Atomic Energy in India: A Perspective

FUEL TUBE BeO MODERATOR BeO REFLECTOR GRAPHITE REFLECTOR REACTOR REGULATING SYSTEM HEAT PIPE DOWNCOMER TUBE INNER VESSEL HEAT PIPES UPPER PLENUM PASSIVE HEAT REMOVAL SYSTEM REACTOR REGULATING SYSTEM RADIAL HEAT PIPE GAS-GAPS HIGH CONDUCTIVITY SHELLS START-UP HEATER Core Cross Section

Government of India Department of Atomic Energy September, 2003

... when nuclear energy has been successfully applied for power production, in say, a couple of decades from now, India will not have to look abroad for its experts, but will find them ready at hand ... Homi J. Bhabha

The logo of DAE selected for its golden jubilee (August 2003 to August 2004) celebrations. The reactor dome with greenery in the foreground depicts nuclear power as a clean and environment friendly source; five human figures on the dome are symbolic of growth and prosperity of the nation and enhancement in quality of life of the people accrued from the research & development work being pursued in the Department.

THE BEGINNING
In the early forties, atomic energy was the sun-rise technology, and the world was seeing atom as a future source of energy. Owing to the potential applications of atomic energy in many areas of human activities, atom was also seen as a saviour of mankind. ....... within the next couple of decades atomic energy would play an important part in the economy and the industry of countries and that, if India did not wish to fall even further behind the industrially advanced countries of the world, it would be necessary to take more energetic measures to develop this branch of science. Homi Bhabha April 26, 1948 To harness atomic energy for peaceful purposes, the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was formed in 1954. Since then, the it has been engaged in the development of nuclear power technology, applications of the radiation technologies in the fields of agriculture, medicine, industry, and basic research.

THE ORGANISATION ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION

ATOMIC ENERGY REGULATORY BOARD

DEPARTMENT OF ATOMIC ENERGY

R&D CENTRES Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam Centre for Advanced Technology, Indore Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre, Kolkata Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration & Research, Hyderabad Board of Research in Nuclear Sciences National Board of Higher Mathematics

INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATIONS Heavy Water Board, Mumbai Nuclear Fuel Complex, Hyderabad Board of Radiation & Isotope Technology, Mumbai

PUBLIC SECTOR UNDERTAKINGS Nuclear Power Corp. of India Ltd., Mumbai Indian Rare Earths Ltd., Mumbai Uranium Corp. of India Ltd., Jaduguda Electronics Corp. of India Ltd., Hyderabad

SERVICE ORGANISATIONS Directorate of Purchase & Stores, Mumbai Directorate of Construction, Services & Estate Management, Mumbai General Services Organisation, Kalpakkam

AIDED INSTITUTIONS

Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai Tata Memorial Centre, Mumbai Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, Kolkata

Institute of Physics, Bhubaneshwar Institute for Plasma Research, Ahmedabad

Harish-Chandra Research Institute, Allahabad Institute of Mathematical Sciences, Chennai Atomic Energy Education Society, Mumbai

The Department, now an integrated group of organizations, comprises five Research Centres, three Industrial Organisations, four Public Sector Undertakings, and three Service Organisations. It has two Boards that promote, extra-mural activities by way of financial support, research in nuclear and allied fields, and mathematics. It also supports seven institutes of international repute engaged in research in basic sciences, astronomy, astrophysics, cancer research and education, etc., and a Society that provides educational facilities to the children of DAE employees. Within a decade of launching its atomic energy programme, India became one of the first ten most advanced countries in this new and complex technology. The country achieved the distinction of commissioning Asias first research reactor Apsara in 1956. This reactor was built indigenously, excepting for the fuel elements which were suppplied by the United Kingdom. With the confidence gained from this achievement, Dr. Bhabha drew up a three stage long-term nuclear power programme for India. The objective was that nuclear power development should reach a level such that power from nuclear energy should contribute significantly to the electricity needs for industrial and agricultural growth of the country.
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The first stage comprises setting up of pressurised heavy water reactors (PHWRs) and associated fuel cycle facilities. ! The second stage envisages setting up of fast breeder reactors (FBRs) backed by reprocessing plants and plutonium-based fuel fabrication plants. ! The third stage will be based on the thorium-uranium-233 cycle. Uranium-233 is obtained by irradiation of thorium. In the short span of a decade, India had established comprehensive R&D facilities for the entire nuclear fuel cycle right from prospecting, mining and processing of uranium, fabrication of fuel, production of heavy water, design, construction and operation of power reactors, reprocessing of spent fuel, fast breeder reactors using plutonium based fuel, to radioactive waste management, and health and safety. India has also developed the technology of radioisotopes and their utilisation in agriculture, medicine and industry.

The Old Yacht Club Building -- the birth place of the Department of Atomic Energy

Major Programmes
NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME STAGE I Higher Share for Nuclear Power
Competitive Capacity Addition Sustain and Improve Capacity Utilisation Move towards Financing Capability through Internal Resource Generation Sustained Excellence in Safety Performance

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NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME STAGE II Commercial Demonstration of Fast Breeder Technology
Early setting up of Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) and associated Fuel Cycle Plants Advanced Fuel Cycle with Higher Breeding Gain

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NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME STAGE III Technology Demonstration for Large Scale Thorium Utilisation
Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) Technology Road Map on Shaping the Third Stage

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RADIATION TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS Deployment Over Large Scale
Desalination of Water Nuclear Agriculture Radiation Processing of Food, Industrial and Medical Products Health Care and other Industrial Applications

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RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Broad based R&D in Nuclear Sciences and Technologies involving scientific groups within DAE and outside including Universities

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RESEARCH EDUCATION LINKAGE Mutual strengthening of Education and Research in Nuclear Sciences and Technologies and allied disciplines

Atomic Energy Establishments in India

SRINAGAR Nuclear Research Laboratory(BARC) GULMARG High Altitude Research Laboratory (BARC) RAWATBHATTA *Rajasthan Atomic Power Station 1-4 (NPCIL) *Rajasthan Atomic Power Project 5&6 (NPCIL) *Heavy Water Plant-Kota (HWB) *RAPCOF (BRIT) INDORE Centre for Advanced Technology MOUNT ABU Gurushikher Observatory for Astrophysical Sciences (BARC) BARODA Heavy Water Plant (HWB) AHMEDABAD Institute for Plasma Research KAKRAPAR Kakrapar Atomic Power Station (NPCIL) HAZIRA Heavy Water Plant (HWB) TARAPUR *Tarapur Atomic Power Station (NPCIL) *Tarapur Atomic Power Project 3&4 (NPCIL) *WIP / SSSF (BARC) *Power Reactor Fuel Reprocessing Plant (BARC) *Advanced Fuel Fabrication Facility (BARC) MUMBAI *Nuclear Power Corporation Ltd.(HQ) *Indian Rare Earths Ltd. (HQ) *Heavy Water Board (HQ) *ISOMED Plant (BRIT) *Bhabha Atomic Research Centre *Radiation Medicine Centre (BARC) *BRNS / NBHM (HQ) *DPS / DCS&EM (HQ) *TIFR / TMC / AEES (HQ) NASIK KRUSHAK (BARC) NAVI MUMBAI *Board of Radiation & Isotope Technology (HQ) *Radio pharmaceutical Laboratories (BRIT) *Radiation Processing Plant (BRIT) *Beryllium Plant (BARC) *Electron Beam Centre (BARC) *ACTREC THAL Heavy Water Plant (HWB) KAIGA *Kaiga Atomic Power Station 1&2 (NPCIL) *Kaiga Atomic Power Project 3&4 (NPCIL) GAURIBIDANUR Seismic Station(BARC) MYSORE Rare Metal Plant (BARC) BANGALORE Radio pharmaceutical Laboratories (BRIT) DIBRUGARH RadioImmunoassay Centre (BRIT) KASAN Seismic Array Station (BARC) DELHI Radio pharmaceutical Laboratories (BRIT) NARORA Narora Atomic Power Station (NPCIL) ALLAHABAD Harish-Chandra Research Institute JADUGUDA/BHATIN *Uranium Corporation of India Limited (HQ) *Uranium Mill & Mines (UCIL) NARWAPAHAR Uranium Mine (UCIL) BANDUHURANG Uranium Mine (UCIL) TURAMDIH Uranium Mine (UCIL) KOLKATA *Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre *Regional Radiation Medicine Centre (VECC) *Radio pharmaceutical Laboratory (BRIT) *Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics

TALCHER Heavy Water Plant (HWB) BHUBANESWAR Institute of Physics MANUGURU Heavy Water Plant (HWB) CHHATRAPUR Orissa Sand Complex / Thorium Plant (IRE)

HYDERABAD *Electronics Corporation of India Ltd (HQ) *Nuclear Fuel Complex (HQ) *Jonaki Laboratory (BRIT) *Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration & Research (HQ) *Centre for Compositional Characterisation of Materials CHENNAI (BARC) *Institute of Mathematical Sciences KALPAKKAM *Madras Atomic Power Station (NPCIL) *Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research *PFBR Project (IGCAR) *Nuclear Desalination Plant (BARC) *Kalpakkam Fuel Reprocessing Plant (BARC) *General Services Organisation UDYOGMANDAL (ALWAYE) Rare Earths Plant (IRE) CHAVARA Minerals Separation Plant (IRE) TUTICORIN Heavy Water Plant (HWB) PALA AKAY Y AL New Zirconium Sponge Plant (NFC) KUDANKULAM Kudankulam Atomic Power Project (NPCIL) MANAVALAKURUCHI Minerals Separation Plant (IRE) KOLLAM Low Radiation Research Laboratory (BARC)

ACTREC - Advanced Centre for Training Research & Education in Cancer AEES - Atomic Energy Education Society BRNS - Board of Research in Nuclear Sciences DCS&EM - Directorate of Construction, Services & Estate Management DPS - Directorate of Purchase & Stores NBHM - National Board for Higher Mathematics SSSF - Solid Storage Surveillance Facility TIFR - Tata Institute of Fundamental Research TMC - Tata Memorial Centre WIP - Waste Immobilisation Plant

R&D Centres

Public Sector Undertakings

Industrial Organisations

Aided Institutions

Service Organisations

NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME

India has limited uranium but vast thorium reserves which are one of the worlds largest. The Indian Nuclear Power Programme is geared towards using these reserves. This 3-stage programme covers building of pressurised heavy water reactors, fast breeder reactors and thorium based reactors, on commercial scale. The programme also includes technology development relating to spent fuel reprocessing, waste management, safety and environment monitoring. DAE has achieved comprehensive capability in the design, construction and operation of pressurised heavy water reactor (PHWR). The design of 220 MWe PHWR was standardised long back, and scaled to 540 MWe capacity. A fast breeder test reactor (FBTR) has been successfully built and operated, and based on the experience gained from this, the manufacturing technology development of a 500 megawatt breeder reactor has been completed. Construction of the 500 MWe prototype fast breeder reactor (PFBR) is soon to commence. Strides have also been taken towards the development of thorium based reactors. Following is the profile of the Indian Nuclear Programme. NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME : STAGE-1 PRESSURISED HEAVY WATER REACTORS The Indian Nuclear Power Programme took off in the sixties. PHWR was the reactor of choice for the first stage of the programme, however, to gain operational experience, initially an atomic power station consisting of two boiling water reactors, was set up at Tarapur, Maharashtra. This was a collaborative venture with the General Electric of USA. The station, commissioned in 1969, is still in operation.

Construction work at the Tarapur project began in October 1964 after the contract was signed with M/s General Electric of US in May earlier. It was a turnkey contract with GE responsible for the works. M/s Bechtel were the Architect- Engineers. At the peak of construction about 6,500 persons were at work at site. Americans numbered about 120.

The first two PHWRs, built at Rawatbhata, Rajasthan, commenced commercial production in 1972 and 1980. These reactors were built partly with the Canadian collaboration. Subsequently, the R&D endeavour of DAE orgnisations, with the support of the Indian industry, led to the indigenisation of PHWR. This resulted in the successful commissioning of two 220 MWe reactors at Kalpakkam near Chennai,Tamil Nadu in 1984 and 1986. Later, the design of the 220 MWe PHWR was standardized and two reactors of this design were commissioned at Narora, Uttar Pradesh in 1989 and 1991. The design standardisation has markedly reduced gestation period of new reactors.

The indigenously developed technology of PHWR reached commercial maturity with the commissioning of 2x220 PHWR at Kakrapar, Gujarat, in 1992 and 1995. In the years 1999 and 2000, state-of-the-art 2x220MWe PHWR came online, each at Kaiga, Karnataka and Rawatbhata, Rajasthan. The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd. (NPCIL), a public sector undertaking of DAE, is responsible for design, construction and operation of nuclear power reactors. Now, the Corporation is operating 14 nuclear power reactors, with a total installed capacity of 2720 MWe. It has acquired an experience of over 200 reactor years of nuclear power plant operation. The growing experience of NPCIL in nuclear technology, has resulted in improving performance of its nuclear power plants. From a 3000 million units of electricity generation in 198182, the generation has reached to 19,200 million units from April 2002 to March 2003. The average capacity factor of the plants has also touched a new high of 89%. The total generation of the operating nuclear power plants since the commencement of their commercial operations stands at 1,85,640 million units till December 2002.

