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MOODS, MODALITY AND MODAL VERBS Main issues: A. Definitions and distinctions B. Concepts of modality C. Ways of expressing modality D. Types of modality E. Modal verbs. Learning objectives When you have studied this chapter, you will be able to: Define the concept of modality and distinguish between modality and mood (both from a theoretical and a practical point of view) Distinguish, classify and exemplify concepts and types of modality Understand and correctly describe the modal shades of meaning and correctly use the modalled idioms, modal idioms, modal verbs and modal phrases in various contexts. A. Definitions and distinctions The three basic and comprehensive concepts of moods, modality and modal verbs underlie the three perspectives in what follows. Mood is that formal category which is expressed by verb inflections and which indicates the various ways in which the action or the state is thought of by the speaker (Curme 1947). Mood is a syntactic abstraction whose content represents the speakers evaluation of the event expressed by the sentence verb, in terms of its being either something real/factual or desirable conditioned, probable, possible, necessary, etc., all in all distinguishing between the opposition [+] real. Thus, a speaker may evaluate a state/event: a) as a fact (involving a factual meaning):
Septimus is in love. or It is laughable that Septimus is in love. (Yes, this is a fact: he is in love)
b) as a supposition (involving a theoretical or non-factual meaning): i) real supposition (plan for the future):
It is proposed that the Assembly elect a new Committee. (mandative subjunctive) ii)
It is laughable that Septimus should be in love. (whether he is in love or not is a different matter) [analytical subjunctive]
The hypothetical or counterfactual meaning may also be expressed with the help of the subjunctive:
iii) What if wed lost our way (but in fact we didnt) iv) I wish I hadnt swallowed that last glass of whiskey. ( but in fact I did) (examples extracted from Leech 2004: 125)
Closely related to the category of mood, modality is frequently defined as (1) the speakers relation to reality, or as (2) the speakers evaluation of state-of-affairs or as (3) the speakers cognitive, emotive, or volitional qualification of a state-of-affairs. Modality may refer to the speaker, to the event or to the proposition. (Propositions are interpreted here semantically, as sentences expressing a truth, which is obvious both the speaker and to the hearer). B. Concepts of Modality The introduction of the syntagm scale of certainty opens perspectives to a better understanding and description of types of modality. The scale of certainty involves the speakers report of the likelihood of the predication being valid. Any such report is based o the speakers personal assessment of the facts judgments which are represented as objective and those which are explicitly presented as subjective or personal. In an impersonal tone, in their declarative sentences, speakers may express: (i) certainty:
He is certain to be there. It is inevitable that there will be a violent outcome.
(ii) probability:
It is likely that the footballer will be able t o play. He ought to be able to play.
(iii) possibility:
It is possible that the train will be delayed. I am not certain to be there.
(ii) conjecture (with verbs as think, presume, suppose, infer, daresay, expect, judge, conclude, trust, be of the opinion, assume, hold, suspect, subscribe to the view that, anticipate, foresee, predict, prophesy, consider, reckon, surmise, guess, imagine, conjecture):
I think they will be here in time. I expect Ill meet you today.
(iv) disbelief (with verbs as doubt, wonder, be +skeptical, doubtful, dubious + negative):
I dont believe in your managerial skills. I am fully convinced he is not telling the truth.
Semantically, modal concepts may be grouped into intellective, emotional and volitional. Intellective modal concepts consider attitudes connected to reason or to the speakers/listeners power of judgment, such as: belief, conviction, scepticism, doubt, possibility, prediction, logical necessity. Emotional concepts are connected to verbs of (positive or negative) attitude and include: admiration, love, desire, hatred, regret, wish, hate, appreciation, and anger or even (dis)approval. Volitional concepts of modality refer to the speakers act of making a choice or a decision and they may be illustrated by firmness, order, necessity, request, application, obligation, prohibitions, refusal, threat, determination, and willingness. C. Ways of expressing modality The multitude of modal concepts brings about a wide range of means which express these concepts. By and large, modality may be expressed by modal verbs on the one hand and by other means, which belong to morphology, syntax and rhetorics, on the other hand. 1. Grammatical means used to express modal concepts: Grammar provides instruments coming either from phonology and morphology or from syntax. Lexical means Proper names involving a certain humour, or concealing euphemistic values, which are known to native speakers. This is the case with:
The Old Gentleman/old Gooseberry (Scaraochi), Mrs Grundy (gura lumii), and Joe Black (Doamna cu coasa) John Barleycorn (personification of alcoholic liquor) in: I have just run into the John Barleycorn of our family.
