................................... 7
3. Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 8
4. Final Results ............................................................................................................... 11
5. Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 11

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Safety
When conducting experiments in a laboratory it is essential that you comply with
regulations designed to ensure your safety. The laboratory contains a number of potentially
hazardous devices and materials, and you should always be on the alert for potential
danger(s) arising from your actions and those of other students around you. Most general
safety matters relate to common sense precautions:
- Do not eat or drink in the laboratory.
- Do not connect electrical equipment to a power source until the instructors approval.
- Be careful handling glass objects, and do not open the case of any instrument.
- Pay attention to specific hazards in particular experiments, which are noted in the
instructions, e.g., the use of high voltage or high power light sources and lasers.
In the event of an accident, immediately alert your instructor.
Course Objective
Physics is a science that gives great emphasis to experimental verification of its principles.
No theory to describe a phenomenon is accepted as valid unless the theory has been
rigorously tested by experiment. You are about to begin a course in experimental physics, and
we ask that you imagine that you are the first group to experimentally investigate each
phenomenon and your results are unique. Acquaint yourself with the accepted theoretical
description of the phenomenon and keep it in mind while you are performing the experiments.
You are unlikely to make a new discovery, but you will discover things that are not mentioned
in the theory or laboratory instructions. You will also:
- Directly observe certain phenomena discussed in theory.
- Experience and explore relationships between measurable quantities. This involves
probing a system (that is, the experimental equipment) by varying the magnitudes of
some physical quantities and observing their effects on other parameters of the system.
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- Learn how to gather and evaluate experimental data. Gain skills that teach you what
data to record, when to record, and analyze the recorded data.
- Obtain an appreciation for the limited precision of measurements and the
uncertainties involved in experimentation.
- Learn how to be objective (that is, not to bias the results of an experiment through
preconceptions). The results of your measurements may be at odds with your
expectations and should lead you to question the experimental method, reliability of the
equipment, validity of the underlying assumptions, or your experimental skills.
- Learn how to use a theoretical model to obtain a desired quantity from the data
acquired in the experiment. The model for each experiment is provided for you in these
instructions, but you need to understand every step of the analysis to obtain the final
results and answer the companion questions in the report.
- Learn how to communicate these results to others in the form of a written report. All
of us have to prepare reports for others to explain what we have been doing.
Policies
During the first meeting of the semester your instructor will explain the specifics of the
course, the policies, and give you a lecture on Error Analysis. You will be performing a total of
six experiments.
In Class
- Before each laboratory class, read the instructions for the experiment and the
relevant materials. Failure to prepare properly will cause you to waste time in the lab
and risk your ability to complete the experiment in the allotted time. A penalty can be
incurred by poor performance in class.
- Make sure to bring a laptop and a USB flash drive to every laboratory class. You
are required to use your laptop to complete a part of the analysis in class. Each
experimental station is interfaced with a computer and the data accumulated during the
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experiment will be recorded in a raw data file generated by the measurement software.
You will be able to e-mail or save the data file and receive it using your laptop.
- You cannot work with the same partner for more than one experiment in the
course. You will be paired with another student to perform the experiment, but for each
new experiment you should have a different partner. Both students are expected to fully
participate in taking measurements.
- Have your instructor inspect the data sheet before you exit the experiment
software. The instructor will collect data sheets from each student at the end of class.
Lab Report
- Your grade in this course will be determined on the basis of the reports you submit.
Each member of the team must write the report individually. Your lab report
cannot be a copy or contain any material copied from your lab partners report, or
any other report or the lab manual. If copying or duplication, even in part, is detected,
the grades of all reports involved the duplication will be reduced to zero. Repeated
offence would lead to an automatic F grade for the course.
- My Poly is the web portal through which you will be submitting your reports, receiving
information from your instructor, and learning about your grades. Specific instructions
on how to upload a report, learn about your grade(s) and see the instructors comments
will be provided to you by the instructor and will be available as course materials. Help
could also be obtained from the university Information Systems help desk. If you
experience difficulties in submitting your report, e-mail the report to your
instructor with explanation of the problem you experienced.
- Reports are due exactly one week after the experiment is performed. There is a
penalty of five points per day on reports submitted late. If several reports are
submitted late, the combined penalty will make passing the course impossible, so it is
very important to submit the reports on time. The only exception to this rule is when the
due date falls on an official university holiday (when no classes meet), on such an
occasion the deadline is postponed by the number of days of the holiday. This policy is
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not extended to the late penalty for late reports. Every day after the due date,
whether it is a holiday or not, counts as 5 points for penalty!
- At the next lab session, the graded reports will be available for your review and
comment. You are strongly encouraged to discuss your report and grades with
your instructor, so that you can make improvements in subsequent reports.
- No passing grade is given in the course unless all the experiments have been
performed and all reports submitted. Makeup for missed experiment(s) can be
provided only in exceptional cases and only after supporting documents (such as a
doctors note) are presented to the instructor. Be sure to inform your instructor as soon
as possible about your need for a makeup.
Report Format
Laboratory reports should be brief, but must be clear. Your report should be written in such
a way that someone who has some knowledge of physics, but no knowledge of the experiment
performed, would be able to understand what you did and what you learned. You are required
to use MS (Microsoft) Excel and MS Word software to prepare your report. If you need to
improve your skills in MS Excel or MS Word, study the manual Microsoft Excel that is a part
of the course material.
You will be submitting your reports via SafeAssign on the My Poly web portal. A
laboratory report must be a single MS Word file titled Your name_section_Exp_#
The report must include following five sections: Introduction, Initial Data, Analysis,
Results and Conclusion.
1. Introduction
Start with a statement of the experiment objective(s). Do not copy from the manual but
rather use your own words and explain the objectives as you understand them. Be concise and
specific. Describe what you measured in the experiment and explain the underlying
principles, or the physical model used to fulfill the objective(s). If necessary, present the
formulas which are needed to obtain the result. The explanation should include a description of
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all notations which are used in the report. This part typically does not exceed one page. In
the following example, an introductory part of the report is shown for an experiment where a
simple pendulum was used to determine the acceleration due to gravity. As you see from this
example, the introduction should clearly describe the experiment.
EXAMPLE:
In this experiment, the objective is to obtain a value of the acceleration due to gravity, g, using a
simple pendulum.
A simple pendulum is a device consisting of a small steel ball suspended by a string. When the ball
is pulled to one side and released, it oscillates about the equilibrium position.
The pendulum is assumed to be a simple mathematical pendulum, that is, it is modeled as point
mass connected to a fixed point by a massless string, and the angular amplitude of the oscillation does
not exceed a few degrees. In such a model, the period of oscillation is a simple function of the length of
the pendulum and acceleration due to gravity:

