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Disadvantages of PMMC voltmeter Low input impedance: Loading effect Insufficient sensitivity to detect low level signal Approach Utilized electronic devices such as BJT, FET or op amp to solve the above problems Electronic voltmeters Analog instrument Digital instrument
AC voltmeter
Electronic voltmeter
RS Ammeter R1
R2
Electronic voltmeter
EB
R1
Electronic voltmeter
Voltmeter
Ohmmeter
AC voltmeter
Loading Effect
R1
100k
5V 10 V
100k
6.7 V
10 V R2
100k
5V
100k
3.3 V V
Vmeas =
100k
100k
6V 10 V
100k
5.2 V
10 V
100k
4V
200k
100k
4.8 V V
1000k
Vmeas =
Vmeas =
Loading Effect
Example Find the voltage reading and % error of each reading obtained with a voltmeter on (i) 5 V range, (ii) 10 V range and (iii) 30 V range, if the instrument has a 20 k/V sensitivity, an accuracy 1% of full scale deflection and the meter is connected across Rb
SOLUTION The voltage drop across Rb with output to the voltmeter connection
Ra
45k
50 V Rb
5k
V Rm
Loading Effect
Range (V) 5 10 30
+
IB
Emitter follower
Vin
Ri = Vin IB
VBE
IE = Im Rs Rm
VCC
PMMC
Vm = Vin VBE
Im = Vin VBE Rs + Rm IE IB hFE
Ri =
Example The simple emitter-follower circuit has VCC = 20 V, Rs+Rm = 9.3 k, Im = 1mA at full scale, and transistor hFE = 100 (a) Calculate the meter current when Vin = 10 V (b) Determine the voltmeter input resistance with and without the transistor. SOLUTION +
IB
VBE
IE = Im Rs
VCC
Vin
Ri = Vin IB
Rm
Bridge configuration
Q1
Vin R2 I2 VE1 Rs
V Rm
Q2
VP VE2 R3 I3
R5
Vm = VE1 VE 2
where
R6 -VEE
Zero adjust
PMMC
Practical emitter-follower voltmeter using second transistor Q2 and voltage divider R4, R5 and R6 to eliminate VBE error in Q1
800k
Ra
5V
1V
Voltage to be measured
100k E 60k
Rb
10V
Rc
25V
40k
Rd
Vin = 5 V = 5 V =1 V
+VCC 800k Ra
5V 1V
R4 EG VG S VS I2 R2
100k E 60k
Rb
10V
Q1
Rs+Rm
Q2
VP R3 I3
R5
Rc
25V
R6 -VEE
40k
Rd
PMMC
VE 2 = VP VBE 2
In general, it is not simple to calculate VGS, for simplicity, we assume that VGS will be given.
Input attenuator
Emitter follower
+VCC 800k Ra
5V 1V
R4 EG VG S VS I2 R2
100k E 60k
Rb
10V
Q1
Rs+Rm
Q2
VP R3 I3
R5
Rc
25V
R6 -VEE
40k
Rd
Vout = (1 +
R4 )E R3
+VCC
+
E
-VEE IB
Av = (1 +
R4 Vout Rs+Rm
R4 ) R3
I3
Selection of R3 and R4
R3
E R3 = I3
and
R4 =
Vout E I3
The non-inverting amplifier gives a very high input impedance and very low output impedance. Therefore, the loading effect can be neglected. Furthermore, it can provide gain with enabling to measure low level input voltage.
Non-inverting amplifier
+VCC
+
E
-VEE IB
I4
R4
Vout
Rs+Rm
I3
R3
+
EB
I m = I3 = Vm =
-VEE
Im Rs+Rm
E R3
Meter voltage
Rm E R3
IB I3
VR3
+VC
C
+ -VEE E Rs+Rm
R3
+
I
RS
Ammeter terminals
An electronic voltmeter can be used for current measurement by measuring the voltage drop across a shunt (Rs). The instrument scale is calibrated to indicate current.
