Chapter 3: Dynamics of the physical point

Prof. Felice Iazzi Dipartimento di Fisica del Politecnico di Torino email:felice.iazzi@polito.it tel.3355995361

$=1: Forces
The force is a physical vector quantity which is defined as the result of a measurement performed through a dynamometer. A dynamometer is basically a spring whose length can be measured. Each dynamometer has a at rest length and all elongation or compression of the spring with respect to such at rest length is indicated on an adjacent linear scale.

There are only 4 fundamental forces in nature (actually only 3, because in 1984 electromagnetic and weak interaction have been demonstrated to be different aspects of the same interaction) and they are: gravitational, electromagnetic, weak and strong interactions. They combine together to form infinite force vectors which appear as the usual forces measured in the most part of the visible phenomena and in the technology of the industrial world. As a result a small number of different types of forces can be classified as the only present in the phenomena of the classical physics. They are listed below.
r Gravitational Force FG

Features: this force appears on a physical point 1 (i.e. a point with mass m1) when another physical point 2 with mass m2 is at a distance r attracting 1 toward 2 Definition : it acts on the point 1, along the direction from 1 to 2 and is expressed by: r r mm r FG 1 2 2 r21 r21 r (= 6.673 10-11 Nm2Kg-2 in MKSA) (3.1.1)

r Where r21 is the vector displacement from point 2 (the attracting point) to point 1 (the attracted point) (being r of course r = r21 ).

Of course the definition is symmetrical and also point 2 is attracted by point 1, with the same modulus but opposite direction.

r Gravitational Force on the Earth surface Fg Features : This force is the gravitational force evaluated on the Earth surface, i.e. in a volume of area few km 2 and height less than 1 km. Direction and intensity of the force can be calculated from eq. 3.1.1 assuming that the forces generated by all points of the Earth which attract a point of mass m in the volume is equal to the force generated by a single point in the centre of the Earth containing all the Earth mass M (This statement will be demonstrated in a following chapter). The gravitational force applied by the Earth on a point-like mass m in the volume can be written as:
r r r21 mM FG r = ( R + h) 2 r21 r r21 mM r h 2 r21 2 R (1 + ) R

(3.1.2)

where the vector in (3.1.2) is the vector displacement from the Earth centre to the point m. Under the above assumptions the ratio h to R is very small (negligible) with respect 1 and the direction of the force can be approximated by the perpendicular to the horizontal surface (in other words in all points the direction is nearly the same). Therefore the gravitational force on m can be written as: r r Fg m g j

(3.1.3)

where the vector in (3.1.3) is the vertical unit vector on the surface, directed toward the sky. Definition : it is a constant force acting on every mass m on the Earths surface, always vertical, directed toward the ground and proportional through g to the mass m.

r Electrostatic (or Coulomb) Force FE

Features: this force appears on an electrically charged physical point 1 (i.e. a point with a charge q1) when another charged physical point 2 with charge q2 is at a distance r ; electric charge is a physical quantity measured by a class of instruments called Definition : it acts on the point 1, along the direction from 1 to 2: 1 is attracted toward 2 if the 2 charges have different sign, otherwise 1 is attracted by 2. The Coulomb force is expressed by:

r r 1 q1 q 2 r21 r FE 4 0 r 2 r21

1 4 0

= 8.99 109 Nm2C-2 in MKSA)

r r Where r21 is the vector displacement from point 2 to point 1 (being of course r = r21 ).

Of course the definition is symmetrical and also point 2 is attracted by 1, with the same modulus but opposite direction.


r Elastic Force Fe

Features: this force appears at both ends of an extensible object (e.g. a spring, an elastic cord) when it is elongated or shortened with respect to the at rest lenght Definition : it acts on the 2 masses connected to the ends of the object and is expressed by: r r Fe k x i

r Tension Force T
Features: this force appears at both ends of a not extensible object (e.g. a cord, a rigid slab or rod) Definition : it acts on the 2 masses connected to the ends of the cord and is:

a) equal to 0 if the distance between the ends is less than the cord length; b) otherwise is directed along the straight line joining the ends, always toward the center of the cord. The modulus of the is the same at both ends
Forces between two surfaces in contact

r Features: when 2 plane surfaces are in contact, i.e. they are parallel and their distance is 0, one force F12 r appears acting on the surface 1 due to surface 2 and one force F21 appears acting on the surface 2 due to surface 1. These forces are symmetrical. If 2 surfaces are not planes but have (at least one of them) a large curvature radius, they can have a nearly planar contact in one point and the plane tangent to both surfaces in the point is considered as contact plane (e.g. a wheel on a planar surface).

These contact forces have 2 components: a) the normal (to the surface) force and the parallel (to the surface) force which is called friction.
Normal Force Definition : it acts on surface 1 along the direction perpendicular to the contact plane, from surface 2 to surface 1 (never in opposite direction) and its value N is :

a) a suitable positive value if both surfaces are in contact b) 0 if the contact disappears (distance > 0)
Static Friction Force

Definition: it acts along the contact plane, when both surfaces are at rest with respect to each other, in a suitable direction on the contact plane and with a suitable absolute value ranging from 0 to a maximum FsMAX , which is given by:

FsMAX = s . N

The coefficient s is called static friction coefficient: it depends on the pair of materials in contact but not on the contact area.

