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AAR4907 - Sustainable Building Materials and Components

COURTAYRDS:
Their roles in houses as climatic moderator in hot-arid climates

Sustainable Architecture Faculty of Architecture and Fine Arts Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU)
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They provide a place to bask in the sun or a shady and airy place to be cool, while the houses are stuffy and either too cool from the night before or overheated by the afternoon sun. (Hyde, 2000, p.221) The description above by Lisa Heschong exactly tells the usefulness of having courtyards in buildings. Abstract: Design responding climate issues is an important environmental approach to building design in todays context of enhancing comfort condition with considerations of sustainability and reducing energy consumption. A number of passive strategies can be explored depending on the geography of a place and the nature of the climate. Use of courtyards in building designs is one such efficient strategy whose usage can be explored for both hot and cold climates. Courtyard is an internal climate modifier (Majumdar, 2001, p.139), the existence of which will definitely change the surrounding environment and the air temperature. As climate seems to have a major impact on the building, there must be relationship between the architectural characteristics and environmental / climatic conditions in order to achieve a good passive design. Introduction: Courtyard in general is an area wholly or partly surrounded by walls or buildings. Conceptually, courtyard is considered as an open space that is open to the sky and penetrates the mass of the building. Courtyards (Reynolds, 2002, p.ix) not only serve as a connecting space to the surrounding rooms as traditionally thought of but also mediates in filtering daylight, wind, rain and noise. In addition to bringing nature into the building, they assist in moderating natures extremes, i.e., hot and cold. These spaces are normally not as hot as summers afternoon sun and as cold as just before dawn or late night. Courtyards when planned suitably protect outdoor spaces against winds, maximise solar access and minimise shading in winter whilst opening to breezes in summer, maximising shading vegetation and minimising solar access to vertical and horizontal surfaces in summer. In cooler climates buildings can be arranged to trap warm air or protect it from cold air in courtyards while in hot places, cooling through courtyards can be further enhanced with the use of fountains, ponds and growing plants by evaporative cooling. In denser settlements especially in urban areas where natural light and ventilation becomes important and is difficult to achieve, courtyard is necessary (Hyde, 2000, pp.221-24). In the absence of courtyards, it is usually difficult to achieve passive way of ventilating and some form of active system is required to provide the physical comfort of building occupants. From the climatic design perspective, the size and degree of enclosure have a significant impact on the performance of a courtyard and the building

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around it. If a courtyard starts becoming large, then it loses its identity as a normal courtyard and instead becomes a square or a park. When it becomes too small, it may look like a corridor; transferring it into a breezeway or to have the more selective function of an air and light shaft. The usual function of a courtyard is to bring light and ventilation into a building. However, it can create a useful micro-climate when combined with different functions, wall types, building forms, materials and landscaping. The position, orientation, shape and size of courtyards are important factors for the design of courtyards. Their relation with other building elements open and semi open spaces must be considered as well. The concept of space in a courtyard house and a western style house is different as it is closed and more private in the former while it is open in the latter (Figure 1: Courtyard & Western-style house..

Figure 1: Courtyard & Western-style house.

Courtyards (Reynolds, 2002) are special areas that allow the inside and outside to mingle; where rain, wind, daylight, night darkness, and sound can be somehow controlled. Since at least 3000 B.C., courtyards have been incorporated into the architecture of the day as a significant part of the physical and cultural landscape. Ozkan has also stated that the concept of courtyard dates back to the Neolithic times (Ozkan, 2006). Greek houses, (Anon., n.d.) in the 6th and 5th century B.C., were built of stone, wood, or clay bricks consisting of two or three rooms, arranged around an open air courtyard. Larger homes had a kitchen, a room for bathing, a men's dining room, and perhaps a woman's sitting area. Since the Greek women were allowed to leave their homes only for short periods of time, they could enjoy the open air, in the privacy of their courtyard. In Islamic culture (Ozkan, 2006), courtyard is an exclusively private part of a house and is used only by members of the family. The courtyard is a multipurpose space where

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most of the activities of the family take place. It also provides a climatically controlled space from many of natures unwanted forces, like winds and storms. The compact nature of planning around a courtyard offers efficient use of the streetscape, as it is primarily used for accessibility and circulation. Therefore, by its nature in the historical districts of hot, arid regions, very high densities are achieved by low-rise architecture and an urban pattern that is humane. Courtyard housing is widely considered to be a responsive typology to low rise high-density urban housing and is an appropriate form of housing within contemporary mixed use sustainable urban developments.

