Shweta Nair Roll No 29

Q1. WHAT IS OD AND CHARACTERISTICS OF OD Organisation development deals with the gamut of people problems and work system problems in organisations : poor morale, low productivity, poor quality, interpersonal conflict, intergroup conflict, unclear or inappropriate goals, inappropriate leadership styles, poor team performance, inappropriate organisation structure, poorly designed tasks, inadequate response to environmental demands, poor customers relations, inadequate alignment among the organisations strategy, structure , culture, and processes and the like, In short, where individuals teams, and organisations are not realizing their potential, OD can improve the situation. Organization development (OD) is a planned, organization-wide effort to increase an organization's effectiveness and viability. Warren Bennis, has referred to OD as a response to change, a complex educational strategy intended to change the beliefs, attitudes, values, and structure of organization so that they can better adapt to new technologies, marketing and challenges, and the dizzying rate of change itself. OD is neither "anything done to better an organization" nor is it "the training function of the organization"; it is a particular kind of change process designed to bring about a particular kind of end result. OD can involve interventions in the organization's "processes," using behavioural science knowledge as well as organizational reflection, system improvement, planning, and self-analysis. At the core of OD is the concept of organization, defined as two or more people working together toward one or more shared goal(s). Development in this context is the notion that an organization may become more effective over time at achieving its goals. OD is a long range effort to improve organization's problem solving and renewal processes, particularly through more effective and collaborative management of organizational culture, often with the assistance of a change agent or catalyst and the use of the theory and technology of applied behavioral science. Although behavioral science has provided the basic foundation for the study and practice of organizational development, new and emerging fields of study have made their presence known. Experts in systems thinking, leadership studies, organizational leadership, and organizational learning (to name a few) whose perspective is not steeped in just the behavioral sciences, but a much more multi-disciplinary and interdisciplinary approach have emerged as OD catalysts. These emergent expert perspectives see the organization as the holistic interplay of a number of systems that impact the process and outputs of the entire organization. More importantly, the term change agent or catalyst is synonymous with the notion of a leader who is engaged in doing leadership, a transformative or effectiveness process as opposed to management, a more incremental or efficiency based change methodology. Organization development is a "contractual relationship between a change agent and a sponsoring organization entered into for the purpose of using applied behavioral science and or other organizational change perspectives in a systems context to improve organizational performance and the capacity of the organization to improve itself Organization development is an ongoing, systematic process to implement effective change in an organization. Organization development is known as both a field of applied behavioral science focused on understanding and managing organizational change and as a field of

scientific study and inquiry. It is interdisciplinary in nature and draws on sociology, psychology, and theories of motivation, learning, and personality. OD programs are identifiable flows of interrelated events moving over time toward the goals of organisational improvement and individual development

CHARACTERISTICS OF OD

OD focuses on culture and processes OD encourges collaboration between organisation leaders and members in managing culture and processes. Teams of all kinds are particularly important for accomplishing tasks and are targets for OD activities. OD focuses on the human and social side of the organisation and in so doing also intervenes in the technological and structural sides. Participation and involvement in problem solving and decision making by all levels of the organization are hall marks of OD. OD focuses on total system change and views organizations as complex social systems. OD practitioners are facilitators, collaborators, and co learners with the client system. An important goal is to make the client system able to solve its problems on its own by teaching the skills and knowledge of continuous learing through self analytical methods. OD views organization improvement as an ongoing process in the context of a constantly changing environment. OD takes a developmental view that seeks the betterment of both individuals and the organisation. Attemption to create win win solutions is standard practice in OD programs

Q2. EARLY STATEMENTS OF OD VALUES AND ASSUMPTIONS Warren Bennis proposed that Od practitioners (change agents) share a set of normative goals based on their humanistic / democratic philosophy. He listed these normative goals as follows : 1. Improvement in interpersonal competence 2. A shift in values so that human factors and feelings come to be considered legitimate (rightful) 3. Development of increased understanding between and within working groups in order to reduce tensions. 4. Development of more effective team management, that is , the capacity for functional groups to work more competently 5. Development of better methods of conflict resolution. Rather than the usual bureaucratic methods which rely mainly on suppression, compromise, and unprincipled power, more rational and open methods of conflict resolution are sought. 6. Development of organic rather than mechanical systems. This is a strong reaction against the idea of organisations as mechanisms which managers work on like pushing buttons For eg. Mechanical systems rely on authority obedience relationships while organic systems rely on mutual confidence and trust Q3. IMPLICATIONS OF OD VALUES AND ASSUMPTIONS Implications for dealing with individuals : Two basic assumptions about individuals in organisations pervade (pass through) organisational development. First assumption is that most individuals have drives toward personal growth and development if provided an environment that is both supportive and challenging. Most people want to develop their potential. The second assumption is that most people desire to make, and are capable of making, a greater contribution to attaining organisational goals than most organisational environment permit. A tremendous amount of constructive energy can be tapped if organisations realize and act on these assumptions. The implication of these two assumptions are straightforward: Ask, listen, support, challenge, encourage risk taking, permit failure, remove obstacles and barriers, give autonomy, give responsibility, set high standards and reward success.

Q4. IMPLICATIONS FOR DESIGNING AND RUNNING ORGANISATIONS

Traditional hierarchical forms of organisation fairly steep pyramid, emphasis on top down directives. A key assumption in od is that the needs and aspirations of human beings are the reason for organised effort in society. This notion suggests it is good to have a developmental outlook and seek opportunities in which people can experience personal and professional growth. The belief that people are important tends to result in their being important. The belief that people can grow and develop in terms of personal and organisational competency tends to produce that results. By implication, an optimistic, developmental set of assumptions about people is likely to reap rewards beneficial to both the organisation and its members. Finally, it is possible to create organisations that on the one hand are human, developmental and empowering, and on the other hand are high performing in terms of productivity, quality of output, and profitability. Evidence from this assumption comes from numerous examples where putting people first paid off handsomely in profits and performance. The implication is that people are an organisations most important resource, they are the source of productivity and profits and should be treated with care.

