A Program to Calculate Design and

Off-Design Performance of Gas Turbines

GasTurb 9
Users Manual
2

2
Acknowledgments

The author wishes to thank MTU Aero Engines for permission to publish the
program GasTurb. Many individuals helped in the review of the program and the
manual, but in particular I wish to thank my colleagues Hassan Abdullahi,
Andreas Danier, Dr. Peter Jeschke and Reinhold Schaber for their valuable
comments.
Finally and most importantly I wish to thank my wife and family for their
patience and encouragement during long weekends and evenings that went into
the writing of the program.































The author has used his best effort in preparing this manual and the program GasTurb. However, the
author makes no warranty of any kind, expressed or implied, with regards to these programs or the
documentation. The author shall not be liable in any event for incidental or consequential damages in
connection with, or arising out of the use of these programs.



All rights reserved. Names of products mentioned herein are used for identification purposes only and
may be trademarks and/or registered trademarks of their respective companies. Windows is a
trademark of Microsoft Corporation.
GasTurb has been compiled with Borland DELPHI

Copyright 2001
J. Kurzke

Printed in Germany
Dr.-Ing. Joachim Kurzke - Fax +49 -8131-54886 - email joachim.kurzke@t-online.de
www.gasturb.de
3


Table of Contents

1. Introduction.............................................................. 13

1.1. Installing the program................................................................ 13
1.1.1. Program requirements ........................................................ 13
1.1.2. Installation.......................................................................... 13
1.1.3. Using a working directory.................................................. 14
1.1.4. About GasTurb files ........................................................... 14

1.2. A single cycle............................................................................. 15
1.2.1. Creating a new data set....................................................... 16
1.2.2. Switching between SI and Imperial units........................... 16
1.2.3. Define composed values..................................................... 17
1.2.4. Define iterations ................................................................. 17
1.2.5. Starting the calculation....................................................... 18
1.2.6. Some general hints ............................................................. 18

1.3. More cycle design calculations .................................................. 19
1.3.1. Parametric study................................................................. 19
1.3.2. Optimization....................................................................... 20
1.3.3. Small effects....................................................................... 21
1.3.4. Monte Carlo study.............................................................. 21

1.4. Off-design calculations .............................................................. 23
1.4.1. Correlating the design point with the component maps..... 23
1.4.2. Component map format...................................................... 23
1.4.3. Map scaling example.......................................................... 26
1.4.4. Input data for off-design simulations ................................. 28
1.4.5. Variable compressor geometry........................................... 28
1.4.6. Limiters .............................................................................. 29
1.4.7. Reheat (Afterburning) ........................................................ 29
1.4.8. Operating line..................................................................... 30
1.4.9. Off-design parametric study............................................... 30
1.4.10. Calculation of a flight envelope ......................................... 30
1.4.11. Off-design effects............................................................... 31
1.4.12. Off-design Monte Carlo simulation ................................... 31
1.4.13. Mission calculations........................................................... 31
1.4.14. Off-design constraints in a cycle design optimisation ....... 32
1.4.15. Test analysis by synthesis .................................................. 32


2. Theory ..................................................................... 33

2.1. Description of some typical engine configurations.................... 33
2.1.1. Single spool turbojet........................................................... 33
2.1.2. Single spool turboshaft....................................................... 39


4
2.1.3. Two-spool turboshaft, turboprop....................................... 45
2.1.4. Inter-cooled recuperated turboshaft ................................... 52
2.1.5. Two-spool unmixed flow turbofan.................................... 61
2.1.6. Two-spool mixed flow turbofan ........................................ 69
2.1.7. Geared turbofan ................................................................. 79
2.1.8. Three-spool mixed flow turbofan ...................................... 89
2.1.9. Intercooled recuperated turbofan....................................... 99
2.1.10. Variable cycle engine ...................................................... 109
2.1.11. Ramjet.............................................................................. 117

2.2. Details of the calculation ......................................................... 119
2.2.1. Gas properties .................................................................. 119
2.2.2. Intake ............................................................................... 121
2.2.3. Compressor design........................................................... 123
2.2.4. Compression .................................................................... 123
2.2.5. Pressure losses ................................................................. 124
2.2.6. Combustion chamber ....................................................... 125
2.2.7. Turbine design ................................................................. 128
2.2.8. Expansion ........................................................................ 130
2.2.9. Reheat .............................................................................. 131
2.2.10. Nozzle.............................................................................. 131
2.2.11. Propeller........................................................................... 133

2.3. Iteration technique ................................................................... 139
2.3.1. Mathematical background ............................................... 139
2.3.2. Single spool turbojet ........................................................ 141
2.3.3. Two-spool turboshaft, turboprop..................................... 142
2.3.4. Boosted turboshaft, turboprop ......................................... 144
2.3.5. Unmixed flow turbofan.................................................... 144
2.3.6. Mixed flow turbofan........................................................ 146
2.3.7. Geared Turbofan.............................................................. 146
2.3.8. Variable cycle engine ...................................................... 146
2.3.9. Other engines ................................................................... 147

2.4. Inlet flow distortion ................................................................. 149

2.5. Transient simulations............................................................... 153
2.5.1. Additions to the steady state model ................................. 153
2.5.2. The control system........................................................... 154
2.5.3. Mathematical procedure .................................................. 155
2.5.4. Transient test analysis...................................................... 156


3. Application examples ............................................. 157

3.1. Cycle design calculations for a single spool turbojet .............. 157
3.1.1. Calculate Single Cycle..................................................... 157
3.1.2. Parametric Study.............................................................. 159
3.1.3. Small Effects.................................................................... 161

5
3.2. Cycle optimization for a helicopter engine .............................. 163
3.2.1. Introduction ...................................................................... 163
3.2.2. Simple cycle parameter study .......................................... 163
3.2.3. Realistic optimization....................................................... 165
3.2.4. Summary and concluding remarks................................... 169

3.3. Off-design calculations for a two-spool turboshaft.................. 171
3.3.1. Compressor map scaling .................................................. 172
3.3.2. Turbine map scaling......................................................... 173
3.3.3. Off-design calculation options ......................................... 173
3.3.4. Limiters ............................................................................ 174
3.3.5. Operating line................................................................... 175
3.3.6. Flight envelope calculation .............................................. 176

3.4. Turbofan engines...................................................................... 177
3.4.1. Engine design for subsonic aircraft .................................. 177
3.4.2. Mixed versus unmixed turbofans ..................................... 180
3.4.3. Engine design for supersonic aircraft............................... 181
3.4.4. Engine families................................................................. 184

3.5. Test analysis and engine monitoring........................................ 187
3.5.1. Turbofan test analysis....................................................... 187
3.5.2. Test analysis accuracy...................................................... 188
3.5.3. Comparing a performance simulation with test data........ 190
3.5.4. Test analyis by synthesis .................................................. 190

3.6. Optimization............................................................................. 199
3.6.1. The use of optimization.................................................... 199
3.6.2. A simple example............................................................. 202
3.6.3. Cycle selection for a derivative turbofan ......................... 203


4. Nomenclature ........................................................ 209
4.1. Station Definition..................................................................... 209
4.2. Symbols.................................................................................... 211
4.3. Units ......................................................................................... 213
4.4. Limiter codes............................................................................ 215


5. References ............................................................ 217


6. Frequently asked questions................................... 219



6
7


Whats new in GasTurb 9 ?