Madras Atomic Power Station, Kalpakkam

When the Tarapur Atomic Power Station was commissioned in 1969, an Atomic Power Authority (APA) was formed to manage operating power stations. The Project Planning & Engineering Division (PPED), set up two years earlier, was entrusted with responsibility for the PHWR programme. Each new power reactor project was placed under a board to organise activities during the construction phase, while PPED looked after design, procurement and safety analysis. In 1979, APA was absorbed by PPED, which took over TAPS and all the later power stations under its wings. Subsequently, when rapid expansion of the nuclear power programme was under consideration, it was thought fit to establish a Nuclear Power Board. In 1987, the Atomic Energy Act was amended to empower the Central Government to develop atomic energy either by itself or through any corporation established by it. The Nuclear Power Corporation was then formed as a public limited company, wholly owned by the Government of India. Other than the first unit of Rajasthan Power Station, all other operating stations and construction activities came under NPCIL.

Kakrapar-1: Worlds Best Performing PHWR According to the January 2003 issue of COGnizant , the monthly magazine published by CANDU Owners Group (COG), KAPS-1 moved to first place at the end of September 2002 on the basis of its Gross Capacity Factor (GCF) of 98.4% during the preceding 12 months. The Unit-1 of Kakrapar Atomic Power Station was declared as the best performing pressurised heavy water reactor (PHWR) among the 32 such type of reactors operating across the world.

New Projects A total capacity of 3960 megawatt is under construction.This comprises six PHWRs and two pressurised water reactors. Based on the scaled up design, the first 2x540 MWe PHWR atomic power station (TAPP3&4) is under construction at Tarapur. The reactors are scheduled for completion by the year 2005/2006. The construction works on 4x220 MWe PHWR atomic power stations at Kaiga (Kaiga-3&4) and Rawatbhata (RAPP-5&6) have commenced, with their first pours of concrete on March 30, 2002 and September 18, 2002 respectively. To provide a parallel stream for faster growth of nuclear power, India had entered into an agreement with the Russian Federation, for setting up an atomic power station comprising two pressurised water reactors of 1000 MWe capacity each, at Kudankulam, Tamil Nadu. Construction of these reactors has begun with the first pour of the reactor concrete on March 31, 2002. Plants under construction : An addition of 3960 megawatt to the present generating capacity S.No. Project Location Scheduled commercial operation TAPP 4:Apr. 2006 TAPP 3 : Jan. 2007 Kaiga 3: Mar. 2007 Kaiga 4: Sept. 2007 RAPP 5: Aug. 2007 RAPP 6: Feb. 2008 KK 1: Dec. 2007 KK 2: Dec. 2008

Tarapur Atomic Power Project 3&4 (2 x 540 MWe) Kaiga Atomic Power Project 3&4 (2 x 220 MWe) Rajasthan Atomic Power Project 5&6 (2 x 220 MWe) Kudankulam Atomic Power Project 1&2 (2x1000 MWe)

Tarapur, Maharashtra Kaiga, Karnataka Rawatbhata, Rajasthan Kudankulam, Tamil Nadu

To set up PHWR reactors of still higher capacities, NPCIL has also completed feasibility studies for setting up a 700 MWe PHWR. DAE has now an ambitious nuclear power programme that aims at achieving an installed nuclear power capacity of 20,000 MWe by the year 2020. 10

Narora Atomic Power Station, Uttar Pradesh

Kakrapar Atomic Power Station, Gujarat

Kaiga Atomic Power Station 1&2, Karnataka

Rajasthan Atomic Power Station 1-4, Rajasthan

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The Nuclear Power Programme has a number of ancillary operations, which form part of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle. The Front-End of the cycle includes mineral exploration, mining, milling and processing of ore, and fabrication of fuel, and the Back-End of the cycle covers reprocessing of depleted uranium fuel, and management of nuclear waste. India has acquired comprehensive capability in the PHWR design, construction and operation of associated plants/facilities covering the entire nuclear fuel cycle of the nuclear power programme based on pressurised heavy water reactor. This includes production of heavy water. The DAE organisations contributing to the Front-End of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle Programme are the Atomic Minerals Directorate for Research and Exploration (AMD), Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh); Uranium Corporation of India Ltd (UCIL), Jaduguda (Jharkhand); Nuclear Fuel Complex (NFC), Hyderabad, and Heavy Water Board (HWB)-Mumbai. BARC and IGCAR administer the Back-End of the Cycle. FRONT END OF NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE Heavy Water Production In PHWR, heavy water is used as moderator and coolant. The Heavy Water Board (HWB), Mumbai is responsible for building and operation of heavy water plants in the country. To meet the heavy water requirements of the PHWR type nuclear power and research reactors, 8 heavy water plants were constructed at Nangal (Panjab), Baroda (Gujarat), Talcher (Orissa), Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu), Hazira (Gujarat), Thal (Maharashtra), Kota (Rajasthan) and Manuguru (Andhra Pradesh). The Nangal Plant, owned by the National Fertilizers Ltd., was the first plant in the country for production of heavy water. After 40 years of operation, the plant was decommissioned in the year 2002. The heavy water plants at Kota and Manuguru are based on indigenously developed hydrogen sulphide-water exchange process. The other heavy water plants use ammonia-hydrogen exchange process. Self-sufficiency has been achieved in the production of heavy water. Besides meeting the domestic demand, 126 tonnes of heavy water has so far been exported to South Korea.

The first exchange tower for the Baroda plant was of a mammoth size, about 30 metres long, had an outer diameter of 2.5 m and weighed 530 tonnes. It was manufactured in France and had to be transported all the way from there. It could not be brought in smaller sections and joined together here, for the walls were about 30 cm thick and there was no equipment in India at that time to check the joints after welding. A very special operation was mounted for its transportation from France. For the later plants, the towers could be fabricated in India as the operating pressures were lower.

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The performance and safety records of all the operating heavy water plants have remained excellent. The cumulative production achieved by the plants is surpassing the scheduled targets. Towards implementing energy conservation measures in all its plants, the multi-pronged efforts of the Heavy Water Board have resulted in continuous downward trend in the specific energy consumption. To delink ammonia based heavy water plants from the fertilizer plants, the Board has developed an energy efficient ammonia-water front-end technology which is being deployed at Baroda Plant.

Nangal Plant, owned by the National Fertilizers Ltd., was the first plant in the country for production of heavy water. After 40 years of operation, the plant was decommissioned in the year 2002(above). Manuguru Heavy Water Plant at Manuguru, Andhra Pradesh (below). The plant is based on indigenous technology. Heavy Water being shipped to the Korea Electric Power Corporation (KEPCO). So far, 126 tonnes of heavy water has been exported by HWB.

Heavy Water Upgrading For upgrading the degraded heavy water from research reactors, a heavy water upgrading facility was set up at Trombay in 1962. Through continuing research, BARC has developed heavy water upgrading technology for use on commercial scale. This employs indigenously developed tower internals in vacuum distillation columns. Based on this technology, at present 23 upgrading/final enrichment towers are in operation at various sites, and more are under construction.

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Surveys and Exploration The Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD), Hyderabad is engaged in the survey, exploration and evaluation of the countrys uranium, and delineation and resource-estimation of placer heavy minerals resources. AMD evaluates and recovers rare metal and rare earth minerals. AMD has located uranium deposit at Domiasiat, Meghalaya. Sizeable uranium deposits have also been located at Wahkyn in Meghalaya, Lambapur-Yellapur and Tummalapalle in Andhra Pradesh, Turamdih, Bagjata, Kanyaluka and Mohuldih in Jharkhand, Bodal and Jajawal in Madhya Pradesh, and Rohil-Ghateshwar, Rajasthan and Gogi, Karnataka. Significant uranium mineralization has been identified at Koppunuru and Gandi in Andhra Pradesh, including new potential heavy mineral zones along the coastal tracts of Jagatsinghpur district, Orissa and inland placers in Namakkal district, Tamil Nadu.

The Atomic Energy Act of 1948 vested the Government of India with the sole right to prospect for, mine, and process naturally occurring minerals, containing prescribed substances like uranium, thorium, beryllium and others as listed in the Act or as may be notified from time to time, as these were required for the development of atomic energy. Accordingly a Rare Minerals Survey Unit was set up under the Government in 1949, which was subsequently constituted as the Atomic Minerals Division under the Atomic Energy Commission, on October 3, 1950. In 1998, this Division was renamed as the Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration & Research.

AMD has also established a number of beach sand mineral deposits of ilmenite, rutile, zircon, monazite, garnet and sillimanite. Mining and Ore Processing The exploratory efforts of AMD, over a period of time have led to the opening of uranium mines at Jaduguda, Bhatin and Narwapahar, all in Singbhum (East), Jharkhand state. These mines, being operated by the UCIL, a public sector undertaking of DAE, have been meeting the needs of the Indian Nuclear Power Programme. One more mine at Turamdih in Singbhum has also started functioning. The Uranium Corporation of India (UCIL) was registered as a Public Sector Company on October 4, 1967, with head quarters at Jaduguda Mines, District Singhbhum (East) Bihar. The Corporation went into commercial production in May 1968. The first consignment of magnesium diuranate concentrate - known as yellow cake - was sent to Trombay in September 1968. UCIL also operates a Uranium Mill for processing of uranium ores to produce yellow cake, which is further sent to NFC for fuel fabrication. A Uranium Recovery Plant at Mosabani recovers uranium concentrate from copper tailings. In addition, the magnetite present in the 14

During the period 1960-62, the Department had engaged a French expert and a team of Russian experts to prepare project reports for the development of the Uranium Mine, at Jaduguda. The first stage shaft sinking work (upto 315 metres depth) was started in April 1964, and completed in March 1967. This was the first Mine Shaft in the country, having two multi-rope friction winders installed on a concrete tower 45 metres above the ground. Development work on the extraction of uranium from the Jaduguda ore had started in the late 1950s, and was pursued in the Engineering Hall VI at Trombay from 1959. In all, about 40 tonnes of ore were treated in the pilot plant work, to obtain the yellow cake concentrate. The results provided the basis for designing the process and equipment for the Mill at Jaduguda. It was a scale-up from a 1 tonne per day pilot plant to a 1,000 tonnes per day full scale production plant.

uranium ore is recovered as a by-product in the uranium process plant. There has been a progressive depletion of reserves at Jaduguda Mine due to exploitation of ore over a period of time. To develop the ore body at deeper levels, III-stage shaft of the Jaduguda mine has been commissioned. A Uranium Ore Mining and Milling Project at Banduhurang in Jharkhand has been cleared by the Government recently. The project will have a capacity to process 2250 tonnes of dry ore a day. Under the projected demand of the nuclear power programme, UCIL is planning the exploitation of uranium deposits located in Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh and Meghalaya. The research and development in the field of ore processing and uranium metal production is done at Trombay. Recently, BARC has commissioned an augmented uranium metal production facility for production of uranium ingot.

Load Haul and Dump Loader in action at Jaduguda Mine

Pachucas of the Uranium Mill

Yellow Cake

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Nuclear Fuel Fabrication Nuclear fuel fabrication for power reactors and research reactors is done respectively at the Nuclear Fuel Complex and BARC. In the development of new fuels, BARC and IGCAR are engaged. The Indian PHWR uses natural uranium based fuel. The indigenous efforts of conversion of yellow cake to fuel grade uranium and fabrication of fuel elements for power reactors, had achieved a major milestone, with the fabrication of the first fuel element at Trombay in 1959.

The Nuclear Fuel Complex is unique in many respects. It is the only complex of its kind where uranium concentrates on the one hand and zircon mineral on the other hand are processed at the same location all the way to produce finished fuel assemblies and also zirconium alloy tubular components, for supplies to the Nuclear Power industry. The complex also symbolizes the strong emphasis on self-reliance in the Indian nuclear power programme. The advanced technologies for the production of nuclear grade uranium dioxide fuel, zirconium metal and zirconium alloy tube components and the manufacture of fuel bundles conforming to reactor specification were developed through systematic efforts during the late 50s and the 60s at Trombay.

For industrial scale manufacture of nuclear fuel assemblies and zircaloy structural components for power reactors, the Nuclear Fuel Complex (NFC) was set up at Hyderabad in 1971. NFC manufactures zirconium alloy-clad natural and enriched uranium oxide fuel assemblies for the Indian PHWRs and boiling water reactors respectively, and zirconium alloy structural components for these reactors, including calandria tubes, coolant tubes and reactivity and shot off mechanisms for PHWRs and square channels for pressurised water reactor. In addition, NFC produces seamless stainless steel tubes, hex cans and other structurals for fast reactor core assemblies, and special alloy tubes. Here, seamless calandria tubes for the 540 MWe PHWR have also been successfully manufactured.

Indigenously designed and built High Temperature High Vacuum Heat Treatment Furnace at NFC

Indigenously designed and fabricated automatic pellet loading station installed at New Uranium Fuel Assembly Plant, of the NFC

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The plants of NFC have been performing very well meeting their annual production targets. Some of the plants have crossed their plant capacities. At BARC a wide variety of fuels have been developed and fabricated on industrial scale. For fabrication of indigenous mixed oxide (MOX) fuel assemblies for boiling water reactors at TAPS, the Advanced Fuel Fabrication Facility (AFFF) was set up by BARC at Tarapur. The MOX fuel produced here has given satisfactory performance.

A momentous step was taken when it was decided that half the initial charge of uranium metal fuel elements for the Canada-India Research Reactor (CIRUS) project will be fabricated at Trombay, though the Canadians were willing to supply all the fuel requirement. For this purpose, alongside the Uranium Metal Plant at Trombay, a Fuel Fabrication Facility called Project Faggots - was established. The flowsheet for the production of the CIR fuel elements involved many steps, including the vacuum melting of the uranium ingots, supplied from the Uranium Metal Plant,Trombay. The Indian team was responsible for the equipment selection for this plant and the process development, and it is to their credit that they could master this difficult technology and meet the supply schedule for the CIR project. When the Rajasthan Atomic Power Project was taken up, in the mid-1960s, as the next stage of collaboration between India and Canada, it was again decided that half the initial requirement of the fuel bundles (about 1800 in number) will be supplied from India. The fuel element design this time was a 19 rod bundle, each rod being a thin-walled zirconium alloy tube, loaded with sintered uranium oxide pellets, and end-cap welded. The production of the half-charge for RAPP-I was undertaken and completed at Trombay.