Q5. IMPLICATION DEALING WITH GROUP

Several assumptions related to the importance of work teams and the collaborative management of team culture. First, one of the most psychologically relevant reference group for most people is the work group, including peers and boss. What occurs in work groups, at both the formal and informal levels, greatly influences feelings of satisfaction and competence. Second, most people wish to b e accepted and to interact cooperatively with at least one small reference group, and usually with more than one group\, such as a work group, the family, a church or club group, and so on. Thirdly, most people are capable of making greater contributions to a groups effectiveness and development. Implications of these assumptions are several Let team flourish because they are often the best way to get work done and in addition are the best way to satisfy social and emotional needs at work.

Also, leaders should invest in groups. Invest the time in group development, invest training time and money to increase group members skills, invest energy and intelligence in creating a positive climate. Leaders should adopt a team leadership style not a one on one leadership. To do this leader should give important work to teams, not individuals.

Q6.KURT LEWIN'S FREEZE PHASES In the early 20th century, psychologist Kurt Lewin identified three stages of change that are still the basis of many approaches today. Unfreeze A basic tendency of people is to seek a context in which they have relative safety and feel a sense of control. In establishing themselves, they attach their sense of identity to their environment. This creates a comfortable stasis from which any alternatives, even those which may offer significant benefit, will cause discomfort. Talking about the future thus is seldom enough to move them from this 'frozen' state and significant effort may be required to 'unfreeze' them and get them moving. This usually requires Push methods to get them moving, after which Pull methods can be used to keep them going. The term 'change ready' is often used to describe people who are unfrozen and ready to take the next step. Some people come ready for change whilst others take a long time to let go of their comfortable current realities. Transition A key part of Lewin's model is the notion that change, even at the psychological level, is a journey rather than a simple step. This journey may not be that simple and the person may need to go through several stages of misunderstanding before they get to the other side. A classic trap in change is for the leaders to spend months on their own personal journeys and then expect everyone else to cross the chasm in a single bound. Transitioning thus requires time. Leadership is often important and when whole organizations change, the one-eyed person may be king. Some form of coaching, counseling or other psychological support will often be very helpful also. Although transition may be hard for the individual, often the hardest part is to start. Even when a person is unfrozen and ready for change, that first step can be very scary. Transition can also be a pleasant trap and, as Robert Louis Stephenson said, 'It is better to travel hopefully than arrive.' People become comfortable in temporary situations where they are not accountable for the hazards of normal work and where talking about change may be substituted for real action. Refreeze At the other end of the journey, the final goal is to 'refreeze', putting down roots again and establishing the new place of stability.

In practice, refreezing may be a slow process as transitions seldom stop cleanly, but go more in fits and starts with a long tail of bits and pieces. There are good and bad things about this. In modern organizations, this stage is often rather tentative as the next change may well be around the next corner. What is often encouraged, then, is more of a state of 'slushiness' where freezing is never really achieved (theoretically making the next unfreezing easier). The danger with this that many organizations have found is that people fall into a state of change shock, where they work at a low level of efficiency and effectiveness as they await the next change. 'It's not worth it' is a common phrase when asked to improve what they do.

Q7.RONALD LIPPITT, JEANNE WATSON, BRUCE WESTLEY They expanded the three stage into a seven stage model representing the consulting process. Their seven stages are as follows : Phase 1 : Developing a need for change. This phase corresponds to Lewins unfreezing phase. Phase 2 : Establishing a change relationship. In this phase a client system in need of help and a change agent from outside the system establish a working relationship. Phase 3 : Clarifying or diagnosing the client systems problem. Phase 4 : Examining alternative routes and goals, establishing goals and intentions of action Phase 5 : Transforming intentions into actual change efforts. Phases 3, 4 , 5 correspond to Lewins moving phase. Phase 6 : Generalizing and stabilizing change. This phase corresponds to Lewins refreezing phase Phase 7 : Achieving a terminal relationship, that is, terminating the client consultant relationship.

Q8.RALPH KILMANN ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE MODEL This model has five sequential stages. 1. Initiating the program 2. Diagnosing the problems 3. Scheduling the tracks 4. Implementing the tracks 5. Evaluating the results -----change programs take from one to five years to complete

Initiating the program entails securing commitment from top management. Diagnosing the problems requires a thorough analysis of the problems and opportunities facing the organisation. These problems and opportunities will be the targets of later interventions. Scheduling and implementing the tracks involve intervening in five critical leverage points called tracks, that, when functioning properly, cause the organisation to be successful.

KILMANNS FIVE TRACKS ARE 1. Culture track 2. The management skill track 3. The team building track 4. The strategy structure track 5. The reward system track Interventions include training programs, problem solving sessions, critique of current practices and procedures and so forth Culture track trust communication, information sharing, and willingness to change among members. The management skill track provides all management personnel with new ways of coping with complex problems and hidden assumptions. The team building track infuses the new culture and updated management skills into each work unit. The strategy structure track develops either a completely new or a revised strategic plan for the firm and then aligns divisions, departments, work groups, jobs, and all resources with the new strategic direction. The reward system track establishes a performance based rewards system that sustains all improvements

Q9.THE BURKE LITWIN MODEL OF ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE Warner Burke and George Litwin

This model shows how to create first order and second order change (which author calls transactional and transformational change) In the first order change, some features of organisation change but the fundamental nature of organisation remains the same. First order change goes by many different labels : transactional, evolutionary, adaptive, incremental, or continuous change. Second order change goes by many different labels : transformational, revolutionary, radical, or discontinous change. The model distinguishes between organisational climate and organisational culture

STEPS IN THE MODEL BY BURKE AND LITWIN. PROCESS Burke and Litwin distinguish between transformational factors (yellow boxes) and transactional factors (green boxes). Transformational change happens in response to the external environment, which directly affects the mission, strategy, leadership and culture of the organization. . In turn, the transactional factors are affected: structure, systems, management practices, and work climate. These transformational and transactional factors together affect motivation, which in turn affects performance.There is a feedback loop: the organizational performance can directly effect the external environment. STRENGTHS OF THE BURKE-LITWIN MODEL. BENEFITS Overview: the framework integrates many major change factors. External environment is the main factor (although not necessarily the starting point). The hierarchy and causality between the elements. The model distinguishes between the set of variables that influence and are influenced by organizational climate (everyday, transactional level) and those influenced by organizational culture (fundamental, transformational level). LIMITATIONS OF THE MODEL BY BURKE AND LITWIN. The model is a bit complex (although still an oversimplification of the reality). Some organizational changes may be initiated by leadership or by internal factors rather than by the external environment