Figure 2: Different courtyards (Reynolds, 2002, p.4)

Courtyards are an interesting space in a building that have numerous and significance importance. Their usages vary from place to place and culture to culture. In some places, a courtyard serves only as a physical outdoor space or an extra space that connects the outside street to the building. While in other places, according to their placement, the function is different. If it serves as the entrance to the house, then it is placed to the corner or to the side with one side adjacent to the street, separated by a boundary wall. Some courtyards like the colonial Latin America (Venezuela) (Reynolds, 2002, p.4) have courtyards to the rear side of the building connected by a covered entranceway from the street (see figure2). Typical courtyards have a direct entrance to the courtyard like the one prominent in the north side of the Mediterranean as in figure2. Many courtyards found in Kathmandu Nepal are also of this type. In case of four in one
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courtyard house in Beijing, public access is allowed to the first smaller courtyard but a hanging flower gate screens the second, large and private courtyard. In some other courtyards like that of the ancient Greece (figure2), the covered entranceway is placed such that it leads directly to one arcade along the courtyard rather than the centre. Scope: Courtyards serve buildings with numerous functions. These are from providing privacy, access to nature, serving various household and commercial activities to moderating the climate. In the essay, I basically will focus on the climatic aspect of courtyards. Even the climatic aspect of courtyards if researched, would produce books. Hence, the scope of the essay is mainly to explore the moderating qualities of courtyards with climate extremes in dwellings in hot-dry and hot-arid climates. Context: hot-arid climate Hot-arid climates (Mier & Roaf, 2002) are usually observed in hot dry deserts that almost see no rain throughout the year with the air and soil being very dry. Summer days are usually very hot and dry while nights are comparatively cooler. Winter days are generally sunny with clear skies whereas nights are cold. Dust and sand storms are common usually during the transition season. Drought is a common phenomenon in this type of climate. The case of Marrakesh, Morocco is taken as the context.

Figure 3: Courtyard, Trondheim Norway; in cold countries large courtyards are sun collecting spaces. The spaces around the courtyard are also protected from the cold wind (picture to the right; http://kart.gulesider.no)

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Method: It is a good idea to exploit the advantages of courtyard as a passive means in places where it suits best. To write this essay, I basically collected information from books, electronic sources and from supervisors. I have taken two cases as illustrations: i) Turkey case: description to support the theme of the essay (Bekleyen & Dalkilic, 2011) ii) Morocco case: quantitative analysis of the thermal behaviour of courtyards in hot-arid climatic context. (Raydan et al., 2003, 2006) Research question and objective: As mentioned above, courtyards serve as an important means for thermal comfort. In cold areas like Norway, the courtyards are wider/larger to admit more of the winter sun. They are usually protected from cold winds by the buildings surrounding it. In the warmer countries, they are smaller to exclude the sun and its tremendous heat. So, we see that the shape and proportion of the courtyard has a major role to play in thermal comfort of a building which incorporates it. Courtyard usually assists in the natural ventilation thereby creating a comfortable indoor environment. So, on the basis of these facts, this research essay shall be based on the following research question: What is the influence of a courtyard to thermal comfort in a building incorporating it in hot-dry/arid climates? The following objective can be drawn to reach a conclusion to the above question: To study courtyards and their role in moderating the extreme climatic conditions in hotdry/arid climatic context

Social Aspect of Courtyards In Islamic cultures, privacy is one of the most important factors in a house. As per the tradition, the male guests are to be entertained, (Zako, 2006, p.65) while at the same time avoiding their access and contact with the female members of the house. This has given rise to additional features to Islamic architecture and the courtyards have been used in some form or the other. The entrance to courtyard is bent to create more visual privacy from the street. In Kathmandu Nepal, the old royal palace called the Hanuman Dhoka has ten courtyards. Until the existence of a king in Nepal, the main courtyard called the Nassal Chowk just next to the entrance was very important for royal ceremonies like the coronation. The other courtyard Mul Chowk has a temple and so is used for religious activities. The Mohan chowk has a sunken bath which on earlier days was used by the
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royals for bathing. Similarly the traditional settlements around the palace and other places in the valley like Patan, Bhaktapur, Kirtipur, the buildings are arranged around courtyards. These courtyards are very important and are used as community spaces. Activities like bathing, religious Figure 4: Courtyards in Hanuman Dhoka Royal Palace, Kathmandu Nepal (John activities in case a Sanday) temple exists, drying grains, basking in the sun, various other social gatherings like marriages, parties and so on. Even at present, when the houses have changed appearance, the courtyards have remained unaltered posing themselves even more important as the few remaining open spaces in the crowed city. Activities in and around the courtyard Although temporary, any activity can be carried out in a courtyard. Usually the extensions of a living, dining and kitchen activities are carried out. Activities like sitting, eating, gathering, celebrating, playing and even sleeping during hot summer nights is carried out in the courtyard (Bahammam, 2006, pp.78-79). It is designed to be a multifunctional family space in the house, drawing the family members out into the courtyard holding them together while providing favourable atmosphere for social interaction. The courtyards floor could have suitable materials for children to play out in the nature without being threatened from traffic and other extrusions. Courtyards function successfully as dwellings for older people. They combine the advantages of compact, easily maintained living quarters with the provision of communal outdoor places for public contact. The emphasis on the ground plane minimizes stairs and permits an unusual degree of interaction among people with limited mobility (Reynolds, 2002, pp.57-58).