The program GasTurb has been steadily improved the last two years. Many
extensions to GasTurb 8 are just small improvements of the program handling.
The following changes are major steps forward:
Graphical User Interface:
The standard size of the program windows is now 600*800 pixels which allows to
show more information at a glance. There is now room for 20 instead of 10
composed values, for example.
Engine configurations can now be selected from a configuration tree. There are
two main branches in this tree: aircraft engines and gas turbines for power
generation. The selected configuration is shown schematically as a colored
picture.
The nomenclature pictures have been improved in quality. They now also show
the actual values that are used for the internal air system simulation. These
pictures can be copied to the clipboard and pasted into any word processor or
presentation program.
The data arrangements for input and the output are improved. Input data for the
internal air system is now on a separate page, and the same is true for the
component efficiency and flow modifiers in off-design simulations. The composed
values are color marked when inactive or invalid.
On the cycle overview page you can get now explanations for the abbreviated
names: click on a name and an explanation including the units will appear.
Moreover, an unit converter can be selected from the menu.
T-s and h-s diagrams can be copied to the clipboard, and the results for small
effects may be shown graphically also.
Plot your results from parametric studies with up to 4 y-axes over the same x-
axis. When your study includes turbine design calculations, then maneuver
through your results with the arrow keys on the keyboard and see, how the shape
of the turbine velocity triangles changes and how the design point moves in the
Smith diagram. This makes it easy to find suitable turbine designs with the help of
a parametric study.
Scaling the component maps is more simple now; the user interface for this task
has been rewritten completely. Scaling special maps for normal off-design
simulations and using a given compressor map in common core engine studies is
simpler now.
Engine
configuration
tree
Output advice
Parametric
studies and
turbine design


8
New Gas Turbine Configurations:
In previous versions of GasTurb the single spool engine configuration could be
used for the simulation of a turbojet, a turboshaft and for a turboprop. Now, shaft
power generation is dealt with separately, and in this new configuration a
recuperator (heat exchanger) may also be selected.
A two-spool straight turbojet configuration has been added. Other new aircraft
engines are an inter-cooled recuperated turbofan as a three-spool engine and a
variable cycle engine.
You can now select the booster to be mounted on the low or on the high-pressure
spool with two turboshaft configurations. Moreover, there is now also a three-
spool turboshaft, i.e. a two-spool gas generator combined with a free power
turbine.
New calculation methods:
In the opening window you can now choose between the Novice and the
Expert Mode. Use the Novice Mode if you are a beginner in gas turbine
performance calculations or if you are interested only in the fundamentals of gas
turbine theory. The Novice Mode hides many input data like, for example, the
internal air system descriptors from the user and makes the program really easy
to use.
The Expert Mode opens the door to detailed gas turbine performance simulations
and allows all program options to be used.
A fundamental change to GasTurb is the revised representation of the gas
properties. The effect of humidity on engine performance may be studied for all
engine configurations now. With the gas turbines used for power generation you
can also simulate water and steam injection into the burner. The NO
x
severity
index, which is calculated for all engines, allows estimating emissions.
The Generic Fuel replaces the Standard Fuel used in previous versions of
GasTurb. The new fuel and its combustion product properties are calculated with
the program from Gordon McBride, i.e. the NASA Equilibrium Code. The Generic
Fuel data is consistent with the gas properties of the other fuels offered by the
program. This was not the case with the old Standard Fuel.
Using new representations for the gas properties leads to small differences in the
simulation results compared to previous versions of GasTurb.
Other reasons for small differences in the calculated results are the following:
Intake calculation was done up to now with =1.4. That was changed to
the rigorous calculation using true gas properties, including the humidity
effect.
The correlation between the polytropic and the isentropic efficiency is
now calculated using the entropy function. Previously, the conversion was
done with the mean isentropic exponent.
A high-pressure turbine map is now used in all off-design calculations.
Therefore, both the turbine efficiency and the corrected flow will no longer
remain constant as in previous versions of GasTurb.

Single spool
turboshaft
Variable cycle
engine
More turboshafts
Novice and
Expert Mode
New gas
properties
Generic fuel
Reasons for
small differences
compared to
GasTurb 8
9
Other improvements to GasTurb are new input options like, for example, influence
factors for the compressor flow capacity or the input of P
1
, T
1
and P
amb

alternatively to altitude, Mach number and deviation from ISA temperature.
A completely new option in GasTurb is the model-based test analysis and engine
condition monitoring. You can compare measured data with your simulation
model and automatically find factors that describe the differences between the
test result and the simulation. Several different flow analysis methods are offered
and a sensor-checking algorithm may also be used.
In previous versions of GasTurb, you could store the ingredients of complex
simulation models, like the scaling of special component maps and control
schedules in different files. These files had to be reloaded one after the other
when the program was restarted. Now you can store this information, together
with the definition of composed values and iterations, all in one file, an Engine
Model file.
The number of iterations during cycle design point studies has been increased
from 5 to 10. Moreover, you can define additions to the off-design iteration
scheme. This allows iterating delta A
8
during the calculation of an operating line
such that the surge margin of the compressor of a turbojet, for example, is
constant.
Model fidelity has been improved in some areas:
Burner and reheat (afterburner) efficiencies will vary with a burner loading
parameter.
Nozzle discharge coefficients depend on nozzle geometry (nozzle petal
angle) and pressure ratio.
Further improvements are:
Absolute spool speeds in RPM have been introduced. Enter your data on
the "Compressor (LPC, Booster, IPC, HPC) Design" page.
Extrapolation of turbine maps is permitted up to 200% corrected speed
(was previously 120%). This allows very rapid fuel flow reduction during
transient simulations.
The fuel heating value FHV is offered also for off-design as an input
quantity.
This description of improvements in GasTurb 9 is not exhaustive, and you will
certainly detect some more nice features when using the program. Feel free to
contact the author when you have new ideas about making GasTurb easier to use
and an even more accurate tool than it is now.
New input
options
Engine condition
monitoring
Engine Model
User defined off-
design iteration
Model fidelity