Dynamical (or Kinetic) Friction Force

Definition: it acts along the contact plane, when both surfaces are in relative motion with respect to each other, in the direction opposite to the relative motion, and its expression is given by: r r v Fd d N r v

The coefficient d is called dynamic (or kinetic) friction coefficient: it depends on the pair of materials in contact but not on the contact area.
r Viscous Force Fv Features: this force appears when a body is moving inside a fluid like water, air, oils

Definition: it acts on the body, is parallel to the velocity, in the opposite direction: its intensity is proportional to the velocity (as a first approximation which holds at low velocities) r r Fv v

The coefficient is called viscosity (or viscous) coefficient and depends on the fluid, on the shape of the body but not on the mass. r Lorentz Force FL Features: this force appears when a charged point of mass m and charge q is moving inside a magnetic field r with a velocity v . A magnetic field is produced by special metals or by electric current (as will be discussed r in Physics II) and characterized by a vector B which is present in every geometrical point of a region of the space
Definition: it acts on the charged point and is expressed as: r r r FL q v B

$=2: The 3 Laws (Principles) of the Dynamics

I Law

In an inertial reference frame, a point-like mass, not submitted to any force, maintains the same velocity.
II Law

r In an inertial reference frame, the sum FT of all forces applied to a point-like mass m is equal to the product r of the mass times the acceleration a of the point: r r FT = m a
III Law

r r If a point-like mass m1 applies a force F12 to a point-like mass m 2 , the mass m 2 applies to m1 a force F21 equal and opposite: r r F12 = F21

$=2.1: Exercises
Exercise 2.1.1

Two boxes of masses m and M lie on a horizontal perfectly smooth plane and are in contact to each other. A r horizontal force F is applied to M, on the side opposite to that one in contact with m, which pushes M against m. Find the value of the acceleration of the boxes. DATA: m =1[Kg]; M =5[Kg]; F =500 [N];
y M m F

x R1 Exercise 2.1.2 R2

Two boxes of masses m and M lie on a horizontal rough plane and are in contact to each other. The 2 r dynamic friction coefficients are m and M respectively. A horizontal force F is applied to M, on the side opposite to that one in contact with m, which pushes M against m. Find the value of the acceleration of the boxes. DATA: m =1[Kg]; M =5[Kg]; m =0.4; M =0.45; F =500 [N];

y M m N N x R1 R2 Exercise 2.1.3 F

Three boxes of masses m1 , m 2 and m 3 lie on a horizontal perfectly smooth plane: m1 is connected to m 2 by r a cord and m 2 is connected to m 3 by another cord, like 3 wagons of a train. A horizontal force F is applied to m1 , directed opposite with respect m 2 and m 3 . Find the value of the acceleration of the masses m1 , m 2 , m 3 and the tensions of the 2 cords. DATA: m1 =1[Kg]; m 2 =2[Kg]; m 3 =3[Kg]; F =200 [N];

m1

T12

m2

T23

m3

Exercise 2.1.4

Three boxes of masses m1 , m 2 and m 3 lie on a horizontal rough plane: m1 is connected to m 2 by a cord and m 2 is connected to m 3 by another cord, like 3 wagons of a train. The 3 dynamic friction coefficients are 1 , r 2 and 3 respectively. A horizontal force F is applied to m1 , directed opposite with respect m 2 and m 3 . Find the value of the acceleration of the masses m1 , m 2 , m 3 and the tensions of the 2 cords. DATA: m1 =1[Kg]; m 2 =2[Kg]; m 3 =3[Kg]; 1 =0.4; 2 =0.45; 3 =0.5; F =200 [N];

m1 R1 Exercise 2.1.5

T12

m2 R2

T23

m3 R3

On a perfectly smooth plane, inclined of with respect to the horizontal surface, there is a mass m at a height h. Find the time at which m reaches the basis of the surface.

DATA: m =1[Kg]; h= 4 [m]; =30

h Exercise 2.1.6

On a rough plane, inclined of with respect to the horizontal surface, there is a mass m on the basis of the plane. The static and dynamic friction coefficients between m and the plane are s and d respectively. The mass is kicked up and gets an initial velocity v 0 . Find at which time t0 and at which height h does m stop and determine whether it comes back to the basis or not.
DATA: m =1[Kg]; d =0.4; s =0.5; v 0 =10 [m/s]; =30;

v0 m

Exercise 2.1.7

On a rough plane, inclined of with respect to the horizontal surface, there is a car of mass m travelling down toward the bottom of the slope. The static friction on the wheels is F opposite to the velocity. The car has a viscous friction coefficient and, at the time 0, the engine is switched off, while the velocity is v 0 . Find the velocity and the distance from the point where the engine was switched off, at the time t0 .
DATA: m =1000[Kg]; F =100 [N]; t0 =60 [s]; v 0 =72 [Km/h]; tan( )=0.07; = 4 10 4 [N/s]
Fd Fs m
v0

Exercise 2.1.8

A cord of length l has an end fixed in the point O on a horizontal perfectly smooth plane. A point-like mass m is connected to the other end. The mass is kicked and gets an initial velocity v 0 perpendicular to the cord. Find the tension of the cord.

DATA: m =1[Kg]; v 0 =10 [m/s]; l=1 [m]

v0

Exercise 2.1.9

On an inclined plane of angle a there is a cube of mass m1, initially at rest, which is connected to one end of a cord. This cord goes upward on the inclined plane and, through a massless pulley, falls down parallel to the vertical edge of the inclined plane and is connected, at the other end, to another mass m2 . There is no friction between the surfaces of the inclined plane and the cube and the viscosity of the air is negligible. At the beginning all masses are at rest. Find the acceleration of both masses. Data: a = 30 ; m1 = 1 [kg;] m2 = m1 /2
r y m m1

Exercise 2.1.10

Repeat Exercise 2.1.9 with the hypothesis that there is friction on the inclined plane and the static and dynamic coefficients are s and d respectively. Data: a = 30 ; m1 = 1 [kg;] m2 = 3m1 /4; s = 0.25; d = 0.2;

r y m m1

Lets check whether the static friction is enough to maintain the system at rest:
s m1&& = m && = 1r x m2 && = m2 && = y Fs + mg sin T N mg cos 0 m2 g + T

&& = && s y
( to be completed)

Exercise 2.1.11

On a truck which is moving straightforward on an horizontal road there is a big cube of concrete of mass m. The mass of the truck is M. The truck brakes suddenly with an acceleration of modulus a. Find: a) the maximum allowed acceleration amax in order that the concrete doesnt slide on the truck, b) the dynamical friction force acting on the truck if a =2 amax . Data: m = 1000 [kg;] M = 10000 [kg]; s = 0.6; d = 0.4;

Exercise N. 2.1.12

A cord of length l has one end fixed on an horizontal desk and has a cube of mass m connected to the other end. There is friction between the desk and the cube and the static and dynamic coefficients are ms and md respectively. At the initial time the velocity of the cube is v0 . Find the elapsed time until the stop of the cube. Data: m = 0.5 [kg;] l = 2 [m]; s = 0.5; d = 0.45;

Exercise 2.1.13

A cord of length l has an end fixed in the point O on a horizontal rough plane. A point-like mass m is connected to the other end. The static and dynamic friction coefficients between m and the plane are s and d respectively. The mass is kicked and gets an initial velocity v 0 perpendicular to the cord. Find at which

time t0 and at which distance s from the starting point does m stop and find the tension of the cord when m is in the middle point of the trajectory.