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Proverbs. Croitoru (2002: 86125) refers to modalled idioms and proverbs and presents a comprehensive collection of such items, out of which very few will be presented in what follows: a) modalled idioms (i.e., idioms with a modal value)
Can a duck swim? (vrei calule ovz ?) It will happen in a month of Sundays (la Sfntu-ateapt)
b) proverbs
A bad thing never dies. (buruiana rea nu piere) A bad padlock invites a picklock. (paza buna)
Morphological means adverbs with a modal value: probably, possibly, surely, hopefully, thankfully, obviously, really, certainly, merely.
You were obviously delighted with your new car.
adjectives with a modal value: possible, probable, likely which are used a) in impersonal constructions:
Its possible he may have come
or
the most probable outcome of this trial...
lexical verbs the verbs in this group express such notions as: asserting (believe, consider, think, reckon)
I believe he will be successful in his career.
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exercising authority (allow, command, guarantee, forbid, nominate, wish, declare, proclaim, warn)
The doctor did not allow any civilian to enter the hospital.
lexico-modal auxiliaries or modal phrases (Croitoru 2002: 80-1) - patterns consisting of the structure be / have + adjective + infinitive: be apt/able to, be capable to, be bound to, be sure/certain to, be possible/probable/likely to, be liable to
The protesters are sure to be arrested. Niky is likely to win the contest.
modal idioms: would rather, had better, would sooner, would (just) as soon, had best (Zdrenghea, 168)
I would sooner you assumed responsibilities. Im sure they would just as soon stay at home We had best forget what happened. (Quirk et al. 1985:226)
modal periphrases: have got to (gotta), be going to (gonna), be willing to, be inclined to, be about to, be to, be capable of, be supposed/expected to, be allowed/permitted to, be in a position (determined by the circumstances) to:
She was about to leave the room when the phone rang.
modal/pure/syntactic auxiliaries: can, could, may, might, must, have to, shall, should, will, would, ought to.
Dogs can distinguish many odors.
pseudo / semi / quasi modals: need, dare, be to, used to, have to:
She neednt pay for that bill, I have already done it. Dare he steal his brothers money?
Emphatic means:
Such a beautiful girl! She treated them so carefully! You do look nice today!
D. Types of Modality F.R. Palmers (1979: 21-24) distinguishes three types of modality: epistemic, deontic and dynamic modality, which is further subdivided into neutral dynamic modality and subject-oriented modality. On the other hand, L. Horn (1972) suggests a division of the modal expressions into scalar classes, which can be defined by entailment and quantitative conversational implicature. He proposes three such scales: logical, deontic and epistemic. The logical scale relates necessity truth possibility. Thus, possible is entailed by necessary and it implicates the negation of necessary, but only if it
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Epistemic modality is exemplified by may for possibility and must for necessity. Should, would, can and could are also required in several instances. The epistemic modals are normally subjective, i.e. the epistemic judgment rests with the speaker. Epistemic modality is the modality of the propositions, as in the examples below:
It is possible for my daughter to be at the library now. My daughter may be at the library now. (strong possibility) My daughter told me her todays plan; she will be at the library now. (assumptive)
Modal certainty, involving prediction or logical necessity is expressed with will, must, be bound to:
The broadcast will be over by now. (prediction, I know it from experience) The broadcast must be over by now. (logical necessity: the lights are off)
Prediction is more often expressed with would (in narratives) or with be apt to (in case of repeated states or happenings). The stage director noticed that Brad Pit was apt to play complex characters. Logical necessity is based on a process of deduction
Your mobile phone must be in your bag (subjective: I know you keep it there) Your mobile phone has to be in your bag (more objective: ladies keep it there)
Epistemic possibility (i.e., the possibility of something to be true) in negative clauses is expressed with can:
Take a very good look at them, they cant be real pearls.
Within epistemic modality speakers evaluate an interpretation of reality, and in so doing they refer to (their own) knowledge. 2. Deontic Modality This term also comes from Greek and consists of two parts: deon- + -ontos meaning that which is binding. The term was also borrowed from the 19th century philosophy
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Deontic modality is illustrated by may for permission and must for obligation. Some verbs are essentially performative (in the sense suggested by Austin) or discourse oriented or relative to the speaker i.e. relative to the speaker in assertions and to the hearer in questions. By this criterion, shall (expressing an offer) could also be included among the deontic modals.
