View all SBCA Tct| Ac|c: at www.sbcindustry.com/technotes.

php
SBCA 6300 Enterprise Lane Madison, WI 53719
608/274-4849 608/274-3329 (fax) www.sbcindustry.com
T-GypsumInstallation09


Gypsum Joint Ridging and Cracking
Released March 19, 2009
|ntroduct|on:
Consi der the f ol l owi ng scenari o: You have j ust f i ni shed constructi on on your new home. I t was a l ong,
di f f i cul t wi nter. You spent countl ess hours worki ng wi th the general contractor on thi s proj ect. He came
hi ghl y recommended and you have been very happy wi th hi s perf ormance and that of hi s subcontractors.
Fi nal l y, i t i s ti me to move i nto your new home and enj oy the f rui ts of those l abors. Wi nter gave way to
spri ng and summer and you noti ced a crack appear i n the j oi nt between two gypsum panel s i n your great
room. Two years and several repai rs l ater, the crack conti nues to appear each summer. Your rel ati onshi p
wi th the bui l der has become strai ned and the f i nger poi nti ng has begun. The drywal l i nstal l er i nsi sts that i t
was a probl em wi th the f rami ng; the f ramer i nsi sts i t was the drywal l i nstal l er or maybe i t was the trusses
that were f aul ty. How can thi s i ssue be resol ved, and what can be done to prevent thi s f rom happeni ng on
f uture proj ects? I t i s cl ear that we need to i nvesti gate the i ssue and come to reasonabl e recommendati ons
based on a good set of f acts.
|ssue:
Cracks i n the center of taped drywal l j oi nts that run perpendi cul ar to f l oor or roof trusses i s a cal l that has
recentl y been occurri ng more f requentl y. These cracks are characteri zed by thei r appearance i n the center
of taped j oi nts runni ng paral l el to tapered edges or f actory seams. These cracks are pri mari l y observed i n
areas that span l arge open spaces. The cracks may actual l y tear the drywal l tape and may conti nue to
grow over ti me. Furthermore, the wi dth of a crack may vary cycl i cal l y as the seasons change.
Ri dgi ng i s the opposi te phenomenon that typi cal l y occur on a taped gypsum board j oi nt runni ng
perpendi cul ar to f l oor or roof trusses. Ri dgi ng i s characteri zed by the appearance of a smal l hump
approxi matel y
3
/
8
-i nch wi de, usual l y runni ng al ong the taped j oi nt of cei l i ngs that span l arge open areas.
The Gypsum Associ ati on def i nes ri dgi ng i n the f ol l owi ng way i n i ts publ i cati on Repair of Gypsum Board
Joint Ridging (GA-221-00):
Joint ridging, also called beading, is a uniform, fine line deformation occurring at gypsum board joints. It is
usually caused by compression of the edges or ends of the finished and decorated gypsum board resulting
from the edges or ends being forced together from exposure to alternating periods of high and low
temperature and humidity extremes due to thermal or hygrometric expansion.
Someti mes, both of these i ssue appear at the same l ocati on, wi th cracki ng appeari ng i n wetter months and
ri dgi ng i n dri er months. Thi s probl em has become more wi despread as homeowners i nsi st on l arger
rooms and open f l oor pl ans that have l arge cl ear span areas.
Local envi ronment seems to pl ay a si gni f i cant rol e i n every gypsum ri dgi ng and cracki ng (GRC) case of
whi ch SBCA i s aware. Al l reported cases of GRC have been i n dry areas of the country, where humi di ty
changes are the most drasti c f rom season to season. Ari d regi ons of Austral i a and New Zeal and have
reported si mi l ar cases of GRC.
Lumber and drywal l expand and contract wi th changes i n temperature and humi di ty. However,
cal cul ati ons show that shri nkage/expansi on caused by seasonal changes i n temperature and humi di ty i s
rel ati vel y smal l and not normal l y suf f i ci ent to cause GRC i n standard constructi on. For exampl e,
according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrations National Weather Service
(NOAA/NWS)
1
, i n Las Vegas the average rel ati ve humi di ty ranges f rom 57 percent i n January to 24