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Climate control Courtyards, as per Reynolds (2000, p.79), represent an attempt to bring the forces of nature under partial control. They intensify some aspects of the climate such as daylight and dilute others such as wind. Use of Courtyards (Raydan et al., 2006) in hot-arid regions fulfil several functions such as the creation of an open sheltered zone, the adoption of ingenious natural cooling strategies, the protection against wind-blown dust or sand and the mitigation of the effects of solar excess. However, in cold countries like Norway, these are designed to create pockets of solar gain, thus balancing the harshness of cold northern climates. So, a courtyard is either a sun protector or sun collector depending on their proportions. A deeper courtyard will stay cooler in summer but exclude sun for warmth in winter and hence are preferred in hot climates. In cold weather, (Reynolds 2000, p.79) a common design strategy is to huddle that is, minimize exposure to cold air. Courtyard buildings expose only the street faade, the four walls facing the courtyard, and the roof. Compared to the building surrounded by open space, this design strategy works well to conserve heat. During the day, (Medi, n.d.) solar radiation falling on the surface of courtyard warms up the air which then rises up. In replacement, there is a flow of cool air from the openings of surrounding ground level room; thus, creating an air flow. At night, the process is reversed with cool air dropping to the courtyard from the roof and then flowing into the living spaces through the lower level openings and then leaving through higher level openings creating a ventilation pattern. This works best in hot-dry climates where day time ventilation is undesirable, as it brings heat inside and at night the air temperature becomes cooler and it can ventilate the building. However, when the courtyard receives intense solar radiation, much heat will be conducted and radiated into the rooms as against the induced air draft of air which is often problematic. The intense solar radiation can also produce glare to the inside spaces. Strategies Creating suitable environment to avoid heat gain by using shading is one of the best options for thermal comfort in hot-climate courtyard buildings. Green plants usually vines or trellis filters sun and diminishes both daylight and wind. Cooling strategies include evaporation, radiation and convection. Evaporation cools both building and human skin surfaces quickly and the drier the air, the faster the evaporation. Dry climates have much less water vapour in the air, so radiant losses to the cold sky are much greater. And dry climates enjoy much cooler air by night providing a diurnal convection heat sink that humid climates lack (Reynolds, 2002, p.84).