Boiling Water Reactor Fuel Bundle fabricated at NFC

PHWR fuel assemblies manufactured at NFC

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BACK-END OF NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE Fuel Reprocessing The Indian nuclear power generation programme is based on a closed-cycle approach that involves reprocessing of spent fuel and recycle of Plutonium-239 and Uranium-233 for power generation. DAE, from the inception of its nuclear power programme, had commenced development of fuel reprocessing technology. Today it has a Pilot Plant for reprocessing at Trombay and industrial scale plants at Tarapur and Kalpakkam. The plant at Trombay processes spent fuel from research reactors while the other two plants process spent fuel from power reactors.

A decision was taken in July 1958, to build a plutonium plant in Trombay. Known as Project Phoenix, it was to process the uranium fuel discharged from CIRUS reactor, with a capacity of 20 tonnes of fuel per year. It became one of the most important landmarks in the Indian programme, as this plant was entirely designed and built the by Indian engineers. With this, India became one among the five countries in the world (the others being US, U.K., France and the former Soviet Union) with demonstrated capabilities in the advanced technology of nuclear fuel reprocessing, and the recovery of plutonium. The first quantities of pure plutonium oxide and samples of plutonium metal were produced during 1964-1965. The harnessing of plutonium extraction and plutonium metallurgy set the base for the launching of the fast reactor programme.

Kalpakkam Reprocessing Plant at Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu)

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Nuclear Waste Management The radioactive wastes generated at various stages of nuclear fuel cycle are categorised as low, intermediate and high level wastes. The plants for management of all types of radioactive wastes have been in operation at many nuclear facilities. The low and medium level radioactive wastes are treated in eco-friendly ways. The high level wastes, generated in very small quantities, are fixed in glass matrix. Vitrification, a complex technology possessed by a few nations only, has been successfully developed at Trombay. Based on this technology, two Waste Immobilisation Plants (WIPs) are in operation at Tarapur and Trombay. A similar plant is under construction at Kalpakkam. Vitrified waste is stored in a specially designed solid storage surveillance facility for about 30 years prior to its disposal in deep geological formation. The first such facility has been in operation at Tarapur since 1999. For final disposal of immobilised high-level radioactive wastes, a programme of siting a repository in suitable deep geological formations is being pursued.

Waste Immobilisation Plant (WIP) at Tarapur

Remote Welding of Vitrified Waste Canister at Waste Immobilisation Plant, Trombay

Storage vault of Solid Storage Surveillance Facility, Tarapur

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R&D SUPPORT TO NUCLEAR POWER The programmes relating to nuclear power and the nuclear fuel cycle have been built on the multidisciplinary R&D infrastructure of the Department. Thrust on indigenisation of equipment and components, has led to the development of technologies for operation and maintenance of power reactors. The technologies that emerged from the research and development include automation, monitoring, inspection, and repair systems, equipment and gadgets. A number of state-of-the-art instrumentation and control systems for reactors and heavy water plants have been developed at BARC and IGCAR. R&D has contributed immensely to the plant life management. The strong R&D base built, has led to a number of successes notably repair of overpressure relief device of RAPS-1, En-masse removal and replacement of coolant channels of RAPS-2; Management of Calandria inlet manifold, End-shield repair; Steam generator hair-pin removal, Development of BARCIS system for in-service inspection of coolant channels, and System to relocate garter springs in Remotely operated integrated garter spring repositioning system in coolant channels. A number operation at Unit 2 of the Rajasthan Atomic Power Station of new technologies, such as servo-manipulators, image processing based alignment system, and others have been developed. From KAPS-2 onwards, improved coolant channel material and modified channel design have been adopted for longer life of the coolant channel. Robotics is one of the major thrust area of R&D programme both at BARC and IGCAR. The Bilateral Master Slave Servo Manipulators, manufactured in collaboration between BARC and Hindustan Machine Tools (HMT), Bangalore, have undergone field trials. A five-degreeof-freedom Robot for deployment in radioactive chemical laboratories, a six-degree-of-freedom Robot and a mobile Robot have been developed at Trombay. At IGCAR, for automation of nondestructive evaluation, various devices have been developed. These include a Mobile Scanner (MOBSCAN), a Remotely Operated Power Manipulator (ROPMAN) and a Robot for capping and decapping bottles. To meet the stringent quality needs of the nuclear programme, several nondestructive testing techniques and equipment have been developed by BARC and IGCAR. DAE has been promoting technology relating to quality assurance. Over a period, this approach has paid dividends to the nation by upgrading quality levels of the Indian industry.

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NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME : STAGE-II FAST REACTOR PROGRAMME The second stage of nuclear power generation is geared towards setting up of Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) backed by reprocessing plants and plutonium-based fuel fabrication plants. These fast breeder systems produce more fuel than what they consume. FBRs can increase fuel utilisation by about sixty times of what is possible with PHWRs. These reactors generate electricity and build up fuel inventory. They match our needs as multiplication of fissile inventory needed to establish a large power generation with thorium in the third stage of DAEs programme. During the mid 1960s, BARC had taken up the design of a prototype power reactor - a natural uranium oxide, heavy water moderated, pressurised heavy water cooled system, with provision to experiment with organic coolants as an alternative. The fast reactor section of BARC carried out design studies for different fuel cycles and various coolants (including liquid sodium and helium), and also installed and operated a sodium loop, before the programme was shifted to Kalpakkam when the decision was taken to build there a Fast Breeder Test Reactor with French collaboration. The Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR) of DAE, started fast breeder reactor programme with the setting of a Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) at Kalpakkam in 1983. This reactor, operating with indigenously developed mixed uranium-plutonium carbide fuel, has achieved all its technology objectives. The tenth irradiation campaign with 35 plutonium-uranium carbide fuel sub-assemblies was completed in September 2002. The reactor operated at a power level of 17.4 MWt and the turbogenrator was connected to the grid, feeding 1.2 million units of electricity. The fuel has crossed a burn up of 100,000 MWd/tonne, that is four time larger than the originally designed value. Based on the experience gained with this reactor and with cooperation of academia and industry, detailed design and technology development of the 500 MWe Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) has been completed. Pre-project activities for PFBR have already commenced at Kalpakkam. The PFBR Project has been cleared by the Government recently. On completion, it will feed power to the Southern Grid. The thrust of the R&D programme at IGCAR is oriented towards the design validation of the PFBR in the first instance, and subsequently, the design optimisation for future FBRs, to reduce the cost.

Panoramic view of the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu

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Fast Reactor Fuel Fabrication The Mark-I mixed carbide fuel core, with high plutonium content, has been developed for the first time in the world. The fuel has performed well and has crossed a burn-up of 100,000MWd/t. The tests have further established that the fuel can safely be taken to higher burn-up. Fabrication of Mark-II core is progressing at Trombay. A number of PFBR MOX fuel elements for making experimental PFBR subassembly for irradiation in FBTR have been fabricated by BARC.

Schematics of Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor being developed by IGCAR

FBTR core loading in progress with dummy assemblies

Lead Mini Cell Fuel Reprocessing Plant at Kalpakkam

Fast Reactor Fuel Reprocessing For reprocessing of fuel of FBTR, the Lead Mini Cell, set up at Kalpakkam, is aimed at establishing the fast reactor reprocessing process flow sheet. For reprocessing of fuel from fast breeders, IGCAR is setting up the Fast Reactor Fuel Reprocessing Plant (FRFRP). A comprehensive procedure has also been evolved at the centre for the recovery of uranium and plutonium and separation of the radioactive fission products from the spent fuel solution.

Fast Reactor Technology Development Under the technology development programme, IGCAR is pursuing engineering related research & development such as, thermal hydraulic and structural mechanics studies, development of components such as control and safety rod drive mechanism and various test facilities such as sodium water reaction test facility, and steam generator test facility. The Boron Plant has been successfully operated at Kalpakkam. A pilot plant facility to produce elemental Boron has also been set up and operated successfully. 22

NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME : STAGE-III THORIUM BASED REACTORS Thorium utilisation is long term core objective of the Indian Nuclear Power Programme. For providing energy security on sustainable basis. With this focus, the third stage of the Indian Nuclear Power Programme is thus based on the Thorium-Uranium-233 cycle. A beginning has already been made by introducing thorium in a limited way, in research reactors and in pressurised heavy water reactors. The research reactor KAMINI, operating upto a nominal power of 30kW for neutron radiography of various materials, at Kalpakkam, uses Uranium-233 fuel which is derived from thorium. This fuel is bred, reprocessed and fabricated indigenously. Thorium Reactor Systems Advanced Heavy Water Reactor BARC is engaged in developing 300MWe Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) for use of both the Thorium-Uranium-233 and ThoriumPlutonium mixed oxide as fuel. The design of AHWR incorporates several advanced safety features such as gravity driven water pool, tail pipe towers etc.. BARC has successfully fabricated the fuel pellets by conventional powder metallurgy route. The engineering development activities related to AHWR are continuing at Trombay and the project report of the reactor is undergoing a peer review. Compact High Temperature Reactor A Compact High Temperature Reactor (CHTR) is being developed at BARC, to address specific application areas, such as electricity generation in remote places, production of alternative transportation fuel such as hydrogen, and refinement of low-grade coal and oil deposits to recover fossil fluid fuel. This reactor with 100kW thermal power rating is based on the design guidelines such as use of thorium based

KAMINI reactor at Kalpakkam

Schematic of Advanced Heavy Water Reactor at BARC

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fuels, compact design to minimize weight of the reactor, passive core heat removal, and passive power regulation and shut down systems. Accelerator Driven Sub-Critical System For breeding fissile Uranium-233 from Thorium, development of Accelerator Driven Sub-Critical Systems (ADS) for nuclear reactor is the latest addition to the Indian nuclear programme. This will also help in reducing the technical complexities of geological repositories for storage of long-life highlevel radioactive wastes. In ADS, high energy proton beam generates neutrons directly through spallation reaction in a non-fertile/non-fissile element such as lead. A subcritical blanket further amplifies this external neutron source, as well as produce energy. This endeavour offers the promise of shorter doubling time of fuel inventory with Thorium-Uranium-233 systems, incineration of long lived actinides and fission products. Significant progress has been made in detailed analysis of this complex reactor system. Schematic of Compact High Temperature ADS can provide a strong technology base for Reactor large scale thorium utilization. As a first step towards realization of ADS, DAE has launched development of proton injector. To carry out experimental studies on sub-critical assemblies, a 14 MeV neutron generator has also been upgraded with a higher current ion source. Thorium Mining IRE is engaged in the mining and processing of mineral sands containing titanium, zirconium, thorium and rare earths. The company has three mineral sands separation plants at

As early as in 1910, the beach sands of the west coast of South India had been exploited for monazite. The unbridled export of monazite continued till 1947 when the Government of India realised the strategic importance of the mineral and placed an embargo on its export. One of the first tasks to which the Atomic Energy Commission addressed itself was the setting up of a plant to process monazite, thorium and uranium. The Indian Rare Earths Ltd. was incorporated on August 18, 1950 as a private limited company under the Indian Companies Act, 1913, jointly owned by the Government of India and the then Government of Travancore-Cochin. In 1963, the shares of the State of TravancoreCochin were handed over to the Government of India and the Indian Rare Earths Ltd. became a full fledged central government undertaking of the DAE.

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Manavalakurichi (Tamil Nadu), Chavara (Kerala) and OSCOMChhatrapur (Orissa). These plants produce industrial minerals, namely ilmenite, rutile, monazite, zircon, sillimanite and garnet. At OSCOM, there is a value addition plant, which produces synthetic rutile. In addition, the Rare Earths Plant at Alwaye produces rare earth chlorides. To meet the demand of ceramic industry, IRE has set up a Microzir Plant for production of fine zircon powder at Chavara. At Manavalakurichi, zircon is chemically treated to zircon frit which is supplied to NFC for further processMineral Recovery Plant at Chavara, Kerala ing. The Rare Earths Division (RED) of IRE at Alwaye processes monazite for the separation of thorium concentrate and rare earths. Part of the thorium concentrate of RED is subsequently treated at the Thorium Plant of OSCOM to yield mantle grade thorium nitrate. RED has also set up PRYNCE plant at Alwaye for production of very pure neodymium oxide for making industrial magnets. IRE has launched first phase of expansion of capacity for mineral processing at its plants at Chavara and Manavalakurichi, and has taken up other PRYNCE plant at Alwaye, Kerala projects for productivity of zirconium hydroxide and recovery of rare elements. In its project Thorium Retrieval and Re-storage at Alwaye, IRE envisages retrieval of thorium concentrate from the stock pile at the Rare Earths Division, and recovery of rare earths. Thorium based Fuel Fabrication A closed fuel cycle has been adopted for thorium fuel in Advanced Heavy Water Reactor. Mixed Thoria-Urania and Thoria-Plutonia are the candidate fuels for the AHWR. The fuel pellets have been successfully fabricated by the conventional powder metallurgy route. Reprocessing In the thorium fuel cycle activities, separation of Uranium-233 is a vital link. For separation of Uranium-233 from irradiated Thorium fuel on a plant scale, a Uranium-Thorium Separation Facility has become operational at Trombay.