Q10.THE ACTION RESEARCH MODEL OD as a process of diagnosing, taking action, rediagnosing and taking new action. Action research is essentially a mixture of three ingredients ; the highly participative nature of OD, the consultant role of collaborator and co learner, and the interactive process of diagnosis and action. The action research model as applied in OD consists of : 1 a preliminary diagnosis 2. Data gathering from the client group 3. Data feedback to the client group 4. Exploration of the data by the client group 5. Action planning by the client group 6. Action taking by the client group 7. Evaluation and assessment of the results of the actions by the client group Action Research Yields Both Change And New Knowledge

OD is a response to change, a complex educational strategy intended to change the beliefs, attitudes, values and structure of organisations so that they can better adapt to new technologies, markets, and challenges (Bennis,1969). Eg. Useage of computers in Nationalized banks training provided to employees, Eg. Banks want to merge for strategic business advantage, then changing the attitude of the employees is very important Action research is a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others in teams or as part of a "community of practice" to improve the way they address issues and solve problems. Action research can also be undertaken by larger organizations or institutions, assisted or guided by professional researchers, with the aim of improving their strategies, practices, and knowledge of the environments within which they practice. As designers and stakeholders, researchers work with others to propose a new course of action to help their community improve its work practices (Center for Collaborative Action Research). Kurt Lewin, then a professor at MIT, first coined the term action research in about 1944. In his 1946 paper Action Research and Minority Problems he described action research as a comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action and research leading to social action that uses a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact-finding about the result of the action Action research is an interactive inquiry process that balances problem solving actions implemented in a collaborative context with data-driven collaborative analysis or research to understand underlying causes enabling future predictions about personal and organizational change (Reason & Bradbury, 2001). After six decades of action research development, many methodologies have evolved that adjust the balance to focus more on the actions taken or more on the research that results from the reflective understanding of the actions. This tension exists between 1. those who are more driven by the researchers agenda to those more driven by participants; 2. those who are motivated primarily by instrumental goal attainment to those motivated primarily by the aim of personal, organizational, or societal transformation; and 3. 1st-, to 2nd-, to 3rd-person research, that is, my research on my own action, aimed primarily at personal change; our research on our group (family/team), aimed primarily at improving the group; and scholarly research aimed primarily at theoretical generalization and/or large scale change. Action research challenges traditional social science, by moving beyond reflective knowledge created by outside experts sampling variables to an active moment-to-moment theorizing, data collecting, and inquiring occurring in the midst of emergent structure. Knowledge is always gained through action and for action. From this starting point, to question the validity of social knowledge is to question, not how to develop a reflective science about action, but how to develop genuinely well-informed action how to conduct an action science (Torbert 2001).

Action Research is a process which serves as a model for most OD interventions. French and Bell (5) describe Action Research as a "process of systematically collecting research data about an ongoing system relative to some objective, goal, or need of that system; feeding these data back into the system; taking actions by altering selected variables within the system based both on the data and on hypotheses; and evaluating the results of actions by collecting more data." The steps in Action Research are (6, 7): Entry. This phase consists of marketing, i.e. finding needs for change within an organization. It is also the time to quickly grasp the nature of the organization, identify the appropriate decision maker, and build a trusting relationship. Start-up and contracting. In this step, we identify critical success factors and the real issues, link into the organization's culture and processes, and clarify roles for the consultant(s) and employees. This is also the time to deal with resistance within the organization. A formal or informal contract will define the change process. Assessment and diagnosis. Here we collect data in order to find the opportunities and problems in the organization (refer to DxVxF>R above.) For suggestions about what to look for, see the previous article in this series, on needs assessment (8). This is also the time for the consultant to make a diagnosis, in order to recommend appropriate interventions. Feedback. This two-way process serves to tell those what we found out, based on an analysis of the data. Everyone who contributed information should have an opportunity to learn about the findings of the assessment process (provided there is no apparent breach of anyone's confidentiality.) This provides an opportunity for the organization's people to become involved in the change process, to learn about how different parts of the organization affect each other, and to participate in selecting appropriate change interventions. Action planning. In this step we will distill recommendations from the assessment and feedback, consider alternative actions and focus our intervention(s) on activities that have the most leverage to effect positive change in the organization. An implementation plan will be developed that is based on the assessment data, is logically organized, results- oriented, measurable and rewarded. We must plan for a participative decision-making process for the intervention. Intervention. Now, and only now, do we actually carry out the change process. It is important to follow the action plan, yet remain flexible enough to modify the process as the organization changes and as new information emerges. Evaluation. Successful OD must have made meaningful changes in the performance and efficiency of the people and their organization. We need to have an evaluation procedure to verify this success, identify needs for new or continuing OD activities, and improve the OD process itself to help make future interventions more successful. Adoption. After steps have been made to change the organization and plans have been formulated, we follow-up by implementing processes to insure that this remains an ongoing activity within the organization, that commitments for action have been obtained, and that they will be carried out. Separation. We must recognize when it is more productive for the client and consultant to undertake other activities, and when continued consultation is counterproductive. We also should plan for future contacts, to monitor the success of this change and possibly to plan for future change activities.

Q 11. TEAM INTERVENTIONS Collaborative management of work team culture is a fundamental emphasis of organisational development programs. The reality is that much of the organisations work is accomplished directly or indirectly through teams, work team culture exerts a significant influence on individual behaviour. A work group is a number of persons, usually reporting to a common superior and having some face to face interaction, who have some degree of interdependence in carrying out tasks for the purpose of achieving organisational goals. A team is a form of group, but has some characteristics in greater degree than ordinary groups, including a higher commitment to common goal and a higher degree of interdependency and interaction. Accomplishments must be acknowledged and celebrated, as a group when possible and appropriate. Organizations adopt several ways to achieve this, such as creating a periodic newsletter and email with a section in it for accolades, institution of a peer-to-peer award system, sending greeting cards or gift certificates from websites dedicated to these purposes. The principles of managing teams well are similar to the principles of managing anybody or anything well.