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Wind Wind (Reynolds, 2002, pp.88-90) is sometimes helpful in hot dry and temperate climates for cooling, especially for night ventilation when outdoor temperatures are lower. Wind moves primarily horizontally and thus easily skips over the horizontal opening to a courtyard. If wind is to be encouraged, Figure 5: Wind strategy in courtyard several strategies are available. A wind-catching strategy is to raise the height of the courtyard wall downwind (assuming that a site has a prevalent wind direction). As wind moves across the lower roofs and the courtyard opening, it then strikes this higher wall. Most of the wind will move up and over, but a down draft at the wall can be enhanced if there is an outlet at the bottom, that is, if some wind can continue below the roof as well as over it. Day ventilation (comfort ventilation) (Mier & Roaf, 2002) will raise indoor temperatures, while night ventilation will lower them. In a building, (Wadah, 2006, p.157) there are differences in temperature between solid and void elements; those open to the sun and those shaded lead to differences in air density which causes the following air circulation: one is between the interior Figure 6: Air circulation between courtyard and adjoining courtyard and the exterior space at rooms (Wadah, 2006, p.156) day and night in summer and winter conditions. The other is between the interior courtyard and the interior space of the building (see figure 6). As a result, the wind acts as a positive agent in reducing ambient temperatures simply because of the nature of the use of courtyard architecture. However, besides moderating temperatures by the gradients created, wind-cooling can reduce day-time surface temperatures which then benefits night-time conditions.
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Hassan Fathy (Reynolds, 2002, p.91) describes how two courtyards of unequal size, separated by a loggia, might induce rather weak air motion. More sun penetrates the larger courtyards opening, creating a hot air space. As this hot air rises out the opening, cooler air must flow into the smaller courtyard. This air is likely drawn either into the smaller courtyards roof opening, or into rooms through open windows at the street. In either case, this new air is cooled as it passes through the shaded smaller courtyard or cool room, and for those seated in the loggia between courtyards, a perceptible breeze of cooled air is available for increased comfort. Humidity to aid evaporative Cooling Humidity (Wadah, 2006, pp.157-58) is important in reducing the dryness of interior air. Excessive dry air can give a perception of excessive temperature while in reality; the same temperature with slightly more humidity may feel more comfortable. Adding moisture to the air via fountain or a pond can reduce temperature by evaporation as well as adding a welcome increase in general air humidity. So a balance is often struck in courtyard buildings between the shape for maximum temperature control from solar radiation and that which facilitates wind and that which provides optimum levels of humidity. Since, the water will need the sun to aid evaporation and hence humidify the air, fountains and ponds are normally placed in the centre of the courtyards because of the vertical midday sun in summer. For the air movement to the back of the rooms, the wind towers and vents are usually at the perimeter of the building. This has resulted in the distinctive design of courtyard houses with their centrally-placed courts and peripherally-placed wind towers (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Courtyard house in Saudi Arabia illustrating humidification and ventilation strategy (Al-Saud & AlHemiddi, 2006)

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Thermal Mass Thermal mass is a means to improve the diurnal temperature swings in hot-dry climates. High thermal mass is the most obvious characteristic of traditional courtyard buildings, and its primary cooling effect delaying the arrival of the afternoon heat, also aided by shading. In hot-dry climates, high thermal mass can be cooled by radiation to the night sky, by evaporation and by ventilation at night. The courtyard floor plays an important cooling role, because it looks straight up to the cold night sky. The shallower the courtyards, the more the floor exposed to the sky rather than the walls, and so the more radiant heat loss by night. Use of thermal mass in a shaded and insulated building can help lower indoor temperature by 35-45% of the outdoor ones when the building is unventilated (Mier & Roaf, 2002). Case1: Diyarbakir, Turkey Courtyard houses (Bekleyen & Dalkilic, 2011) are common in hot and dry climates. Environmental and cultural differences inform the diverse characteristics of courtyard houses because they are used by a variety of cultural groups in a large number of cities. Courtyard houses which are common in regions with hot and dry climates demonstrate strict territoriality and attempts to create private space for introversion. This life style is not only to reflect the culture but also is the result to moderate the effect of harsh climate. Diyarbakir is a city located in the South eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey and has a hot and dry climate. The courtyard houses were surrounded by high walls within the compact urban texture and were built to protect the inhabitants from both the extreme heat in summer and unwanted interference from outsiders. In all of the houses examined within the scope of the present study, a central courtyard exists, providing air and light for the other spaces surrounding it. The windows of all rooms on the ground floor have a view of the courtyard and they do not have a direct connection to the outer part of the building. Planning in this way is suitable for hot climates; the space is designed for users in a way that blocks sunlight in summer and allows sunlight in the winter. Consequently, the spaces around the courtyard are designed appropriately for seasonal usage (Bekleyen & Dalkilic, 2011).

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Figure 8: Seasonal horizontal movement (left); seasonal and daily vertical movement (right) in traditional Arabian courtyard houses (Bekleyen & Dalkilic, 2011)

In the summer, according to Bekleyen and Dalkilic (2011), the spaces in the southern part of the courtyard are used. These spaces are cooler because they face north and are not exposed to direct sunlight. The ceilings of the rooms are high, and there are wide windows that are always kept open in summer. They also have additional upper windows close to the ceiling. The cool air comes into the room through the windows, and after it gets warmer, it flows into the courtyard through the upper windows. This creates a kind of ventilation. Even if the lower windows are closed, the upper windows are always kept open. In some cases, these windows do not contain glass; instead, they have ornamented wire fences. Thus the warm air in the room is continuously exchanged through these openings. The semi open space faces the courtyard for summer comfort. There is a special room specially designed for very hot days placed underground (onethird or one-half of its space height is placed under the level of courtyard). The room gets air and light from the upper windows facing the courtyard, and a small pool is present to decrease the heat (Bekleyen & Dalkilic, 2011).