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SAFETY & ENVIRONMENT

The safety operations through the entire nuclear fuel cycle, from prospecting and mining of ores to management of waste, encompass all the aspects of safety viz. radiological safety, industrial safety, occupational health, fire safety and environmental protection. In all the nuclear installations, care is taken to protect operating personnel, public and environment. An independent body, the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) monitors safety. The safety standards formulated by AERB are on par with those recommended by the international bodies such as the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). NPCIL is a member of the World Association of Nuclear Operators (WANO). The Association has conducted peer reviews of the atomic power stations at Kakrapar and Narora. From time to time, Indian experts have participated in peer reviews in a number of countries including USA, Japan and South Korea. The International Safety Advisory Group (INSAG), the Nuclear Safety Advisory Group (NUSAG) along with several committees of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which prepare safety codes and standards, have Indian scientists as members. Safety surveillance inspections are regularly carried out, and comprehensive Emergency Preparedness and Response Plans to handle postulated emergency scenarios, are in action at the DAE facilities. BARC and the laboratories accredited by it, conduct countrywide personnel monitoring in about 3000 industrial, medical, research and DAE organisations which benefit over 30,000 radiation workers annually. Hand and Foot contamination Environmental radiation monitoring and environmental surmonitoring veillance are the regular features of the environmental protection programme of DAE. At different sites, the Environment Survey Labs (ESLs) of BARC continuously monitor environment, and collect site related meteorological data. Sophisticated weather monitoring SODAR systems are in operation at Kaiga, Kalpakkam, Tarapur and Trombay.

SODAR systems for weather monitoring

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IREMON, a nationwide network of environmental radiation monitoring stations detects radiation releases. Environment around the nuclear sites is well conserved. Many of the nuclear power stations have obtained Environmental Management System Certification under ISO 14001, and have bagged the AERB Green Site Award. At the Low Level Radiation Research Laboratory, Kollam, Kerala, the studies on the health and biological effects of continuous natural radiation on human population are continuing. As a part of the newborn survey, data on about 73,000 newborns has been analysed. The analysis made so far does not show any significant differences in these parameters between the children born in high level natural radiation area and normal level natural radiation area. To educate the public living around nuclear power plants, public awareness programmes by DAE organisations are organised on a regular basis. An Environmental Radiation Monitoring
Station

The commissioning of Apsara reactor marked the beginning of a series of developments in the processing of radioactive materials and the use of ionising radiation in a variety of ways. The scale of the activities was still small and there was no regulatory agency established yet. Nevertheless, at each step, radiation protection aspects received fullest attention. The approach followed in this period was one of self-regulation within the DAE.

Mobile Radiological Laboratory at Trombay Inside view of Mobile Radiological Laboratory

The DAEs programme relating to radiation technologies & applications, covers building and operation of research reactors for production of radioisotopes, building of other sources of radiation such as accelerators and lasers, and developing and deploying radiation technology applications in the field of medicine, agriculture and industry. 27

RADIATION TECHNOLOGIES & APPLICATIONS

Research Reactors The research reactor programme of DAE provides R&D support to nuclear power programme, produces radioisotopes, and extends research facilities and manpower training. The research reactors set up by DAE so far, are Apsara (1MW, Fuel: Enriched UraniumAluminium alloy), CIRUS (40MW, Fuel : Natural Uranium), ZERLINA (Zero energy, Fuel : Natural Uranium), PURNIMA I-III (Fuel : Thorium based), DHRUVA (100MW, Fuel: Natural Uranium) at Trombay (Maharashtra), and KAMINI (30kW, Fuel : Uranium-233-Al alloy) and Fast Breeder Test Reactor (40MW, Fuel : Uranium-Plutonium carbide) at Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu). Of these research reactors, ZERLINA was decommissioned in 1984, and PURNIMA series made way for KAMINI reactor. DHRUVA, CIRUS and Apsara are used for producing radioisotopes, besides their use in research and development relating to nuclear technologies and materials, applied and basic research, and training. KAMINI is used mainly for radiography of various materials, and FBTR is the test bed for the development of fuel, blanket and structural materials In the field of research reactor the new ventures include the development of a Critical Facility at Trombay for reactor physics experiments relating to AHWR & 500 MWe PHWRs, and a 20MWt Multi Purpose Research Reactor, a pool type reactor that will use low enriched uranium fuel, and water as coolant and moderator.

DHRUVA and CIRUS at Trombay Complex

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APSARA On March 15, 1955, the Atomic Energy Commission decided to build APSARA, a swimming pool type of reactor. A formal agreement for the supply of the fuel was concluded between the UKAEA and DAE in October 1955. The reactor was brought to first criticality on the afternoon of August 4, 1956. The reactor provided a source of neutrons for physicists, chemists, and biologists to carry out experiments in nuclear physics, reactor physics, radiochemistry, and materials science, and to study the effects of nuclear radiation. It enabled the production of radioisotopes and the demonstration of their application in medicine and other fields. And, more importantly, it provided a training ground for engineers to gain experience and confidence in the safe operation of a nuclear reactor.

As I stand before you here, with this Swimming Pool Reactor behind me and in front of you, I have in front of me the Island of Elephanta, not far away, which represents something that happened about 1300 years ago. ..... Well, 1300 years or so lie in between these works in the Island of Elephanta, and this Swimming Pool Reactor which represents this middle of the 20th century. Both, I take it, have their place and any person who ignores either of them misses an important element of life. I do not suppose humanity can live on reactors alone. Presumably, they want something else, too. Certainly, they cannot live on Elephanta alone; something else is wanted. So, in a sense, it is the combination of Elephanta and the Swimming Pool Reactor odd as it may seem that might produce a proper balance in life. Not Elephanta as it is but something that it may represent the artistic values and cultural traditions which have lasted.
Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru (Speech at the opening of AEET and naming of first swimming pool reactor, APSARA at Trombay), January 20,1957

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CIRUS The requirement of 20 tonnes of heavy water for the reactor , was purchased from the US. At the time of the agreement, the Canadians had offered to supply all the initial inventory of the uranium fuel elements (again to be paid for by India), but subsequently it was decided that half of the initial fuel charge would be made in India. The construction of CIR was completed by the first quarter of 1960 and heavy water was charged into the reactor by April 1960. The reactor was brought to first criticality on July 10, 1960. The reactor power was raised progressively and the rated capacity (of 40 MWt) was reached on October 16, 1963. For over thirty years, the Canada-India Reactor, renamed CIRUS in 1965, has been a major experimental facility in Trombay serving a wide range of users and applications. It has effectively supported research and development programmes in neutron physics, solid state physics, nuclear physics, reactor physics and engineering materials science, isotope production, radiochemistry, radiation chemistry and biology. CIRUS has also been a base for training in operation and maintenance of reactors and a good source of trained personnel in the initial stages of the nuclear power programme. The commissioning of the CIRUS reactor gave a great fillip to the production of a variety of radioisotopes of medium to high specific activity for applications in medicine, industry, agriculture and research. The regular supply of radioisotopes commenced in 1962-63.

CIRUS reactor at Trombay

Pandit Nehru, Bhabha and N.B. Prasad at CIRUS .

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PURNIMA I-III PURNIMA, which stands for Plutonium Reactor for Neutron Investigations in Multiplying Assemblies, attained criticality on May 18, 1972 ushering India into the realm of fast reactors. This was achieved with about 22 kg of plutonium oxide in the form of 177 fuel pins. As the next step, a critical facility was designed in which the fission chain reaction could be sustained without generating any power. A solution containing Uranium-233 in the form of uranyl nitrate served as the core for the facility and Beryllium Oxide as reflector. This reactor, with the name PURNIMA II, reached criticality on May 10, 1984. As a final part of the studies with Uranium-233, it was planned to build a low power (30kW) research reactor using Uranium-233 fuel in the form of thin plates and install it in the IGCAR. At Trombay, the mock up of KAMINI (Kalpakkam Mini Reactor), was performed in the same vault that housed PURNIMA I. This was named as PURNIMA III. Fuel of this reactor was in the form of plates of an alloy of Aluminum and Uranium-233. Considerable time and effort was expended in conversion of the uranyl nitrate solution used earlier, into the fuel alloy plates. Uranium-233 being a precious material, great care was taken to minimise losses in conversion. PURNIMA III became critical on April 29, 1992.

PURNIMA reactor

KAMINI reactor

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DHRUVA Many divisions in Trombay were involved in the design and construction of DHRUVA (Initially named as R-5). Ground was broken for the R-5 Project at the site immediately adjoining the CIRUS reactor on May 17, 1974. The first batch of fuel for the reactor was supplied on August 12, 1983. The reactor was named as DHRUVA on September 7, 1983. Heavy water was added to the system on June 12, 1985 and the reactor brought to first criticality on August 8, 1985. The reactor has been in use for advanced neutron and solid state physics research, for the increased production of radioisotopes, and as a training base and research utility for the larger scientific and engineering community in the country.

DHRUVA reactor

Neturon scattering instruments inside Dhruva reactor hall.

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RADIOISOTOPE PRODUCTION & PROCESSING The radioisotopes produced at Trombay are also processed by BRIT. These products include radiopharmaceuticals, labelled compounds, radiochemicals, radiobiomolecules, radiosources and a number of devices using radioisotopes. The radioisotope Cobalt-60 is processed in the Cobalt Facility (RAPPCOF) of BRIT at Rawatbhata, near Kota, Rajasthan. Radioisotopes are produced in the research reactors at Trombay, atomic power reactors of NPCIL and the cyclotron of VECC at Kolkata. India is a leading producer of radioisotopes in the world. Production of radioisotopes in the country had started with the commissioning of Apsara reactor in 1956. The production capability was augmented in 1963 with the commissioning of CIRUS reactor. Commercial operation of Dhruva in 1985 further strengthened this capability. Dhruva, one of the large research reactors in the world, produces a wide spectrum of radioisotopes. Recently, Plutonium-236, the radiotracer useful in environmental and biological studies, has been successfully produced at Trombay. CIRUS has been refurbished which has substantially added to its working life. The accelerator at VECC, Kolkata produces radioisotopes such as Gallium-67. BARC processes isotopes for medical use. The major isotopes processed by BARC are Iodine-131, Radiopharmaceutical production facility Molybdenum-99, Phosphorus-32 and Samarium-153. at BRIT The radioisotope based products and services are now commercially available through BRIT. BARC supplies radioisotopes and radionuclides for medical use. Some radioisotopes produced at Trombay, such as Mercury-203, are also exported.

Soon after the commissioning of the Apsara reactor at Trombay, in 1956, a small laboratory was set up in one of the sheds in a temporary location at Cadell Road, Mumbai, for the extraction of small quantities of Iodine-131, Gold-198, Phosphorus-32, Sodium-24 etc from samples irradiated in Apsara reactor. The isotopes produced were purified and tested for medical use, with the help of the Pharmacology Department of K.E.M. Hospital, Mumbai, first in animals and then in human trials. In 1960, at the World Agricultural Fair in Delhi - where the USA had set up a Triga Reactor - as suggested by Bhabha, a complete Isotope Laboratory with glass walls, was set up so that visitors to the pavilion could see the operations from outside. The isotopes were produced in the Triga Reactor in the American pavilion, and processed in the Indian pavilion. Samples of Sodium-24 and colloidal Gold were supplied to the Vallabhai Patel Chest Institute and the Safdarjung Hospital in New Delhi. Sodium-24 was used in blood dilution studies and colloidal gold in the treatment of cancer. When the Fair was over, the Isotope Handling Facility was transferred to Safdarjung Hospital and became the starting point for the establishment of the Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Allied Sciences in New Delhi.

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APPLICATIONS OF RADIOISOTOPES The radioisotopes produced at Trombay find wide applications in the fields of agriculture and food, medicine and healthcare, industry, and research. Based on these applications, following programmes have been established in the country. Nuclear Agriculture Radiation technology is a potent tool in the development of high yielding seed varieties by mutation, increasing shelf life of food by way of delayed ripening and sprouting, and pest control by killing insects and pests even those that hide within seeds. The Nuclear Agriculture Programme of DAE focuses on the development of high yielding crop seeds, radiation processing of food items, fertilizer and pesticide related studies, and other areas. All these technologies have been benefiting Indian farmers and traders. Crop Improvement For decades, BARC, in collaboration with agricultural universities, has been engaged in research and development in the field of crop improvement. This Centre has successfully developed and released 23 high yielding crop varieties, including 9 groundnut, 10 pulse and 2 mustard, and one each of jute and rice varieties. During the year 2002-2003, the groundnut and blackgram varieties CROP VARIETIES DEVELOPED AT BARC USING developed at Trombay made up to 30% and 40% of national indent for breeder MUTATION BREEDING seed. The groundnut variety TAG-24 has been identified as national check variCROP NO. CHARACTERISTICS ety for Rabi/summer. The new large seeded confectionary grade Trombay GROUNDNUT 9 High yielding, improved quality groundnut variety TPG-41 has been identified for release for Rabi/summer High yielding, disease cultivation in the country, and is awaitPIGEON PEA 2 resistant, early maturing improved quality ing notification. Ten promising cultures of groundnut, High yielding, 4 BLACK GRAM disease resistant pigeon pea, mungbean, blackgram, soyabean and cowpea developed at High yielding, BARC have reached ICAR-Advanced 4 MUNG BEAN disease resistant Varietal Trials. BARC has successfully applied High yielding, 1 RICE radiation induced mutation technique in improved quality the development of a photo-period insensitive green manure crop Sesbania High yielding, MUSTARD 2 rostrata. The green manure production improved quality using this variety is now highly cost effective for small farmers.
JUTE 1
High yielding, fibre yielding

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Tissue culture is the process or technique of growing tissue artificially in a special, sterile culture medium. BARC has developed a tissue culture based protocol for rapid multiplication of 12 commercial cultivars of banana. This technology has been transferred to the Maharashtra State Seeds Corporation.