DATA: m =1[Kg]; d =0.4; s =0.5; v 0 =10 [m/s]; l=1 [m];

Exercise 2.1.14

A cord of length l has an end fixed in the point O on a horizontal rough plane. A mass m, having a viscous friction coefficient , is connected to the other end. The static and dynamic friction coefficients between m and the plane are s and d respectively. The mass is kicked and gets an initial velocity v 0 perpendicular to the cord. Find at the time t0 and at which distance s from the starting point does m stop and find the tension of the cord when m is in the middle point of the trajectory.

DATA: m =1[Kg]; d =0.4; s =0.5; v 0 =10 [m/s]; l=1 [m];

Solution Assuming a reference system with intrinsic coordinates in the horizontal plane and a z axis as vertical (positive toward high); considering that the present forces are: dynamic and viscous friction in the velocity opposite direction, tension T perpendicular and normal N of the plane vertical, we can write:

& m && = s d N s & m s2 =T l 0 = m && = m g + N z & & s & , which, defining y = s y = && , gives: y =

y d g

d m g ) m m t d m g d m g d m g d d m g m & (y + + Ce ) = (y + ) ln(y ) = t + ln C s = y = dt m m
& y=

y d g

& y=

(y +

& The initial conditions are: s (0) = v0 and s(0) = 0 , which give: & s (t ) =
Remark: Looking at eq. (2.2.10.1), for very high values of t, s(t) becomes negative: of course this doesnt occur because at a time t0, the velocity, which is always decreasing, becomes 0. To find t0 we put: 0=
d m g m g m t + ( v0 + d )e
0

t d m g m g m t m g m g m + (v 0 + d )e , and : s (t ) = d t + (v 0 + d ) (1 e m ) (2.2.10.1)

v0 d m g m g m t m = (v 0 + d )e t 0 = ln(1 + ). d m g
0

At t 0 the velocity is 0, therefore the viscous friction is 0 and the dynamic friction becomes static: the II law becomes m && = Fs and the value of Fs which satisfies the law also at t 0 is Fs = 0 . At t 0 m stops. s

Exercise 2.1.15

A perfectly smooth plane of mass M, inclined of with respect to the horizontal surface, can slide without friction on the ground. On the inclined plane there is a mass m at a height h. Initially both M and m are at rest r and a horizontal force F starts to push M. Find the accelerations of M and m. DATA: m =1[Kg]; M =5[Kg]; m 3 =3[Kg]; m =0.4; M =0.45; F =500 [N];

Solution

m&& = N sin x m&& = N cos mg y && MX = N sin + F & 0 = MY& = R Mg N cos && = &&' y y && = &&'+ X x x &&

& & y ' = tg x' &&' = tg &&' y x

Exercise 2.1.16

A spring AB of elastic constant K1 and rest length l1 is hung up by one end A to the ceiling, while a point like mass m1 is hung up to the other end B in vertical position. Another spring CD of elastic constant K2 and rest length l2 is hung up by one end C to the mass m1 , while another point like mass m2 is hung up to the other end D in vertical position. Again, another spring EF of elastic constant K3 and rest length l3 is hung up by one end E to the mass m2 , while another point like mass m3 is hung up to the other end F in vertical position. The system is in equilibrium with the gravity. Find the elongations l1 , l2 , l3 of the springs. DATA: m1 = 1[kg] ; K1=100 [N/m]; m2 = 2[kg] ; K2=200 [N/m]; m3 = 3[kg] ; K3=300 [N/m];

Solution:
Exercise 2.1.17

A pulley is fixed to the ceiling and 2 masses m and M are hanging to it by a cord. Neglecting the air find the accelerations of the masses and the tension of the cord. DATA:

m = 1[kg] ; M = 2[kg] ;

Solution: Choosing a reference frame having y-axis vertical, positive toward high, and calling y and Y the accelerations of m and M respectively, recalling that m and M have equal and opposite velocities, we can write:
m&& = T mg y & MY& = T Mg & && = Y& y
Exercise 2.1.18

M m g M +m Mm T= g M +m
&& = y

A pulley is fixed to the ceiling and 2 masses m and M are hanging to it by a cord. Due to the air, both masses have the same viscous friction coefficient . Find the accelerations of the masses and the tension of the cord after a time t since the start.
DATA: m = 1[kg] ; t= 2 [s]; M = 2[kg] ; = 4 10 5

Solution: Choosing a reference frame having y-axis vertical, positive toward high, and calling y and Y the accelerations of m and M respectively, recalling that the masses have equal and opposite velocities, we can write:
& m&& = T mg y y & & MY& = T Mg Y & && = Y& y

& m&& = T mg y y & M&& = T Mg + y y

& y (m + M ) && = ( M m) g 2 y 1 T = [(m M ) && + (m + M ) g ] y 2

(2.1.18.1)

& That can be solved changing variable as: y u; && = u and calling a y &

2 M m g, b g , we get: M +m M +m (2.1.18.2)

b & u = au + b = a(u ) a b & & & and changing again variable: (u ) w w = u w = aw , a b (1 e at ) a && = b e at y & y= T = mg mbe at + b (1 e at ) a
we get:

& use has been made of the I.C.: y (0) = 0

$= 3: Forces generated by systems of points

$= 3.1: The gravitational and electric fields

Gravitation and Coulomb forces are generated by physical points having mass or electric charge. These forces act on other physical points and their intensity and direction are depending on the relative positions of both generating and forced points. If the generating point is in a fixed position (that we can assume as origin O of an inertial frame) in each geometrical point of the space a physical point of mass m (charge q) r undergoes a force F ( x, y, z ) proportional to the mass m (charge q). The ratio of the gravitational (electric) r r r r force to the mass m (charge q) is a vector EG ( x, y, z ) FG ( x, y, z ) / m ( E E ( x, y, z ) FE ( x, y, z ) / q ), which is called Gravitational (Electric) Field. The knowledge of the field allows to find the force acting on a physical point simply by multiplying the field times the mass or charge of the point.
$= 3.2: Systems of points generating a field

A point-like particle, having mass or electric charge, generates a field in every point of the space. This field has the direction along the segment joining the point to the particle. Several particles, lying in different positions, generate in the same point a field which is the (vector) sum of the single fields (this property follows from the addition of the forces). Even though it is in general necessary to make this sum in order to evaluate the total field generated by a system of massive or charged particles, in some cases the spatial distribution of the particles shows special symmetries, which allow an analytical evaluation of the field and its properties. To take advantage from the symmetries we will use the concept of Flux of a field and the Gauss theorem. The Gauss theorem requires that the field has the following properties: 1) direction along the segment joining the geometrical point to the particle 2) intensity inversely proportional to the square of the distance Both properties are present in the gravitational and electric field. In the following the case of the electric field only will be demonstrated: the gravitational case can be easily deduced from the electric one by simply exchanging charges with masses and substituting the constants.
$= 3.3: Gauss theorem

r First lets define the infinitesimal flux d of a field E ( x, y, z ) generated by a point-like charge Q on an r infinitesimal surface dS, located around the point (x,y,z), whose normal has unit vector n (see Fig.3.2.a): r r d ( x, y, z ) E ( x, y, z ) n dS (3.3.1)

Before going on in demonstrating the theorem, lets describe Fig.3.3.a: a) S is a closed surface and contains Q b) AB is the infinitesimal surface dS around point (x,y,z)

) c) QA, QB are distances of the points A and B from the charge: the angle AQB is infinitesimal because dS is infinitesimal and therefore QA QB (unless higher order infinitesimal difference)
d) B is a point on QB such that: QA = QB ' (in other words B ' lies on a sphere of centre Q and radius QA : we shall call dS ' the infinitesimal spherical surface containing A and B)

e) A and B are points of a sphere of centre in Q and radius QA" = QB " = 1 : the total surface of this sphere is S "= 4 and the infinitesimal spherical surface dS " containing A and B undergoes the ) same angle AQB ' as dS '

Fig. (3.3.a) (symbols in bold are vectors) Lets now recall that

dS ' dS " = and that all infinitesimal areas dS , dS ' , dS " can be approximated by the 2 QA Q A"2 underlying planar surfaces containing AB, AB, AB: on the other hand the angle between the field and the ) normal to dS is equal to B' AB . The electric field is given by: r r Q QA 1 E 4 0 Q A 2 Q A
Since dS ' = cos( ) dS , from eq. (3.2.1) we can write:
r r d ( x, y, z ) E ( x, y, z ) ndS = Q r Q QA r Q 1 ndS = cos( )dS = 2 4 0 Q A Q A 4 0 Q A 2 1

1 Q 1 Q A 2 dS " Q dS " Q dS ' = = = dS " 2 2 2 2 4 0 Q A 4 0 Q A 4 0 Q A" 4 0 Q A"

(3.3.2)

r r If we define the total flux ( E , S ) of E on a closed surface S of any shape as the sum of all the infinitesimal fluxes d ( x, y, z ) , built on S (actually this sum is an integral because the terms are infinitesimal), we get:

d ( x , y , z ) =

4 0

dS " =

4 0

4 =

(3.3.3)

Remark 1

What happens if more than 1 charge is presents inside S? We can write the infinitesimal flux on r r dS generated by 2 charges Q and Q located inside S in different positions, which produce 2 fields E , E ' :
r r r r r dTOT ( x, y, z ) ETOT ( x, y, z ) n dS = [ E ( x, y, z ) + E ' ( x, y, z )] n dS = r r r r = E ( x, y, z ) n dS + E ' ( x, y, z ) n dS = d ( x, y, z ) + d ' ( x, y, z ) (3.3.4)

The total flux TOT is the sum (integral) of all the infinitesimal fluxes dTOT ( x, y, z ) on the surface S and therefore:

TOT = d ( x, y, z ) + d ' ( x, y, z ) =

Q'

(3.3.5)

Repeating the demonstration it is proved that the total flux on a closed surface, containing a number of charges Qi is equal to the total internal charge divided by 0 :

TOT =
Remark 2

Q
i

(3.3.6)

What happens if the charge Q is outside S? In Fig.(3.2.b) one can see that areas AB and DC refer to the same area AB on the sphere of radius1, but the angles between fields and normal vectors have opposite signs. Therefore in the sum (integral) of the infinitesimal fluxes of all infinitesimal surfaces of S they cancel, as well as all the other pairs of infinitesimal surfaces generated by each single cone. We can conclude that the charges outside the surface do not give any contribution to the total flux. The Gauss theorem must be written in terms of internal charges Qk( I ) only, as:

TOT =

Q
k

(I ) k

(3.3.7)

Fig. (3.2.b) (symbols in bold are vectors)

$= 4: Symmetries

$=5: Linear momentum and impulse

Linear momentum

r r The linear momentum p of a physical point of mass m, moving with a velocity v is a vector quantity defined as: r r p mv (5.1)
Impulse

r When a force F (t ) is acting on a physical point of mass m for an infinitesimal time interval dt, the r infinitesimal vector quantity dI (t ) is called impulse of the force or also impulse applied to the point m r by the force F (t ) , and is defined as: r r dI (t ) F (t ) dt

(5.2)

r The total impulse I (t 0 , t1 ) of the force acting for a finite time from t0 to t1 is defined as:
t1 r r I (t 0 , t1 ) F (t ) dt t0

(5.3)

Note: It is not meaningful to define the impulse as a finite quantity because in general a force depends on the time and during a finite time interval it assumes different values: during an infinitesimal time interval its value remains constant apart infinitesimal quantities of second or higher order.
Properties of the impulse
r r r 1) The sum of the impulses of several forces F1 (t ), F2 (t ), F3 (t ),... is equal to the impulse of the sum of the forces (additivity of the impulse with respect to forces) 2) The sum of the impulses of a force in 2 consecutive intervals (t0,t1) and (t1,t2) is equal to the impulse of the total interval (t0,t2) (additivity of the impulse with respect to time)

Impulse theorem
r r r When a physical point of mass m undergoes to some forces F1 (t ), F2 (t ), F3 (t ),... for a finite time interval from t0 to t1 , the variation of its linear momentum is equal to the total impulse of the total force r r r r FT = F1 (t ) + F2 (t ) + F3 (t ),...