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Case 2: Studies with reference to Marrakesh, Morocco This quantitative analysis of the climatic aspect of courtyard in hot arid climate, is the results from studies by Raydan, Ratti and Steemers (2006, p.135-145). Contrary to what most people think, courtyards fulfil several functions in hot-arid regions (Raydan et al., 2006, p.135). These include creating open sheltered zone, adopting natural cooling strategies, the protection against wind-blown dust or sand and moderation of the effects of solar excess. Climate is one strongest element that determines architectural form and this applies to shape of courtyards Figure 9: Courtyard-based urban fabric, Marrakesh Morocco as well. While in hot-arid climatic (Raydan et al., 2006) regions, courtyards are created to gain protection from the harsh sun; in countries like Norway, they are used as sun collector. It is actually the proportions of the courtyard space that varies its climatic properties. Raydan, Ratti and Steemers (2006) tired to find out the suitability of courtyards compared to alternative urban forms such as high or low-rise box shaped buildings in terms of response to climate. They calculated a number of well-established environmental variables on simplified vernacular courtyards and two other architectural forms as mentioned above. Raydan, Ratti and Steemers (2006,

Figure 10: Representation of a traditional Arabic courtyard and two pavilion type urban forms. Top: section of courtyard house (Raydan et al., 2003)

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p.136), while analyzing the climatic aspect of courtyards; have extended Martin1 and Marchs1 approach to examine different urban forms in the context of the hot-arid climate. This has helped them to identify the environmental variables like surface to volume ratios, shadow densities, daylight accessibility and view factors from the city to the sky. These variables provide key measures related to solar radiation, thermal comfort and urban temperatures, which can be tested against the environmental pressure produced by hot-arid climates. For analysis three different urban forms; one with a courtyard and two others high and low rise rectangular box shaped buildings were considered. These box shaped buildings are referred to as the pavilions. Following Martin and Marchs (1972) analysis, the governing principle taken by Raydan, Ratti and Steemers (2006, p.136-137) for simulation was that the chosen urban forms have the same built volume, the shape being according to different forms. The main case study selected for investigation was taken from a real prototype courtyard house. The specific configuration and dimensions of the courtyard house were adapted from a diagrammatic section of a courtyard urban dwelling as shown in the figure11. For the courtyard type, three floors each 9m high were assumed. Although in real context the street network are generally irregular, this urban texture seems representative of an Arabic city, as in the figure10, that of Marrakesh, Morocco. The plot area covered by all these three forms was also similar. The second and the third forms were hypothetical yet fairly realistic pavilion types, imitating potential modern urban transformations that might take place in a vernacular courtyard context. The first type, pavilion 1, replaced each courtyard with an urban block centrally located in the initial lot, preserving the height of 9m and built volume. It was also assumed that this option would be a pedestrianised modern urban neighbourhood with no vehicular traffic through the streets as in fig. This alternative seemed bulkier as compared to the courtyard as there was a large surface area lost on the periphery of the pavilion. (Raydan et al., 2006, p.138) The second, pavilion 2, represented an urban composition integrating four courtyards into one urban block that could represent a mixed-use development as in figure11. The street width was fixed to accommodate two-way traffic, parking on the sides and a small sidewalk. Building height was a result of the condition that the built volume needed to be the same as in the previous cases and resulted in a Figure 11: Plan representation of the realistic height of six storeys, double of the initial case three cases of overlaid (Raydan et al., 2003) which is 18m (figure10) (Raydan et al., 2006, p.139).
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The analysis addressed the following parameters.


0.7

Surface to volume
0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Courtyards Pavilion 1 Pavilion 2 0.404 0.265 Surface to volume 0.584

i. Surface to volume ratio: This ratio is obtained by dividing the total surface of buildings by their volume. This result gives a clear idea of the building envelope surface that is exposed to the outside environment and ultimately is

a fundamental indicator for Figure 12: Surface to volume ratio implementing environmental strategies (Raydan et al., 30000 27030 2006, p.141).
25000

27030

27030

20000 There is more potential for 15797 15000 natural ventilation and daylight 10931 and the values for surface to 10000 7168 volume ratios are higher. 5000 Higher value is also an 0 indication for heat loss during Courtyards Pavilion 1 Pavilion 2 the winter and heat gain in the summer. Considering the Total surface m2 Total volume m3 above hypothesis, the courtyard type with the highest Figure 13: surface area and volume surface to volume ratio, (0.584) (see figure12) would not seem to be performing thermally well. However, when the potential heat loss/gain during respectively cold and warm seasons is analysed within the complexity of hot-arid climatic context, results indicate quite favourable conclusions (Raydan et al., 2006, p.141).