Even in pre-independence years, experiments in mutation breeding through exposures to X-rays were carried out in India. These experiments were exploratory in nature and the studies covered sorghum, rice and wheat. Serious work was initiated however only in the late fifties in DAE and the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi.

Using micropropagation technology, BARC has standardised large-scale multiplication of pineapple. Micropropagation protocol has also been standardized in three varieties of sugarcane. The Centre has made good progress in developing hardened plants of Acacia Victoriae a plant suitable for desert area. A method has been developed for obtaining a starch-degrading enzyme (amylase) by solid state fermentation of banana peels. At Trombay, several insect pheromones have been synthesized and techniques for determination of nutrients in soils have been developed. For the control of cotton boll worm experiments using sterile insect technique (SIT) are undergoing at Trombay .

Delivery of nuclear agriculture technologies With the objective to deliver the technologies developed in the DAE research centres, to the people around the nuclear establishments, the Department has initiated the Neighbourhood Welfare Programme. Under the programme, BARC is developing a 12 hectare Agriculture Research and Seed Farm at Tarapur in collaboration with the Tarapur Atomic Power Station. The crops developed in BARC will be grown in the Tarapur Farm to demonstrate to the local farmers, the use of these improved seeds in enhancing farm production. Knowledge will also be imparted to the farmers to encourage them to adopt newer technologies in modern agriculture developments.

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Food processing
Radiation processing is indispensable for preservation of cereals and pulses, fruits and vegetables, meat and meat products and seafood. This offers several advantages over conventional food preservation techniques. Over three decades of the research done at Trombay, has established the advantages of food preservation by radiation processing of food items, and this technology has emerged as vital to food security and export of food products. BRIT carries out radiation processing of spices and other products at the Radiation Processing Plant, at Navi Mumbai. This plant, in operation since January 1, 2000, is proving a boon to the spice exporters. For radiation processing of onions for sprout control and other low dose applications of radiation in preservation of agricultural commodities, BARC has commissioned a 10 tonne/hr Radiation Processing Plant, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra. facility KRUSHAK (Krushi Utpadan Sanrakshan Kendra) at Lasalgaon, district Nashik, Maharashtra. KRUSHAK, is a technology demonstration plant. Farmers and traders of Nashik district and surrounding areas are now getting the benefit of this technology. The Government of India has approved radiation processing of certain food items both for export and domestic consumption. Two research and development Radiation Processing facilities, at Trombay and Jodhpur (Rajasthan), have been licensed KRUSHAK (Krushi Utpadan Sanrakshan Kendra) Lasalgaon, for radiation processing of food district Nashik, Maharashtra. items. Private sector is being encouraged to set up similar plants. In the field of nuclear agriculture, some of the major ongoing activities are the following:

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An install-and-operate Radiation Processor, that is safe to operate and needs very small space, has been designed at Trombay. With a throughput of 4 tonne/day of frozen marine products at 5 kilogray radiation dose, this is a batch radiation processor. It can cater to all the products permitted for radiation processing, including frozen marine products which call for a rigid control on dose uniformity ratio as well as maintenance of cold chain. It is planned to set up a prototype unit during the X-Plan period. The research at BARC is focused on radiation processing for preservation of cereals and pulses, fruits and vegetables, meat and meat products, and seafood. In meat preservation, a process for preparation of shelf-stable intermediate moisture meat products using gamma radiation has been standardized. The effects of the combinations of radiation, packaging, and low temperatures, extension of shelf-life of a number of fruits and vegetables and coffee beans, are under extensive study.

Food items which can be radiation processed

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Nuclear Medicine and Healthcare BARC carries out production of radioisotopes and their radiochemical processing of for a variety of applications in medical, industrial, and other fields. Other major activities of the Centre include development of new radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy, and sealed sources for therapeutic applications. For customers, service-irradiation in the reactors is also offered. In the field of health care, at Trombay recent developments include myocardial blood flow imaging agent, Technetium-99m-MIBI (Methoxy Isobutyl Isonitrile) and technology transfer of radiation-processed hydrogel for treating burn, wounds and leprosy. BARC regularly supplies polyclonal antibodies for thyroid hormones to BRIT. The centre has successfully developed Holmium166-Hydroxy Apatite (HoHa) and Samarium-153-Hydroxy Apatite (SmHa) radio-pharmaceuticals for treatment of arthritis, and radiolabeling of phosphonates with Luthinium-177 for internalised radiotherapy. Several batches of HoHa and SmHa for radiosynoviorthesis have been prepared at Trombay and Radiation synovectomy procedure using holmium based used successfully in the treatment of radionuclide and the scintigraphic images of the injected arthritis. joint Presently, modernisation of isotope processing facilities, and development of selected radiopharmaceuticals for therapeutic application are carried out at Trombay. Sealed radioactive sources are used for brachytherapy (local radiation therapy) of cancer. At BARC, Cesium-137 based brachytherapy sources are routinely produced. For treatment of cancer of eye, radiation sources of extremely tiny size of the size of rice graincontaining 2-3 milli curie of Iodine-125, have been produced here recently. A batch of sources is undergoing clinical trials at the Sankar Netralaya, Chennai. These sources find applications in the treatment of prostate cancer. For fabrication of Cesium-137 brachytherapy sources, the Centre for Advanced Technology, Indore has developed a laser welding system. Tuberculosis is a major health problem in India. For detection of the disease infection, BARC has developed a sero-diagnostic test-kit that is now available for technology transfer. A multianalyte assay technology using antibody chips has also been developed. X-ray imaging using a three dimensional cone-beam tomography, is another important development at Trombay.

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The Radiation Medicine Centre (RMC) of BARC in Mumbai, is involved in research and development in nuclear medicine and allied sciences. The centre offers diagnostic and therapeutic services using radioisotopes, and promotes human resource development in nuclear medicine. It is a regional referral centre of the World Health Organisation for South East Asia, and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Radioimmunoassays and related proceOn a visit to RMC in 1963, E Pochin of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) gave a talk describing the profile counting methods, developed in his laboratory, for measuring the rate of absorption of iodine by the liver. He found however that similar measurements were already being used in RMC as a quicker and simpler diagnostic index of thyroid overactivity compared to the then existing methods. In 1968, RMC recognised the importance of the radioimmunoassay (RIA) technique for diagnostic purposes. In this technique, a sample of blood is drawn from the patient and the sample is subjected to a test with a radioactively labelled compound. At first, RMC established the procedure for RIA for human growth hormone, which allowed study of deficiencies of the hormone in malnutrition. In the early seventies, reagents were developed in-house for thyroid hormones to conduct thyroid function studies. The inventor of the RIA technique, Rosalyn Yalow spent two months lecturing at RMC, in 1977 immediately after receiving the Nobel Prize. RIA procedure for detection of TB was optimised in 1982. In the late seventies, BARC began making available commercialised RIA kits. dures are sensitive methods used for measurements of hormones, enzymes, hepatitis virus, certain serum proteins, some drugs and a number of other substances. RIA is now one of the most often used and inexpensive analytical methods for diagnostic purposes in the country. RMC is a major provider of RIA services in the country, to thyroid patients. For diagnosis of diseases such as cancer, cardiac and neurological disorders, special radioisotopes of very short life are required. To meet this need, BARC has established a medical cyclotron at RMC. This cyclotron is coupled to a positron emission tomography (PET) scanner for radioimaging. RMC annually dispenses of 90,000mCi of technetium based radiopharmaceuticals, and

2
11C
20

10

15O
2

1) Oxygen-15, Nitrogen-13, Carbon-11 and Fluorine-18 nuclei emit a positron. 2) positron quickly collides with an electron from the neighbourhood. 3) The collision results in a collision photon p which sends out 511keV gammas 180 degree apart.

39

51 1

13N

51 1

110

18F

carries out 8000 radiodiagnostic investigations and 9000 radioimmunoassays. The accelerator at VECC manufactures radioisotopes, which are further processed for medical applications at the Regional Radiation Medicine Centre (RRMC). This centre meets the radiodiagnostic and radiotherapy requirements of the Eastern region of the country. Annually, around 7000 patients get the benefit of these services. It was decided during 1988-89, to constitute a separate organisation -- the Board for Radiation and Isotope Technology -- to administer the production programme on commercial lines. The Board started functioning from March 1, 1989. BRIT supplies radiopharmaceuticals, Cobalt-60 Teletherapy for cancer brachytherapy wires, radio-immunoassay (RIA) kits, treatment radiochemicals, radiolabelled compounds, luminous compounds, Technetium-99m generating kits and a host of other products to medical centres, and offers radiation sterilization services to medical users across the country. Annually, BRIT supplies 12,700 consignments of radiopharmaceutical products, 42,500 cold kits to nearly 120 nuclear medicine centres, and 7400 RIA/IRMA kits of different hormones to 300 radioimmunoassay laboratories in India. The RIA Centres of BRIT at Bangalore and Dibrugarh conduct 6000 and 5000 radioimmunoassays annually. BRITs regional centres at Bangalore and Delhi process ready-to-use Technetium-99m radiopharmaceuticals for use in hospitals of their regions. The Delhi centre carries out production, quality control/quality assay and supply of Technetium-99m radiopharmaceutical injections for clinical studies in patients. For fabrication of sealed sources such as Iridium-192, Cobalt-60, Cesium-137, Scandium-46, Iridium-Platinum wire, and others, BRIT uses radioisotopes produced in research and power reactors. It supplies Cobalt-60 teletherapy sources to 170 teletherapy units in 62 cities in India and Cesium-137 and Iridium-192 brachytherapy sources for cancer treatment to medical users. Other supRadiotherapy machine for cancer plies include Phosphorus-32 injections for pain palliation treatment. The machine has been in severe cases of bone cancer. developed at CAT, Indore The Jonaki Laboratory (of BRIT) at Hyderabad, produces labelled nucleotides for research in modern biology, biotechnology and genetic engineering. In India, based on the products supplied by BRIT, an estimated 2.5 lakh to 3 lakh diagnostic imaging studies are annually performed and a few thousand patient treatments using radioiod40

ine, are carried out for thyroid disorders. About 5 lakh patient sample analysis are carried out every year using immunoassay kits. The Boards annual supplies of radioisotopes and allied products are valued at about Rs.21 crore. Gamma irradiation of blood components is a safe and proven technology widely used in hospitals and blood banks the world over, for elimination of various risks in blood transfusion. Blood is usually irradiated in standard blood bags in blood irradiators using Cobalt-60 or Cesium-137 radioactive source. For use in hospitals for blood transfusion, BRIT has developed a dedicated Blood Irradiator (BI-2000) which houses a Cobalt-60 source and provides a dose rate of about 11 Gray/ minute approximately, inside a chamber. The device is equipped Blood Irradiator developed by with state-of-the-art electronic control system. The unit can BRIT be installed in a room without any additional shielding. Its design conforms to all the standards and safety codes. The biomedical research carried out in the DAE research centres, has produced a number of technologies and products. Radiation processed hydrogels for treatment of burn injuries, skin patches for treatment of superficial cancers, and radiolabelled preparations are some of the innovative products developed at Trombay. BRIT has recently introduced in the market new products including a kit for myocardial perfusion imaging and therapeutic capsules for treatment of hyper-thyroidism N2 laser used in diagnosis of cancer of various and large dose thyroid scan. Lasers have been developed at CAT for organs like oral cavity, breast, uterus etc., by study of laser induced fluorescence of tissues a number of medical applications such as carbon dioxide laser based system for a range of surgical modalities. These systems have been supplied to various hospitals in the country. Nitrogen laser radiation exposure has been found to help drug penetration in the lungs of tuberculosis patients, and accelerate burns healing. CAT has developed nitrogen laser units with fibre optic beam delivery systems. Some such units are in use in hospitals at Indore and Patna. For early detection of cancers such as oral cancer, breast cancer and uterine cancer, a laser induced fluorescence spectroscopy technique employing nitrogen laser, has given very encouraging results. The research findings at CAT may be useful for inactivation of antibiotic resistant strains of P.aeruginosa causing burn and wound infections in hospitalised patients.

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Radiation Sterilization For about three decades, radiation has been in use in India for sterilization of medical products, benefiting millions of hospital patients. It is a continuous and automated process, and costs far lower than steam heat sterilization. The items can be sterilized in pre-packed condition practically for indefinite period. BRIT has been operating radiation sterilization plant ISOMED, now ISO-9002 accredited, at Trombay. The plant provides radiation sterilization services to over 1500 users and sterilises about 12,000 cu mt of medical products annually. In the past, over two million DAI (midwifery) kits and delivery packs were radiation sterilized at ISOMED plant, and distributed for use in rural areas for preventing infection of mothers and helping to minimize infant mortality rate, through rural health programmes funded by WHO. The International Institute of Population Studies (IIPS) in its study has found that the infant mortality rate has fallen by 25-30 % in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh as a result of distribution of the kits in these areas. Similar to ISOMED, plants are also in operation at the Shriram Centre for Industrial Research, Delhi, and Kidwai Memorial Institute of Oncology, Bangalore. A plant for R&D purposes has been in operation at the Defence Research and Development Organisation, Jodhpur (Rajasthan).

Sterilized medical products

Around 1970, it was the proposed to set up a radiation sterilisation plant for medical products, with possible United Nations Development Program (UNDP) assistance. The plant was finally set up by 1972. This facility, called ISOMED, turned out to be a very successful experiment introducing radiation sterilisation technology for the first time in India. Later, similar systems were set up in Delhi at the Sri Ram Institute, in Bangalore at the Kidwai Memorial Hospital and in Jodhpur.