1
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Weather Service (NOAA/NWS), (www.wrh.noaa.gov/vef/climate/figure4.php)

SBCA Tech Notes Page 2
T-GypsumInstallation09
percent i n June (a 33 percent seasonal change). Under normal ci rcumstances, a change i n the rel ati ve
humi di ty of at l east 50 percent over a l ong peri od of ti me (at l east 18 days) i s necessary to creat e a l arge
enough di f f erenti al i n the expansi on/contracti on of bui l di ng materi al s to produce GRC. Whi l e i t i s
possi bl e that thi s degree of rel ati ve humi di ty change coul d occur i n any gi ven year, i t i s not the norm.
More detai l on thi s concept i s provi ded i n the research presented i n Append|x A.
Recommended Act|ons:
Based on the known f acts, the resul ts of f i el d experi ence, testi ng, and the research descri bed i n Append|x
A, the i nci dents of GRC can be drasti cal l y reduced i f care i s taken to reduce or el i mi nate those causes of
GRC that can be control l ed. As noted, di f f erenti al expansi on and shri nkage of vari ous bui l di ng materi al s
contri bute to GRC. However, thi s cannot be the onl y cause because seasonal envi ronmental changes i n
the U.S. are general l y not si gni f i cant enough to al one produce the amount of expansi on/shri nkage
necessary to cause GRC. I mproper gypsum i nstal l ati on techni ques, poor f rami ng practi ces and settl i ng of
a bui l di ng al so contri bute to the probl em. Si nce we cannot ef f i ci entl y control the temperature/humi di ty of
atti c spaces beyond usi ng proper venti l ati on techni ques, GRC must be control l ed through the constructi on
practi ces that we can control .
Experi ence shows that GRC probl ems occur most of ten due to i mproper drywal l storage, handl i ng and
i nstal l ati on practi ces. The f ol l owi ng measures shoul d be taken to reduce the probl ems wi th GRC.
Veri f y that the truss desi gn def l ecti on and the building designers deflection specification (if
any) are compati bl e or wi thi n pl us of mi nus 10 percent of one another.
Veri f y that the truss desi gn def l ecti on meets the USG speci f i cati on as stated i n The Gypsum
Construction Handbook
2
, Chapter 2 Framing, as f ol l ows:
.For drywall assemblies it is desirable to limit deflection to L/240 (L = length of the span
in inches) and to never exceed L/120 (L/180 in some codes). The preferred limit for
veneer assemblies is L/360 and should not exceed L/240.
Veri f y that the trusses are l evel and the cei l i ng pl ane i s f l at by measuri ng at vari ous l ocati ons
usi ng a l aser l evel .
o Gypsum i nstal l ati on shoul d occur onl y af ter the f rami ng techni ques are of suf f i ci ent
qual i ty to avoi d unacceptabl e movement i n the f rami ng members.
o Out of l evel movement can be due to:
Concrete sl abs not bei ng l evel .
Beari ng wal l s top pl ates bei ng at di f f eri ng hei ghts al ong the beari ng l ength.
Trusses si tti ng between studs causi ng l ocal def ormati on.
o I f the trusses are not l evel , i t strongl y recommended to NOT attempt to sti f f en and/or
al ter trusses wi thout the approval of the bui l di ng desi gner and modi f i cati on detai l s
provi ded by the bui l di ng desi gner, truss desi gner or truss manuf acturer.
I mproper modi f i cati on of the trusses can al ter the truss system behavi or and
i n most cases wi l l not sol ve the probl em.
The drywal l contractor shoul d document the f ol l owi ng i tems, as stated i n the USG Gypsum
Construction Handbook, regardi ng drywal l i nstal l ati on. Thi s wi l l hel p al l parti es understand the
ci rcumstances l eadi ng up to the gypsum i nstal l ati on shoul d an i nstance of GRC occur.
o Date, ti me, temperature and humi di ty at the ti me of drywal l appl i cati on.
o Method and how l ong the structure was condi ti oned pri or to i nstal l ati on.

