TERM PAPER

NAME CLASS ROLL NO. REG.NO SUBJECT SUBMITTED TO SUBMISSION DATE TOPIC

: : : : : : : :

Sukhwinder Singh OE110 A21 10908417 PHY-803 Dr. VINOD KUMAR 06-04-2012 LIGHT AS EM RADIATION, RADIATION LAWS

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project report entitled Light As EM Radiation, Radiation Laws is an authentic record of my own work is carried out by me under the guidance of Mr. Vinod kumar the head of mechanical department inlovely professional university, jalandhar. I further declared that I or any other person has not previously submitted this project report to any other institution/university for any other degree/ diploma or any other person. If there should be any discrepancy with the project report like as copy from somewhere else and other issues then I will be responsible for that.

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION
2. GENERATION OF ELCTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

3. HISTORY OF LIGHT 4. WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT 5. PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT 6. WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY
7. DEVELOPMENT OF QUANTUM THEORY OF RADIATION (RADIATION LAWS)

7.1.Planks Law 7.2.Stefan Boltzman Law 7.3.Wien Displacement Law 7.4.Emissivity 7.5.Kirchoffs Law 7.6.Lamberts Law 8. IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING LIGHT 9. THE MISTAKES OF THE PRESENT PHOTON MODEL

10. THE NEW PHOTON MODEL 11. REFRENCES

INTRODUCTION
Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which ranges from radio waves to gamma rays. Electromagnetic radiation waves, as their names suggest are fluctuations of electric and magnetic fields, which can transport energy from one location to another. Visible light is not inherently different from the other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum with the exception that the human eye can detect visible waves. Electromagnetic radiation can also be described in terms of a stream of photons which are massless particles each travelling with wavelike properties at the speed of light. A photon is the smallest quantity (quantum) of energy which can be transported and it was the realization that light travelled in discrete quanta that was the origins of Quantum Theory.

It is no accident that humans can see light. The detection of light is a very powerful tool for probing the universe around us. As light interacts with matter it can be become altered and by studying light that has originated or interacted with matter, many of the properties of that matter can be determined. It is through the study of light that for example we can understand the

composition of the stars light years away or watch the processes that occur in the living cell as they happen.

Matter is composed of atoms, ions or molecules and it is lights interaction with matter which gives rise to the various phenomena which can help us understand the nature of matter. The atoms, ions or molecules have defined energy levels usually associated with energy levels that electrons in the matter can hold. Light can be generated by the matter or a photon of light can interact with the energy levels in a number of ways. We can represent the energy levels in a diagram known as a Jablonski diagram. An example of one is shown in the diagram above. An atom or molecule in the lowest energy state possible known as the ground state can absorb a photon which will allow the atom or molecule to be raised to a higher energy level state or become excited. Hence the matter can absorb light of characteristic wavelengths such as the blue light in the example on the left or the violet light in the example on the right.

GENERATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Electromagnetic radiation is produced whenever a charged particle, such as an electron, changes its velocityi.e., whenever it is accelerated or decelerated. The energy of the electromagnetic radiation thus produced comes from the charged particle and is therefore lost by it. A common example of this phenomenon is the oscillating charge or current in a radio antenna. The antenna of a radio transmitter is part of an electric resonance circuit in which the charge is made to oscillate at a desired frequency. An electromagnetic wave so generated can be received by a similar antenna connected to an oscillating electric circuit in the tuner that is tuned to that same frequency. The electromagnetic wave in turn produces an oscillating motion of charge in the receiving antenna. In general, one can say that any system which emits electromagnetic radiation of a given frequency can absorb radiation of the same frequency.

Such man-made transmitters and receivers become smaller with decreasing wavelength of the electromagnetic wave and prove impractical in the millimetre range. At even shorter wavelengths down to the wavelengths of X rays, which are one million times smaller, the oscillating charges arise from moving charges in molecules and atoms. One may classify the generation of electromagnetic radiation into two categories: (1) systems or processes that produce radiation covering a broad continuous spectrum of frequencies and (2) those that emit (and absorb) radiation of discrete frequencies that are characteristic of particular systems. The Sun with its continuous spectrum is an example of the first, while a radio transmitter tuned to one frequency exemplifies the second category.