In hot-arid climates (Raydan et al., 2003) night-time temperatures are usually lower than daytime temperatures throughout the year, with a diurnal temperature difference between the average daily maximum and minimum ranging between 15 to 19C for the city of Marrakesh in Morocco. The winter which lasts for around three month, are relatively mild and sunny. The diurnal swing is approximately 3C. Therefore the critical months of the year are the hot months, and moderating the temperature extremes of this season is a must. The smart solution of the courtyard house type in hot-arid
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climates is to use high thermal mass to store heat throughout the day in order to benefit from it during the cooler night. By maximizing the surface to volume ratio, the courtyard acts as heat sink and therefore alleviates the extreme temperature stress. The heat is re-radiated indoors as well as to the surrounding and to the sky during the cooler nights due to the time lag of the large thermal mass and the cooler air temperature. Hence, in combination with the thermal mass, the large surface to volume ratio of courtyard is a plus factor in the thermal performance of the building. In cold climates very high degrees of thermal insulation is used in buildings to minimize radiation heat from the interior to the exterior. Because of this the fabric heat losses are relatively small. The geometry of the building whether court or pavilion is less critical in terms of heat loss, whereas improvements through a more sheltered microclimate can provide additional benefits. Increased average temperatures and protection from cold winds, i.e., reducing ventilation losses may offset small disadvantage of the larger surface area (Raydan et al., 2006, pp.141-42). ii. Shadow density and daylight distribution: Shadow density (Raydan et Mean Shadow Density (latitude 31N) al., 2003) is a climate related 12 measurement based on 10 10.98 detecting shadows on the 9.78 8 ground at hourly intervals on a piece of city for a given day of 6 6.1 Mean Shadow Density the year. The average number 4 of hours of shadows is 2 calculated at each point. 0 Figure14 shows the value for Courtyards Pavilion 1 Pavilion 2 shadowing simulation for summer day (21st June) at two different latitudes, 31N Mean Shadow Density (latitude 60N) (Marrakesh in Morocco) and 14 60N (average northern 12 12.4 latitudes of Oslo and 10 9.9 Stockholm. The comparison in 8 the result shows that 6 Mean Shadow Density courtyard could prove useful 4 in cold climates as well. 2 2.8 The availability of daylight is 0 measured as illuminance Courtyards Pavilion 1 Pavilion 2 values falling on a plane; in

Figure 14: Mean Shadow Density from simulation for Marrakesh (top) and Oslo (bottom)

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this case, the streets. The selected model of the sky used for simulation was the standard overcast sky, which represents ideal overcast conditions. Usually in hot-arid climates, the sky conditions are usually clear and not overcast; the nature of the simulation consists of investigating illuminance distribution only. Value 1 represents illuminance falling on an unobstructed surface and 0 represents no illuminance (figure15). According to Steemers, Daylight Distribution Ratti and Raydan (2003), high values of mean Daylight distribution at ground level shadow density recorded in the streets are beneficial in Daylight distribution in the courtyard 0.53 hot-arid regions as they provide protection to pedestrians and to the 0.296 horizontal street surface 0.188 from solar radiation. In this 0.099 regards, courtyard type which has the highest value (10.98) seems to be an Courtyards Pavilion 1 Pavilion 2 advantaged configuration (figure14). On the contrary, Figure 15: Daylight distribution from simulation high overshadowing also means low illumination and the courtyard ranks dramatically lowest (figure15). However, this observation seems to contradict the daylight benefits suggested through high surface to volume ratios. It should be clarified that the shadow density reading in this case is taken in the streets and that the illuminance values are an average of all ground surfaces (street and courtyard floors). Taken in the courtyard itself, an average illuminance of 0.188 (compared with the low value of 0.099 in the street) proves that daylight is actually benefitted from through the courtyard and not through the external facades of the courtyard type. This observation corresponds well with the reality that the courtyard house type interacts well with the climate through the courtyard which is reinforced by the shallower plan depth that can protect and enhance the courtyard environment from the noisier and usually more polluted street environment. However, the simulation here simply takes into account light falling directly from the sky and not that reflected from the ground and buildings, which in some cases can give a significant daylight contribution. Use of white paint in buildings external surfaces increases overall illuminance values. The use of light colours in the external surfaces of courtyard houses can be seen in countries like Morocco and in the Middle East.