2
T|c Gyp:un Ucn:|rut|icn anc|cc|, USG Corporation (www.usg.com/index.jsp)


SBCA Tech Notes Page 3
T-GypsumInstallation09
o I f venti l ated, the method of venti l ati on. (Contractor shoul d provi de thi s).
o The type of j oi nt compounds used.
o The type of f i ni sh speci f i ed and what was i mpl emented.
Al l ow materi al s to condi ti on at the si te pri or to i nstal l ati on.
Al l ow materi al s to condi ti on f or 48 hours pri or to the j oi nt tapi ng process
3
.
Use resi l i ent channel s.
o Cei l i ng constructi on uti l i zi ng resi l i ent channel s between the drywal l and the f rami ng
produced the most consi stent reducti on i n the i nci dence of GRC even when past repai rs
f ai l ed.
Back-bl ock gypsum board j oi nts.
o Thi s i s an addi ti onal cost, but i t i s cheaper than cal l backs and di ssati sf i ed costumers.
Pri or to i nstal l ati on, i nspect the f rami ng to el i mi nate, as much as possi bl e, gaps between f rami ng
members that wi l l af f ect the wal l board i nstal l ati on process.
Avoi d use of wet l umber.
Use control j oi nts ( Fi gure 1) i n l ong wal l s and cei l i ngs.
o Control j oi nts i n i nteri or cei l i ngs wi thout peri meter rel i ef must be i nstal l ed so that l i near
di mensi ons do not exceed 30 f t. and total area between control j oi nts does not exceed
900 sq. f t.

Control Joints
4
F|0URE 1
An understandi ng of what causes GRC wi l l hel p al l i nvol ved parti es to work together on a proj ect, and
produce an end result that everyone is proud ofand that mi ni mi zes owner cal l backs. Many of the
probl ems associ ated wi th GRC can be avoi ded i f the proper precauti ons are observed. Both the Gypsum
Associ ati on and the Drywal l Fi ni shi ng Counci l provi de excel l ent resources expl ai ni ng the proper methods
that shoul d be used. (See Append|x .)

3
http://www.dwf c.org/publ i cati ons/i nteri or-drywal l -speci f i cati ons, Secti on 2.1
4
U.S. Gypsum Associ ati on, GA-234-98

SBCA Tech Notes Page 4
T-GypsumInstallation09
Append|x A
ackground:
I n the l ate 1990s, two i ndependent groups took on the task of researchi ng the issue of GRC (Drywall
Cracking on Global Scale, article by Greg Campbel l , publ i shed i n Walls and Ceilings
5
). Both groups
bel i eved, due to the cycl i cal nature of the probl em, that movement of wood members was the cause. However,
the reason f or that movement remai ned a mystery. Many theori es were suggested, but none had any basi s i n
actual testi ng.

The f i rst group, based i n the Uni ted States, was compri sed of wal l board and f i ni shi ng product manuf acturers,
drywal l contractors, truss f abri cators, code of f i ci al s and f rami ng contractors, and was sponsored by the
Drywal l Fi ni shi ng Counci l . The group f ocused on drywal l cracki ng probl ems i n southern Cal i f orni a and Las
Vegas. Thi s group came to i ts concl usi ons af ter much col l aborati on and the i nstal l ati on of el ectroni c
moni tori ng systems i n two homes i n the Las Vegas area.

The second group, (a j oi nt ef f ort by the Drywal l Associ ati on of Nevada
6
and Monash Uni versi ty, Mel bourne,
Austral i a, and l ed by Dr. Bob Mi l ner), constructed a 20-meter square structure consi sti ng of a f ramed wal l ,
cei l i ng and roof structure wi thi n a cl i mate control l ed chamber. They put the bui l di ng assembl y through a
vari ety of tests and were successf ul i n recreati ng the GRC probl em repeatedl y.