10

11

How this manual is organized
This manual consists of three main chapters. The introduction begins with
instructions on how to install the program. Section 1.2 explains the first menus,
data input, switching between SI and Imperial units and also contains some
general hints. Section 1.3 introduces more sophisticated design calculations like
iterations, parametric studies and optimization. Section 1.4 covers off-design
calculations.
The second chapter describes the theory of gas turbine performance as
implemented in GasTurb. It begins with a description of the thermodynamic cycle
calculation for selected engine types, followed by the details of the calculation for
the components. Section 2.3 introduces the iteration technique applied in off-
design calculations. Next are sections about inlet distortion simulation with the
parallel compressor model, about engine test analysis and performance
monitoring and finally section 2.6 deals with simulation of transient performance
of gas turbines.
In chapter 3 you will find application examples including input and output data that
show the capabilities of the program. Section 3.1 explains the various options for
design calculations for a turbojet.
The cycle optimization for a helicopter engine is described in section 3.2. It is
shown that a simple variation of compressor pressure ratio and burner exit
temperature does not yield a realistic result. Only after including many details in
the simulation you do get results that are in line with the cycles of real engines.
The off-design calculation for a two-spool turboshaft is a further example. Among
other things, section 3.3 will show you how to calculate the shaft power delivered
for any point within the flight envelope. How to select an engine design point for
typical applications of turbofans for subsonic and supersonic aircraft is discussed
in section 3.4.
Chapter 3.5 is devoted to test analysis and engine performance monitoring.
Analysis accuracy, comparison of measured data with simulations and Analysis
by Synthesis (i.e. model based test analysis) are discussed.
A short introduction into mathematical optimization and two application examples
can be found in chapter 3.6.


12
13

1. Introduction
1.1. Installing the program
The copyright of the program and this manual is by the author and as such should
not be reproduced or distributed in any form without prior permission from the
author.

1.1.1. Program requirements
For running the program GasTurb 9 you need an IBM-PC/AT or an IBM
compatible computer (486 processor or better) with VGA color monitor set to
600*800 pixel resolution and a mouse.
To run GasTurb 9 you need Windows 95, 98, Windows NT or Windows 2000
installed on your computer.

1.1.2. Installation
The program is delivered on CD ROM. The welcome screen of the setup
program offers five choices:
Deploy it! Click this button to quickly install the application without
answering any technical questions. You will be shown the
license agreement and after accepting it, the application will be
installed straight away.
More
Information
Provides access to a readme file
Select
Components
This allows you to customize the setup by selecting which
components will be installed and which not. After making your
selection, you will be shown the license agreement and then the
software will be installed.
Advanced
Options
If you want total control over the setup, click this button. You
can change the installation folders and select which components
should be installed. Though the actual selection possibilities
remain the same, the component selection will show more
detail. If you want, it can even show every file that will be
copied to your hard disk.
Do Not Install In case the setup was launched by accident.
As you see, the setup program makes life easy for those who don't understand
much about computers (click Deploy it, accept the license and it's done) while still
allowing power users to keep full control of everything (Advanced Options).
Install GasTurb for Windows in its own, new directory and do not install it in the
directory of your previous program version. Some of the files delivered with
GasTurb 9 have the same file name as those of previous versions, but different
file contents. Mixing the files from different versions of GasTurb will cause a
program crash.
Copyright
Updating from a
previous
GasTurb version


14
1.1.3. Using a working directory
If you want to store your data files and component map files in a directory
different from the program, you need to start GasTurb with two command line
parameters. Add after the program call (separated by a space) first the path of
your data and second the path to your component maps. The working directory,
which you specify from the Windows Program Manager as a program item
property, must be the directory in which the program resides.
When you have stored the program in directory C:\GasTurb, for example, and
want your data stored in directory C:\GasTurb\Data and your component maps in
C:\GasTurb\Maps then you must start the program by the following command
sequence:
C:\GasTurb\GasTurb9.exe C:\GasTurb\Data C:\GasTurb\Maps
When your file names or directory names contain blanks, then you must include
the path names in double quotes:
"C:\GasTurb\GasTurb9.exe" "C:\My Data\GasTurb\Data" "C:\My Data\GasTurb\Maps"

In a network you can store the program in a directory which everybody can
access. The different users should store their private data in their own directories
for data and component maps.
Note that the standard component maps delivered with the program must reside
in the same directory as the program. You can store a copy of these files in your
private component map directory.
1.1.4. About GasTurb files
You can use any editor to look at the data. They are pure ASCII files. Do not
modify any data set other than through GasTurb commands. This is because the
data are read with a specific format and if anything is out of order or placed in the
wrong column the result is unpredictable.
There are some more ASCII files delivered with the program, one for each engine
type. Their file name extensions are NMS. They contain important information for
the program. Do not modify these files because they are essential for the correct
interpretation of the data. Note that the *.NMS files are not compatible between
the different program versions.
There are many graphic files that contain engine configuration schemes and other
pictures. They are stored as Windows metafiles with the extension WMF. Many
other programs can read this file format. You may use these files for illustrations
in reports, for example. When you do that, you must refer to the source of the
graphics and include the GasTurb program as a reference.
Installation on a
network
Data files
Pictures
15
1.2. A single cycle
In the program opening window you must at first select an engine configuration
either from the engine configuration tree or from the combobox.

When using the combobox then one or several images will show the activated
option. Double click an image to enlarge it. The detailed configuration, for
example the type of thrust nozzle (convergent or convergent-divergent), will be
defined later in the design point definition screen.

Alternatively, you can use the engine configuration tree to select the basic engine
type. Click on the little boxes with a + sign to expand the tree or on a box with a
sign to collapse it. The selected engine configuration is shown as a figure to the
right of the selection tree. When the selection is not yet concise enough, then you
see the figure of an aircraft or a windmill.
Decide wether to use the program in Novice or Expert mode and then select a
task from the list of engine design tasks. When you use the program for the first
time then you should use the option Calculate Single Cycle.