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iii. Sky view factor, (SVF): It measures the openness of the urban texture to the sky and has been associated, among other indicators, to the increase in temperature in the urban context compared with the surrounding rural context; called the urban heat island phenomenon (Raydan et al., 2006). The relation between SVF and the urban heat island consists of the observation that the smaller the SVF, the higher the temperature of cities.
Average sky view factor at ground level Formula by Oke: T(urban-rural)=15.27-13.88sky, 0.6 is verified in a number of real 0.5 cities relates to the 0.482 0.4 maximum heat island 0.3 Average sky view factor temperature between urban at gorund level 0.2 and rural sites, where T is 0.227 the maximum temperature 0.1 0.127 difference and sky is the sky 0 view factor. The results in Courtyards Pavilion 1 Pavilion 2 figure17 show that courtyard Figure 16: is a case of an inappropriate Figure 18: Sky view factor from simulation response to climate. Again, as per the results in the figure16, pavilion 2 seems to be the best urban form and the traditional courtyard type as the worst (Raydan et al., 2006). So, one might think what sense these simulations make. Actually, extensive T(max urban-rural) = 15.27-13.88sky scientific literature shows 16 that a low sky view factor in 13.51 14 reality is beneficial in hot12.12 12 arid climates (Raydan et al., 2003). In hot-arid 10 8.58 climates, night-time 8 temperatures are usually 6 lower than the daytime 4 temperatures, and an 2 increase in temperature would probably be 0 welcomed at night if the Courtyards Pavilion 1 Pavilion 2 extreme conditions of the day were alleviated. The Figure 17: Formula by Oke to relate the maximum heat island intensity existence of this between urban and rural sites. Difference in temperature for different
types

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phenomenon can be discerned through a social habit in hot-arid countries like Morocco where people sleep on building roofs at night, to maximise their radiative losses and also to avoid higher indoor temperature partly due to time lag re-radiated heat caused by large building thermal mass. As comfort is not only based on temperature, but also on radiative exchange, this is where the benefit of low SVFs comes into play again, especially during day-time hours when people are outdoors in the streets and urban pedestrian comfort is a priority. During day time hours, low SVFs insure an increase in direct shading and a reduction in reflected radiation. There was a study made on the city of Fez, Morocco; based on field measurements to find out the way courtyard dwellings worked. Temperatures were monitored in two districts of the city associated with different housing types: a traditional one, based on the compact clustering of buildings using the courtyard structure and a more recent one based on modern two to three storey houses arranged along wide streets. In the traditional courtyard district temperatures are higher during the night but during the day a favourable cool island appeared. Overall conditions are more stable in the traditional district than in the modernist development, with the tendency for moderating maximum and minimum outdoor air temperatures. Conclusions: Hence, the courtyard configuration type shows better response through the calculated environmental variables than the pavilion types in the context of hot-arid climates. The potential to improve the environmental performance by adopting court forms in cold climates also exists, although this is largely determined by a lower height-width ratio than in hot-arid regions. However, courtyard typology would not be suggested for hot humid climates where there is a narrow daytime temperature variation (Raydan et al., 2003). The climate moderating qualities of courtyard is not efficient in isolation. In hotarid climate context, houses with large surface area in combination with high thermal mass are desired. It is more beneficial to have a shallow plan form and daylight via the courtyard into the house. Limitations: The study does not show that all courtyards behave better than all pavilions; the influencing factor is the built proportions. (Raydan et al., 2003). Simulation results always need to be carefully analysed and interpreted within the particularities of the context in order to overcome misleading broad statements.

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Arjun Basnet Student no: 725563