Proof:

Lets calculate the total impulses of each one of the forces and sum them, remembering the addition properties of the integrals and remembering the II Newton law:
t1 t1 r r r r I 1 (t 0 , t1 ) F1 (t ) dt ; I 2 (t 0 , t1 ) F2 (t ) dt ; t0 t0 t1 r r I 3 (t 0 , t1 ) F3 (t ) dt . t0

(5.4)

t1 t1 t1 t1 r r r r r r I T (t 0 , t1 ) I i = Fi (t ) dt = ( Fi (t ) dt ) = ( ( Fi (t )) dt = FT (t ) dt = i i t0 t0 i t0 i t0

r r r r r r = m a dt = m a dt = m (v (t1 ) v (t 0 ) = p (t1 ) p (t 0 )
t0 t0

t1

t1

(5.5)

r Where FT (t ) has been used to indicate the total force acting on m, which is equal to the mass times acceleration because of the II law.

$=6: Angular momentum and torque

Angular momentum
r r The angular momentum LO of a physical point of mass m and vector displacement r , moving with a r velocity v , with respect to an arbitrarily chosen point O (called pole), is a vector quantity defined as: r r r r LO (r rO ) m v (6.1)

r where rO is the vector displacement of the point O .

Momentum of the force (or torque) r r r When a force F is acting on a physical point of mass m (whose vector displacement is r ) the momentum O r of the force with respect to an arbitrarily chosen point O (called pole) of vector displacement rO , is defined as: r r r r O (r rO ) F (6.2) Additivity of the torques
r r r r If a force is a sum of some forces: F = F1 + F2 + F3 ,... its torque is :

 O (r rO ) F = (r rO ) ( F1 + F2 + F3 + ...) =

r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r (r rO ) F1 + (r rO ) F2 + (r rO ) F3 + ... = 1 + 2 + 3 + ... r r

(6.3)

i.e. the total torque is the sum of the torques of each force.
Angular momentum theorem (or torque theorem)
r r r r When a physical point of mass m undergoes to some forces F1 , F2 , F3 ,... whose sum is FT , the variation of its angular momentum with respect to a pole O is equal to the total torque of the forces minus the velocity of the pole times (vector-product) the linear momentum of the mass.

Proof:

Remembering the addition properties and the II Newton law: r r r r dLO d ((r rO ) m v ) r r r r r r & & & = (r rO ) m v + (r rO ) m v = dt dt r r r r r r r r & m v + (r r ) F = r m v + T & = rO O T O O
Remarks:

(6.4)

r dLO r T a) if the pole is at rest, eq. (6.4) reduces to: =O dt

(6.4)

r dLO r T b) if the velocity of the pole is parallel to the velocity of the point, eq. (6.4) reduces to: =O dt c) Eqs. (6.4) and (6.4) are vector equations: therefore each one splits into 3 scalar equations for the components rT d) If conditions a) or b) are satisfied and the total torque O = 0 , from (6.4) we get: r r dLO = 0 LO = const. dt (6.5)

i.e. the angular momentum is a constant. It must be kept in mind that eq. (6.4) is a vector equation: in some cases only 1 or 2 components of the torque are null and therefore only these components are constant in (6.5)

$=7: Kinetic energy and work

Kinetic energy
r The kinetic energy E c of a physical point of mass m, moving with a velocity v is a scalar quantity defined as:

Ec

r 1 1 m (v 2 ) = m v 2 2 2

(7.1)

Kinetic energy can be written using the components of the velocity but it must be always taken into account that it is a scalar quantity and has no components itself:

Ec =
Work

1 2 2 m (v x + v y + v z2 ) 2

(7.2)

r When a force F ( x, y, z ) is acting on a physical point of mass m along an infinitesimal path r r r dr = r (t + t ) r (t ) , the infinitesimal scalar quantity dW is called work of the force along the path, and is defined as the scalar product: r r dW F ( x, y, z ) dr (7.3) In general a point is moving along a finite path which lies on a trajectory, i.e. a curve in the space, defined r by the 3 functions x(t ), y (t ), z (t ) : the trajectory is made by an infinite number of small displacements dr and the total work L A, B of the force acting from the point A to the point B along the trajectory is defined as: W A, B r r F ( x, y, z ) dr =
A, B

A,

F ( x, y, z) dx + F ( x, y, z ) dy + F ( x, y, z ) dz
x y z

(7.4)

Where Fx, Fy, Fz, are the components of the force along the 3 axes. Note: from Eq. (2.3) it is clear that the total work of a force acting on a physical point m moving from the geometrical point A to the geometrical point B depends not only upon A and B but also upon the curve which joins A and B. Therefore it is important to discuss the geometrical aspects of Eq. (2.3) in some detail. r The infinitesimal displacement dr can be written as: r r r r (7.5) dr = dx i + dy j + dz k Recalling that along a trajectory:

& dx = x(t )dt ,

& dy = y (t )dt ,

& z (t )dt ,

(7.6)

if the coordinates are known as a function of the time we can also write: W A, B = & & & F ( x, y, z) x(t ) dt + F ( x, y, z) y(t ) dt + F ( x, y, z ) z (t ) dt
x y z A, A, B B B

(7.7)