Dai kits

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Cancer Treatment & Research In the field of diagnosis, treatment and research in cancer as well as in training and education, the Tata Memorial Centre (TMC), a grant-in-aid institution of DAE, is a leading organization in the country. The Centre comprises the Tata Memorial Hospital (TMH), Mumbai and the Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer (ACTREC), Kharghar, Navi Mumbai. The erstwhile Cancer Research Institute (CRI) is now a wing of ACTREC. Tata Memorial Hospital was set up by Sir Dorabji Tata Trust in 1940, for treatment and cure of cancer. The Indian Cancer Research Centre, which later became the Cancer Research Institute, was set up by Government of India in collaboration with the Tata Trust for post-graduate research and teaching in oncology and allied subjects. Administrative control of both these institutions was transferred from Ministry of Health to DAE in 1962. CRI has now merged with the Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer (ACTREC) set up by DAE at Navi Mumbai.

Tata Memorial Hospital (TMH), equipped with the state-of-the-art facilities annually registers about 21,000 new cases and issues over 11,000 referral cards for various medical investigations. The Hospital also offers limb salvage services to patients where limb is affected by cancer. A joint replacement called the TMH-NICE an artificial substitute of the leg bone, and replacements of elbow and hip, have been developed here. The range of motion of these artificial limbs is similar to that of the imported joint. This endeavour has drastically brought down the costs of such replacements which uptil now were imported. In the field of medical oncology, TMH has introduced molecular cytogenetics. Haematopoietic stem cell transplants carried out at the hospital on 30 patients. Solid tumours and advanced cancers in the elderly receive the 43

TMH-NICE an artificial replacement of bone

support and attention for service and research. TMH is also recognised as a WHO Collaborating Centre for Cancer Prevention, Early Detection & Screening. The first registered Tissue Bank in the country supported by the IAEA, operates at TMH. This facility provides freeze dried, radiation-preserved allografts from bone, amniotic tissues and dura mater. TMC is running the After Completion Therapy (ACT) Clinic which provides appropriate supportive care to the cancer survivors. The Rehabilitation Research Centre (RRC) offers a variety of services and devices for improving the quality of life of treated patients. Under a pioneering programme, the benefits of state-of-the-art The Picture shows brachy- diagnostic expertise of TMC are reaching the doorsteps of the viltherapy being given to a lages around Barshi village (Maharashtra). A Telepathology Syspatient tem for cross consultation of pathology slides, operating over a stretch of 500 kilometres, employs the latest information-technology network for transmission of slide images from Barshi to the expert team at the Tata Memorial Hospital. Diagnostic advice thus reaches the remote areas almost immediately, saving precious lives. In the field of radiodiagnosis of cancer, a surgical Gamma Probe that can localise sentinel node for early breast cancer detection has been developed by BARC. The probe, which is an import substitute, has been undergoing performance evaluation at the Rajiv Gandhi Cancer Institute, New Delhi. Water Management BARC has developed a number of desalination technologies based on multi-stage flash (MSF) evaporation, reverse osmosis (RO) and low temperature evaporation (LTE). Using these technologies, desalination plants have been developed for providing potable water in rural areas and on ships, and water for industrial uses. To utilize waste heat from nuclear reactors, BARC has been setting up a 6300 cubic metre/day combined MSF-RO Nuclear Desalination Demonstration Plant at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu. The plant will utilize seawater, steam and power from MAPS for achieving cost effective desalination of sea water. The 1800 cubic metre/day desalination stream of the plant, that is based on reverse osmosis process, has been commissioned. It is now producing potable water from seawater. The MSF based stream is under construction. The hybrid plant has a number of advantages such as production of two qualities of water, low energy requirements and lesser chemical treatment. The plant will meet the needs of the process water for the Madras Atomic Power Station and the drinking water for the neighbouring people. 44

1800 cubic metres/day Sea Water Reverse Osmosis (SWRO) Plant building and membrane modules. This is one of the two streams of the Nuclear Desalination Demonstration Plant at Kalpakkam

A small (30 cubic metre/day) desalination unit, based on low temperature evaporation technology, and using waste heat of CIRUS, is being set up at Trombay. Environment Friendly Technologies Biogas Plant For environment friendly disposal of solid urban waste, the concept of traditional biogas plant has been modified to employ bacteria that thrive in hot conditions. Hot water required for the purpose is made by using solar power. Based on this approach, two biogas plants (named as Nisarga-runa), of 1 and 4 tonne capacity each, which process kitchen waste and paper to generate methane as fuel and high quality soil conditioner manure, have been developed and made operational at Trombay. These plants are fast becoming popular with civic authorities managing solid wastes, and large size eateries. Hygienization of Sludge BARC has successfully established technology for hygienisation of sludge generated by town sewerage. A plant for sludge hygienisation (SHRI) set up at Baroda, has been operating continuously for years. The sludge is hygienised using radiation.
Nisarga-runa Plant at Trombay

RO Plant set up at Satlana village, Jodhpur, Rajasthan

Flow-sheet of SHRI Sludge Hygienisation Research Irradiator (SHRI) facility at Vadodara, Gujarat

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Industrial applications of Radioisotopes Radiation technology covers a range of industrial applications. These include radiography, gamma scanning of process equipment, use of radiotracers to study sediment transport at ports and harbours, flow measurements, pigging of buried pipelines, hydrology and water resource management, and many more. BRIT processes over 500 kCi (kilo curie) of Cobalt-60 activity at RAPPCOF, Kota and manufactures radioisotope based equipment for industrial and other applications, and provides radiation processing and hygienisation services to industry. For radiography examination of industrial components, BRIT supplies Iridium-192 sealed sources and ROLI-1 camera remotely operated radiography cameras (ROLI-1) to industry, and blood irradiator to blood banks. Over 700 consignments of Iridium-192 sealed sources, totaling about 900 terra Becquerel (over 24,000 curies) activity, are annually supplied for radiography examination of industrial components. The Board also exports radioisotopes and related equipment to countries such as United Kingdom, Germany, Bangladesh, Egypt, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Syria and Tanzania. For various hydrological investigations, BARC provides isotope related services such as sediment transportation, gamma scanning leakage detection and others. These services have led to considerable monetary savings to the nation. The studies conducted at BARC have immensely contributed to the detection and recharge conditions of ground water bodies. These include evaluation of the groundwater recharge conditions in the Delang-Puri sector of coastal Orissa, determination of the origin of thermal waters in the geothermal areas in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Himalayas, and establishment of the ancient course of the legendary Saraswati river in Western Rajasthan. Major activities relating to hydrology include evaluation of recharge measures at coastal fresh groundwater system of Thiruvadanai, Tamil Nadu; sustainability of deep ground waters at Kuttanad, Kerala; detection of fluoride contamination in ground waters of Karnataka; solution of leakage/seepage problems of a few dams in Kerala and Rajasthan; origin of groundwater along paleo-channels in Jaisalmer district, Western Rajasthan, and seepage and source of salinity in the Indira Gandhi Nahar Pariyojana Command Area, Hanumangrah, Rajasthan. Studies conducted by BARC on sediment transport at almost all the major ports have resulted in increasing the intervals between desilting campaigns which saved a huge cost of desilting operations. Studies on bed load transport at Kolkata and Karwar ports have helped in port-expansion programmes. A nucleonic suspended sediment concentration gauge developed at Trombay, has proved to be a useful tool of the dredging operation in ports. Using radioisotope tracer techniques, a major study on the dilution and dispersion of the sewage disposed off into sea at the Colaba outfall in Mumbai, was conducted by BARC. BARCs expertise in gamma scanning is being used by major petrochemical industries for troubleshooting in process equipment such as examining distillation towers and packed bed columns, detecting leaks in buried pipelines, industrial process controls etc.. Other major studies carried out by BARC include detection of leakage points using Cobalt-60, in 350 km long natural gas pipeline of the Gas Authority of India, and gamma scanning of distillation and degasser columns for Mumbai and Baroda based companies. Using radiotracing techniques, recently, leaks in the heat exchangers of the Indian Oil Corporations Panipat Refinery, Haryana and Tamilnadu Petroproducts Ltd. Chennai, Tamil 46

Nadu were detected. These techniques were also used in the effective management of the oil fields of the Oil and Natural Gas Commission. BARCs radiotracing expertise is being used by the industrial units in many diverse ways. Gamma scanning is a non-destructive technique for solving online problems in industrial process columns. Using this technique, recently BARC has successfully conducted investigations on a depropaniser column of the Reliance Industries Ltd., Hazira, Gujarat, and carried out shielding integrity tests for different DAE facilities. BARCs expertise in gamma scanning has resulted in minimizing downtime and hence production losses, which could be of the order of several crore of rupees per day for such big units.

Leakage in pipe is being detected with the help of radiotracer

Radiotracer studies on a trickle bed reactor of a factory

Radiotracer testing in action in a sugar mill

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Beam Technologies In the fields of radiation technologies and services, Laser systems and Electron Beam (EB) Accelerators are the areas where India is one of the front runners. DAEs research organisations viz. Centre for Advanced Technology (CAT) in Indore, Madhya Pradesh and Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) in Mumbai, are engaged in the development of a wide variety of applications based on unique properties of lasers. Expertise has been developed in the areas of Laser systems, Electron Beam processes and facilities, and Plasma devices. The industries which are beneficiary of the EB technology, are the heat shrink materials, diamond industry, rubber industry, irradiation of semiconductors, food preservation, medical sterilization, radiation therapy, and radiography. In view of the important role of electron beam in various fields, DAE had set up an electron accelerator based experimental facility in 1987-88 at Trombay. The Department is currently developing electron accelerators for radiation processing of paints, wires, O-rings, pulp sheets and other industrial products, agricultural produce and sterilization of medical products. Radiation induced crosslinking of polymers improves properties of inexpensive common thermoplastics. In view of the large demand potential in this area, BARC has been working with major cable manufacturers to indigenously develop electron beam crosslinked cables. In collaboration with the Sriram Institute of Chemical Research, New Delhi, the Centre has developed a special formulation of PVC based material which on radiation cross-linking, leads to a product that can withstand temperature upto 105 Celsius. To induce uniform crosslinking, a rotating multi-spindle conveyor system was designed at Trombay. The process has been commercialised. BARC has successfully developed a 500 keV Accelerator, now housed at BRIT Complex, Navi Mumbai. The accelerator has been in regular operation for surface modification studies. Industries such as M/s Reliance India Ltd. are using it for crosslinking of plastic sheets and granules. M/s Hindustan Lever Ltd. are planning to irradiate its brand of wheat flour by utilising this facility. BARC and IIT-Madras, Chennai are pursuing radiation damage studies on materials. The ILU-6 accelerator facility of BARC set up at BRIT Complex, Navi Mumbai has rendered over 800 hours of radioprocessing during the year 2002-03. CAT has developed a 750 keV accelerator which will be a range of applications where the required depth of irradiation does not exceed 1-2 mm. For commercial exploitation of electron beam technology, BARC is setting up an Electron Beam Centre at Kharghar, Navi Mumbai. SAMEER (Society for Applied Microwave Electronics Engineering and Research), a society of the Department of Information Technology, is collaborating in the project. The Centre will house 3 MeV and 10 MeV electron beam accelerators and Electron Beam set up at Kharghar, Navi Mumbai. laboratories. This facility will be the hub 48

of research and development in the area of industrial accelerators and their applications. To put this technology on a strong footing, other institutions such as CEERI, Pilani will also be contributing to the programme. CAT has developed a 750 keV DC accelerator which can give 20kW electron beam power. This accelerator has applications in radiation processing of paper pulp, surface modifications, paint and resin curing and various other industrial applications. In addition, a machine based on microtron for radiotherapy, and accelerators for radiation processing of agricultural products and sterilization of medical products, are being developed here. Single and multibeam carbondioxide lasers developed at CAT, have been given to different institutes and industries for various material processing applications. High power lasers coupled with CNC workstation, are being regularly used for cutting of metal and non-metal sheets, welding, and surface modifications. High Power Pulsed Electron Accelerators High power pulsed electron accelerators are used in producing flash X-rays and high power microwaves. These have a number of applications in the industry, nuclear power sector and the strategic areas. BARC has been developing two such accelerators namely KALI 5000 and Linear Induction Accelerator (LIA). KALI 5000 is undergoing commissioning trials and subsystems of LIA are in the advanced stage of completion.