16
Pressing the button Ok leads you to the data file reading window which shows the
example data files that are delivered with the program. The names of all example
files start with DEMO. The file extension is composed of three letters and always
begins with the letter C that stands for cycle data. The other two letters are
associated with the engine type. Cycle data for single spool turbojets, for
example, have the file extension CYJ.
This file nomenclature has the advantage that in data selection boxes only those
files that are compatible with the type of engine you are currently simulating are
offered for loading.
When you read a data file, which has been created with a previous version of
GasTurb, then you will get some warning messages. These messages regard
input properties that did not exist in the previous program version or that have
been renamed. In many cases the missing data are set to reasonable default
values, in some cases the dummy value 111111 is introduced.
Old files for the turbojet engine configuration produce many warning messages.
The reason for that is that in GasTurb 9 the single spool turboshaft engine is now
a separate engine configuration.
You will be prompted to enter a suitable number for the missing data that are
indicated by the dummy number 111111. Commencing the calculation with one or
more properties having the dummy value will result in an error message.
Storing an old data file on disk from a new version of GasTurb will make the data
set compatible with the new version.
GasTurb 9 will not exactly reproduce the numbers from previous program
versions because the gas properties are now modelled slightly different.
1.2.1. Creating a new data set
You create a new input data set by modifying an existing data set. There is no
option available to create it from scratch.
The data are presented in tabbed notebooks. The input data shown on the pages
of the notebook are the only ones that you need for the selected switch position.
You will not see any input quantities that are not needed for the type of calculation
you have chosen. Data you have entered for a switch position not selected at the
moment will not be deleted; it will just not be shown. When you write a set of data
to disk, all quantities will be stored, regardless of the switch positions.
You can get help for the nomenclature from the menu on top of the screen and
from the help file (look for the topic Nomenclature in the help index). Hold your
mouse pointer on one of the buttons below the menu line and you will get a hint
about which action will be initiated by pressing the button. Note that often some of
the buttons in a row may be dimmed and therefore inactive.
1.2.2. Switching between SI and Imperial units
Click on the button with the red arrow pointing to the right to convert your input
data from SI units to Imperial units. The button with the arrow pointing to the left
will convert the data from Imperial to SI units.
If you have started with a data set in SI units and you wish to store it on disk in
Imperial units, then the data set will automatically be converted before being
Use of old data
files with
GasTurb 9
Help
17
written to disk. All of the results of the calculations will then be presented in
Imperial units. Note that only the design point input window offers the possibility to
switch between units.
1.2.3. Define composed values
You may be interested in a quantity which is not directly available as output, such
as the temperature ratio across the compressor, T
3
/T
2
. You can get the desired
value by defining a composed value using values for T
2
and T
3
that are both in the
standard output data set.
Twenty composed values can be defined. The mathematical operations available
include +, -, * , / and ^ for exponential expressions. You can also use brackets in
your definitions. An example for a complex composed value is
1004,5*T2*((P3/P2)^0,2857-1)
In general, for composed values you can use any previously defined composed
value:
cp_val1^0.5+1
You can give composed values a name by using a short text followed by the =
sign:
spec. work =1004,5*T2*((P3/P2)^0,2857-1)
This name of the composed value will be used in the list and the graphics output.
Note, however, that you must use the short name cp_valxx when you want to use
the result of this expression within the definition of another composed value.
The result of an invalid operation like the square root of a negative number will be
set to zero. Check the result of any complex formula and use brackets to achieve
the intended result.
In the definition of a composed value you can use any input and output properties
and also plain numbers. The availability of property names depends on the
position of the switches. If turbine design is switched off, for example, then you
cannot use geometrical data of the turbine in composed values, since they will not
be calculated. You can check the validity of your formulae by clicking on the
Check button.
1.2.4. Define iterations
Select this option from the menu or by clicking on the corresponding button, if you
want an output quantity to have a specific value. In the turbojet cycle you can, for
example, iterate the compressor pressure ratio in such a way that the turbine
pressure ratio will be exactly four (this could be a reasonable limit for a one-stage
turbine). You have to tell the program both lower and upper limits for the input
variable (the compressor pressure ratio). Select those limits reasonably! A cycle
with a compressor pressure ratio below one could cause problems.
Whether the iteration converges or not depends very much on the problem being
investigated. If there is a solution, the program will find it. Thus, check your data if
you do not get convergence.


18
Note, that you can select up to ten variables, thus specifying values for ten output
quantities. In addition to keeping the turbine pressure ratio constant, you can
keep the thrust constant by iterating engine mass flow, for example. You could
also iterate burner exit temperature as a third variable such that the turbine exit
temperature is equal to a specified value.

For each of the variables a reasonable range must be specified. If the range is too
narrow, then by accident the solution could be excluded and the iteration would
fail to converge. A very wide range causes also problems, since the cycle cannot
be evaluated with extreme combinations of pressure ratio and turbine inlet
temperature. Moreover, a large range for the iteration variables leads to an
inaccurate result.
1.2.5. Starting the calculation
After you have selected Ok from the design point input window your present data
set will be checked. Then, the thermodynamic calculation will commence. The
runtime needed for one example depends both on the engine type (a mixed
turbofan takes the longest, a ramjet the shortest) and on your computer. A
machine with a 486 CPU without coprocessor will require some patience, while a
computer with a Pentium will give you the answer immediately.
Newcomers to the program should play around with the input data of the turbojet
and calculate several cycles, thereby getting accustomed to the nomenclature
and the units used (press F1 for help).
1.2.6. Some general hints
The data will be saved automatically before the calculation starts. Depending on
the engine type, GasTurb uses a specific filename. Any turbojet example is called
LAST_JET.CYJ, and the backup file names of all other engine configurations also
begin with the four letters LAST.
If the program fails to calculate a cycle for a specific data set, check your data for
typing errors, incorrect units or wrong orders of magnitude. The program can
never calculate a cycle with a burner pressure ratio of 0.04, for example. You may
have entered this number because you were thinking of a burner pressure loss of
4%.
19
1.3. More cycle design calculations
1.3.1. Parametric study
This option allows you to do parameter variations with one or two variables.
During the parametric study you can also iterate up to ten input quantities. In the
example of an unmixed turbofan you could systematically vary the two
parameters Design Bypass Ratio and HP Compressor Pressure Ratio. For each
single parameter combination you can simultaneously iterate the Outer Fan
Pressure Ratio in such a way that the two nozzle jet velocities are in a fixed
relation with each other. (By the way, a fixed ratio of 0.8 for V
id,18
/V
id,8
is near to
the thermodynamic optimum).
After the calculation you will see a gauge and the message Scanning data for
constant values. This indicates that the program is checking which values
remained unchanged during the parametric variation. For example, the engine
inlet temperature will not change when compressor pressure ratio and burner exit
temperature are varied. Since it does not make sense to plot constant values, the
program eliminates them from the plot parameter selection.
The primary output of a parametric study is graphical. You can select either the
standard plot of specific fuel consumption versus specific thrust, or any
combination of output values and parameters.
When your parametric study varies only one parameter, then you can select to
view the results with up to four y-axes plotted versus the x-axis.
When a parametric study includes a turbine design calculation for one or more
turbines then a special graphical output is available. In the top left corner you will
see a small grid in which all successfully calculated cycles of the parametric study
are marked. You can move through this grid with the cursor keys of your
keyboard.