Practices to facilitate development of Teams in organizations

Organization Development facilitators should enable firms to hire team players by putting all job candidates through demanding office-wide scrutiny. Performance Incentives should be designed in such a manner that they are groupbased and performance appraisals should include team working as a criterion. Intra-team conflicts should be resolved in the early stages Unresolved conflicts caused due to employees mutual bickering can kill office morale and productivity. Organizations are deploying paid ombudsmen to help staffers get along and stifle office conflicts As conflicts often arise in work teams, timely interventions to diffuse tensions and strengthen members interpersonal commitment should be introduced. A good team relationship requires nurturing from a strong leader. Leaders might cling to the idea of success being based on individuals, but the value of a great group must not be ignored by the leader. Effective interpersonal interaction would take place among team players communicate more effectively.

OD process should result in the development of a comprehensive and sustainable in-house leadership training program that would foster teamwork. The training programs should enable employees to learn how to handle different types of personalities. Towards the completion phase of team building intervention, team members should be capable of avoiding reciprocal rudeness and maintenance of unconditional politeness, escaping the trap of cliques ,prevention of polarization (cause of division of opinion) of members into opposing factions, perpetrating (responsible) the value of teams, overcoming the phenomenon of groupthink which occurs out of excessive demand for unanimity, understanding the power of group synergy and social-facilitation in raising and social-facilitation in raising an organizations productivity are qualities of the members of winning teams. Team building interventions are typically directed toward four main area : Diagnosis Task Accomplishments Team Relationships Team and organisation processes Characteristics of High Performing Teams member

Share a common purpose / goals Build relationships for trust and respect Balance task and process Plan thoroughly before acting. Involve members in clear problem-solving and decision makingprocedures Respect and understand each others' "diversity" Value synergism and interdependence Emphasize and support team goals Reward individual performance that supports the team. Communicate effectively Practice effective dialogue instead of debate Identify and resolve groupconflicts Vary levels and intensity of work Provide a balance between work and home. Critique the way they work as a team, regularly and consistently Practice continuous improvement Creating a team environment

Forms of team building interventions Analyze the reason for the existence of team, objectives of the team & how the team prepares the action plan for the accomplishment. General critic of the team Team leader & members decide about the need for the diagnostic meetings. Information is collected through whole groups, or subgroups or pairs of individual. Half a day duration Meeting. Based on the need formal meeting is conducted Action plan is prepared

The formal group team building meeting Aims at improving relationship between team members & their effectiveness. Meeting is initiated by manager or team members under the supervision of external consultant. Issues are prioritized Responsibilities are assigned to each member Action plan is prepared. Meeting is conducted away from the work place. Gestalt approach to team building Focuses on individuals based on psychotherapy. Self awareness is essential Accepting as a whole as it is (+ ve, -ve) Awareness know-how Authenticity Accepting responsibility Negative feeling can be resolved through confrontation & repression Practiced by trained practitioner OTHER EXERCISES USED FOR TEAM BUILDING Role analysis Technique (RAT) John Thomas The role defined is known as focal role Defining the role by team members Expectations, suggestions by team members

Preparation of role profile explaing the authority, obligation of the role Role clarity is achieved Role negotiation technique ( RNT)- Roger Harrison Resolving conflict by making some compromises RNT consultants act as a negotiator between the conflicting parties

Steps during RNT Contract setting Ground rules submitted in written format Issue diagnosis what kind of change is expected Hoe change will affect on performance. Negotiation period ( 2 days) Discussion of most important changes required from each other Expectations from each others Content of the agreement in written format Follow up meeting Forced field analysis- Kurt Lewin Used for understanding problematic situation & for planning corrective action. Two types of forces Driving forces forces for change Restraining forces forces resisting change Equilibrium can be obtained to get desired outcome of the change program Essential steps Defining current problem situation Desired condition Identifying driving, resisting forces Strong & weak forces are identified Strategy to move from current condition to desired condition Implementation of action plan Intergroup team building interventions improves intergroup relations between work teams and leads to easy flow of communication

Q 12. THIRD PARTY PEACE MAKING INTERVENTIONS Third-party intermediaries are people, organizations, or even nations (in an international perspective) who enter a conflict to try to help the parties de-escalate or resolve it (Burgess, 2004). Formal intermediaries are people who are professional conflict resolvers and who are hired specifically to do that job. They may be professional mediators, arbitrators, facilitators, or judges, who work privately or with a government agency. Informal intermediaries are people who find themselves in an intermediary role, but it is not something they usually do as a profession. What specific objective third-party interventions aim to achieve? Third parties can: Provide breathing space (i.e. reduce tension) Re-establish communication between two parties Refocus on substantiative issues Repair stained relationships Recommend time limits Salvage sunk costs of stalled negotiations Increase level of negotiator satisfaction So, when do you need third-party intervention? Deadlock or impasse between two-parties Unproductive tension and hostility Anger and resentment overwhelm negotiators Mistrust and suspicion are high Intermediary roles? There are a number of intermediary roles that individuals play. Bill Ury (2000), identifies ten (10) such roles

Provider (of needed resources) Teacher (to give new ideas for how to resolve conflict, or at least for new ways to approach it) Bridge-builder (brings people together where they can get to know each other better) Mediators (helps parties work out their problems themselves) Arbitrators (listen to both sides then make a decision about what should happen) Equalizers (empowers the lower power group(s), so that they can negotiate more effectively with the other party) Healers (help parties apologize, forgive, and become reconciled) Witnesses (who observe what is going on and call attention to injustice) Referees (who try to keep both sides to fighting fairly) Peacemakers (keep the parties apart so they dont fight (at least physically) at all

Formal or informal, the most visible and recognized intermediary roles are mediators and arbitrators. Mediators influence process Arbitrators determine outcome

Method for solving interpersonal conflict Confrontation technique Motivating parties to resolve conflict Insist on exploring possible solutions Sufficient time is given to understand each other Efforts to overcome negative feeling Differentiation phase- Concentrate on differences in opinion Integration phase- Shares positve feeling & common things