2
2
4
T
L
g
t
= .
In this experiment, the period of the pendulum oscillation (T), and the length of the pendulum (L)
are measured, and g calculated using the above model.
2. Initial Data
A neat tabulation of the data obtained during the experiment is the second part of your
report. Copying and pasting your raw data file here is not sufficient. Follow the manual
and create compact tables, which include columns of measured values accompanied by their
uncertainties.
If you have to change a value recorded in the experiment to a different one, with a purpose
of correcting a systematic error or blunder, highlight this value and provide an explanation for
the reason why you decided to change the data.
Show raw data using only basic SI (International System) units (kg, m, s, A, rad, K) and
their combinations.
All the experiments consist of several independent parts (referred as Part A, B, or C). The
raw data tables should be done separately for each part. Prepare tables in MS Excel first, and
then copy them into the report.
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EXAMPLE:
AL
ins
is the instrumental uncertainty of the length of the pendulum (L) measurement; At
ins
is the instrumental
uncertainty, At
ave
and o
t
are the mean and standard deviation of time measurements, respectively.
Series 1
L, m AL
ins
, m t, s At
ins
, s
0.315 0.002 1.123 0.001
1.124
1.123
1.124
1.124
1.123
1.124
1.123
1.123
1.124
t
av
= 1.1234
o
t
= 0.00055

3. Analysis
This is the most important part of your report. Analysis must also be done separately for
each experimental part. Carry out calculations as delineated in the Analysis section of each
experiment manual. In writing the report, refer to the Error Analysis and Microsoft Excel
manual available as a course material.
For all calculations, use basic SI units and their combinations. Show both intermediate
and final results in these units. The following information must be included in this section:
- Explanation: A clear, line-by-line explanation for calculations of all intermediate and
final results.
- Calculations: You must include a calculation for each step in your report. The
experiments are repeated with multiple trials, show detailed computations for only one
trial using the correct units (sample calculation). There is no need to show formulas and
sample calculation for values found by statistical functions of MS Excel (average;
standard deviation; trendline slope, intercepts and uncertainties found by the LINEST
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function). Formulas and sample calculations must be inserted using the Equation
Object tool and shown together in one line as in the example below.
Example:
Best estimate value for acceleration due to gravity, g, is found using the measured value of the
pendulum length and the mean value of the period measurements, using the model function:
2 2
2
2
2
861 . 9
) 123 . 1 (
) 315 . 0 ( 4 4
s
m
s
m
t
L
g
ave
= = =
t t
.
Uncertainty
The uncertainty for the acceleration comes from two sources: uncertainty in length and uncertainty
in time measurements. Each this uncertainty can be found by using the error propagation procedure.
Applying this procedure to the model function and finding the derivative with respect to L results in:
2 2
2
2
2
0626 . 0 002 . 0
) 123 . 1 (
4 4
s
m
m
s
L
t
g
ave
L
= = A = A
t t

where is the uncertainty in g incurred in length measurement.
L
g A
The total uncertainty in time is found from the instrument uncertainty and standard deviation:
s s s t t
ins
0063 . 0 001 . 0 0055 . 0
2 2 2 2
= + = + A = A o
The uncertainty in acceleration uncured in time measurements, is found using the error propagation
procedure:
2 2
2
3
2
0621 . 0 0063 . 0
) 123 . 1 (
) 315 . 0 ( 4 4
s
m
s
s
m
t
t
L
g
ave
t
= = A = A
t t