You may share your room with your cousin. (permission) You must share your room with your cousin. (obligation) Shall I use my e-mail address for the conference correspondence? (offer)
On Horns deontic scale, modalities range from strong obligation (request) weak obligation (suggestion) permission. 3. Dynamic Modality This type of modality was also called neutral/able/ability modality. Horn (1972) put forward a division of the modal expressions into scalar classes and produced a hierarchy of what he called the semantic values of the relevant subset. His modal scale consists of three columns: one is intended for epistemic/logical modality, a second for the deontic modality and a third which has no label and which refers to the modals CAN and COULD describing their meaning of ability. Hornby (1963:228) describes ability as resulting from physical power or capacity, or from knowledge or skill.
This box is very heavy, can you lift it? Grannie is over seventy but she can still read without glasses. Can you only understand Swedish or can you speak it as well?
Hornby further distinguishes ability resulting from circumstances which may be paraphrased be in a position to
Can you come to the meeting tomorrow? (Are you free to do so/Are you in a position to do so?) Can you lend me five pounds? (Are you in a position to do so?)
This type of modality, ignored by some grammarians, circumscribes two subdistinctions of modality: the neutral dynamic modality and the subject-oriented modality. 3.1 Neutral Dynamic Modality This type of modality is detectable when can is used to express possible for and must is used to indicate necessary for.
The tutor can give you the right answer. (meaning: it is possible for him to give you the
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3.2 Subject-oriented Dynamic Modality This is the second subtype dynamic modality and it is illustrated by the verb can when it expresses ability and will when it suggests willingness. Dynamic modality refers to the modality of events that are not conditioned deontically.
A skillful professional like him can fix your boat in less that a week. If only the headmaster will give us an interview!
Dynamic or ability modalities have to do with physical capacity, skill or knowledge as well as with circumstances which enable subjects to carry out a particular task. The speakers role is attitudinally neutral since (s)he neither evaluates, comments or interprets nor intervenes in the proposition. (S)he only asserts or inquires about the subjects capacity of performing a task.
This carpenter can make a chair and a stool a day. My private secretary can type 40 words a minute.
Thus, when the modals are not epistemic, they may be either subject or object oriented. While can and will are subject-oriented and refer to the ability or willingness of the sentence subject may, shall and must are discourse-oriented and they relate to the speakers action when giving permission, making a promise or laying an obligation. The syntagm discourse-oriented is meaningfully larger and it may accept not only the speakers but the hearers intervention, as well. In a question as May I come in? which illustrates an instance of asking for permission, permission relates to the hearer and not to the speaker. Nevertheless, it is impossible to exemplify one modal to perfectly fit into one or the other of the three kinds. Croitoru (2002: 49-50) draws a parallel between deontic and epistemic specific features, as follows: Deontic values
1. The perfective and the progressive aspects are excluded with deontic values of modals i. ii. iii. iv. He may go out now; he has got it over. (permission) He can ride a hose. (ability) He can be speaking German fluently. (ability) [ungrammatical] They must have gone now. (obligation) i.
Epistemic values
1. Perfective and progressive meanings are assigned to epistemic values of modals He cant have said such non-sense. (impossibility) ii. They may have been in the kitchen then, and nobody answered. (possibility) iii. He must have done that with great responsibility. (certainty) iv. They may/can be having luck now. (possibility) 2. They do impose no subject restriction i.
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2. The sentence subject must be animate i. They must work hard in order to make progress.
The apple must have fallen from the tree. (inanimate subject - certainty)
3. The forms might, could, would are forms of the subjunctive (expressing unreal situations) not past tense equivalents (referring to a situation which happened in the past). i. ii. I wish he might be here now. We wish we could do that as soon as possible.
i. ii.
They asked if they might drop in at his place that afternoon. He would have that at his fingers end if he read more.