Q 13. FUTURE OF ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Organization Development (OD) is a unique organizational improvement strategy. The sets of structured/planned activities adopted by groups or individuals in an organization as a part of the organization development program, are known as OD techniques or OD interventions. While change programs may involve either external or internal consultants, OD interventions mostly involve external consultants. Some OD interventions include sensitivity training, survey feedback, process consultation, team interventions and intergroup interventions, third party peace making interventions, and structural interventions. The most widely used structural interventions are parallel learning structures, self-managed teams, Management by Objectives (MBO), Quality Circles, Total Quality Management (TQM), Quality of work life (QWL) projects, large-scale systems change, organizational transformation, and process reengineering. The research and practice in the field of OD has led to the emergence of new concepts and interventions. Therefore, OD is a continuously growing field. The factors that add to the strength of OD include soundness of its processes, the emphasis of OD interventions on democratic processes and on bringing about a simultaneous change in people as well as technology. Though OD seems to have a promising future, there are certain factors that have the potential to make the future of OD uncertain. These include nature of organizational leadership and the values of top management, knowledge of management about OD, the importance given by management to training employees in OD skills, interdisciplinary nature of OD, dissemination of OD techniques, integration of techniques in the field of OD with those in other fields and the recording and maintenance of the history of OD. The changes in global economy, technology and nature of workforce have significant implications for the future of OD. In the future, OD will become a part of organizational operations and OD skills will be acquired by employees at every level in the organization. OD processes will use advanced technology and the duration of OD interventions will be reduced. OD will focus on learning and innovation and its interdisciplinary nature will increase. As OD practitioners have to work with diverse client organizations and cross-cultural teams, they will need to develop the required competence. Prior to solving the value dilemmas of modern organizations, OD practitioners will be required to resolve the dilemma within themselves regarding the focus of OD interventions.

The Future of OD More embedded in the organizations culture More technologically enabled Shorter OD cycle times More interdisciplinary More diverse client organizations More cross-cultural Greater focus on ecological sustainability

Q 14. ETHICAL ISSUES IN OD Many people are suspicious of organizational consultants, and for good reason. Many change efforts fall into three categories:

The fad or fly-by-night initiative, which takes up a lot of time and, often, energy, sometimes engaging the enthusiasm of a number of people, only to disappear when managers become interested in the next new thing. These pick up the reputation of being great for consulting firms, but a waste of time for everyone else. They may be well-intentioned efforts by well-trained HR groups who do not have the power or resources to get the results they need; they result of a close relationship between a consultant and an executive; the outcome of an executive with a short attention span and an interest in increasing performance; or ineffective processes of a large consulting firm. o A subgroup of this is the initiative which really does produce good results - but whose outcome is not well publicized, so that employees think nothing has happened. The false front, where a change effort purporting to help everyone turns into a traditional time and motion study or an excuse to eliminate jobs or speed up the line (whether the line is real or figurative). The less common, but still damaging, false front, where employees' reactions to an initiative are used against them - perhaps by supervisors or unscrupulous managers, without the knowledge of well-meaning people in HR.

There is a long history of management consultants being used to eliminate or demean jobs. Frederick Winslow Taylor, whose name has been attached to Taylorism, was famous for being able to extract more performance by "scientifically" determining the best work processes. For example, he would change the size of a coal mover's shovel, provide frequent rest breaks, train the mover in the best way to shovel coal (based on experimentation), and set up a pay-forperformance system. Unfortunately, Taylor's system - which, while it robbed the coal mover of some control over their own work, did at least make their job easier and less physically damaging - was abused by many managers and consultants to follow. Pay-for-performance systems were constantly adjusted so that the faster people moved, the less they made per unit Taylor, to be fair, fought this sort of thing. The frequent rest breaks somehow didn't often make it into practice, but taking away the individual worker's ability to make even the simplest decisions did. For decades, managers, sometimes in the name of scientific management, used every possible means to take away individual decision-making, pushing it upwards through the organization. Even in the heyday of job enrichment and empowerment, many companies were actively, and to their own detriment, pushing power upwards instead of downwards. Some of these stories are outlined in Brave New Workplace, a good book for those wishing to hear the less-told, nonmanagement side of the story. Organizational development should be beyond reproach. Based on the idea of working with organizational culture to bring out the best in people, the goals and ethics of organizational development are certainly laudable from a human perspective. It's hard to argue with the financial results, either. We have yet to hear of a true "OD" intervention being abused, though

of course components of OD - the various tools used by OD practitioners - can easily be subverted or ineffective in the wrong hands. Generally speaking, the ethical consultant or manager can do many things to make the lives of employees and managers better, and not just in financial terms. Often, consultants and leaders start out their discussion of a major project by saying that, up front, they decided nobody would lose their job as a result of the initiative. Amazingly, it is possible to achieve great efficiencies without job loss or massive unpaid overtime. For example, in John DeLorean's 1960s overhaul of Pontiac and Chevrolet, jobs were eliminated via attrition - no layoffs - while both divisions increased their sales and profitability. The main formula was breaking down blockages between levels and departments, while increasing communication and pushing authority downwards. Not surprisingly, the same formula allowed Bob Lutz to perform miracles at Chrysler in the early 1990s. Full-scale organizational development turned British Airways around without layoffs, as well, by turning low-quality service into world-class service - using the same employees. A successful organizational transformation has several key components, whether it is called job enrichment, organizational development, continuous improvement, or quality. First is empowering employees to do their jobs to the best of their ability. That requires pushing authority, responsibility, and information downwards. Second is empowering employees to change the system. Drucker is famous for noting that most problems are caused not by employees, but by systems, technologies, and processes. Since those are designed by people, it only makes sense that allowing people to fix problems in systems, technologies, and processes will have a tremendous impact in increasing productivity and quality. Third is providing a clear vision to people and helping everyone to understand the organizational strategy. Giving people a common vision and strategy motivates people, because they are not working at cross purposes, and it avoids wasted effort. This may be the primary role of the organizational leader. Any organizational initiative should be measured against whether it has these three components. Does an employee survey result in managers chastizing employees for poor performance, or empowering managers and staff to do something about areas where there are gaps? Does a technology effort provide another way for managers to keep close tabs on employee performance and enforce detailed regulations, or does it allow employees to see and improve their own performance, while spreading or learning from best practices? Effective organizational consultants and corporate leaders may not speak in these terms, but their perspective is clear to see. A "Chainsaw Al" Dunlop may be great at cutting costs for a year or two, but bankruptcy tends to follow. On the other hand, a Herbert K. Kelleher can empower his employees while maintaining low costs - a win-win situation.