HISTORY OF LIGHT
Scientists have tried to elucidate the nature of light since the beginning of time. Newton, in the seventeenth century, asserted that light was formed by very tiny corpuscles (particles). Later, Huygens stated that light was a wave, basing this affirmation on its undulatory (wave like) characteristics; however the author believes a wave is not viable without a medium that could transmit it. It was then when the concept of "ether" (the medium) was invented, but the investigators Michelson and Morley`s made experiments demonstrating that ether does not exist. Simultaneously, they also demonstrated a more important fact: The speed of light is constant. At the beginning of this century, Planck and Einstein did not agree with the undulatory theory of light; rather they supported the corpuscle theory and called them photons, each formed by one particle, traveling in a straight line when acting within dimensions larger than its wavelength. However, when observing very small objects whose dimensions are in the same order of magnitude as the lights wavelength, it appears as if light turns around; so its trajectory is curved and since it fits mathematically to sine equations, it has been believed that light trajectory is sinusoidal. Also, Newton determined that red light particles are larger than blue ones, both being corpuscles. He reinforced the fact that when two light beams cross one another, practically no collisions occur. Only when light beams travel in slightly convergent trajectories such as when making experiments concerning interference of one and two slots, light interferes with itself, canceling the beam if the phase differential is 180 degrees, and doubling the intensity if the differential is 0 or 360 degrees.

WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT

Almost a hundred years after Newton and Huygens proposed their theories, an English physicist named Thomas Young performed an experiment that strongly supported the wave-like nature of

light. Because he believed that light was composed of waves, Young reasoned that some type of interaction would occur when two light waves met. In order to test this hypothesis, he used a screen containing a single, narrow slit to produce a coherent light beam (containing waves that propagate in phase) from ordinary sunlight. When the sun's rays encounter the slit, they spread out or diffract to produce a single wavefront. If this front is allowed to illuminate a second screen having two closely spaced slits, two additional sources of coherent light, perfectly in step with each other are produced (see Figure 6). Light from each slit traveling to a single point halfway between the two slits should arrive perfectly in step. The resulting waves should reinforce each other to produce a much larger wave. However, if a point on either side of the central point is considered, then light from one slit must travel much farther to reach a second point on the opposite side of the central point. Light from the slit closer to this second point would arrive before light from the distant slit, so the two waves would be out of step with each other, and might cancel each other to produce darkness. As he suspected, Young discovered that when the light waves from the second set of slits are spread (or diffracted), they meet each other and overlap. In some cases, the overlap combines the two waves exactly in step. However, in other cases, the light waves are combined either slightly or completely out of step with each other. Young found that when the waves met in step, they added together by a process that has come to be termed constructive interference. Waves that meet out of step will cancel each other out, a phenomenon known as destructive interference. In between these two extremes, various degrees of constructive and destructive interference occur to produce waves having a wide spectrum of amplitudes. Young was able to observe the effects of interference on a screen placed at a set distance behind the two slits. After being diffracted, the light that is recombined by interference produces a series of bright and dark fringes along the length of the screen.