A,

Where all the components of the force can be read as a function of the time through the coordinates.
Properties of the work
r r r 1) The sum of the works of several forces F1 (t ), F2 (t ), F3 (t ),... from a point A to a point B along a trajectory is equal to the work of the sum of the forces (additivity of the work with respect to forces) 2) The sum of the works of a force in 2 consecutive paths (A,B) and (B,C) along a trajectory is equal to the work on the total interval (A,C) (additivity of the work with respect to path)

Work theorem or Kinetic Energy theorem

When a physical point of mass m moves from a point A to a point B along a trajectory , being submitted to r r r some forces F1 ( x, y, z ), F2 ( x, y, z ), F3 ( x, y, z ),... , the variation of its kinetic energy is equal to the total work r of the sum FT ( x, y, z ) of these forces.
Proof:

Lets calculate the total works of all the forces, i.e. the work of the total force acting on a physical point, remembering the addition properties of the integrals and that this total force is equal to the product of mass times acceleration:
W A, B ,
B

A,

r r FT ( x, y, z) dr =

A,

( F

Tx

( x, y, z ) dx + FTy ( x, y, z ) dy + FTz ( x, y, z ) dz ) =

= =

A ,

x (m&& dx + m&y& dy + m&z& dz ) =

A,

(m dt dx + m dt dy + m dt dz) =
A,

& dx

& dy

& dz

A,

(m

& & & dx dx dy dy dz dz dt + m dt + m dt ) = dt dt dt dt dt dt

& & & (mx dt dt + my dt dt + mz dt dt ) =

& dx

& dy

& dz

(7.8)

B B B & dx + my dy + mz dz ) = m x dx + y dy z dz = & & & & & & & & & & & = (mx A, A, A, A, B B x2 B & & y2 A z2 A 1 2 1 2 & A = m + + = mv ( B) mv ( A) = E c ( B) E c ( A) 2 2 2 2 2

[ ] [ ] [ ]

$=8: Potential energy

$= 8.1: Definition of the potential energy

Lets come back to the expression of the work of Eq. (2.2) r r F ( x, y, z ) dr = Fx ( x, y, z ) dx + Fy ( x, y, z ) dy + Fz ( x, y, z ) dz

(8.1.1)

which is an infinitesimal quantity because is a sum of 3 terms, each one being a product of a finite quantity (Fx, Fy or Fz ) times an infinitesimal quantity (dx, dy or dz). In some special cases, i.e. with some special kind of forces, the following situation occurs: r U ( x, y, z ) Fx ( x, y, z ) = x r U ( x, y, z ) F y ( x, y , z ) = x r U ( x, y, z ) Fz ( x, y, z ) = x

(8.1.2)

In other words, there exists a scalar function U(x,y,z) of the coordinates (and not of the time), whose partial derivatives with respect to x,y and z are the components of the force.

It must be stressed that the existence of a unique function U(x,y,z) that satisfies all the 3 equations in the system (4.2) is not guaranteed for all existing forces: in fact only some forces have been found to have such a function. Those forces, for which a function U(x,y,z), satisfying the requirements (8.1.2), exists, are called conservative forces; the other ones are called not conservatives. The function U(x,y,z) is said potential energy of the force.

$= 8.2: Work of conservative forces

If a force is conservative, i.e. it satisfies eq. (8.1.2), the work of this force from A to B along a path is given by: W A,b , = r r F ( x, y, z ) dr =
B

A,

A,

F ( x, y, z) dx + F ( x, y, z ) dy + F ( x, y, z ) dz =
x y z B

A,

U ( x, y, z ) U ( x, y, z ) U ( x, y, z ) dx + dy + dz = dU = U ( A) U ( B) x y z A,

(8.2.3)

In (8.2.3) use has been done of the property : U ( x, y, z ) U ( x, y, z ) U ( x, y, z ) dx + dy + dz dU ( x, y, z ) = x y z

(8.2.4)

already used in the Error Theory: it states that the differential variation of a function of several variables is equal (unless higher order terms) to the sum of the partial differentials obtained from the first order partial derivatives.
Remarks:

a) the result (8.2.3) states that the work of a conservative force is independent on the path as a consequence the work along a closed curve is null

$= 8.3: Theorem of Work in presence of conservative forces r r r If the total force FT acting on a physical point is the sum of non conservative F NC and conservative F C r r r forces: FT = F NC + F C , the work theorem is written as:

W A, B ,

r r FT ( x, y, z ) dr =
A,

A,

r r F NC ( x, y, z ) dr +

A,

r r F C ( x, y, z ) dr =

(8.2.5)

=W

NC A, B ,

+ U ( A) U ( B) = E c ( B) E c ( A)

Eq. (8.2.5) becomes of fundamental importance when all non conservative forces are absent: in this case the non conservative work W ANC, is null and one gets: ,B U ( A) U ( B) = E c ( B) E c ( A) E c ( B) + U ( B ) = E c ( A) + U ( A) (8.2.6)

Equation (8.2.6) states that in absence of non conservative forces the sum of the kinetic and potential energy of a point-like mass is constant during the motion. The sum of kinetic and potential energy is called total mechanical energy: ET E c + U and eq. (8.2.6) becomes the famous theorem of the conservation of the energy.
$= 8.4: Conservative and non conservative forces

(to be completed)
$= 8.5: Central forces

(to be completed)
$= 8.6: Exercises Exercise 8.6.1

A mass m is at rest at the bottom of a rough inclined plane. It is kicked upward on the plane and receives an initial velocity of modulus v0 . Using the impulse theorem, find the time t from the start after which it stops. Data: m = 1 kg , s = 0.5 , d = 0.4 , v 0 = 2 m / s , = 30 .

y d

hmax

Solution Choose a reference system as in figure 0 m v0 = ( d N m g sin ) t 0 0 = ( m g cos + N ) t N = m g cos t= v0 (d cos + sin )g

t = .361 s
Exercise 8.6.2

Repeat the previous exercise to find the maximum height and whether it returns back.
WO , d r = F dr =
T O

( d , 0 )r

(d , 0 )
O

( d mg cos mg sin )i dxi

1 2 WO ,d = E kf E k 0 = mv 0 2 h = sin d 1 2 WO , d = mg sin d mv0 2 1 2 mg d cos d = mg sin d mv0 2

v0 1 d= 2 g ( d cos + sin )

d = 340 mm
Exercise 8.6.3

r A car of mass m is moving along a rough horizontal road with a velocity v0 . Suddenly it breaks (blocking the wheels). Find the distance from the start of breaking and the stop. The dynamic friction as coefficient d .
Data: d = 0.5 , v 0 = 50 km / h .