KALI 5000, undergoing commissioning trails at Trombay

Laser Systems for Industrial Applications BARC has developed a number of laser based devices. The recent ones include a laser based projectile speed-measuring instrument commissioned at the Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory (DMRL), Hyderabad, and Surface Profilometer for measuring roughness. For measurement of the equation of state of materials, various shock diagnostic systems are being set up at Trombay. CAT has also developed a number of laser systems having varied industrial applications. A 10 Gigawatt peak power Nd:glass laser is being used for laser driven shock studies in the mega bar range. When focused on targets, this laser can produce an intensity of more than 1013 Watts/sq cm. At Indore, a transverse flow continuous wave carbon dioxide (CWCO2) laser, capable of giving 20kW output power has been developed and made operational. This is the highest power industrial laser available in India so far. This laser is in use for the deep penetration welding of thick metal plates, laser surface hardening and laser cladding of engineering components. A 3.5kW industrial CWCO2 laser developed earlier at CAT, has been in use for industrial applications such as laser profile cutting of sheets to develop prototype magnets for accelerators, profile cutting of titanium sheets for sublimation pumps, welding of end plug of PFBR fuel clad tube, and others. A high repetition rate TEA laser and a 10kW CW CO2 laser developed 49

at CAT are used for paint stripping and concrete scabbling respectively. A Nd:YAG based fully computer controlled laser welding system, developed at the Centre, has been in use for many years, for welding of the heart pacemaker, by a private company. Several other systems such as laser marker, micro-drilling system, diamond cutting system incorporating Nd:YAG lasers, have also been developed. Recently, an optical fibre coupled Nd: YAG laser system has been developed for remote cutting & welding of nuclear components in radioactive environment. Many laser based instruments have also been developed. These include copper vapour laser for cutting and microdrilling in reflecting materials such as copper, laser fluorimeter to detect trace quantities of uranium in water samples; laser based non-contact dimension measuring instruments, and projectile speed moniPlate cutting by laser developed tor and free space laser voice communicator. Units of at CAT. DAE are collaborating with M/s Bharat Electronics Ltd. (BEL) to produce some of the equipment on a commercial scale. CAT has successfully done laser scabbling and drilling of concrete, which can have potential applications in decontamination and decommissioning of nuclear facilities.
Laser-based Speed Monitor Equipment developed at BARC

Two-way Communication Equipment using Laser Beam. This equipment, developed at BARC, generates telephone quality communication.

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BASIC RESEARCH
The research centres of DAE are engaged in basic research in the areas relevant to the programmes they are pursuing. In addition, the autonomous research institutes, supported by grant-in-aid by DAE, are the centres of excellence in basic research that ranges from mathematics to computers, physics to astronomy, and biology to cancers. Mathematics & Computation In the field of mathematics and computation science the frontline research work is being pursued at various units of DAE. Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) carries out academic programmes in algebra, algebraic geometry, Lie group, egodic theory, number theory, combinatories and topology at Mumbai and applications of mathematics at Bangalore; Harish Chandra Research Institute, Allahabad,UP, carries out research in advanced fields of math- Supercomputer Anupam ematics and theoretical physics including astrophysics, high-energy physics, condensed matter physics and mathematical physics, and the Institute of Mathematical Sciences, Chennai, Tamil Nadu is engaged in the research in theoretical physics, mathematics and computer science. Since 1991, BARC has been engaged in the development of supercomputers using parellel processing. The Centre has developed a very high speed Anupam-Xenon/128 supercomputer. The computing speed of this supercomputer is observed to be higher than 340 giga floating-point operations per second (giga flops) on high performance unpack benchmark programme and is about three times faster than the 64-node supercomputer developed in July 2002. So far, 37 Anupam supercomputers have been commissioned at leading research and development, and educational institutes in the country. In basic research in natural sciences such as physics & astrophysics, chemistry and biology, following are the major activities of DAE research organisations including its aided institutions of DAE : Physics The Institute of Physics, Bhubaneshwar, Orissa carries out research activities in condensed matter and physics relating to high energy, nuclear, atomic physics and accelerators and other related areas. Ion Beam Accelerator is a major experimental facilities at the Institute. The research setup here is used by the researchers from within and outside the Institute. At the Harish-Chandra Research Institute, the research in physics covers the work on understanding the ground state of open string theories, which possess tachyons. Supergravity solutions with a positive cosmological constant are the other major areas of studies. The National Facility for High-Field NMR at TIFR provides state-of-the-art services to researchers. Studies have resulted in several advances in the mapping of biomolecules.

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BARC monitors seismic activities from the medium aperture array at Garibinanur, Karnataka, Delhi Seismic stations and Trombay station. Seismic monitoring and data processing facilities located at Mumbai, Gauribidanur and Delhi continue to function satisfactorily. These facilities are being upgraded. In addition to routine seismic analysis, research is also carried out in surface wave studies, development of analysis software and other front line areas. Superconductivity is the area which holds a great promise for the future. A short sample test facility has been completed at BARC to characterize samples of super-conducting cables at liquid helium temperature with a maximum current carrying capacity of 1500 A. The required magnetic field in this set up is generated by the indigenously built Nb-Ti superconducting solenoid. IGCAR has been working towards the development of SQUID based systems for material technology including non-destructive testing. A Radiotelescope Array, set up in the Nilgiri Hills near Ootacamund, Tamil Nadu, has been in use for studies in radioastronomy for decades. It has been used in the studies of distant extragalactic radio-sources and interplanetary objects. Another international class astronomy-research facility GRACE is being set up by BARC at Mount Abu, Rajasthan. GRACE comprises four radiotelescopes namely the TACTIC, MACE, BEST and MYSTIQUE. The TACTIC array has been deployed to observe the active galaxies and the Crab Nebula. The performance of this telescope is being optimized. The design and development of the other telescope facilities are progressing. At Narayangaon, near Pune, Maharashtra, the Giant Metre Wave Radio-Telescope (GMRT) with 30 gigantic parabolic dishes, is busy probing the universe. Set up by TIFR, the telescope, is a frontline research facility in radioastronomy and is worlds most powerful radiotelescope in its range.

GRACE at Mount Abu, Rajasthan

Giant Metre Wave RadioTelescope at Narayangaon, near Pune, Maharashtra

Chemistry BARC offers specialised analytical chemistry services to various user organizations within DAE, and outside. The type of samples analysed cover a wide spectrum of materials such as metals and alloys, organic and organometallic compounds, inorganic compounds, rocks and minerals, nuclear and strategic materials, high purity materials, environmental and biological materials and others. To provide state-of-the-art analytical and chemistry related services to nuclear power plants, research reactors and heavy water plants and to carry out research in the frontier areas of chemistry, the existing facilities have been augmented. BARC has developed a process for diamond coating using indigenously designed equipment.

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BARCs Centre for Compositional Characterization of Materials (CCCM) at Hyderabad provides high quality analytical services to various departmental, governmental and private institutions. Many academic institutions such as universities and colleges are supported for their specific analysis requirementets. Biology At Trombay, the research in bio-sciences is directed towards evolving high yielding food crops, delaying or preventing post harvest losses by increasing shelf life, developing newer modalities STEP Zeeman Atomic Absorption Spectrometer for low dose cancer radiotherapy and employing at the Centre for Compositional Charactrimolecular and isotope techniques in basic biology zation of Materials, Hyderabad for disease diagnosis and finger printing of individuals and population. The National Centre for Biological Sciences of TIFR at Bangalore has been working on a number of new research initiatives in the frontline areas of modern biology. The scientists at the Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, Kolkatta are engaged in research elucidating the structure function correlation of biomolecules at the cellular and molecular level. They have been able to determine the 3D structure of different protease inhibitors. Spectroscopic studies on protein and peptide structure, conformation and folding of enzymes and cytoskeletal proteins have been done. Cancer Research The Tata Memorial Centre, Mumbai has set up the Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer (ACTREC) at Navi Mumbai. The Centre that comprises the basic and clinical research wings and an educational complex, will carry out mission oriented research and development on cancers prevalent in the Indian subcontinent. The research investigations at ACTREC are now focused on cutting edge technology Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in of genomics, proteomics, molecular Cancer (ACTREC), Navi Mumbai. genetics, bio informatics and gene therapy to find solutions to problems of common cancers relevant to India. The construction of the Clinical Research Centre at ACTREC has been completed. It will be fully equipped to carry out Phase-I / Phase-II clinical trials of new anti-cancer drugs developed nationally and internationally, including the emerging areas of cancer therapy.

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This centre will develop research programmes in partnership with the Tata Memorial Hospital, and will also conduct educational programmes and human resource development. Accelerators in Basic Research DAE has established capability in design, construction and operation of particle accelerators used in nuclear research, isotope production and radiation processing. The Variable Energy Cyclotron (VEC) at Kolkata, 14MV Pelletron Accelerator at Mumbai, Synchrotron Radiation Source (SRS) Indus-I at Indore, Folded Tandem Ion Accelerator (FOTIA) at Trombay, are the major accelerator facilities in the country. Indus-II at Indore and Superconducting Cyclotron and Radioactive Ion Beam accelerator facility at Kolkatta are under construction. Synchrotron and its Utilization The Centre for Advanced Technology (CAT) is constructing Synchrotron Radiation Sources (SRS) for basic and applied Folded Tandem Ion Accelera- research. Indus-1, comprising a 20 MeV microtron, a 450 MeV booster synchrotron and a 450 MeV storage ring, has been in tor (FOTIA) at Trombay regular operation. The construction of 2.5 GeV Indus-2 is in progress. Only a dozen countries have the capability in designing and construction of such complex accelerators.

In the mid-fifties, a CockroftWalton generator, for 1 MeV protons, was available at TIFR, Mumbai, to produce high energy neutrons and study their behaviour. A 5 MeV Van de Graaf generator was installed in Trombay in 1961 and became the main facility for studying nuclear reactions. The Variable Energy Cyclotron (VEC) at Kolkata, was one of the largest engineering projects undertaken by physicists in the country. More than ten major public and private sector industries were involved in equipment and machinery supplies for the project. The largest component manufactured in the country, was the giant H-shaped electromagnet, weighing in all 262 tonnes, about six meters long, over two meters wide, and nearly three meters high. The cyclotron delivers beams of high energy particles - protons of energies between 6-60 MeV, deuterons between 12-65 MeV and alpha particles between 25-130 MeV.

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Current was stored in Indus-1, for the first time, in April 1999. Since then, Indus-1 has been operating routinely. The two beamlines namely, the Reflectivity Beamlines developed by CAT and the Angle Integrated Photo Electron Spectroscopy Beamline developed by the Inter-University Consortium of UGC, are in use by the researchers from DAE units, academic institutions and national laboratories. Recently, BARC has also commissioned a beam-line for Angle Resolved Photoelectron Spectros- Synchrotron Radiation Source Indus-1 set up at copy. CAT, Indore The source designs for various beam-lines for Indus-2 have been evolved. Cyclotrons & Other Accelerators The Variable Energy Cyclotron (VEC), set up by BARC in 1977 in Kolkata, provides protons, deuterons and alpha particle beams for research in nuclear fields and production of radioisotopes. The cyclotron is running with Oxygen and Neon beam for the experiments. Sulphur and Nitrogen Beams have also been developed. The Cyclotron is utilized by 36 national laboratories and universities. The Electron Cyclotron Resonance (ECR) ion source at VEC is a unique facility for research with heavy ions. The heavy ion accelerator programme has succeeded in providing the heavy ion beams beyond 6 MeV/ nucleon. For the study of exotic nuclei, an indigenously designed and fabricated Isotope Separator-On-Line (ISOL) system has been set up. Currently, VECC is constructing a K500 Superconducting Cyclotron and a Radioactive Ion Beam (RIB) facility for accelerating radioactive ions. For providing light and heavy ion beams for use in basic and applied research in nuclear, atomic and material sciences BARC had commissioned a Folded Tandem Ion Accelerator (FOTIA) in April 2000 at Trombay. Recently, facilities for Rutherford back scattering have been established at the accelerator and a new facility of coincidence Doppler broadening have been added to it. The BARC-TIFR Pelletron Accelerator Facility at Mumbai,that has been operating for over a decade, has made an impact internationally, in the field of nuclear research. To further increase the beam energy of Pelletron, a superconducting linear accelerator (LINAC) has been set up. The LINAC has been completed and in its phase-I operation, ion beam of Silicon-13(+) of 85 MeV energy was accelerated to 130 MeV from the Pelletron accelerator. Fusion & Other Plasma Technologies The Institute for Plasma Research (IPR), Ahemdabad is operating Aditya Tokamak for the studies on high temperature magnetically confined plasmas. The studies conducted on this tokamak have yielded important information on the nature of particle transport. 55

To address physics and technology issues related to advanced tokamak configurations, the IPR is developing a Steadystate Superconducting Tokamak (SST-1). The components and equipment for this Tokamak are undergoing testing for integration. Material Sciences In the area of material science, efforts are directed towards the development of materials for pressure vessels, clad and control elements, multiphase alloys and structural intermetallics, refractory metals and alloys, preparation of radiation sources, ultra high purity metals, and other special applications.

Full scale prototype of Steadystate Superconducting Tokamak (SST-1) cryostat and vacuum vessel

The sketch showing relative positions of various components in SST-1 vessel

National Security On May 18, 1974, India conducted a peaceful underground nuclear experiment at Pokhran in Rajasthan desert. Here, after twenty four years, on May11 and 13, 1998, India successfully conducted five nuclear tests. These included a thermonuclear device, a fission device and three sub-kiloton nuclear devices. The Department is continuing implementation of necessary research and development as well as manufacturing activities to meet the national policy of credible minimum nuclear deterrence.

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OTHER ACTIVITIES
Technology Transfer & Collaborative Programme From the inception of the Nuclear Energy Programme in India, the Indian industry has been DAEs partner in progress. The vendor development programme of DAE has led to improving capability of Indian industry in the field of high technology. In turn, the close interaction between DAE and Indian industry, has resulted in the PHWR programme reaching a stage of maturity and attaining self-reliance in all the facets of the programme. The multidisciplinary research activities carried out in DAE research centres, have been generating, as a spin-off, several technologies that are transferred to industry, and provide technical services that have been benefiting industry. These technologies include various materials and alloys, equipment, tools and techniques, mutation induced seeds, tissue culture and food preservation technology, lasers and accelerator based systems for medical and industrial applications.