Values of O.D. Professionals As an O.D. professional, I acknowledge the fundamental importance of the following values both for myself and my profession: 1. quality of life -- people being satisfied with their whole life experience; 2. health, human potential, empowerment, growth and excellence -- people being healthy, aware of the fullness of their potential, recognizing their power to bring that potential into being, growing into it, living it, and, generally, doing the best they can with it, individually and collectively; 3. freedom and responsibility -- people being free and responsible in choosing how they will live their lives; 4. justice -- people living lives whose results are fair and right for everyone; 5. dignity, integrity, worth and fundamental rights of individuals, organizations, communities, societies, and other human systems; 6. all-win attitudes and cooperation -- people caring about one another and about working together to achieve results that work for everyone, individually and collectively; 7. authenticity and openness in relationship; 8. effectiveness, efficiency and alignment -- people achieving the maximum of desired results, at minimum cost, in ways that coordinate their individual energies and purposes with those of the system-as-a-whole, the subsystems of which they are parts, and the larger system of which their system is a part; 9. holistic, systemic view and stakeholder orientation -- understanding human behavior from the perspective of whole system(s) that influence and are influenced by that behavior; recognizing the interests that different people have in the system's results and valuing those interests fairly and justly; 10. wide participation in system affairs, confrontation of issues leading to effective problem solving, and democratic decision making. Ethical Guidelines for O.D. Professionals I. Responsibility to Self A. Act with integrity; be authentic and true to myself B. Strive continually for self-knowledge and personal growth C. Recognize my personal needs and desires and, when they conflict with other responsibilities, seek all-win resolutions of those conflicts. D. Assert my own economic and financial interests in ways that are fair and equitable to me as well as to my clients and their stakeholders.

II. Responsibility for Professional Development and Competence A. Accept responsibility for the consequences of my acts and make reasonable efforts to ensure that my services are properly used; terminate my services if they are not properly used and do what I can to see that any abuses are corrected. B. Strive to achieve and maintain a professional level of competence for both myself and my profession by developing the full range of my own competence and by establishing collegial and cooperative relations with other O.D. professionals. C. Recognize my own personal needs and desires and deal with them responsibly in the performance of my professional roles. D. Practice within the limits of my competence, culture, and experience in providing services and using techniques. E. Practice in cultures different from my own only with consultation from people native to or knowledgeable about those specific cultures. III. Responsibility to Clients and Significant Others A. Serve the long-term well-being, interests and development of the client system and all its stakeholders, even when the work being done has a short-term focus. B. Conduct any professional activity, program or relationship in ways that are honest, responsible, and appropriately open. C. Establish mutual agreement on a contract covering services and remuneration. Deal with conflicts constructively and avoid conflicts of interest as much as D. possible. E. Define and protect the confidentiality of my client-professional relationships. F. Make public statements of all kinds accurately, including promotion and advertising, and give service as advertised. IV. Responsibility to the Profession A. Contribute to continuing professional development for myself, other practitioners, and the profession. B. Promote the sharing of O.D. knowledge and skill. C. Work with other O.D. professionals in ways that exemplary what our profession says we stand for. D. Work actively for ethical practice by individuals and organizations engaged in O.D. activities and, in case of questionable practice, use appropriate channels for dealing with it. E. Act in ways that bring credit to the O.D. profession and with due regard for colleagues in other professions.

V. Social Responsibility A. Act with sensitivity to the fact that my recommendations and actions may alter the lives and well-being of people within my client systems and the larger systems of which they are subsystems. B. Act with awareness of the cultural filters which affect my view of the world, respect cultures different from my own, and be sensitive to cross-cultural and multicultural differences and their implications. C. Promote justice and serve the well-being of all life on Earth. Recognize that accepting this Statement as a guide for my behavior involves holding myself to a standard that may be more exacting than the laws of any D. countries in which I practice, the guidelines of any professional associations to which I belong, or the expectations of any of my clients.

Q 15. DIAGNOSTIC AND INTERVENTIONS IN OD Organizational development (OD) is an application of behavioral science to organizational change. It encompasses a wide array of theories, processes, and activities, all of which are oriented toward the goal of improving individual organizations. Generally speaking, however, OD differs from traditional organizational change techniques in that it typically embraces a more holistic approach that is aimed at transforming thought and behavior throughout an entity. Definitions of OD abound, but they are all predicated on the notion of improving organizational performance through proactive activities and techniques. It is also worth noting that organizational development, though concerned with improving workforce performance, should not be mistaken for human resource development. "Organization development is the planned process of developing an organization to be more effective in accomplishing its desired goals," "It is distinguished from human resource development in that HRD focuses on the personal growth of individuals within organizations, while OD focuses on developing the structures, systems, and processes within the organization to improve organizational effectiveness." Organizational Development Basics OD programs usually share several basic characteristics. For instance, they are considered long-term efforts of at least one to three years in most cases. In addition, OD stresses collaborative management, whereby managers and employees at different levels of the hierarchy cooperate to solve problems. OD also recognizes that every organization is unique and that the same solutions cannot necessarily be applied at different companiesthis assumption is reflected in an OD focus on research and feedback. Another common trait of OD programs is an emphasis on the value of teamwork and small groups. In fact, most OD systems use small teamsor even individualsas a vehicle to implement broad organizational changes. The catalystwhether a group or individualthat facilitates the OD process is known as the "change agent." Change agents are often outside consultants with experience managing OD programs, although companies sometimes utilize inside managers. The advantage of bringing in outside OD consultants is that they often provide a different perspective and have a less biased view of the organization's problems and needs. The primary drawback associated with outside change agents is that they may lack an in-depth understanding of key issues particular to the company. In addition, outside change agents may have trouble securing the trust and cooperation of key players in the organization. For these reasons, some companies employ an external-internal team approach, which seeks to combine the advantages of internal and external change agents while minimizing the drawbacks associated with the two approaches. "Once we recognize that organizational development involves substantial changes in how individuals think, believe, and act, we can appreciate the necessity of someone to play the role of change agent. But who should play the role? Existing managers? New managers? Or individuals hired specifically for that purpose? Depending upon the situation, any of these can be called upon to orchestrate the organizational development process. The point is that the role of the change agent is necessary for organizational development to occur."