O Solution
WO , d
d r rT r d r r r = F dr = d mgi dxi + dyj + dzk = d mg dx = d mgd d 0 0 0

1 2 WO , d = E f Ei = Ei = mv0 2 d= v0 2d g
2

d = 19.67 m

Exercise 8.6.4

A rocket is going up toward the space along a radial trajectory from the Earth surface. At an height h (outside the atmosphere) a satellite is thrown away from the rocket at a velocity v0 inclined of an angle

with respect to the radial trajectory. Find the angle such that the satellite will finish into a circular orbit around the Earth and find the radius of the orbit.

DATA: R=6.371*10^6 [m]; h=24*10^6[m]; =6.67*10^--11[m]; [N*m2/kg2]; ME =5.9824*10^24[m];v0 = 6000 [m/s]; Solution The total force acting on the satellite after the launch is the gravity, which is a central force. Therefore the angular momentum is conserved since the time of the launch. Assuming a cylindrical reference system with the origin in the centre of the Earth positive toward up, we can r write both angular momentum L (r ) and total mechanical energy E (r ) as a function of the distance r:
r r r r r L (r ) = r m (v r (r ) + v (r ) ) = m r v k E (r ) = mM 1 2 m (v r2 (r ) + v (r )) r 2 (8.4.1.1)

Calling L0 and E0 the angular momentum and energy at the beginning and Lr and Er the same in the orbit and defining r0 = R+h, the conservation theorems state: mr0 v0 sin = mrv mM 1 mM 1 2 2 = m (v r2 (r ) + v (r )) m v0 r 2 2 r0 (8.4.1.2)

v r (rM ) = 0
and to be circular the final orbit requires that:
2 mv mM = 2 r r
2 v = 2

r0 (v0 sen ) = rv M 1 2 M 1 2 = v v 0 r0 2 r 2
2 v =

M 2 v0 r0

r =

M 2 v rv r0 v0

M r

sen =

Exercise 8.6.2

On a horizontal, smooth table a spring is fixed by one end to a point O and a mass m is connected to the other end. The rest length of the spring is negligible and the elastic constant is k. Initially the mass is at rest at a distance r0 from O and is kicked getting an initial velocity v0 inclined of with respect to the normal to the spring. Find the maximum distance that the spring will reach. Sol.
r r The only force is the (central) elastic force that in cylindrical coordinates looks like: F = k r .The r r r velocity can be written as: v = v r + v N , where the radial and normal components are written. The physical properties of the force are: 1) it is conservative, therefore the total energy is conserved, 2) the torque with respect the pole O is 0 because the force is parallel to the radial vector: therefore also the angular momentum is conserved. We can write the general expression for angular momentum and energy as: r r r r r Lo = r (v r + v N ) = r v N k

E=

1 1 2 m(v r2 + v N ) + k r 2 2 2
r r Lo = r f v f k

And for initial and final times: r r Lo = r0 v0 cos k E= 1 1 2 m v0 + k r02 2 2 and

E=

which are equal respectively. Therefore: 1 1 m v 2 + k r f2 f 2 2

2 v0 +

r0 v0 cos = r f v f mv + k r = mv + k r
2 0 2 0 2 f 2 f

r f2 =

k k k 2 2 2 r0 v0 + r02 4 r02 v0 cos m m m 2k / m

Maximum will be the positive square root of the solution with+.

$=9: System of points

$= 9.1: Definition of System of points

A set of N physical points of masses mi is said a System of N points.

Center of mass

r Given a system of N points, each one of mass mi and vector displacement ri , the Center of Mass of the r system (CM) is defined as the (geometrical) point whose vector displacement rCM is:

r rCM

m r
i

i i

m
i

(9.1.1)

When the points of the system are moving, their vector displacements are function of the time: therefore also r r the CM is moving, with velocity vCM and acceleration aCM given by the corresponding derivatives:
r dri mi dt i
N

r vCM

m
i
N

m v
i

i i

m
i
N i

(9.1.2)
i

r aCM

r d 2 ri mi dt 2 i

m
i

m a
i

m
i

(9.1.3)
i

Linear momentum of a system r The linear momentum PT of a system is defined as the sum of the linear momenta of each point of the system:
N N N r r r r r & PT mi vi = ( mi ) vCM PT mi ai i i i

(9.1.4)

From (3.6.4) and (3.6.2), defining M T mi as the total mass of the system one gets:
i

r r r r r r & & PT = M T vCM PCM PT = M T aCM = PCM

Kinetic energy of a system

(9.1.5)

The kinetic energy ET of a system is defined as the sum of the kinetic energies of each point of the system:

ET

r 1 N mi vi2 2 i

(9.1.6)

Angular momentum of a system r The angular momentum LT of a system with respect to a pole O is defined as the sum of the angular O ri momenta LO of each i-th point of the system with respect to the same pole O:

N N r r r r r LT LiO (ri rO ) mi vi O i i

(9.1.7)

$= 9.2: Internal and external forces in a system of points Definition of internal and external forces

On each of the N points of a system some forces are applied: some of these forces are produced by points not belonging to the system and we shall call them external forces; e.g. if we consider a system of 3 particles of masses m1, m2, m3, on a desk, the 3 gravity forces m1.g, m2.g, m3.g, are external forces because due to the Earth which is outside the system. The same holds for the 3 normal forces due to the desk. On the other hand the gravitational forces applied by each mass to each other mass is produced by a point of the system on another point of the system: we shall call this kind of forces internal forces. r In general, on the i-th point of a system there are some external forces whose sum we shall call Fi ; and there r are (N-1) forces Fij produced by the (N-1) other points on the i-th point; from this definition follows that the r sum Fi I of all the internal forces acting on the i-th point is given by:
N r r Fi I = Fij j =1