Fig. Youngs Double Slit Experiment Although seemingly important, Young's conclusions were not widely accepted at the time, primarily because of the overwhelming belief in the particle theory. In addition to his observations on light interference, Young postulated that light of different colors was composed of waves having different lengths, a fundamental concept that is widely accepted today. In contrast, the particle theory advocates envisioned that various colors were derived from particles having either different masses or traveling at different speeds. The interference effect is not restricted to light. Waves produced on the surface of a pool or pond will spread in all directions and undergo an identical behavior. Where two waves meet in step, they will add together to make a larger wave by constructive interference. Colliding waves that are out of step will cancel each other via destructive interference and produce a level surface on the water. Even more evidence for a wave-like nature of light was uncovered when the behavior of a light beam between crossed polarizers was carefully examined (Figure ). Polarizing filters have a unique molecular structure that allows only light having a single orientation to pass through. In other words, a polarizer can be considered a specialized type of molecularVenetian blind having tiny rows of slats that are oriented in a single direction within the polarizing material. If a beam of light is allowed to impact a polarizer, only light rays oriented parallel to the polarizing direction are able to pass through the polarizer. If a second polarizer is positioned behind the first and oriented in the same direction, then light passing through the first polarizer will also pass through the second. However, if the second polarizer is rotated at a small angle, the amount of light passing through will be decreased. When the second polarizer is rotated so the orientation is perpendicular to that of the first polarizer, then none of the light passing through the first polarizer will pass through the second. This effect is easily explained with the wave theory, but no manipulation of the particle theory can explain how light is blocked by the second polarizer. In fact, the particle theory is also not adequate to explain interference and diffraction, effects that would be later found to be manifestations of the same phenomenon. The effects observed with polarized light were critical to the development of the concept that light consists of transverse waves having components that are perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Each of the transverse components must have a specific orientation direction that enables it to either pass through or to be blocked by a polarizer. Only those waves with a transverse component parallel to the polarizing filter will pass through, and all others will be blocked.

Fig. Particles And Waves Through Cross Polarizers

PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT

By the middle of the 1800s, scientists were becoming increasingly convinced of the wave-like character of light, but there remained one overbearing problem. Exactly what is light? A breakthrough was made when it was discovered by English physicist James Clerk Maxwell that all forms of electromagnetic radiation represent a continuous spectrum, and travel through a vacuum at the same speed: 186,000 miles per second. Maxwell's discovery effectively nailed the coffin of the particle theory and, by the dawn of the twentieth century, it seemed that the basic questions of light and optical theory had finally been answered. A major blow to the wave theory occurred behind the scenes in the late 1880s when scientists first discovered that, under certain conditions, light could dislodge electrons from the atoms of several metals (Figure ). Although at first only a curious and unexplainable phenomenon, it was quickly discovered that ultraviolet light could relieve atoms of electrons in a wide variety of metals to produce a positive electrical charge. German physicist Philipp Lenard became interested in these observations, which he termed the photoelectric effect. Lenard used a prism to split white light into its component colors, and then selectively focused each color onto a metal plate to expel electrons. What Lenard discovered confused and amazed him. For a specific wavelength of light (blue, for example), the electrons produced a constant potential, or a fixed amount of energy. Decreasing or increasing the amount of light produced a corresponding increase or decrease in the number of electrons liberated, but each still maintained the same energy. In other words, electrons escaping

their atomic bonds had energies that were dependent on the wavelength of light, not the intensity. This is contrary to what would be expected from the wave theory. Lenard also discovered a link between wavelength and energy: shorter wavelengths produced electrons having greater amounts of energy.

Fig. The Photoelectric Effect The foundation for a connection between light and atoms was cast in the early 1800s when William Hyde Wollaston discovered that the sun's spectrum was not a continuous band of light, but contained hundreds of missing wavelengths. Over 500 narrow lines corresponding to missing wavelengths were mapped by German physicist Joseph von Fraunhofer, who assigned letters to the largest gaps. Later, it was discovered that the gaps were produced from absorption of specific wavelengths by atoms in the sun's outer layer. These observations were some of the first links between atoms and light, although the fundamental impact was not understood at the time. Einstein's theory was solidified in the 1920s by the experiments of American physicist Arthur H. Compton, who demonstrated that photons had momentum, a necessary requisite to support the theory that matter and energy are interchangeable. Convincing evidence of the particle nature of electromagnetic radiation was found in 1922 by the American physicist Arthur Holly Compton. While investigating the scattering of X rays, he observed that such rays lose some of their energy in the scattering process and emerge with slightly decreased frequency. This energy loss increases with the scattering angle, , measured from the direction of an unscattered X ray. This so-called Compton effect can be explained, according to classical mechanics, as an elastic collision of two particles comparable to the collision of two billiard balls. In this case, an X-ray photon of energy h and momentum h/c collides with an electron at rest. The recoiling electron was observed and measured by Compton and Alfred W. Simon in a Wilson cloud chamber. If one calculates the result of such an elastic collision using the relativistic formulas for the energy and momentum of the scattered electron, one finds that the wavelength of an X ray after () and before () the scattering event differ by - = (h/mc)(1 - cos ). Here m is the rest mass of the electron and h/mc is called Compton wavelength. It has the value 0.0243 angstrom. The energy h of a photon of this wavelength is equal to the rest mass energy mc2 of an electron. One might argue that