When you move through the selection grid you will see how the turbine design
point moves in the Smith diagram. In case you have done turbine design
calculations for more than one turbine then you can switch between the different
turbine designs by clicking the appropriate button.
For each point in the grid you can also get the fully detailed output when you click
the button with the list symbol.
You can also write selected data from your parametric study to a file and read that
file later with another program. First you must define the file contents and the file
name. You can select the file contents from both input and output quantities. You
can view and edit the file, and add comments or additional header lines to the
data.
GasTurb selects the scales of the graphs automatically, with round numbers on
both the x- and y-axis. You can easily modify the scales by using the menu option
Scale. In this way, you can produce a series of plots with the same scale. When
you modify the scale of the plot, the program will accept your input only if your
choice results in round numbers for the x and y-axis.
Parametric study
with turbine
design
Writing data to a
file
Graphics


20
You can also zoom into the details of a graph using your mouse. To do this press
the left button and hold it down while moving the mouse. Enclose with the rubber
rectangle the region you are interested in and release the button to let GasTurb
redraw the figure. With a click on the right button of your mouse you will zoom out
to the standard scaling.
If the range of values is very small, an appropriate offset will be subtracted from
the values and noted separately on the axis. If for example all values are between
32000.3 and 32000.4, the scale will begin with 0.3 and end with 0.4. On the axis
+32000 will be written.
If you select Rearrange from the menu option Description (or press the button
with the double A) then the numbers describing the parameter values will be
positioned differently. Repeated selection of this option will cycle through all
possible arrangements including a graph without numbers. This will allow you to
find the best position for the text.
In the graph a reference point will be shown. This point corresponds to the cycle
which you have calculated prior to the parametric study. If this point is not
consistent with your parametric study then you should hide it. This can be
achieved by un-checking the option Reference in the menu Description or by
clicking the button with the sun symbol.
You can produce graphs with or without grid lines. On the printer output you can
add narrow spaced (fine) grid lines to the coarse grid lines shown on the screen.
From a figure with fine grid lines you can read numbers without the help of a ruler.
Reading numbers from a plot without grid lines is a cumbersome task because
the spacing between grid lines on paper will not be in round units of centimetres
or inches.
Note that a complex graph with fine grid lines needs more printer memory and
more time to print than a simple figure without grid lines.
1.3.2. Optimization
An optimization facility is available in the program. You can select up to seven
optimization variables and set up to seven constraints on output quantities
simultaneously. Any cycle output parameter including the composed values can
be selected as a figure of merit that you can either maximize (specific thrust, for
example) or minimize (such as specific fuel consumption). You can also combine
the optimization with an iteration of up to ten variables.
The start values of the optimization variables should be in the specified range,
and the cycle results should fulfil all constraints. If your starting point is outside of
the feasible region, then the program will try to find a valid cycle. This, however, is
not always successful.
The optimization process starts with an adaptive random search strategy. In the
upper part of the optimization window you see, on the left side, gauges that
indicate the values for the variables, and on the right side, gauges for the
constraints. A chart below the gauges shows the progress of the optimization with
respect to the figure of merit. The buttons to the left of the chart allow you to
change the scale. If you dont see any points in the chart, then click on the left
and the middle buttons.
As soon as the program has found an optimum solution, you should check
whether the optimum is local or global. Select Restart, which starts a random
Zoom
Rearrange
Reference point
Grid lines
Search strategies
21
search moving away from the present optimum, followed by a new search for the
optimum.
Alternatively to the random search strategy, you can select a systematic search
strategy. Try both methods to be sure that you have found the global optimum.
An adaptive random search starts with random values for the optimization
variables. After a certain number of steps the search range will be narrowed
down, and you will get a more precise solution.
The adaptive random search is combined with automatic restarts in the endless
random search option. If you have many optimization variables and several
constraints in a mixed turbofan cycle problem, and you are running on a slow
computer, this is the best choice. You can do other jobs and leave the computer
alone. When you come back later, press the Stop button, select Optimum from
the menu and look at the best solution the computer has found during the last
hour, for example. You should check this cycle thoroughly and look at the effects
of small deviations from the optimum variable combination. Select Sen-sitivity
from the menu for that purpose.
Be careful with the input data for the optimization: both the lower and the upper
limits for the optimization parameters have to be selected properly. If you
constrain the range too much, then the solution found will in general be right on
the limits on the limits, and you might have to reset them. If the range for the
optimization variables is too broad, many variable combinations will be
meaningless.
1.3.3. Small effects
You may want to know how important one of the input quantities is for a certain
cycle. To learn this, select the items you are interested in, and you will get a quick
answer. You need not enter any step sizes since they will be selected
automatically.
Note that you can also combine this type of calculation with the iteration option.
By this way, you can produce a table with concise information about the most
important parameters in your problem. When you study the effects be careful
when interpreting the results. The changes are presented in terms of percentages
and in degrees K (or R if you are using Imperial units). A 1% increase in efficiency
with the basic efficiency equal to 0.8 means that the efficiency has changed from
0.8 to 0.808. You might have expected, however, that the efficiency increase be
from 0.8 to 0.81.
1.3.4. Monte Carlo study
The Monte Carlo simulation method calculates many cycles in which some
selected cycle input parameters are randomly distributed. The cycle output
quantities will consequently also be randomly distributed.
Normal distributions with specified standard deviations will be created
automatically for the selected input parameters. The results are presented
graphically as bar charts together with a corresponding Gaussian distribution.
A typical application of the Monte Carlo method is the evaluation of test analysis
accuracy. In the two-spool turboshaft and the turbofan engine configurations there
is a Test Analysis option. When you select it, you can enter measured values for
the fuel flow, all total pressures and temperatures in the compressor section, and
Adaptive random
search


22
the total pressures in the turbine section. From this input the component
efficiencies can be derived.
With the Monte Carlo method you can enter the uncertainty in your
measurements by specifying a standard deviation, and look at the resulting
component efficiency distribution.
While the Monte Carlo simulation is performed you can observe how the
distribution of the previously selected primary output quantity develops. As soon
as you stop the calculation, the mean value and the standard deviation will be
shown.
The program may perform several thousand engine simulations. However, it will
store only the first 900 data sets in a temporary file. From this file you can get the
information to build distributions for any secondary output quantity.
23