Modality is a highly complex concept and a mater of degree. In ordinary language epistemic modalities can range from very slight possibility to absolute certainty, while deontic modalities may mean anything from permission to compulsion, as a result of a weaker or a stronger from volition or constraint. Every modal concept, whether it is possibility, probability, certainty or obligation, may exhibit various intensities, very finely differentiated. F. Modal Verbs This class of verbs which facilitate the speakers intervention in the character of a proposition making it express a factual, non-factual (theoretical) or counterfactual (hypothetical) meaning is peculiar to the English language and it is known as that of modal verbs. Based on the morpho-syntactic features they share, English modal verbs divide into central and marginal modals. F.R. Palmer (1979:24) asserts that both modals and main verbs are primarily verbs and they both can in theory share the same grammatical features. L.G. Alexander (1988:208-9) compares them with the auxiliaries be, have and do to underline the resemblance between the two groups. Pure modals stand for a special group of verbs, which partially share the characteristics of the primary auxiliaries. Marginal modals, on the other hand, are context-dependent and, by way of consequence, they may show features of either principal or modal verbs. 1. Morphologic Features of Modal Verbs The modals have always been dealt with in separate chapters, due to some peculiarities that make them different from the rest of the verbs. These particular traits are the object of the following section, for ignoring them would mean to create a gap in the description of the English verb. they are never preceded by the to-infinitive particle. N.B. When preceded by the to-infinitive particle, they become transitive verbs and they implicitly belong with the main/lexical verbs list:
a) the verb can suggests ability b) the verb to can may mean one of the followings 1. a. to put in a can: preserve by sealing in airtight cans or jars b : to hit (a golf shot) into the cup c : to hit (a shot) in basketball 2: to discharge from employment 3 slang : to put a stop or
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like auxiliary verbs, they form the negative with the enclitic negation not next to the verb
You may not smoke here.
modals will never take the (e)s ending for the third person in the singular of the present indicative:
He must pay attention to all the details
as opposed to
He goes to the theatre twice a month.
modals are also defective since they do not have forms either for the past tense, or for gerund and for past participle.
You must arrive in time for todays job interview.
as opposed to
You had to arrive in time for the meeting yesterday.
2. Syntactic Features of Modal Verbs To describe the syntactic features of pure modals the relationships, which may be established between modality and temporality/aspectuality and between modality and agentiality should be considered. 2.1. Modality and Tempo-aspectuality As already specified, pure modals will always be followed by an infinitive. As a form of the verb, even if non-finite, the infinitive can be described with the help of the grammatical categories of any verb, i.e. tense, aspect and voice.
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When a modal verb is followed by a perfect infinitive the relationship established between the speech moment and the event moment will be one of anteriority, meaning that the attitude the speaker conveys regards an event which took place somewhere in a past moment/interval.
They may have had an accident since they havent come back yet. He must have left something at home and hes back to take it. She cant have cooked such a delicious cake.
When the situation type described by the verb takes place for a longer time interval and the speaker feels like emphasizing the semantic feature of durativity, the modal will be followed by an infinitive in its aspectual form:
He can be working for hours and hours without any break. You may be living with us over this whole summer if you want to.
An aspectual form of the infinitive should also be used in case the speaker wants to emphasize the full progress of the action/process expressed by the lexical verb in the compound verbal predicate:
They must be playing chess now and they certainly cant hear the bell ringing. She may be watching television while I am cooking, it doesnt bother me.
A final distribution of the modal verb with the infinitive shows the modal is in the present tense and the infinitive is the form infinitive perfect continuous:
They must have been watching TV for hours as they look exhausted. They shouldnt have been debating on that issue for such a long time.
2.2. Modality and the Passive Voice The infinitive following the modal may function both in its active and in its passive forms and such patterns point out to the interaction, which may exist between modality and voice. These constructions will always imply that the agent performing the action expressed by the lexical verb has no relevance to the speaker; what matters is the
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There are instances where the English passive voice is translated into Romanian with the active voice:
He may/must be caught in the rain. (Poate/probabil ca l-a prins ploaia)
As a rule, epistemic modality combines freely with voice, but deontic and ability modalities are either inherently active or inherently passive:
He is willing to help. (willingness deontic value: inherently active ) He can/is able to help me. (ability: inherently active ) They wouldnt be helped. (willingness deontic value: inherently passive) They werent willing to be helped. (willingness deontic value: inherently passive)
All these distributions underline features to be assigned to the lexical verb following the modal. When special reference is made to the speakers attitude towards a certain situation, modal verbs are replaced by substitutes which convey the same meanings and which provide patterns for all tenses or aspects. F. Uses and Meanings of Pure Modal Verbs CAN This modal has a high frequency of occurrence for speakers may use it in relation to present, past or future situations. When the time of the situation expressed by the lexical verb is present, the modal can may involve the following concepts: ability: i) physical ability:
He can cut trees and he can turn them into furniture.
iii) with generic reference to any situation which may happen in the future, in:
Any lady can be a member of our womans club.
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permission i) asking for permission - in: Can I pick your daughter up for the prom? ii) giving permission - in: Yes, you can. iii) permission already granted - in: Writers who have published three volumes can
join our literary club.
offers
I can plant the flowers for you if you feel bad.