electrons in atoms are not at rest, but their kinetic energy is very small compared to that of energetic X rays and can be disregarded in deriving Comptons equation. In 1905, Albert Einstein postulated that light might actually have some particle characteristics, regardless of the overwhelming evidence for a wave-like nature. In developing his quantum theory, Einstein suggested mathematically that electrons attached to atoms in a metal can absorb a specific quantity of light (first termed a quantum, but later changed to a photon) and thus have the energy to escape. He also speculated that if the energy of a photon were inversely proportional to the wavelength, then shorter wavelengths would produce electrons having higher energies, a hypothesis borne in fact from the results of Lenard's research.

WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY
The French scientist Louis-Victor de Broglie proposed that all matter and radiation have properties that resemble both a particle and a wave. De Broglie, following Max Planck's lead, extrapolated Einstein's famous formula relating mass and energy to include Planck's constant: E = mc2 = hn where E is the energy of a particle, m the mass, c is the speed of light, h is Planck's constant, and n is the frequency. De Broglie's work, which relates the frequency of a wave to the energy and mass of a particle, was fundamental in the development of a new field that would ultimately be utilized to explain both the wave-like and particle-like nature of light. Quantum mechanics was born from the research of Einstein, Planck, de Broglie, Neils Bohr, Erwin Schrdinger, and others who attempted to explain how electromagnetic radiation can display what has now been termed duality, or both particle-like and wave-like behavior. At times light behaves as a particle, and at other times as a wave. This complementary, or dual, role for the behavior of light can be employed to describe all of the known characteristics that have been observed experimentally, ranging from refraction, reflection, interference, and diffraction, to the results with polarized light and the photoelectric effect. Combined, the properties of light work together and allow us to observe the beauty of the universe.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE QUANTUM RADIATION ( RADIATION LAWS)

THEORY

OF

After a long struggle electromagnetic wave theory had triumphed. The FaradayMaxwellHertz theory of electromagnetic radiation seemed to be able to explain all phenomena of light, electricity, and magnetism. The understanding of these phenomena enabled one to produce electromagnetic radiation of many different frequencies which had never been observed before and which opened a world of new opportunities. No one suspected that the conceptional foundations of physics were about to change again.

Planck's Law
The quantum theory of absorption and emission of radiation announced in 1900 by Planck ushered in the era of modern physics. He proposed that all material systems can absorb or give off electromagnetic radiation only in chunks of energy, quanta E, and that these are proportional to the frequency of that radiation E = h. (The constant of proportionality h is, as noted above, called Plancks constant.) Planck was led to this radically new insight by trying to explain the puzzling observation of the amount of electromagnetic radiation emitted by a hot body and, in particular, the dependence of the intensity of this incandescent radiation on temperature and on frequency. The quantitative aspects of the incandescent radiation constitute the radiation laws.The amount of radiation emitted by a blackbody at each wavelength as a function of temperature is

Where: T = Absolute temperature of the blackbody h = Plancks constant (6.626 x 10-34 Js) c = Speed of light (2.998 x 108 m s-1) k = Boltzmann's constant (1.381 x 10-23 JK-1) = Wavelength in m The spectral radiant exitance from a non perturbing aperture in the blackbody cavity, Me (,T), is given by:

Le (,T), the spectral radiance at the aperture is given by:

The curves in Figure show MB plotted for blackbodies at various temperatures. The output increases and the peak shifts to shorter wavelengths as the temperature, T, increases.