1.4. Off-design calculations
After having calculated a single cycle, you can go on to do off-design calculations.
First you have to correlate your design point with the compressor and the turbine
maps.
1.4.1. Correlating the design point with the component maps
For a quick study you can use the Standard maps. However, this only leads to
reasonable results if your design point is consistent with the maps. If you have
maps that are better suited to your simulation task, then select Special maps.
Let us have a more detailed look at the problem. For the design point calculation
you have used certain efficiencies. The component maps need to be scaled in
such a way that the design point is in line with a specific point in the map. If you
select the standard maps this is done automatically (you can see the automatic
selection when you select Special maps).
If you have real maps for the engine to be simulated then you can use these
maps with GasTurb. Select Special maps for that purpose, and a new window will
open in which you can load maps from file. Clicking one of the tabs gives you a
plot of the corresponding map (unscaled and without Reynolds corrections). In
this plot you will see the design point marked as a yellow square.
If the yellow square is not in the right place and results in less surge margin than
needed for your problem, for example, then you can reset the design point in the
map. Note, however, the consequence of moving the design point around in the
map: The values for all efficiency contours and especially the peak efficiency of
the scaled map will change. If you move the design point to a map region with low
efficiency, then the peak efficiency of the scaled map will increase. Check the
consistency of the scaled map with your design point data. Normally, you cannot
have a very high compressor surge margin and good efficiency at the same time.
Instead of using the mouse you can also specify the position of the design point in
the map by editing the values for the map speed value and in the single line
table below the tabs. This option is an advantage if you want to repeat exactly
what you have done before.
If you select File|Save Scaling from the menu then the design point definitions,
the paths and the file names will be written to a Map Scaling File which has the
extension SCL. If you need to restore your special map scaling then you can get
all the maps and the design point locations from the menu item File|Read|All
Maps+Scaling.
1.4.2. Component map format
One intake map, four compressor maps, one propeller map and two turbine maps
are included with the GasTurb package. You can also use your own maps. For
examples of map data files look at the files delivered with the program. Note that
you must store the maps HPC01.MAP, IPC01.MAP, LPC01.MAP, LPC02.MAP,
HPT01.MAP, IPT01.MAP and LPT01.MAP in the same directory as the program.
You can store your own maps wherever you wish, in your maps directory for
example (see section 1.1.3).

Peak efficiency


24
Format of a table
All component maps consist of one or several tables. The tables consist of
numbers and contain argument values (A), parameter values (P) and function
values (F).
Key A[1] A[2] A[3] A[4] A[5]
P[1] F[1,1] F[1,2] F[1,3] F[1,4] F[1,5]
P[2] F[2,1] F[2,2] F[2,3] F[2,4] F[2,5]
P[3] F[3,1] F[3,2] F[3,3] F[3,4] F[3,5]
The first number of the table is the table key which is composed of the number of
rows and columns of the table:
key = number of rows + (number of columns)/1000
The number of rows is one more than the number of parameter values in the
table, and the number of columns is one more than the number of argument
values in the table.
The key for the table above would be 4.006, for example. A table always starts
on a new line and begins with the key. The first four argument values follow the
key, separated by at least one blank. The rest of the argument values are on
additional lines (five numbers per line). Only the last line of argument values may
have less than five numbers.
Parameter values must always begin with a new line, and the first four function
values follow on the same line. The rest of the function values are arranged as
described for the argument values.
The data need not be in specific columns, but there must be at least one blank
between each number. The length of the lines must not exceed 79 columns.
Intake map
An intake map consists of a single table with the relative corrected speed of the
first compressor as the argument and flight Mach number as the parameter. In
principle the corrected flow of the first compressor would be a better choice.
However, the use of corrected speed makes the calculation simpler and does not
affect the accuracy of the result very much.
The file with an intake map must begin with a single line header which
commences with "99". A map title may follow after at least one blank on the same
line.
Compressor map
The compressor map uses auxiliary coordinates called -lines. These are lines of
pressure ratio versus mass flow which result in unique intersections with the
speed lines. Mark the lowest -line as =0 and the highest -line as =1.0. All the
other -lines must have values between those of the limiting lines. GasTurb
provides up to 20 speed lines and 20 -lines. The numbers used for must be
equidistant and between 0 and 1.0.
SmoothC produces -lines that are equally spaced, and are straight lines or
parabolas in the {pressure ratio, mass flow} plane. GasTurb also works with other
Table key
You can produce
compressor maps
easily by using
the program
SmoothC
25
types of auxiliary coordinates. The numbers used for , however, must be
equidistant and between 0 and 1.
In GasTurb the -lines need not be spaced equally in the {pressure ratio, mass
flow} plane. If the -lines are not of the type that SmoothC produces, then
GasTurb will not indicate precise information about surge margin and peak
efficiency when you move the design point in a map with your mouse.
The detailed compressor map format is as follows. On the first line of a map data
file there must be the number 99 followed by a blank. After that an arbitrary text -
the map header line - may follow on the same line. On the second line the
Reynolds number correction factors on efficiency are given in the following form:
Reynolds: RNI=x
1
f = y
1
RNI = x
2
f = y
2
The Reynolds number index is defined as
far T
far T
ref
ref
ref
ref
T T
P P
RNI
,
0 ,
/
/

=
=
where stands for dynamic viscosity and far for the fuel-air-ratio. Reference
conditions are P
ref
=101.325kPa and T
ref
=288.15K.

In the figure the following numbers are used for illustration:
RNI = x
1
= 0.1 f = y
1
= 0.95
RNI = x
2
= 1 f = y
2
= 1
The efficiency correction factor is interpolated linearly over the logarithm of RNI.
As RNI decreases the correlation is extrapolated if required. For RNI>x
2
the
efficiency correction factor remains constant and equal to y
2
.
From the efficiency correction factor there is a mass flow correction factor derived
such that the mass flow correction is assumed to be half of the efficiency
correction. For example, when efficiency is corrected using the factor 0.96, mass
flow will be corrected with the factor 0.98.
On the third line of the compressor map data file GasTurb expects the keyword
Mass Flow. On the following line the table for corrected mass flow has to start.
The first number on this line is the table key derived from the number of speed
lines and the number of -lines in the map:
Reynolds
correction