When the time of the situation expressed by the lexical verb is present or future can may involve the following concepts: requests or orders
Can you mow the lawn for me, please? Do you think you can fix my watch until Friday morning?
suggestions
You can try this dress in a larger size, the colour really fits you.
When the time of the situation expressed by the lexical verb is past, can may involve the following concepts: to make guesses about past situations, in interrogations and negations:
Can Amanda have stolen my bracelet? She is anything but foolish, thats why I think she cant have stolen it.
COULD Some grammarians agree that could is the past tense form of the modal can, but this form conceals other meanings as well. When it refers to past situations, could may be followed by the present infinitive: ability - with reference to a past situation:
Sharon could skate very well when she was a little girl. He could come sooner whenever he himself drove his car.
permission
On week-ends we could watch TV till late at night.
Could is also used with reference to present or to future situations to underlie the
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offers or suggestions
I could do it for you, if you accepted my offer. We could look at the house designs after supper.
politeness
Im afraid that talking to her could be of no consequence to you, sir. Could I see you again, tomorrow?
When it refers to past situations, could may be followed by the perfect infinitive: the speaker did not take advantage of a past possibility:
I could have bought that blue car. (but I did not) You could have gone jogging yesterday.
reproach
You could have prevented me about their plans!
To be able/apt to, to be capable to/of successfully replace can or could within past or future tense frameworks:
They will be able to provide for their family only after they have got a job. Mary was capable of working for hours on end. Lately she has been able to perform impressively, now that she has been trained by a professional.
MAY When the time of the situation expressed by the lexical verb is present, may will involve the following concepts: permission i) asking for permission in formal English, in: May I have some more coffee, please? ii) granting permission, in: Yes, please, help yourself. iii) permission not granted, but may not is less emphatic than must not
You may not take your shoes off in my house.
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compare:
She may not be baking = it is possible that she is not baking
and
She cant be baking = it is not possible that she is baking
May is among the modals used with reference to future situations in order to express: possibility likely to happen in the future
It may snow before Christmas. (weather feature in our part of the world) We may be visiting the Bulgarian Black Sea coast this summer.
May is also followed by the perfect infinitive to refer to: possibility for something to have happened in the past:
I may have left my umbrella at home, I cant have lost it.
MIGHT This modal is similar to could, in that it may suggest both reference to a past tense context and to unreal situations (aspirations, unfulfilled desires, regrets, etc.). Might is followed by present infinitive and it refers to past situations to express: permission i) asking for permission, in: Do you think I might put in a good word for Paul? ii) permission granted, in: You might wait for the manager in his office. possibility (in formal English, or rather in literature)
The family worked hard so that they might pay for the boys education.
Might + present infinitive may refer to present or future situations to express: possibility (weaker certainty on the part of the speaker)
She might be working in her room (but I am not so sure of that) I might take you with me if you were willing to escort me to the museum.
suggestions or requests
You might buy some bread on your way back home. You might put the album on the mantelpiece for me, please. I like to have it there.
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** When permission or possibility are set against a future background, may or might are replaced by to be allowed/permitted to.
Our children will be allowed to have breakfast in the gazebo only after 10 May. They will be permitted on board the vessel after they have produced their vouchers.
MUST Unlike the rest of modals, must is used only with reference to present or future situations to express: obligation (inner obligation, the speakers own feeling)
I must take my mother a bunch of flowers on her birthday.
deduction:
The light is on in the garage; he must be fixing his car.
Must is followed by the perfect infinitive to express: deductions about the past
They must have met before, they seemed to be old friends.
N.B. When obligation refers to the past or future, must is replaced by have to:
She accepted she had to take all the medicine to feel better. I shall have to consider all options before making a choice.
N.B. In reported speech, the use of must depends upon the context, as follows: i) it remains unchanged when the direct speech subject is in the first person singular:
direct speech: I must do my room before I go out. reported speech: He said he must do his room before he went out.
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SHALL The verb shall behaves both as an auxiliary and a modal. It is used with modal values to express: an offer (in interrogative sentences should have a first person subject):
Shall I make you a coffee? Shall we help you with your luggage?
determination on the part of the speaker (in affirmative sentences should have a second or third person subject):
You shall spend the evening all by yourself!
SHOULD This verb is used in combination with a second or third person subject to suggest: advice:
You should work harder if you want to get a scholarship.
reproach:
She should have worked much harder to get the scholarship. They shouldnt spend so much money on drinks. They shouldnt have been so rude to our friends.