Both teams were dri ven by the desi re to f i nd the cause of GRC, whi ch was most preval ent i n dri er cl i mates.
Thei r concl usi ons were very si mi l ar, and we can draw on them and other sources as descri bed bel ow to
understand thi s phenomenon much better.

Findings from Drywall Association of Nevada and Monash University in Australian Research
Bui l di ng materi al di mensi ons change as thei r moi sture content f l uctuates. The moi sture content of drywal l and
l umber i n resi dences that were constructed duri ng the summer months, and subj ected to the i ncreased humi di ty
duri ng the wi nter, was observed to i ncrease. Thi s i ncrease i n moi sture content caused al l of the constructi on
materi al s observed to expand; however, the f rami ng l umber i ncreased i n l ength to a much greater degree than
di d the drywal l . When the drywal l was secured to wood, the di f f erenti al i ncrease i n di mensi on caused tensi on
to occur i n the drywal l , whi ch l i teral l y pul l ed the drywal l tape j oi nts apart.

The observed ef f ects were vi sual l y reversi bl e and repeatabl e. When the same structural system di scussed
above was constructed duri ng the more humi d wi nter and spri ng seasons, and passed through the dry summer
months, the materi al s were observed to shri nk. Si nce the l umber reduced i n l ength to a much greater degree
than di d the drywal l , compressi on occurred i n the drywal l , whi ch produced ri dgi ng at the tape j oi nt.

Greater humi di ty extremes caused greater observed probl ems. The tests f ound that the greater the seasonal
humi di ty swi ng (i .e., summer to wi nter or wi nter to summer), the worse the cracki ng and ri dgi ng probl ems
became.

Temperature f l uctuati ons were f ound to pl ay l i ttl e rol e. Whi l e summer to wi nter temperature f l uctuati ons
pl ayed some rol e i n the movement (pri mari l y i n the drywal l ), the ef f ect was general l y i mmedi ate (wi thi n 24 to
36 hours af ter i ni ti al l y condi ti oni ng the home) and smal l (l ess than 20 percent of the overal l movement
requi red to generate a tape j oi nt crack was caused by temperature).

Whi l e the use of ki l n-dri ed l umber i n trusses produced some benef i ts, i t di d not ensure that cracki ng and
ri dgi ng woul d be prevented.

Resi l i ent channel s proved to be benef i ci al i n preventi ng GRC. Cei l i ng constructi on uti l i zi ng resi l i ent

5
Wa||: anc Uci|in:, 2401 West Big Beaver Road, Suite 700 Troy, Michigan 48084,
www.wconline.com/CDA/Archive/b367f464b7768010VgnVCM100000f932a8c0
6
Drywall Finishing Council, 11392 Park Lane, Garden Grove, CA 92840, www.dwfc.org/publications/interior-drywall-specifications


SBCA Tech Notes Page 5
T-GypsumInstallation09
channel s between the drywal l and the f rami ng seemed to produce the most consi stent reducti on i n
i nci dents of tape j oi nt cracki ng and ri dgi ng, even when past repai rs f ai l ed. Condi ti oni ng homes pri or to
the appl i cati on of the tape j oi nts was f ound to be of si gni f i cant benef i t.

Fortunatel y, expansi on or contracti on does not occur every ti me humi di ty shi f ts. Both U.S. and
Austral i an/New Zeal and groups noted that humi di ty l evel s must change by at l east 50 percent and be
mai ntai ned f or a prol onged peri od of ti me. The Austral i an research team was abl e to i ntroduce cracks i n
i ts test assembl y by changi ng the humi di ty of the cl i mate chamber f rom 20 to 90 percent, mai ntai ni ng the
higher level for 18 days. Similarly, the U.S. groups electronic monitoring of Las Vegas homes found that
a change of 50 percent i n rel ati ve humi di ty l asti ng f or at l east 30 days was needed to cause a si gni f i cant
change i n the moi sture content of f rami ng members, resul ti ng i n di mensi onal movement.