26
key = (number of speed lines + 1) + (number of -lines +1)/1000
If there are 10 speed lines and 15 -lines, for example, the table key must be
11.016. After the table key the first four -values must follow. On the next lines
follow the rest of the -values, five numbers on each line. The last line containing
-values may have less than five numbers. Remember that the -values must be
equidistant and between 0 (first -value) and 1.0 (last -value).
Then the speed value for the first speed line begins a new line. After that the first
four mass flow numbers follow. The rest of the mass flow data for the first speed
line appear on the following lines. Apart from the last line there must always be
five numbers on each line. The rest of the speed lines (GasTurb can handle a
maximum of 20 speed lines per map) must follow in an ascending order of speed.
The keyword Efficiency marks the start of the efficiency data. The sequence and
the format of the data follow the same pattern as the one described for the
corrected mass flow. Pressure ratio is the keyword for the third table of a
compressor map.
The surge line completes a compressor map file. The keyword for the table is
Surge Line. The surge pressure ratio is given as a function of the corrected mass
flow. Note that you must store the data (up to 20 data points) in an ascending
order of mass flow.
Propeller map
For the propeller maps auxiliary coordinates are also used. These maps are
defined in the {power coefficient, advance ratio} plane. The map information is
contained in two tables both with being the argument and advance ratio being
the parameter. The propeller efficiency is the function value of the first table and
the power coefficient is the function value of the second. Instead of the Reynolds
correction information there must be a blank line in the file. The -values must be
equidistant, beginning with =0 and ending with =1.0.
The static performance of the propeller completes the map. It is stored in the
same format as a surge line and gives the ratio of thrust coefficient over power
coefficient as a function of power coefficient. The keyword for this type of table is
Static Performance.
Turbine map
The turbine map also uses -lines. They are defined in the {pressure
ratio,corrected speed} plane. In two tables the pressure ratios for =0 and =1
are tabulated as a function of corrected speed. In two further tables, mass flow
and efficiency are stored in the same way as the compressor maps, with
corrected speed as parameter and as argument. The -values must be
equidistant, beginning with =0 and ending with =1.
1.4.3. Map scaling example
Let us take the compressor map of a turbojet to explain the procedure. We may
calculate the design point with the following properties, for example:
Corrected Mass Flow (W
R
/)
dp
90.0
Pressure Ratio (P
3
/P
2
)
dp
9.0
Efficiency
dp
0.85
You can produce
turbine maps
easily by using
the program
SmoothT
27
The corrected spool speed of the design point is taken as a reference in all off-
design calculations. It holds by definition:
Corrected Speed (N
R
)
dp
1.000
For off-design calculations, the design point must be correlated with the map. This
means that one point in the map has to be a reference point (subscript R,map)
the design point (subscript dp) is matched with. As a default, the reference point
is defined to be at
R,map
=0.5 and N/
R,map
=1.0. However,
R,map
and N/
R,map

can be modified easily either by using the mouse or by entering numbers. Using

R,map
=0.5 and N/
R,map
=1.0 along with the standard map HPC01.MAP yields
Corrected Mass Flow (W
R
/)
R,map
33.48423
Pressure Ratio (P
3
/P
2
)
R,map
8.311415
Efficiency
R,map
0.860100
Note that for reading these values from the map tables a linear interpolation
between =0.47368 and =0.52632 is required. The value read from the map
tables needs to be corrected for Reynolds number effects with the terms f
,RNI
and
f
W,RNI
to be comparable with the design point efficiency
dp
:
RNI map R map dp
f
, , ,
*

=
RNI W map R R map dp R
f W W
, , ,
* ) / ( ) / ( =
Now, the map scaling factors can be calculated (assuming f
,RNI
=0.99 and
consequently f
W,RNI
=0.995):
70134 . 2
* ) / (
) / (
, ,
=

=
RNI W map R R
dp R
Mass
f W
W
f

99824 . 0
*
, ,
= =
RNI map R
dp
Eff
f
f

09418 . 1
1 ) / (
1 ) / (
, 2 3
2 3
/
2 3
=

=
map R
dp
P P
P P
P P
f
0 . 1
1
,
= =
map R
Speed
N
f
These map scaling factors are applied to all the numbers in the map. The result is
that after the scaling procedure the map will be in line with the design point. When
off-design point data are plotted on the compressor map, then the map will be
shown in its scaled form.
For good simulations you should always use the best maps available. Scaling a
single-stage fan map to a pressure ratio of 10 would certainly not be a reasonable
approach. Selecting a representative map is the responsibility of the user of
GasTurb. The program cannot keep the user from using unrepresentative
component maps.
Reynolds
correction


28
1.4.4. Input data for off-design simulations
The input data selection screen for off-design calculations needs some
explanation. If the input of Flight condition is selected, then the first few items on
the screen are altitude, the deviation from ISA standard day ambient temperature
at that altitude, relative humidity and the flight Mach number. Select the Ground
input mode when simulating gas turbines for power generation; in this mode you
can specify inlet total pressure and temperature, relative humidity and ambient
pressure.
The engine installation definition consists of intake pressure ratio, various bleed
options and power offtake for customer purposes.
Depending on the type of engine being simulated the Reheat Selection Switch
may also be shown. Depending on the switch setting these data may or may not
be needed for the calculation.
You can select the engine operating condition either by specifying the relative
high-pressure spool speed ZXN or by setting the burner exit temperature ZT4.
Note that the operating condition is also influenced by the limiter settings.
Some of the input quantities are marked as estimated values. Normally you need
not bother about them. If the iteration does not converge you should try to modify
them to get better starting values for the off-design iteration.
After the iteration variables there is the input for the pressure and the temperature
flow distortion. Note that the number of iteration variables changes with the type
of distortion.
The group of off-design input data on the page with the heading Modifiers allows
you to study changes of turbine flow capacity and nozzle area for the simulation
of variable geometry. You can also modify the compressor flow capacity and the
efficiency of the components to study deterioration effects, for example.
During off-design calculations the number of input data parameters is limited
because the basic behavior of the engine is fixed with the engine cycle design
point. Duct pressure losses, for example, are specified for the cycle design point
and will vary with corrected flow at partload. Therefore you normally need not
enter any data for duct pressure losses during off-design calculations, and you
will not find the duct pressure losses among the off-design input data.
However, you might be interested in the effect of increased pressure losses at
off-design in special cases. For this purpose, you can redefine your off-design
input quantities with the corresponding option from the menu Define | Input
Quantities.
1.4.5. Variable compressor geometry
On the notebook page Variable Geometry you can select a compressor with
variable geometry. You could, for example, select variable geometry for the fan of
an engine with a very high bypass ratio. Alternatively, you could test this feature
with the booster of a turboprop engine.
At the design point the nominal setting of the variable geometry is by definition 0.
Any deviation from this setting will affect mass flow, pressure ratio and efficiency.
You have to define the following influence coefficients before you can simulate
variable geometry for a compressor:
29
[ ]
[ ]
=
VG
W
a
VG

%

[ ]
[ ]

=
VG
P P
b
VG

% ) 1 / (

[ ]
[ ] %
%
VG
c
VG

=
The mass flow and the term {pressure ratio - 1} will vary proportionally to the
variable geometry setting VG, which is an input quantity. The efficiency
correction is done using a quadratic function. The program will correct the
efficiency according to the following formula:
|
.
|