Implementing Od Programs OD efforts basically entail two groups of activities: "action research" and "interventions." Action research is a process of systematically collecting data on a specific organization, feeding it back for action planning, and evaluating results by collecting and reflecting on more data. Data gathering techniques include everything from surveys and questionnaires to interviews, collages, drawings, and tests. The data is often evaluated and interpreted using advanced statistical analysis techniques. Action research can be thought of as the diagnostic component of the OD process. But it also encompasses the intervention component, whereby the change agent uses action plans to intervene in the organization and make changes, as discussed below. In a continuous process, the results of actions are measured and evaluated and new action plans are devised to effect new changes. Thus, the intervention process can be considered a facet of action research. OD interventions are plans or programs comprised of specific activities designed to effect change in some facet of an organization. Numerous interventions have been developed over the years to address different problems or create various results. However, they all are geared toward the goal of improving the entire organization through change. In general, organizations that wish to achieve a high degree of organizational change will employ a full range of interventions, including those designed to transform individual and group behavior and attitudes. Entities attempting smaller changes will stop short of those goals, applying interventions targeted primarily toward operating policies, management structures, worker skills, and personnel policies. Typically, organization development programs will simultaneously integrate more than one of these interventions. A few of the more popular interventions are briefly described below. INTERPERSONAL INTERVENTIONS Interpersonal interventions in an OD program are designed to enhance individual skills, knowledge, and effectiveness. This type of program utilizes group dynamics by gathering individuals together in loosely structured meetings. Subject matter is determined by the group, within the context of basic goals stipulated by a facilitator. As group members try to exert structure on fellow members, group members gain a greater awareness of their own and other's feelings, motivations, and behaviors. Other types of interpersonal interventions include those designed to improve the performance review process, create better training programs, help workers identify their true wants and set complementary career goals, and resolve conflict. GROUP INTERVENTIONS OD group interventions are designed to help teams and groups within organizations become more effective. Such interventions usually assume that the most effective groups communicate well, facilitate a healthy balance between both personal and group needs, and function by consensus as opposed to autocracy or majority rule. Group diagnostic interventions are simply meetings wherein members of a team analyze their unit's performance, ask questions about what the team needs to do to improve, and discuss potential solutions to problems. The benefit of such interventions is that members often communicate problems of which their co-workers were unaware. Ideally, such communication will spur problem-solving and improved group dynamics.

Role analysis technique (RAT) is used to help employees get a better grasp on their role in an organization. In the first step of a RAT intervention, people define their perception of their role and contribution to the overall company effort in front of a group of coworkers. Group members then provide feedback to more clearly define the role. In the second phase, the individual and the group examine ways in which the employee relies on others in the company, and how they define his or her expectations. RAT interventions help people to reduce role confusion, which can result in either conflict or the perception that some people are not doing their job. A popular intervention similar to RAT is responsibility charting, which utilizes a matrix system to assign decision and task responsibilities. INTERGROUP INTERVENTIONS Intergroup interventions are integrated into OD programs to facilitate cooperation and efficiency between different groups within an organization. For instance, departmental interaction often deteriorates in larger organizations as different units battle for limited resources or become detached from the needs of other units. Conflict resolution meetings are one common intergroup intervention. First, different group leaders are brought together to secure their commitment to the intervention. Next, the teams meet separately to make a list of their feelings about the other group(s). Then the groups meet and share their lists. Finally, the teams meet to discuss the problems and to try to develop solutions that will help both parties. This type of intervention, say supporters, helps to gradually diffuse tension between groups that has arisen because of faulty communication. Rotating membership interventions are used by OD change agents to minimize the negative effects of intergroup rivalry that arise from employee allegiances to groups or divisions. The intervention basically entails temporarily putting group members into their rival groups. As more people interact in the different groups, greater understanding results. OD joint activity interventions serve the same basic function as the rotating membership approach, but these involve melding members of different groups to work together toward a common goal. Similarly, common enemy interventions achieve the same results by finding an adversary common to two or more groups and then getting members of the groups to work together to overcome the threat. Examples of common enemies targeted in such programs include competitors, government regulation, and economic conditions. COMPREHENSIVE INTERVENTIONS OD comprehensive interventions are used to directly create change throughout an entire organization, rather than focusing on organizational change through subgroup interventions. One of the most popular comprehensive interventions is survey feedback. This technique basically entails surveying employee attitudes at all levels of the company and then disseminating a report that details those findings. The employees then use the data in feedback sessions to create solutions to perceived problems. A number of questionnaires developed specifically for such interventions have been developed. Structural change interventions are used by OD change agents to implement organizational alterations related to departmentalization, management hierarchy, work policies, compensation and benefit incentives programs, and other cornerstones of the business. Often, the implemented changes emanate from feedback from other interventions. One benefit of change interventions is that companies can often realize an immediate and very significant impact in productivity and profitability (provided the changes are warranted and implemented appropriately).

Sociotechnical system design interventions are similar to structural change techniques, but they typically emphasize the reorganization of work teams. The basic goal is to create independent groups throughout the company that supervise themselves. This administration may include such aspects as monitoring quality or disciplining team members. The theoretic benefit of sociotechnical system design interventions is that worker and group productivity and quality is increased because workers have more control over (and subsequent satisfaction from) the process in which they participate. A fourth OD intervention that became extremely popular during the 1980s and early 1990s is total quality management (TQM). TQM interventions utilize established quality techniques and programs that emphasize quality processes, rather than achieving quality by inspecting products and services after processes have been completed. The important concept of continuous improvement embodied by TQM has carried over into other OD interventions.