Stefan-Boltzman Law
The Austrian physicist Josef Stefan found in 1879 that the total radiation energy per unit time emitted by a heated surface per unit area increases as the fourth power of its absolute temperature T (Kelvin scale). This means that the Suns surface, which is at T = 6,000 K, radiates per unit area (6,000/300)4 = 204 = 160,000 times more electromagnetic energy than does the same area of the Earths surface, which is taken to be T = 300 K. In 1889 another Austrian physicist, Ludwig

Boltzmann, used the second law of thermodynamics to derive this temperature dependence for an ideal substance that emits and absorbs all frequencies. Such an object that absorbs light of all colours looks black, and so was called a blackbody. Integrating the spectral radiant exitance over all wavelengths gives:

is called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant This is the Stefan-Boltzmann law relating the total output to temperature. If Me(T) is in W m-2, and T in kelvins, then is 5.67 x 10-8 Wm-2 K-4. At room temperature a 1 mm2 blackbody emits about 0.5 mW into a hemisphere. At 3200 K, the temperature of the hottest tungsten filaments, the 1 mm2, emits 6 W.

Wien Displacement Law

This law relates the wavelength of peak exitance, m, and blackbody temperature, T: mT = 2898 where T is in kelvins and m is in micrometers. The peak of the spectral distribution curve is at 9.8 m for a blackbody at room temperature. As the source temperature gets higher, the wavelength of peak exitance moves towards shorter wavelengths. The temperature of the suns surface is around 5800K. The peak of a 6000 blackbody curve is at 0.48 m, as shown in figure.

Fig. Black Body Thermal Emission Intensity

Emissivity

The radiation from real sources is always less than that from a blackbody. Emissivity () is a measure of how a real source compares with a blackbody. It is defined as the ratio of the radiant power emitted per area to the radiant power emitted by a blackbody per area. (A more rigorous definition defines directional spectral emissivity (,,,T). Emissivity can be wavelength and temperature dependent (Fig. ). As the emissivity of tungsten is less than 0.4 where a 3200 K blackbody curve peaks, the 1 mm2 tungsten surface at 3200 K will only emit 2.5 W into the hemisphere. If the emissivity does not vary with wavelength then the source is a graybody.

Fig. Emissivity (spectral radiation factor) of tungsten.

Kirchoff's Law
Kirchoffs Law states that the emissivity of a surface is equal to its absorptance, where the absorptance () of a surface is the ratio of the radiant power absorbed to the radiant power incident on the surface.

Lambert's Law
Lamberts Cosine Law holds that the radiation per unit solid angle (the radiant intensity) from a flat surface varies with the cosine of the angle to the surface normal (Fig. ). Some Oriel Sources, such as arcs, are basically spherical. These appear like a uniform flat disk as a result of the cosine law. Another consequence of this law is that flat sources, such as some of our low power quartz tungsten halogen filaments, must be properly oriented for maximum irradiance of a target. Flat diffusing surfaces are said to be ideal diffusers or Lambertian if the geometrical distribution of radiation from the surfaces obeys Lamberts Law. Lamberts Law has important consequences in

the measurement of light. Cosine receptors on detectors are needed to make meaningful measurements of radiation with large or uncertain angular distribution.

Fig. Lamberts Cosine Law Indicates How The Intensity, I, Depends On Angle.

IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING LIGHT

Close to 0.01 percent of the mass/energy of the entire universe occurs in the form of electromagnetic radiation. All human life is immersed in it and modern communications technology and medical services are particularly dependent on one or another of its forms. In fact, all living things on Earth depend on the electromagnetic radiation received from the Sun and on the transformation of solar energy by photosynthesis into plant life or by biosynthesis into zooplankton, the basic step in the food chain in oceans. The eyes of many animals, including those of humans, are adapted to be sensitive to and hence to see the most abundant part of the Suns electromagnetic radiationnamely, light, which comprises the visible portion of its wide range of frequencies. Green plants also have high sensitivity to the maximum intensity of solar electromagnetic radiation, which is absorbed by a substance called chlorophyll that is essential for plant growth via photosynthesis. Practically all the fuels that modern society usesgas, oil, and coalare stored forms of energy received from the Sun as electromagnetic radiation millions of years ago. Only the energy from nuclear reactors does not originate from the Sun. Everyday life is pervaded by man-made electromagnetic radiation: food is heated in microwave ovens, airplanes are guided by radar waves, television sets receive electromagnetic waves transmitted by broadcasting stations, and infrared waves from heaters provide warmth. Infrared waves also are given off and received by automatic self-focusing cameras that electronically measure and set the correct distance to the object to be photographed. As soon as the Sun sets, incandescent or fluorescent lights are turned on to provide artificial illumination, and cities glow brightly with the colourful fluorescent and neon lamps of advertisement signs. Familiar too is ultraviolet radiation, which the eyes cannot see but whose effect is felt as pain from sunburn. Ultraviolet light represents a kind of electromagnetic radiation that can be harmful to life. Such is also true of X rays, which are important in medicine as they allow physicians to observe the inner