R1
A + Electronic
voltmeter
(1.5 V range)
R1 1k
100
EB 1.5V
Rx = 0
Rx =
10
Rx
Series Ohmmeter for electronic instrument At Rx = or open circuit, the voltmeter indicate full scale defection (E = 1.5 V) and Rx = 0 or shorted circuit, since E = 0, no defection is observed. At other values of resistance, the battery voltage EB is potentially divided across R1 and Rx, given by
E = EB
Rx R1 + Rx
Suppose that R1 is set to 1 k 1 k E = 1.5 V = 0.75 V (50% defection) 1 k + 1 k Thus if Rx = R1, half scale will be indicated
M s c ete al r f e u
ll
E = EB
Rx =
Rx R1 + Rx
R1 EB E 1
R1 1k
100
EB 1.5V
10
Rx
Electronic voltmeter
(1.5 V range)
Rx =
M s c ete al r f e u ll
R1 R = 1 EB 3 1 2 EB R1 = 2 R1 EB 3 1 2 EB
R1/2 R1 2R1 Rx = 0
Rx =
Rx =
At Rx = or open circuit,
E = EB
A + -
6V
R2 1.33k
= 6 V
Rx
Electronic voltmeter
(1.5 V range)
Therefore, this circuit give FSD, when Rx = When, Rx = 0 , E = 0 V, therefore, the meter gives no defection.
At any value of Rx
E = EB
R2 || Rx R1 + R2 || Rx
AC Electronic Voltmeter
Principle
Most ac measurements are made with ac-to-dc converter, which produce a dc current/voltage proportional to the ac input being measured
Vin
ac to dc converter
dc meter
Classification:
Average responding periodic signal only Peak responding any signal RMS responding (True rms meter)
AC Electronic Voltmeter
The scale on ac voltmeters are ordinarily calibrated in rms volts
Vin
ac to dc converter
dc meter
It should be noted that the rms value is calculated from Vin, while the average value is calculated from the output of ac-dc converter.
Crest Factor =
V peak Vrms
Average-Responding Meter
In this type of instrument, the ac signal is rectified and then fed to a dc millimeter. In the meter instrument, the rectified current is averaged either by a filter or by the ballistic characteristics of the meter to produce a steady deflection of the meter pointer.
+ E
Input waveform
+VDD1
+
output waveform
+ E
Input waveform
+VDD1
output waveform
+ Vout Vm -
Vout
Vm -
precision rectifier
For the positive cycle, Vout = Vm = E For the negative cycle,
Vout = E
Vm = E VD
where VD = cut-in voltage ~0.6-0.7 for Si
Vout = 0
Vout = E Vm = 0
Therefore, the voltage drop in the forward bias can be compensated by this configuration
Average-Responding Meter
V2 Vin
V1
V2
V1
Vin
Average-Responding Voltmeter
Voltage to current converter
precision rectifier
precision rectifier
C1 R1
+VCC
+ -VEE
+ VF D1 Rs+Rm
meter current
C1 R1
+VCC
D1 Im
D3 Rs+Rm
meter current
+ -VEE
D2
R3
D4 R3
I p = 0.637I p
Average-Responding Voltmeter
Example The half-wave rectifier electronic voltmeter circuit uses a meter with a FSD current of 1 mA. The meter a coil resistance is 1.2 k. Calculate the value of R3 that will give meter full-scale pointer deflection when the ac input voltage is 100 mV (rms). Also determine the meter deflection when the input is 50 mV. SOLUTION at FSD, the average meter current is 1 mA
precision rectifier
C1 R1
+VCC
+ -VEE
+ VF D1 Rs+Rm
meter current
R3
Peak-Responding Voltmeter
The primary difference between the peak-responding voltmeter and the averageresponding voltmeter is the use of a storage capacitor with the rectifying diode.
dc amplifier
Charge cycle
Discharge cycle
In the first positive cycle: VC tracks Vin with the difference of VD, until Vin reaches its peak value. After this point, diode is reversed bias and the circuit keeps VC at Vp VD. The effect of discharging through R will be minimized if its value is large enough to yield that RC >> T.
Peak-Responding Voltmeter
VC tracks Vin VC
Vin
RMS-Responding Voltmeter
Suitable for: low duty-cycle pulse trains voltages of undetermined waveform
Vrms
1 2 = v (t )dt T 0
Vout
TC output (mV)
heating wire
Temp(oC)
RMS-Responding Voltmeter
Null-balance technique: non-linear cancellation Compare the heating power generated by input voltage to the heating power generated the dc amplifier
Measuring thermocouple
+
ac input voltage
ac Amplifier +
dc Amplifier
Balancing thermocouple
Feedback current
Vin
Heater & TC
+ -
Vout
Heater & TC
Negative Feedback
VT1
Vin
Heater & TC
+ -
Ve
Vout
VT2
Heater & TC
Vout = Ve = A (VT 1 VT 2 )
Let, VT1 = k Vin and VT2 = k Vout where k is proportional constant of the heater and TC in the system. Note that k may depend on the level of the input signal
Vout Vin
If the amplifier gain is very large, Vout is equal to Vin, this means that the dc voltage output is therefore equal to the effective, or rms value of the input voltage