Should in subordinate clauses tentative should to show uncertainty, in subordinate clauses introduced by as if/in case
Margaret invited Mr. March in case he should change his mind.
when trying to get things done, using: i) verbs like demand, command, order or suggest.
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As these final examples show it, the modal value of will is active both with animate and inanimate subjects. persistence/insistence on the part of the sentence subject (with conditional clauses):
If she will go hiking all by herself, its her choice. If you will argue with everybody around, you will end up all alone!
WOULD The modal meanings assigned to would express: a highly polite request (in conditional clauses):
If you would sign in here, you would get your order before the weekend.
it forms the interrogative and the negative according to the central modals:
She oughtnt to smoke after such a disease. Ought you to study so hard?
N.B. ought to also forms the interrogative and the negative with the help of the do auxiliary, but these patterns are considered dialectal usage:
What did we ought to have done with that old car? They didnt ought to do that sort of thing.
Modal meanings: tentative inference (on the basis of his /her previous knowledge, the speaker tentatively concludes that the proposition (s/he utters is true):
The Omu peak ought to be visible from here. (din cte tiu eu, Omu ar trebui s se vad de aici)
obligation (implying the speakers authority; nevertheless the speaker is not convinced that his/her recommendations will be turned into reality) :
She ought to strictly follow the doctors recommendations.
N.B. When followed by perfect infinitive, the implicature is that the recommendation has not been turned into reality:
She ought to have followed the doctors recommendations (but she didnt).
USED TO This modal verb expresses frequency in the past, with reference to a state, a habit, a process, an event or an activity that existed in the past and which NO longer happens. This particular meaning frequency in the past may be conveyed by the modal would but used to is more frequently employed since it is distributed both with processes or events and with states. Would insists on iterativity in the past or on the fact that a certain thing happened just occasionally. Would suggests the idea of volition or willingness regarding the development of the dynamic verbs and it never appears with state verbs:
She used to/would be talking about her boyfriend for hours. They used to would attend the meetings regularly. She used to be very happy / talkative / judgemental.
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While the full verb forms the interrogative and the negative with the do operator, the modal used to expresses the two forms both with the do auxiliary in its past form and according to the modal verbs pattern:
She used not to smoke when she was a student. (BrE) She didnt use to smoke when she was a student. (BrE) She didnt used to smoke when she was a student. (AmE)
Used to may lead to difficulty in understanding it because of its resemblance with the main verb to use, which is always transitively used:
They use tiles for their house roof. We do not use a laser printer with our computer.
In addition, use appears as a noun in various contexts, out of which we mention a selection of examples selected from the Websters Dictionary (1996:2097)
- he made good use of his spare time, - a dish in daily use, - mother gave my husband the use of her car, - his mistress had the use of the estate for life, - to put learning to practical use, - some people have no use (liking) for modern art
N.B. To express a habit with reference to a present interval the structures: to be in the habit of, to be accustomed to/with, to get used to
Lately they have been used to fishing in the Danube twice a week. Harry admitted he had been accustomed to feeding his canary when he had one.
TO NEED AND TO DARE The verbs need and dare represent a singular phenomenon since they display the characteristics of full verbs and of modal verbs. As main verbs both need and dare share these common features: they take a direct object:
You need a special diet to lose weight and look younger and healthier again. They have dared him to drink vodka and that is why he feels sick.
they have al the temporal and aspectual forms the other main verbs have:
The baby will need the fresh milk tomorrow. (future) They will dare him to play golf when they meet him in Braov next month. (future) I should dare her with a witty saying if she were more open-minded. (conditional) Mother has been needing you to help her with the chores, so I am here to take you home.
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NEED Need is used in a negative context in order to express: lack of necessity or obligation (when followed by a present infinitive):
I need to tell you how miserable I felt on that occasion. She neednt work so hard to earn her daily bread as she is the wife of a businessman. You neednt copy all those poems you can have them photocopied. succesful
N.B. When an unnecessary situation was NOT carried out the pattern to be used consists of didnt + have + to + infinitive:
We didnt have to water the flowers in the garden this evening, so you DID NOT.*(implicature: it had rained in the afternoon).
N.B. In such a question need is replaceable with MUST but it will never be replaced when following wh-words with an interrogative meaning:
* Where need you meet Mary? (ungrammatical) Where must you meet Mary?
