DR.

SHAFQAT

LOGIC

PROPOSITION
NATURE OF PROPOSITION DEFINITION: A Proposition is the affirmation and denial of certain relation between two terms. For example, Cat is brown. Cat is not brown. STRUCTURE OF PROPOSITION A Proposition has three parts: Subject, Predicate, Copula SUBJECT: The Subject is that about which something is affirmed or denied. PREDICATE: The Predicate is that which is affirmed or denied of the Subject. COPULA: The Copula is the sign expressing relation between the Subject and the Predicate. The Subject and the Predicate of a Proposition are Terms, but Copula is not a term. It is expressed by such words as is, is not, are, are not. Thus in a Proposition sugar is sweet Sugar is the Subject because we have affirmed something about it. Sweet is the Predicate because it has been affirmed of the Subject i.e. sugar.

And the word is is the Copula because it expresses a relation of affirmation between the sugar and sweet. Similarly, in the Proposition milk is not solid, milk is the subject, solid is the Predicate and is not is the Copula. JUDGMENT AND PROPOSITION JUDGMENT: A Judgment is a mental act of affirming or denying a certain relation between two terms or ideas. I have in my mind the idea of quinine and the idea of bitterness. Now I mentally affirm the bitterness of 1

quinine. I form the Judgment quinine is bitter.

Mental act and verbal expression

This Judgment may or may not be expressed in language. JUDGMENT AND PROPOSITION But when this Judgment is expressed in language, it becomes a Proposition. So a Judgment is something mental, while a Proposition is a verbal expression of that mental act. In other words, a Proposition is a Judgment expressed in language.

DIVISION OF PROPOSITIONS
According to the principle of Quality Propositions are divided into: AFFIRMATIVE AND NEGATIVE AFFIRMATIVE: An Affirmative Proposition is one in which the Predicate is affirmed of the Subject. For example, Ahmad is happy. Here the Predicate happy is affirmed of the Subject Ahmad. NEGATIVE: A Negative Proposition is one in which the Predicate is denies of the Subject. For example, Ahmad is not happy. Here the Predicate happy is denied of the Subject Ahmad. According to the principle of Quantity Propositions are divided into:

UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR UNIVERSAL: A Universal Proposition is one in which the Predication (affirmation or denial) is made of
the whole Subject. In the example, All men are rational, the Predicate rational is denied of the whole Subject man i.e. the whole class man. 2

And in the example, No books are useless, the Predicate useless is denied of the whole Subject books. In other words the Predicate useless is denied of the whole class of books.

PARTICULAR: A Particular Proposition is one in which the Predication (affirmation or denial) is

made of a part of the Subject. For example, some men are honest; and some men are not honest. Here in the first example honest is affirmed of some men and in the second honest is denied of some men. SIGN OF QUANTITY Universal Affirmative Proposition: Universal Negative Proposition: ALL NO

Particular Affirmative Proposition: SOME Particular Negative Proposition: SOME

QUANTITY of Categorical Proposition is determined by its subject. QUALITY of Categorical Proposition is determined by its Copula.

HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION
According to the principle of Relation Propositions are divided into Categorical and Hypothetical. CATEGORICAL: A Categorical Proposition is one in which predication (affirmation or denial) is made with out any condition. For example, All men are rational; Some men are not honest. HYPOTHETICAL: A Hypothetical Proposition is one in which predication (affirmation or denial) is made under a certain condition. For example, If the sky is cloudy, it would rain. DEFINITION OF HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION

A Hypothetical Proposition is a Conditional Proposition in which the condition is introduced by If. For example, If there is smoke, there is fire; If a man is honest, he is respected. CONSTITUTED PARTS OF HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION A Hypothetical Proposition has two parts: Antecedent and Consequent. ANTECEDENT is that part of a Hypothetical Proposition which contains a CONDITION. CONSEQUENT is that part of a Hypothetical Proposition which contains a STATEMENT. In the examples given above If there is smoke; and If a man is honest, are the Antecedents. And there is fire; and he is respected are Consequents. RULE OF HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION The strict Logical Rule for Hypothetical Proposition is that its Antecedent must come first and its Consequent next (like cause and effect). In ordinary language we may say He will pass if he works hard. The logical form of this Proposition is that If he works hard, he will pass. So there is a relation of before and after between the Antecedent and Consequent. QUALITY OF HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION The Quality of Hypothetical Proposition is determined by the Quality of its Consequent. A Hypothetical Proposition is Affirmative if its Consequent is affirmative. And A Hypothetical Proposition is Negative if its Consequent is Negative. For instance, If it does not rain, he will play, is Affirmative because its Consequent is affirmative. And If it rains, he will not play, is Negative, because its Consequent is Negative. Some other examples: Affirmative Hypothetical Proposition If A is B, C is D. If A is not B, C is D. If he is studious, he will pass. If he is not studious, he will fail.

Some other examples: Negative Hypothetical Proposition If A is B, C is not D. If there is sun, there is no darkness. If A is not B, C is not D. If there is no sun, there is no light. QUANTITY OF HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION The Quantity of Hypothetical Proposition is determined by the Quantity of its Antecedent. UNIVERSAL HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION If the Antecedent of a Hypothetical Proposition is followed by its Consequent in all cases, then it is Universal. For example, In all cases if it rains, the ground is wet. PARTICULAR HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION If the Antecedent of a Hypothetical Proposition is followed by its Consequent in some cases, then it is Particular. For example, In some cases if he works hard, he will fail.