Framing Issues
Whi l e temperature and humi di ty changes are l i kel y the most si gni f i cant cause of GRC due to the
di f f erenti al i n properti es of materi al s used as substrate f or gypsum wal l board, care must sti l l be taken to
mi ti gate the severi ty of the i ssue. Thi s can be done by f rami ng the structure i n a way that l essens the
magni tude of materi al movement due to poor f rami ng practi ces. The f ol l owi ng are some of the i tems that
can al l ow materi al movement af ter gypsum products have been i nstal l ed:

Use of unseasoned (wet) l umber (whi ch i s common i n some parts of the country) may be a
si gni f i cant f actor i n cei l i ng cracki ng, parti cul arl y when the cei l i ng i s i nstal l ed bef ore the moi sture
l evel of the l umber has been reduced to a reasonabl e l evel .

Mi sal i gned studs and headers around doors and wi ndows. Joi nts need to f i t ti ghtl y and have no
gaps between the j ack studs and the headers. Li kewi se, headers need to be ti ght agai nst the top
pl ate of the wal l or the cri ppl e studs above the header.

Gaps between wal l top pl ates due to i mproper attachment.

Gaps between studs and pl ates.

Studs that vary i n l ength, causi ng uneven pl ates and gaps.

Long wal l s or cei l i ngs wi th no breaks: Because of expansi on and contracti on, thi s area can resul t
i n cracks or ri dges i n seams.

Crooked f rami ng: Of ten not noti ced unti l drywal l i s bei ng attached or taped, or tri m i s bei ng
attached.

Poor i nsul ati on j ob: A poor i nsul ati on j ob can make drywal l di f f i cul t to attach. Overstuf f i ng of
wal l cavi ti es, i mproper attachment of i nsul ati on can l ead to excessi ve stresses i n the gypsum
j oi nts.
Gypsum Board Installation Issues
The Gypsum Associ ati on has recogni zed that di f f i cul ti es can ari se f rom the i mproper i nstal l ati on of
gypsum products, especi al l y when i nstal l ati on takes pl ace i n col d or wet condi ti ons. As a resul t, the
associ ati on has publ i shed Gypsum Board Winter Related Installation Recommendations (GA220-06), i n
whi ch the f ol l owi ng i s stated:
Cold and damp weather conditions can contribute to joint compound bond failure, delayed shrinkage,
beading, nail popping, joint shadowing and board sagging. Observing the following precautions during
periods of cold and damp weather will reduce job problems.

SBCA Tech Notes Page 6
T-GypsumInstallation09
Gypsum board and joint treatment should not be applied to cold or damp surfaces.
For mechanical installation of gypsum board, room temperature should be maintained at not less than 40
o
F
(5
o
C), not less than 50
o
F (10
o
C) for adhesive application of gypsum board and for joint treatment, texturing
and decoration.
Interior temperatures should be maintained at not less than 50
o
F (10
o
C) for a minimum of 48 hours and the
gypsum board should be completely dry before taping and finishing. Subsequent finishing and texturing
should not proceed until previous applications are completely dry. Ready-mixed joint compounds and
textures shall be protected against freezing in storage.
When a temporary heat source is used, the temperature should not exceed 95
o
F (35
o
C) in any given room
or area.
Ventilation shall be provided to ensure normal drying conditions. (Note: Gas-fired heaters generate
considerable quantities of water. The use of gas-fired temporary heat equipment may result in unusually
high humidity conditions.)
The use of setting type joint compounds can help avoid many cold weather related finishing problems.
A latex primer should be applied and allowed to dry before decorating. This often takes between 36 and 48
hours when the weather is cool or damp.
The proper thicknesses and types of gypsum board should be used to avoid sagging when ceilings are to be
textured.
Where a vapor retarder is required, it is suggested that foil backed gypsum board or vapor retarder faced
mineral or glass fiber insulation batts be used.
When a polyethylene vapor retarder film is installed on ceilings behind the gypsum board, it is important to
install the batt or blanket ceiling insulation BEFORE the gypsum board; when loose fill insulation is used,
install the insulation IMMEDIATELY after the gypsum board.