(9.2.1)

Theorem of the internal forces

r Its easy matter to demonstrate the following theorem: the sum FT of all the forces acting on all the points of r a system is the sum F E of all external forces only.
Proof:
N N r N r N N r r r r FT = ( Fi + Fij ) = Fi + Fij = F E i =1 j =1 i =1 i =1 j =1

(9.2.2)

r In fact in the 3-th member of the (9.2.2) the first sum contains only external forces, therefore is F E ; the r r second double sum contains only internal forces and contains all pairs Fij and F ji . Remembering the III law
of the dynamics we get:

N N

F
i =1 j =1

r
ij

ij pairs ( i , j: j ,i )

(F

r + F ji ) =

ij pairs ( i , j: j ,i )

(F

r Fij ) = 0

(9.2.3)

As we wanted to proof.
Definition of internal and external torques

If a pole O has been chosen, as for the forces, on each i-th point of a system there are external torques (due ri ri to external forces) whose sum we shall call O ; and internal torques O, j (due to the (N-1) internal forces); rI again from this definition follows that thesum O ,i ofalltheinternaltorquesactingontheithpointis givenby:
I i O ,i = O, j j =1

(9.2.4)

Theorem of the internal torques

rT As for the forces we can demonstrate the following theorem: the sum O of all the torques acting on all the rE points of a system is the sum O of all external torques only if the internal forces between a point i and a r r point j act along the direction ri r j joining i with j.

Proof:
T i O = O = (ri rO ) ( Fi + Fij ) = i i =1 j =1 N r r r r r r rE = (ri rO ) Fi + (ri rO ) Fij = O N N i =1 i =1 j =1

(9.2.5)

Where the 2nd term in the 4th member of Eq. (3.7.2) is equal to 0 because:

(r r
i =1 N i

N r N N r r r ) Fij = (ri rO ) Fij = j =1 i =1 j =1

pairs

(r r
i O

r r r r ) Fij + (r j rO ) F ji = (9.2.6)

pairs

(r r
i N pairs

r r r r ) Fij (r j rO ) Fij =

pairs

(r r
i

r r r r j + rO ) Fij =

r r r (ri r j ) Fij = 0

Its useful to stress again that in the last equation of (3.7.6) the vector product is equal to 0 only in the r r hypothesis that the internal forces between i and j act along the direction ri r j . It must be said that all the forces between two physical points studied in this Chapter 3 satisfy this requirement.

$=10: Cardinal Equations of the Dynamics of the Systems

$= 10.1: The two Cardinal Equations I cardinal equation of the dynamics of the systems

Lets write the II law of the dynamics for each i-th point, using the definition of internal and external forces:

N r r r m1 a1 = F1 + F1 j j =1 N r r r m1 a 2 = F2 + F2 j j =1

(10.1.1)

...... = ...... If we add all left and all rigth members of the equations (3.7.4), recalling Eqs. (3.7.2) and (3.6.4) we have:

ma = ( F + F
i i i =1 i j =1

r
ij

r r r & & ) = F E = PT = PCM

(10.1.2)

r r & F E = PT is said I cardinal equation of the dynamics of the systems

II cardinal equation of the dynamics of the systems

We proceed in an analogous way as done for the forces in the I Cardinal Equation, writing: r dLiO r r ri & = rO mi vi + O , [i = 1,2,...N ] (10.1.3) dt and summing all N equations, getting: r r N N N dLT dLiO r r ri O & = (rO mi vi ) + O = dt dt 1 1 1 N r rE r r rE r & & = rO (mi vi ) + O = rO PT + O
1

(10.1.4)

where use has been done of the definition (3.6.7) and of the theorem of the internal torques (3.7.5) r dLT r r rE O & = rO PT + O is said II cardinal equation of the dynamics of the systems dt

$= 10.2: Exercises

 Appendix 3A Linear II order Differential Equations with constant coefficients

A linear II order differential equation with constant coefficients is a form like:

d 2 f (t ) df (t ) +b + c f (t ) = F (t ) 2 dt dt

(3A1)

where the unknown function f(t) and its derivatives appear on the left side as a sum with the first power and multiplied by constant parameters: the right side contains only a known function F(t) .

In Physics and in Engineering equations of the type (1) are encountered in several problems. These problems differ from each other not only for the different values of the parameters a, b, c but also for the different Initial Conditions of the problems. Therefore the solution of eq. (1) should contain 2 constants (integration constants) to be determined by applying the initial conditions. In Mathematical Analysis a solution satisfying these requirements (equation satisfied and initial conditions satisfied) is called general solution and is demonstrated to be unique. As a further requirement of Physics and Engeneering, since in the most cases f(t) represents physical quantities, we shall look for a solution in the field of the real numbers. Lets now try to solve eq.(1). Before solving eq.(1) lets try to solve the following equation called associated homogeneous equation: a d 2 f 0 (t ) df (t ) + b 0 + c f 0 (t ) = 0 2 dt dt (3A2)

To do that we can try with a function of exponential type f 0 (t ) = e t that we insert in (2), getting:

a 2 + b + c = 0

(3A3)

Eq. (3) is a second degree algebraic equation in the unknown and is called characteristic equation. It is solved by the following values:

b 2a

b2 c 2 a 4a

(3A4)

A linear combination of the two exponential solutions:

f 0 (t ) = A e + t + B e t

(3A5)

is a solution of Eq. (2) which can satisfy the initial conditions with suitable values of A and B: therefore it is the general solution of the homogeneous associated equation (2). It must be stressed that it is not the general solution of our equation (1). There are 3 possible cases of the values of : b2 c > 1) 2 a 4a 2) b2 c = 2 a 4a
f 0 (t ) = e
b t a

(A e

b2 c t 4a2 a

+ Be

b2 c t 4a2 a

f 0 (t ) = e

b t a

( A + B t) c b2 ) + ) a 4a 2

3)

b2 c < 2 a 4a

f 0 (t ) = e

b t a

( A sin(