Q 16. PARTICIPATION & EMPOWERMENT Empowerment and Participation It is interesting how the word communication can change life at home and at work. When everyone is aware of what is going on around him or her, they can function better. It is important for employees to understand the business in its entirety. That includes the finances of the job. All of the readings in this chapter had something to offer. I feel taking a bit from each will provide a work place of splendor. Finances include a variety of things: From hiring a new employee to purchasing a new tool to make the job easier. It is those decisions we make which can make difference of saving, spending and making money. It is these decisions that can make or break a company. The old school tells us not to share finances with anyone else in the company but those directly on top. The new school is saying that this philosophy is all wrong. If one want an employee to do the best he or she can do, and feel important, give them the company information. Let all the employees know what role they play. Allow them to make decisions that will make their job easier. The Lightening of Empowerment suggests managers help their employees take ownership of their jobs. This requires trust, listening to the workers, and giving feedback. The novel concept here is to treat people like humans. Like any relationship, one needs these qualities to survive. If one gives positive reinforcements people tend to respect them. Employers hire people everyday with the hopes and trust they will do their job. But when people do not understand the role they really play in the company, they may not give their full effort. Hence, we have Saps, people who lack the main ingredients of relationships discussed earlier. We must let the employees know we trust them to make good positive decisions. Give them the empowerment by letting them know they are valued, and commending them on jobs well done. Open Book Management suggests we share our finances with the other employees no matter what their status, and give them a stake in the company. After all, this is a good suggestion, why work if one can't reap the benefits of their work? It also suggests that many employees are business illiterate, and if we want them to understand business we need to teach it to them. In conclusion, all of the readings I have done so far make management more then just problem solvers. They have become part of the problem. To solve their own problems managers need to be teachers, coaches, and a wealth of knowledge to be shared. Businesses need to be a team, and to this they need to share every aspect of the team. When the business succeeds all should have a share in the profit, and when it fails all are responsible. Participation doesn't always lead to empowerment. It takes a supportive environment in which to nurture people's aspirations and skills for empowerment to ultimately occur. Some means of achieving this are:

Don't underestimate people. Give them tools to manage complexity; don't, shield them from it Divide the issues into bite-sized chunks Start with people's own concerns and the issues relevant to them/li> Don't superimpose your own ideas and solutions at the outset Help people widen their perceptions of the choices available and to clarify the implications of each option Build in visible early successes to develop the confidence of participants "Staircase" skills, trust and commitment to the process: offer a progressive range of levels of involvement and help people to move up the ladder

Direct empowerment training for participants may not be appreciated - it may be better to develop skills more organically as part of the process If at all possible, avoid going for a comprehensive irreversible solution. Set up an iterative learning process, with small, quick, reversible pilots and experiments Continuously review and widen membership. As new interests groups are discovered how will they be integrated into the process? Help people to build their understanding of complex and remote decision processes which are outside the delegated powers of the participation process but which are affecting the outcomes Nurture new networks and alliances Plans must be meaningful and lead to action Manage the link between the private ability of the various interest groups to deliver on their commitments and the public accountability and control of the implementation Build in opportunities for reflection and appraisal Make sure people are having fun! (from The Guide to effective Participation by David Wilcox)

Ten Key Ideas about Participation 1. Level of participation Sherry Arnstein (1969) described a ladder of participation with eight steps. Briefly, these are: 1 Manipulation and 2 Therapy. Non participative. The aim is to cure or educate the participants. The proposed plan is best and the job of participation is to achieve public support by public relations. 3 Informing. A most important first step to legitimate participation. But too frequently the emphasis is on a one way flow of information. No channel for feedback. 4 Consultation. Attitude surveys, neighbourhood meetings and public enquires. But a window dressing ritual. 5 Placation. Co-option of hand-picked 'worthies' onto committees. 6 Partnership. Power redistributed through negotiation between citizens and power holders. Planning and decision-making responsibilities are shared. 7 Delegated power. Citizens holding a clear majority of seats on committees with delegated powers to make decisions. Public now has the power to assure accountability of the program to them. 8 Citizen Control. Have-nots handle the entire job of planning, policy making and managing a program. 2. Initiation and process Participation doesn't just happen, it is initiated. Someone then manages a process over time, and allows others involved some control over what happens. The process is described during four phases: Initiation - Preparation - Participation - Continuation. 3. Control The initiator is in a strong position to decide how much control for. This decision is equivalent to taking a stand on the ladder - or adopted a stance about the level of participation. 4. Power and Purpose Understanding participation involves understanding power: the ability of the different interests to achieve what they want. Power will depend on who has information and money. It will also

depend on people's confidence and skills. Many organizations are unwilling to allow people to participate because they fear loss of control. However, there are many situations when working together allows everyone to achieve more than they could on their own. These represent the benefits of participation. 5. Role of the facilitators Facilitators control much of what happens. It is important they constantly think about the part they are playing. 6. Stakeholders and Community A stakeholder is anyone who has a stake in what happens. Who will be affected by any project, who controls the information, skills and money needed, who may help and who may hinder?. Everyone affected does not have an equal say. Use the ladder to think about who has most influence. The community which participates depends on the project as different people are interested in different issues. 7. Partnership Useful when a number of different interests willingly come together formally or informally to achieve some common purpose. The partners don't have to be equal in skills, funds or even confidence, but they do have to trust each other and share some commitment. Building trust and commitment takes time.

8. Commitment Commitment is the other side of apathy: committed people want to achieve something, apathetic don't. But what leads to commitment? Not telling people "You ought to care," inviting them to public meetings or bombarding them with glossy leaflets. People care about what they are interested in, and become committed when they feel they can achieve something. Hard selling won't achieve that. If people are apathetic about your proposals, it may simply be that they don't share your interests or concerns. 9. Ownership of ideas People are most likely to be committed to carry something through if they have a stake in the idea, or allow people to say "We thought of that." In practice that means running brainstorming workshops, helping people think through the practicality of ideas, and negotiating with others a result which is acceptable to as many people as possible. Apathy is directly proportional to the stake people have in ideas and outcomes. 10. Confidence and capacity

Putting ideas into practice depends on people's confidence and skills. Many participation processes involve breaking new ground. It is unrealistic to expect individuals or small groups suddenly to develop the capability to make complex decisions and become involved in major projects. They need training or the opportunity to learn formally and informally, to develop confidence, and trust in each other.