Bibliography
Anon., n.d. Greek Culture. [Online] Available at: http://www.crystalinks.com/greekculture.html [Accessed 28 April 2011]. Bahammam, O.S., 2006. The role of privacy in the design of the Saudi Arabian courtyard house. In B. Edwards, M. Sibley, M. Hakmi & P. Land, eds. Courtyard Housing: Past, Present & Future. New York: Taylor & Francis. pp.77-82. Bekleyen, A. & Dalkilic, N., 2011. The infuence of climate and privacy on indigenous courtyard houses in Diyarbakir, Turkey. [Online] Available at: http://www.academicjournals.org/sre/PDF/pdf2011/18Feb/Bekleyen%20and%20Dalkilic.pdf [Accessed 2 April 2011]. Hyde, R., 2000. Climate Responsive Design: A Study of buildings in moderate and hot humid climates. [Online] Available at: http://books.google.com/books?id=BviH0WdDsR0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=books+by+Richar d+Hyde&hl=en&ei=CrvSTYu0HYSUOpzJnIML&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&re snum=3&ved=0CEQQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=books%20by%20Richard%20Hyde&f=false [Accessed 9 May 2011]. Majumdar, M., 2001. Energy-efficient buildings in India. Tata Energy Research Institute, Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources, India. [Online] Available at: http://books.google.com/books?id=8i4auFjpkB8C&pg=PA139&dq=climate+and+courtyards&hl= no&ei=oX7GTcueOY_HswaLlfX6Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CE4Q6 AEwCDgU#v=onepage&q=climate%20and%20courtyards&f=false [Accessed 8 May 2011]. Medi, H., n.d. Design with Climate. [Online] Available at: http://ikiu.academia.edu/artandarchitecture/Teaching/20425/Design_with_Climate [Accessed 2 May 2011]. Mier, I. & Roaf, S., 2002. Thermal comfort-Thermal mass: Housing in hot dry climates. [Online] Available at: http://www.irbdirekt.de/daten/iconda/CIB6494.pdf [Accessed 2 May 2011]. Ozkan, S., 2006. Courtyard: a typology that symbolises a culture. In B. Edwards, M. Sibley, M. Hakmi & P. Land, eds. Courtyard Housing: Past, Present and Future. New York: Taylor & Francis. pp.xv-xix. Raydan, D., Ratti, C. & Steemers, K., 2003. Building form and environmental performance: archtypes, analysis and an arid climate. [Online] Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378778802000798 [Accessed 16 May 2011]. Raydan, D., Ratti, C. & Steemers, K., 2006. Courtyards: a bioclimatic form? In B. Edwards, M. Sibley, M. Hakmi & P. Land, eds. Courtyard Housing: Past, Present & Future. New York: Taylor & Francis. pp.135-45. Reynolds, J.S., 2002. Courtyards: Aesthetics, Social, and Thermal Delight. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 19

Arjun Basnet Student no: 725563 Wadah, H., 2006. Climatic aspects and their effect on the dimensions of courtyards in Arab buildings. In B. Edwards, M. Sibley, M. Hakmi & P. Land, eds. Courtyard Housing: Past, Present & Future. New York: Taylor & Francis. pp.65-75. Zako, R., 2006. The power of the veil: gender inequality in the domestic setting og traditional courtyard houses. In B. Edwards, M. Sibley, M. Hakmi & P. Land, eds. Courtyard Housing: Past, Present & Future. New York: Taylor & Francis. pp.65-75. List of Figures: Figure 1: Courtyard & Western-style house. Figure 2: Different courtyards (Reynolds, 2002, p.4) Figure 3: Courtyard, Trondheim Norway; in cold countries large courtyards are sun collecting spaces. The spaces around the courtyard are also protected from the cold wind (picture to the right; http://kart.gulesider.no) Figure 4: Hanuman Dhoka Royal Palace, Kathmandu Nepal (John Sanday) Figure 5: Wind strategy in courtyard Figure 6: Air circulation between courtyard and adjoining rooms (Wadah, 2006, p.156) Figure 7: Courtyard house in Saudi Arabia illustrating humidification and ventilation strategy (AlSaud & Al-Hemiddi, 2006) Figure 8: Seasonal horizontal movement (left); seasonal and daily vertical movement (right) in traditional Arabian courtyard houses (Bekleyen & Dalkilic, 2011) Figure 9: Courtyard-based urban fabric, Marrakesh Morocco (Raydan et al., 2006) Figure 10: Representation of a traditional Arabic courtyard and two pavilion type urban forms. Figure 11: Plan representation of the three cases of overlaid (Raydan et al., 2003) Figure 12: Surface to volume ratio Figure 13: surface area and volume Figure 14: Mean Shadow Density from simulation for Marrakesh (top) and Oslo (bottom) Figure 15: Daylight distribution from simulation Figure 16: Sky view factor from simulation Figure 17: Formula by Oke to relate the maximum heat island intensity between urban and rural sites. Difference in temperature for different types Note: 1. Leslie Martin and Lionel March carried out an extensive study of the environmental performance of courtyards at Cambridge University in the late 1960s. In a number of influential papers like Architects approach to architecture, 1967 and Urban Space and Structures, 1972; they addressed the question: What building forms make the best use of land? The question of course implies a definition of best use. They bound themselves to quantifiable parameters, such as built potential (the ratio of the floor area of the built form to the site area) and daylight availability. They analyzed different archetypal built forms, such as pavilions, streets and courtyards. According to them, the court form is seen to place the same amount of floor space on the same site area with the same condition of the building depth and in approximately onethird the height required by the pavilion form. (Raydan et al., 2006, p.136)

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