Instrumented Pipe Inspection Gauge(IPIG) developed at BARC

Electronics & Instrumentation To meet the hi-tech instrumentation needs of the nuclear technology, a strong R&D base was created in electronics and instrumentation, first at TIFR and later at BARC. The knowhow and the products developed at Trombay in the area of electronics had led to the setting of the Electronics Corporation of India Ltd. (ECIL) at Hyderabad in 1967. During 70s and 80s ECIL pioneered the television revolution in the country by bringing out indigenous black & white and colour television sets and also rural rebroadcast systems. ECIL, that pioneered the electronics and computer revolution in India, has now developed into a multi-product and multi-disciplinary organisation providing key technology inputs, system integration and system solutions in the areas of information technology, strategic electronics, communications, control and automation, instrumentation and components.

It was at TIFR that activities in the field of electronics were housed and built up in the initial stages. Early interest was mainly in the context of the instrumentation needed for experiments in nuclear physics and cosmic ray research. BARC initiated a precision component programme in 1960. Eventually, a wide range of components and equipment such as carbon resistors of superior quality, zener diodes, thermoelectric junctions, oscilloscopes and the like, which were not yet produced in the country, were made at Trombay. In 1967, about 300 young scientists and technicians moved from Trombay to Hyderabad to form the nucleus of the various production divisions of Electronics Corporation of India Limited (ECIL). In many areas in electronics, the Corporation developed impressive capabilities that India did not have either in the private sector or in other Government institutions. In the field of strategic electronics, ECIL is still the leader.

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Software expertise of ECIL has contributed to automation in the banking sector, control room and dial-100 automation for the police, message switching systems for defence and telecom sectors, management information systems for the ports, municipal corporations and market yards and others. The company has provided countrywide SPC telex networks, message switching networks and maintenance systems for telephone exchanges, and has contributed to the technology solutions, in the areas of command, control, communications, computers & information / intelligence systems. Nuclear and thermal power plants, steel plants and process industries are equipped with ECIL control systems developed through in-house R&D. The DAE research centres are engaged in the development of sophisticated electronic systems, instruments and components for nuclear power programme and various other applications. This synergistic interaction with the universities and the instiControl Room of Kaiga Atomic tutes, the research centres of DAE directly interact with them, Power Station set up by ECIL and the synergy created by this interaction is proving very fruitful both to DAE and these academic institutes. Under its collaborative programme with the academia, DAE research centres have signed a number of memoranda of understanding (MoU) with institutions, including educational institutes, universities, IITs and others. Recently, BARC has signed a MoU for the development of prototype mobile robot with IIT-Kanpur, and mathematical models, analysis and optimisation of magnetic circuit of magnetic jack machines and inductive proximity sensors, with IIT-Delhi. The antenna platform unit for Multi-mode Radar of light combat aircraft is under development jointly by BARC & ECIL, for Aeronautical Development Authority Doubly curved Antenna manu(ADA). factured by ECIL, for strategic Under the scheme, BARC has funded research at IITapplication Bombay for Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR), and IGCAR has funded IIT-Madras for some of the R&D jobs of PFBR. Research-Education Linkage DAE has always supported synergistic interaction amongst the national laboratories and the university systems through a number of mechanisms such as Inter-University Consortium, grant-in-aid to institutes of national eminence, funding of extra-mural research and others. Utilisation of DAEs research facilities DAE and the University Grants Commission (UGC) had signed a MoU in 1989 for setting up Inter-University Consortium of DAE Facilities (IUC-DAEF) at Indore. The Consortium functions under the control of UGC. Under the programme, DAE research facilities such as research reactors at Trombay, Cyclotron at Kolkata, Indus-1 at Indore, and facilities at other centres, are made available to researchers from universities, institutes and other places.

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Academic Programmes The research centres of DAE are recognized by the universities of their region, as the centres for research leading to postgraduate degrees. A number of scientists and engineers are recognized as post-graduate teachers by the respective universities. The employees are encouraged to register and obtain research degrees based on the work done in these research centres. In addition, BARC and CAT have arrangements with some universities under which DAE scientists along with the university faculty, select research scholars for pursuing research leading to Ph.D. in basic sciences. Grant-in-Aid DAE has been extending grant-in-aid to seven institutes of national eminence engaged in basic and applied research ranging from natural sciences, mathematics and astronomy to fusion research. During the financial year 2002-2003, the grant-in-aid of over Rs. 310 crore was provided by DAE to these institutions. There has been a growing synergy between these research institutions and the research and development centres of the Department. Several joint projects were undertaken between the DAE units and the aided Institutions. DAE funds cancer hospitals in the country which support primarily small projects and radiation related equipment for cancer treatment. The financial support provided in this regard during 2002-03, was to the tune of Rs. 4.24 crore. The Department has signed a Tripartite Agreement with the North-Eastern Council and the Government of Assam, for revitalization of the Dr. B. Barooah Cancer Institute (BBCI), Guwahati. This hospital is a regional centre for cancer treatment and control in the NorthEastern Region. Funding of Extra-Mural Research DAE encourages and promotes scientific research in universities, institutes and laboratories in the areas of relevance to the Department. This is done through the Board of Research and Nuclear Sciences (BRNS) and the National Board of Higher Mathematics (NBHM) both at Mumbai, . BRNS supports high quality R&D projects and lays emphasis on collaborative programmes amongst DAE orgnisations and the organizations outside the Department. Financial assistanace is also provided to organize symposia/conference/workshops on topics of relevance to DAE programmes. To initiate young persons in a research career, BRNS awards projects under the DAE-Young Scientists Research Award Scheme. The Board also awards Dr. K S Krishnan Research Associateship to talented young scientists and engineers. Recently, DAE-BRNS Senior Scientists Scheme has been instituted to utilize the expertise of retired scientists/engineers who were involved, during their service career, in high quality research in DAE units, national labo59

Structural Integrity Testing and Analysis Centre(SITAC) Building 76 x 2 ton actuators

ratories, universities, or institute. BRNS has also launched DAE Graduate Fellowship Scheme. Under the scheme, the Department selects upto 50 students from those already selected by IITs for admission to M.Tech programmes. After completion of their M.Tech., the students undergo orientation programmes for four months at Trombay and are subsequently absorbed into DAE units as Scientific Officer-C. During the year 2002-03, BRNS approved 69 new projects and renewed 183 on-going projects. It provided financial support to about 100 conference/symposia. DAE has entered into collaborative programmes and has set up major centres in the academic institutions. These include collaboration with agricultural universities for propagation of mutant varieties developed by BARC, funding the development of shielding window glass by the Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute (CGCRI), Kolkata, and of industrial tubes by the Central Electronic Engineering Research Institute (CEERI) Pilani; setting up of a LINAC at the University of Pune for fast kinetics research, and the Centre for Software Design and Verification at IIT-Bombay. Recently, DAE has approved setting up of Advanced Seismic Test Facility at the Structural Engineering Research Centre, Chennai, and the Application of Radiation and Radiotracer Techniques in Agricultural Research and Multi-location Testing of BARC Crop Varieties at Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalay, Jabalpur. A gamma scintillation camera has been installed at the Bombay Veterinary College, Mumbai. This centre will provide diagnostic facility for various animal diseases. DAE, through the National Board for Higher Mathematics (NBHM) is engaged in promoting excellence in higher mathematics, education and research in the country. The Board implements programmes which include development of mathematical centres, scholarships to research fellows at doctoral and postdoctoral levels, travel assistance to young mathematicians for attending conferences/seminars etc., support to mathematics libraries, assistance to conferences, monitoring mathematics olympiads, and others. In collaboration with the International Mathematical Union, NBHM has also initiated schemes for making mathematical literature accessible through electronic-communication. Science & Mathematics Olympiads The National Board for Higher Mathematics selects and prepares Indian students for participation in the International Mathematics Olympiad. During July 7-19, 2003, the Indian team of six students participated in the International Mathematics Olympiad at Tokyo, Japan. Five of the six students won 4 silver and 1 bronze medals. International Research Collaboration DAE is sharing its experience with other nations, in the areas of nuclear agriculture, nuclear medicine, radioisotope technology and specialised services. The Department offers training facilities, fellowships, scientific visits, etc. to foreign scientists, and provides the services of its scientists for expert assignments to other countries both through IAEA and to the countries with which India has bilateral agreements for cooperation in the field of peaceful uses of atomic energy. DAE is pursuing collaborative research programmes under Indo-German, Indo-French and Indo-Russian bilateral agreements and other schemes. 60

The research centres of DAE have been participating in a number of International Research Collaborations. The Department had signed an agreement with the European Organisation for Nuclear Research, CERN to contribute initially in kind USD 25 million to the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). LHC is worlds largest particle accelerator under construction. The units of DAE collaborating with CERN are making in-kind contribution by providing sophisticated equipment, developing software and providing experts. The items to be supplied by DAE to LHC include superconducting corrector magnets, quench protection systems, precision mangnets positioning jacks, and others. CAT has developed superconducting corrector magnets, transferred technology for the manufacture to industry, and supplied magnets to CERN. The other units of DAE, such as the TIFR, SINP and IoP are partners in the several experiments planned at CERN. For installation at the Brookehaven National Labo- Breaker Electronic Panel supplied by the ratory (BNL), USA for its STAR experiment, VECC, Electronics Corporation of India Ltd. alongwith four other research groups from the Insti- (ECIL) to CERN tute of Physics, Bhubaneshwar and universities at Chandigarh, Jaipur and Jammu, is concentrating on the development of PhotonMultiplicity Detectors (PMDs). The Centre had earlier developed a PMD for the ALICE experiment of BNL. For the COSY accelerator in Germany, BARC has fabricated a state-of-the-art scintillation detector system ENSTAR.

MANAS chips on cathode pad chambers fabricated at SINP under CERN-INDIA collaboration

One of the superconducting sextuple corrector magnets (MCS magnet assembly) supplied earlier by CAT to CERN

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Human Resource Development To nurture human resource, the Department runs a well structured training programme for its scientists/engineers; programme under the inter-university consortium, for utilisation of DAE research facilities; Enrichment of higher science education through interaction of its experts with university system, and training facilities/fellowships extended to countries through IAEA or under the bilateral agreements.

In 1957, when the programme objectives were getting clearer, the need for a regular input of manpower was foreseen, it was decided to recruit on a regular basis a certain number of science and engineering graduates, expose them to a one year training course (in areas related to nuclear science and technology), before they were assigned to work in the various R&D programmes. For this purpose a Training School was started in 1957.

As a part of human resources development, a number of training courses, seminars, symposia and workshops are regularly conducted by the DAE units. The Training School at Trombay and its affiliates at CAT, Indore, NFC, Hyderabad and NPCIL, conduct specialised training in multidisciplinary nuclear and allied technologies. As a part of continuing collaboration between India and Vietnam in the field of nuclear sciences, BARC set up Vietnam-India Nuclear Science Centre (VINSC), at Dalat, Vietnam, and supplied several equipment and instruments to the Centre. To generate manpower for various information technology based projects and programmes, ECIL, a public sector undertaking of DAE, imparts training to students and corporate bodies in various areas relating to information technology, including various IT enabled services. This training is imparted through ECILs training centres and its franchisees. International Relations India has been a designated member of the Board of Governors of the International Atomic Energy Agency ( IAEA) since its inception. In September, 1994 the country was elected as the Chairman of the Board of Governors of IAEA for one year. India offers training facilities, fellowships, scientific visits, etc. to various countries. It also makes available the services of its scientists as experts, to various countries under the IAEA technical co-operation schemes, and the countries with which we have bilateral agreements. BARC takes an active part in the Regional Co-operative Agreement (RCA)/IAEA programmes. The Indian scientists/engineers regularly participate in international symposia, workshops, conferences and meetings held under the auspices of various international/multinational organisations and the IAEA. The three units of DAE viz. the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd. (NPCIL), Nuclear Fuel Complex (NFC) and the Atomic Mineral Directorate for Research and Exploration (AMD) are the members of the World Nuclear Association (WNA), a global non-governmental trade organisation concerned with nuclear power generation and all other aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle.

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DAE is an active member of the World Association of Nuclear Operators (WANO) and participates in peer reviews in a number of countries including USA, Japan and South Korea. IGCAR has also played an active role in the International Working Group on Fast Reactors. The World Association of Nuclear Operators (WANO) has so far completed peer review of four atomic power plants at Kakrapar, Narora, Kaiga and Rawatbhata. These peer reviews enable the Indian plants to compare their performance with the world wide best industry practices. A large number of NPCIL engineers have participated in the WANO peer review carried out at various plants in the world. Last year, on a request from IAEA, India participated in the Agencys programme for search of orphaned radiation sources in Georgia. The Indian experts team joined IAEA to Georgia, to ascertain situation regarding the radiological emergency. India also supplied medicines costing about Rs. 1,00,000/-, and supplied GM Survey Meters and Aerial Gamma Spectrometry equipment to IAEA costing approximately Rs.3,00,000/-.

CONCLUSION
The PHWR technology developed indigenously, is a commercial success, and the nuclear technology has reached the state of self-reliance. The nuclear power plants are working well and have achieved high capacity factors comparable with the international nuclear power generating utilities. The PHWR design has been scaled up. The successful research and development of fast breeder technology has given the confidence to DAE to embark on an ambitious programme based on fast breeders. Towards thorium utilization, the technology development endeavour has motivated the Department to take the challenge of design and development of Advanced Heavy Water Reactor. The technologies developed at DAE organisations promise better quality of life to the people of India. Applications of radiation technology to health-care are reaching lakhs of people alleviating their miseries, even in remote areas of the country. Nuclear agriculture is contributing to increasing the agricultural output and preservation of food. It has strengthened post-harvest technology and food processing, benefiting both the farmers and the agro-product exporters. Radioisotopes and tracer techniques have added to the productivity of industry and commerce in many ways. Because of DAEs wide-ranging capabilities in nuclear technology, India is now a nuclear weapon state.

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