DARE The modal meaning of this verb may roughly be paraphrased as (dont/didnt) have (or summon up) the courage to, be courageous/bold enough to. Its most frequently used modal meaning is with the set phrase I dare say which seems to occur with two different spellings and senses: I dare say may suggest certainty, lack of doubt or even supposition:
I dare say they will be meeting us at the station. (Presupun, probabil, desigur, nu m ndoiesc )
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A PARALLEL DESCRIPTION OF CAN, COULD, MAY, MIGHT A. MODALS followed by PRESENT INFINITIVE EXPRESS 1. ABILITY CAN present reference I can speak German fluently. COULD past reference: He could ride a horse when he was younger. He could speak four languages. general lack of ability: He was a good teacher; he could make anybody understand his explanations. lack of particular ability: He was so sensitive that he couldnt stand such situations. future ability: He will be able to face the case. to make decisions about future ability: TO BE ABLE TO more emphatic: She was able to work long hours when she was younger. not used about particular ability in the past ( to do something on a certain occasion): was able to, managed to, succeed in are used instead: not used not used MAY not used MIGHT not used
Im busy now, but we can talk How many pages were you able to translate last night/under the circumstances? about that tomorrow. Harry managed to get some money from his uncle. Can you come to Janes party After a few hours hard work we succeeded in bringing it to a good end. on Friday? Table 1. Expressing ability
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2. POSSIBILITIES CAN theoretical: Such things can happen. COULD MAY MIGHT weaker possibility (in BrE): I might go abroad in summer (but I rather doubt; I dont think I will have the money to). strong possibility for something to actual chance of something to happen (in BrE): happen There could be some flood in April I may go abroad in summer (statistically speaking) (= Perhaps I will go) Nick doesnt answer. He may be at Janes, I suppose. present possibility in statements
He may be sleeping (he usually I wonder where Jack is. He might be at Janes (but Im not sure). does). It may rain tonight (it is very He might be sleeping (but I dont think so, because he usually doesnt) cloudy) never used in questions: Is it likely to rain? (not * May it rain?) Do you think Jack is with Timmy? (not * May he be?) reporting possibility:
strong possibility in Am weaker possibility in Am E: E: It can rain tonight. (It is He could be sleeping (but I rather very cloudy) doubt, because usually he doesnt sleep at this time of the day). It could rain tonight (but I doubt it, because the sky is not overcast). Table 2. Expressing possibilities
I think it might rain tonight (but it isnt very cloudy) He said that it might be a mistake to do that.
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3. SUGGESTIONS CAN about possible solutions when someone is in trouble COULD more tentative, less definite MAY informally used (to suggest something when you think theres no better choice, special phrase) MIGHT about what people should do (may as well) providing an alternative solution
You can tell him the truth now or We could discuss his results, Things are changing for the worse. You might look out for a better you can put it off till he gets it over. if you think Im wrong. We may as well give up. job. not used not used not used to compare an unpleasant situation with another: Theres nothing else to do. We might as well go back.
Table 3. Expressing suggestions 4. OFFERS, ORDERS AND REQUESTS CAN make an offer: COULD - make an offer, a suggestion more hesitantly than can; makes an offer or a request seem more polite or respectful MAY more formal MIGHT not used
I can lend you some money. Can I take the luggage upstairs? give an order
You could help me lay the table/I could cook May I buy you a the dinner, if you are tired. beer?) make a request not used to make a request instead of could You might see to the children to get something to eat.
You can help me with the dishes. Could you help me wash the car? Can you come right now? Table 4. Expressing offers, orders, requests
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5. PERMISSIONS 5.1. IMPLICIT PERMISSION (FREEDOM) CAN general meaning She can go abroad any time. Can you go by car to work every day? Anybody can learn to drive. informal (it is the commonest of all) COULD freedom + possibility (general meaning; weaker than can) She could go abroad if she wanted to. I could come by car to my office every day if I wanted to. Anybody could learn to drive. (informal) when you are not sure you will be given permission; it is not past tense, it refers to the future (it is more polite) not used MAY not used MIGHT
5. 2. ASKING FOR PERMISSION more formal, respectful more (not very common) (more tentative or hesitant) N.B. - it has future reference: Might I remind you that you made a promise the other day? I wonder if I might have some more soup.