parts of the body but exposure to which should be kept to a minimum. Less familiar are gamma rays, which come from nuclear reactions and radioactive decay and are part of the harmful highenergy radiation of radioactive materials and nuclear weapons.

THE MISTAKES OF THE PRESENT PHOTON MODEL

All the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation (including visible light) from long-wave radio frequencies to cosmic rays is constituted by photons. Although the current models suggest a photon is a single particle, experiments have demonstrated that a photon can exist in 2 places simultaneously. If it only a single particle it is diffucult to undestand why photons have a spin equal to one, when most of subatomic particles have spins of + - 1/2? This sole fact suggests two particles rather than one in one photon. Or, as Hawking suggests for a spinning subatomic particle: "when particles have spins equal to one, a gyration of 360 should be produced, so its position is the same than initial one." Another common misconception, is to define light color by its wave length, but this view does not take into account other factors , since it also depends on its velocity, which in turn depends on the media in which it moves, such as air, vacuum, water, crystal, etc. If the equation stating that velocity is the product of wavelength by frequency, then when velocity decreases, what other variable changes, frequency or wavelength? As color does not change when passing to through other mediums, it suggests that frequency remains constant while wavelength decreases in size.Therefore, color depends only on frequency. But how can a photon, being a single particle "remember" its color? Or in other words, how can a single particle be frequency coded? The present photon model cannot explain the different polarization properties, or how a photon moves in a lineal or elliptical polarization. If a photon is a single particle, how can it be explained that its total charge is zero, while it produces an electric and magnetic field?

THE NEW PHOTON MODEL

Consider, in dynamic equilibrium, a photon formed by two particles whose electric charges are opposed, and for this reason they attract each other. This attraction is equilibrated by the centrifugal force generated when rotating one with the other. By rotating electrical charged particles, a perpendicular magnetic field is generated, also

perpendicular to a stationary observer.

Charge:

Planck constant:

Speed of light in vacuum:

Coulomb constant:

Following are definitions of the considered photon: DISTANCE BETWEEN PARTICLES: It is exactly the wavelength divided by pi (3.1416):

TANGENTIAL VELOCITY: Coincides tangential velocity with the translational velocity, and in a vacuum equals:

PARTICLE MASS: It is relativistic; in other words, it depends on its frequency. Individual particle mass is equally spread. Otherwise, an unbalanced pattern in their trajectory will be obtained. Individual particle mass:

PARTICLE CHARGE: Is calculated equaling centrifugal force to the electrostatic attraction force.

This charge if 16.558 times an electron charge. SYSTEM ENERGY: Is the sum of translational kinetic energy plus rotational kinetic energy.

REFRENCES
1. Introduction is taken from http://www.andor.com/learning/light/ 2. Generation Of Electromagnetic Wave, Wave-Particle Duality, Importance Of Studying

Light is taken from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/183228/electromagneticradiation

3. Development Of Quantum Theory Of Radiation(Radiation Laws) is taken from

http://www.newport.com/Tutorial-Laws-of-Radiation/381843/1033/content.aspx
4. The Mistakes Of The Present Photon Model , The New Photon Model is taken from

http://lighttheory.com/light/proposed.htm
5. History of light, wave nature of light , particle nature of light is taken from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light