The Gypsum Construction Handbook, by the USG Corporati on, Chapter 2 Framing, states the following
i n regard to f rami ng and al l owabl e def l ecti on cri teri a.

Loads: Frami ng members and thei r i nstal l ati on must be sel ected accordi ng to thei r abi l i ty to wi thstand the
l oads to whi ch they wi l l be subj ected. These i ncl ude l i ve l oads (contri buted by the occupancy and elements
such as wi nd, snow and earthquake) and dead l oads (wei ght of the structure i tsel f ). Mi ni mum l ateral l oad
f or i nteri or parti ti ons i s 5 psf ; f or exteri or wal l s 15 psf to 45 psf or greater dependi ng on bui l di ng hei ght
and geographi c l ocati on.
Deflection: Even though an assembl y i s structural l y capabl e of wi thstandi ng a gi ven l oad, i ts use may be
restri cted i f the amount of def l ecti on that woul d occur when the l ateral l oad i s appl i ed exceeds that whi ch
the surf aci ng materi al s can sustai n wi thout damage. Obvi ousl y, thi s def l ecti on f actor i nf l uences the
sel ecti on of surf aci ng materi al s.
For drywal l assembl i es i t i s desi rabl e to l i mi t def l ecti on to L/240 (L = l ength of the span i n i nches) and
to never exceed L/120 (L/180 i n some codes). The pref erred l i mi t f or veneer assembl i es i s L/360 and
shoul d not exceed L/240. Usi ng L/240 as an exampl e, and where the l ength of a span (di stance
between f rami ng members) i s 10 , def l ecti on i s determi ned as f ol l ows:

SBCA Tech Notes Page 7
T-GypsumInstallation09



SBCA Tech Notes Page 8
T-GypsumInstallation09
Append|x

The Gypsum Associ ati on (www.gypsum.org) and the Drywal l Fi ni shi ng Counci l (www.dwf c.org)
provi des these recommendati ons on drywal l i nstal l ati on:

Gypsum board must be maintained at a minimum temperature of 50F and be dry for at least 48 hours prior
to the application of drywall joint compounds, textures, and paints or coatings.
Gypsum board must be thoroughly dry and at ambient temperature before application.
The relative humidity within the structure must be controlled before, during and after gypsum board
application.
Provide extra ventilation for any activities that create high humidity after the gypsum board application, such
as the pouring of concrete basement floors.
In cold weather, inside temperature shall be maintained between 50F and 70F. When portable heaters
are used, the extra humidity that they produce must be removed.
Concrete surfaces must be aged at least 60 days prior to the application of drywall joint compounds, drywall
textures, paints or coatings.
Drywall attachment must always proceed from the center of the panel to the ends and edges. Drywall must
not be attached at the corners first and then left to hang prior to the field being attached.
A control joint or intermediate blocking must be installed where framing members change direction.
Control joints in interior ceilings without perimeter relief must be installed so that linear dimensions do not
exceed 30 ft. and total area between control joints do not exceed 900 sq. ft.
Special attention to the use and placement of control joints and maintaining recommended environmental
conditions before, during, and after application are all important factors in minimizing the effects of extreme
weather conditions.
Failure to observe these requirements, particularly in areas with extreme weather conditions, will virtually
guarantee finish performance problems.

For more i nf ormati on on these practi ces, ref er to:
I nteri or Drywal l Speci f i cati ons, Drywal l Fi ni shi ng Counci l
Recommended Level s of Gypsum Board Fi ni sh GA-214-96, Gypsum Associ ati on
Appl i cati on and Fi ni shi ng of Gypsum Board GA-216-00, Gypsum Associ ati on
Repai r of Gypsum Board Joi nt Ri dgi ng GA-221-00, Gypsum Associ ati on
Joi nt Treatment under Extreme Weather Condi ti ons GA-236-00, Gypsum Associ ati on
Control Joi nts f or Fi re Resi stance Rated Systems, GA-234-98, Gypsum Associ ati on







View all SBCA Tech Notes at www.sbcindustry.com/technotes.php