5. 3. GIVING PERMISSION CAN with present reference On Sundays patients can walk in the park (not may walk) Could I disturb him now? Of course, you can. COULD permission granted in the past MAY (formal) in the present or future MIGHT not used
When I stayed with my grandparents I You may take the floor now. could watch television whenever I wanted You may order the book if you are interested. to. When I was a kid I could play in the park every afternoon (not I might play)
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it can turn into an order: You can leave now. not used
not used
not used
not used
not used
not used
not used
when used by an authority it gets an imperative force and turns into an order (formal): You may leave now. With rules and regulations Patients may leave the wards only after 10 oclock. in answers: Might I ask you something? Of course you may. may not used to refuse permission or to forbid. Patients may not stand in the hall (must not is more emphatic)
not used
not used
not used
not used
5. 4. REPORTING PERMISSION CAN reporting permission COULD reporting general permission MAY not used MIGHT in reported speech as the past tense of may He said that she might go to the club. She answered that I might take her case (or I could take)
Its not fair! Donna can go to the club and I have to As a student I could borrow books from read for the exam. (not that library. may go) Can he leave the like here? (not may he leave) not used for a particular past action, was/were allowed to is used: not used I was allowed to go and see Jane yesterday. (not I could go) not used conditional meaning certainty or possibility If the manager agreed, we could get up the
not used not used conditional meaning + possibility: If you stopped bothering me, you
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6. (characteristic) BEHAVIOUR CAN characteristic behaviour of people or things COULD characteristic behaviour in the past MAY MIGHT not used characteristic behaviour + possibility with present and past reference (always followed by but maybut) People can be very mean in such situations. My neighbours could be very She may be good-looking but she isnt very Copper cant be used to make household mean when it came about land. clever. objects because it is harmful. She may have been a beauty in her youth, but now she looks very poorly. Table 6. Expressing characteristic behaviour
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B. MODALS and PAST TENSE forms COULD the past tense of can: She could play the piano very well when she was younger. the conditional of can: I could invite him too if I wanted. the subjunctive of can: I would help her more if I could. for present and future reference: You could be wrong. Could I see you in the afternoon? (strong possibility) lack of particular ability He was so confused that he couldnt decide on that. used with a conditional meaning = would be able to: We could take good care of her if she stayed with us. Table 7. Modals followed by past infinitive not used the past tense of may: Mum said I might go to the party. the conditional of may: If you went to bed earlier you might not be so tired. the subjunctive of may: I would come and see you if I might. a distinct modal verb used for present and future reference: He might be at home now (but Im not sure). It might snow tonight. (weaker possibility) not used MIGHT
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C. MODALS followed by PERFECT INFINITIVE CAN an action viewed from the present to express possibility + irritation: Where can she have gone? COULD theoretical ability: to say that we had the ability to do something but we did not try to do it: MAY a present possibility that past events happened He may have been upset by that. not used MIGHT to express the possibility that past events happened (viewed from the past):
I could have told her that straight in the face (= I was so angry that I was capable of telling her but I didnt). unrealized past possibility: something that was possible but didnt happen: Why did you go there? You could have fallen into the water.
We heard footsteps in the next room; we thought that it might have been the nurse.
impossibility or refusal to believe something: He cant have gone to work its Saturday. not used
to express that a past event was possible but didnt happen: You were a fool to tell him that. He might have got angry with you.
to make a reproach; to criticize somebody for not having done something: You could have done it earlier (= you were able to do it why didnt you do it?) not used used with a conditional meaning : I could have made a good job of that if I had stuck to it. (= I would have been able to ) the negative structure used to express lack of not used ability; past reference I couldnt have won the competition, so I didnt go in for it. Table 8. Modals followed by perfect infinitive
not used
not used
to make a reproach about things that we expected to happen, but they didnt: You might have told me about your intentions. You might have let me know that earlier. not used
not used
not used
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smell, taste, hear, see. feel Can you see Jims brother among those young men? Speak louder please, I cant hear you.
not used
not used
When I got home I could smell the cake my mother was making. Table 9. Modals followed by verbs of perception
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D. MODALS and SUBORDINATION CAN COULD MAY MIGHT formal and literary purpose clauses All this was done so that the landlords might get richer not used so that- purpose clauses - to refer so that- purpose clauses - to refer to formal purpose clauses to the present (more common than the past (more common than might) may) He works hard so that he can earn He was trying hard so that he He is very careful with the an honest penny. could make great progress. details to present so that everybody may accept them. present and future reference: not used not used He exercises a lot so that he can go in for the competition. cant help + gerund (to be forced to couldnt help + gerund do something even if you dont want to) I cant help going into such I couldnt help interfering when details. they mentioned her name. not used + help but + short infinitive not used meaningfully similar to the affirmative structure, but not commonly used: Catherine could not but realize what his aims were. not used not used
not used
not used
not used
not used
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