Therefore the total uncertainty is:
2 2 2
1247 . 0 0621 . 0 0626 . 0
s
m
s
m
s
m
g g g
t L
= + = A + A = A
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- Tables: Tabulate intermediate results of your calculations. Tables could be copied from
a MS Excel spreadsheet where you make your calculations. You must give a title for
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each column and show units each column and show units. Each table must be accompanied with a sample
calculation for the first row.
- Plots: You should also include any relevant graph(s) in this section. Every graph
should be accompanied by a table of the plotted data and LINEST result(s) (if
applicable).
Specific technique of making plots and examples of those are found in the Microsoft Excel
course manual.
In summary, the following general rules apply when making plots:
The active field of the graph (the part between the axes, without the title and the axis labels)
should not be smaller than a quarter of the page.
Your graph must have a title, and the axes must be clearly labeled with units for the values
plotted. Also, place the data in a table near the graph.
Always indicate the unit of measure for each axis on the graph.
Do not compress the scale to have the points on only a small part of the graph. Choose the
ranges of your axes wisely to spread the graphed data over as large a space as possible.
Your experimental data points should be presented in the graph with a symbol (circle,
triangle, square, etc.). Do not use the single line option in MS Excel, and do not connect
the experimental points on the graph, as illustrated in the example below.
When drawing a straight line through your data points, use the trendline option in MS
Excel. Use trendline options such as Set Intercept = 0 if it is required by the model
function describing the y vs. x dependence. Put the equation for the trendline on the chart.
Use MS Excel LINEST function to find the slope and intercept of the best-fit line and the
associated uncertainties. Check if the LINEST data for the slope matches the slope given
by the trendline formula.
10
0.00
0.04
0.08
0 3 6 9
time
s
/
t

Acceptable plot (reduced for comparison)
Unacceptable plot
Course Requirements Version 2010 Fall

s/t versus time
s/t = 0.0055t + 0.0267
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
time, t (s)
s
/
t
(
m
/
s
)
Polytechnic Institute of New York University PhysicsLAB
4. Final Results
This section includes a concise and clear presentation of final results. Do not present here
results of intermediate calculations here but only those related to the objective(s) of the
experiment. You should have separate results for each part of the experiment you performed.
Remember that you report not a single value but rather a range of possible values for your
results, that is represented by the best estimate value and its uncertainty.
To avoid over- or underestimation of the errors, you must use the following rounding rules
when presenting final results:
Round the uncertainty (absolute error), to two significant digits.
Round the average value to the same decimal position as in the uncertainty.
Calculate the fractional uncertainty x/x with accuracy to two significant figures.
Express the final result in the form: (x
ave
x) units; x/ x
ave

EXAMPLE:
Acceleration due to gravity is found as: %) 12 ( 12 . 0 ; ) 12 . 0 86 . 9 (
2
=
A
=
g
g
s
m
g
If the values are expressed in scientific notation, consider the exponent a part of the units
by placing it outside the brackets:
EXAMPLE:
The initial velocity of the bullet is found to be: %) 20 ( 2 . 0 ; 10 ) 25 . 0 25 . 1 (
2
3
=
A
=
v
v
s
m
v
5. Conclusion
Here is the place in your report where you compare the results with your expectations and
provide a plausible explanation if the results deviate from the expected values. In many
experiments, you need to provide Comparison Charts (described in the Error Analysis
manual) that graphically represent your results and their ranges of possible values.
Conclusion is the last section as well as a very important section of the report where you
provide your own judgment about the experimental results, technique, observed discrepancies,
and your own performance.
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EXAMPLE:
In this experiment we have measured acceleration due to gravity using a simple pendulum. The
acceleration was measured separately for three different lengths of the pendulum. The following
Comparison Chart compares the best estimate values found ant their uncertainties (as error bars):

The results of each measurement are sufficiently precise, since the uncertainty in each case
(calculated from the uncertainties of measurements) is below 15%. The uncertainty is lowest for the
long pendulum (8%) that leads to the conclusion that as long as possible pendulum should be used for
such measurement.
The results for the short and long pendulum are also accurate since the ranges of possible values
for these measurements include the expected value (9.81 m/s
2
).
The medium length pendulum value however is not accurate since its range of possible values is
well above the expected value. Obviously there was a systematic error in the measurements. Since the
time measurement was done by the computer and using a photogate, and repeated ten times with all
values being close to each other, the error most probably is incurred when me and my partner
measured the length of the pendulum. We underestimated the value. It is also possible that we started
the pendulum oscillation at very high angle of deviation from vertical axis. The model function works
only for small (less that approximately 6 degrees) angles of oscillation
Overall, the pendulum seems to be a simple but reliable method for measurement of the
acceleration due to gravity. It requires minimum equipment and two independent measurements and
could be easily done in the laboratory or in the field.