\
|
=
100
1 *
2 VG
map
c
VG
Any deviation from the nominal setting will thus cause a loss in efficiency. The
values for mass flow and pressure ratio will rise for positive VG values and
decrease for negative VG values.
1.4.6. Limiters
The maximum power available from a given engine depends on several limits
such as the maximum spool speed, maximum temperature and maximum
pressure. Which limiter is active depends, among other things, on the flight
condition, the amount of power offtake and bleed air offtake. The program can
use several limiters simultaneously. The solution found will be a cycle with at least
one limit being reached.
You can switch on the limiters individually. Note that all mechanical and
aerodynamic speed limits are percentages of the design point data. Furthermore,
you can define a composed value as an additional limit. Use this option for
specifying a certain thrust or fuel flow, or any other computed quantity.
For a better approximation of real engine control systems, you can introduce
control schedules into your simulation. With a control schedule you can make
limiters dependent on the flight conditions. In many engine control systems the
turbine exit temperature T
5
is a function of inlet temperature T
2
, for example.
Besides limiter schedules you can also define other schedules. For example, a
nozzle area trim can be made a function of corrected spool speed. The
permissible parameter combinations depend on the engine configuration.
1.4.7. Reheat (Afterburning)
A reheated cycle is calculated in two steps. First, the program finds a dry
operating point. After convergence the necessary reheat fuel flow for the desired
T
7
will be calculated. A new nozzle throat area follows from the revised nozzle
inlet conditions.


30
There are thus two nozzle throat areas in a reheated cycle calculation. One is the
equivalent dry nozzle area, which determines the turbomachinery operating
conditions. The other one is the actual nozzle throat area.
1.4.8. Operating line
An operating line is a series of points starting with the last calculated single off-
design point. Consecutive points are obtained by decreasing the high-pressure
spool speed in steps of 0.025. A series of reheat partload points can also be an
operating line. Starting from the design point value the reheat exit temperature is
decreased in steps of 100K. Note that the operating point in the turbomachinery
component maps is the same for all points of a reheat operating line. You can
calculate reheat for off-design conditions only if your design point was calculated
with the reheat switched on.
To control the compressor surge margin you can select an automatic handling
bleed. This bleed discharges some of the compressed air into the bypass duct or
overboard. You can thus lower the operating line of the compressor and avoid a
surge. The automatic handling bleed will be modulated between the two switch-
points that you specify.
1.4.9. Off-design parametric study
Instead of creating an operating line with several values for the high-pressure
spool speed you can also produce a series of points with different amounts of
power offtake and customer bleed air extraction, for example. This is initiated with
the same input scheme as for design point parameter studies.
The operating lines are also shown in the component maps. Note that the
efficiency contours in the maps are valid for RNI=1 and delta efficiency=0 only.
The efficiencies calculated in the cycle are often different because of Reynolds
number corrections. So do not be surprised if you fail to find the same efficiency
along the operating line in the HPC map and in the plot {HPC Efficiency, HPC
Mass Flow}.
1.4.10. Calculation of a flight envelope
After specifying one or several limiters or control schedules you can calculate a
series of points with different altitudes throughout a flight envelope. A flight
envelope always starts at sea level and extends to the specified altitude. Two
limiting speed values are entered as equivalent air speed EAS. This is the speed
at which the airplane must fly at some altitude other than sea level to produce the
same dynamic pressure as at sea level. EAS is traditionally measured in knots
and differs from the true airspeed by the square root of the density ratio /
0
.
0
/ * V EAS =
There are four speed limits that define the flight envelope. For altitudes lower than
3048 m (10000 ft) the flight envelope extends to zero speed. Above this altitude
the limit of the flight envelope is the minimum Equivalent Air Speed. The
maximum speed is described by both a maximum EAS and by a maximum Mach
number (lowest is used).
A simplified definition of the flight envelope yields the engine performance for
equal steps in altitude and Mach number.
Automatic bleed
31
You can calculate up to 30 altitude levels and up to 30 speed values in a flight
envelope. Select many points if you are interested in the transition between the
different limiters. Note that in the graphs of flight envelope data the calculated
points are connected linearly. This is because the switchover from one limiter to
another can result in sharp bends in the curves. If the program were to use
splines to connect the points there, which is done in other graphs produced by
GasTurb, the sharp bends would be hidden.
The first point calculated is always sea level static. This point must converge;
otherwise, the calculation will stop with a corresponding message.
As the first graph you are offered a plot of the flight envelope in which you can
see which limiter is active at any altitude and Mach number combination.
1.4.11. Off-design effects
There can be a big difference in the results found for small changes in
compressor efficiency between cycle design point calculations and those for off-
design. In the latter case all the operating points are moving around in their
component maps and it might happen that decreasing the quality of a component
improves thrust!
Note also that the effects can depend very much on the flight condition and on the
engine operating conditions. Effects for constant thrust differ from those for
constant burner exit temperature or constant speed.
Be careful when looking at the results especially in case of surge margin. The
differences are presented as a percentage of the original value. Surge margin is
already a value expressed in terms of a percentage, typically 25%. When an
effect causes a reduction in surge margin by 2.5% then you will find in the table
on the screen the value 10, since 2.5% is 10% of the original value.
1.4.12. Off-design Monte Carlo simulation
With the Monte Carlo method you can simulate the performance variations that
result from random changes of the component behaviour due to manufacturing
and assembly tolerances in a series production of engines. See which component
production and control system tolerances you can afford without getting an
excessive scatter in pass-off thrust or specific fuel consumption.
The random distributions for all input data are independent of each other. There is
one exception to this rule: a compressor with an efficiency level lower than the
mean value is assumed to also have a corrected flow at a given speed, which is
lower than average.
1.4.13. Mission calculations
Often one has to look in detail at many different off-design conditions of a gas
turbine. To do this easily, you may define a mission. You can combine up to 30
different operating conditions in a list of mission points.
When you start the calculation, then all points in this list will be calculated in one
run. The results are presented in a summary table. You may rearrange the
sequence of the lines in that table to put those items first that are of most interest
for your specific problem.
Effects on surge
margin


32
Besides the summary table you can also get detailed information for every single
point. Furthermore, all points of a mission will be plotted in the component maps.
1.4.14. Off-design constraints in a cycle design optimisation
The sizing of an engine for a subsonic transport aircraft is generally done for an
aerodynamic design point at high altitude. For such a flight condition one normally
gets high Mach numbers at the compressor inlet, but rather moderate turbine inlet
temperatures.
The maximum turbine inlet temperature will occur at hot day take-off conditions.
From a cycle design point of view this is an off-design case.
During a cycle design optimization exercise you can take constraints from one off-
design point into account. Define a mission with one single point for that purpose
before initiating the optimization. Then, for each of the seven constraints you may
choose whether it applies to the design point or to the off-design point.
1.4.15. Test analysis by synthesis
The conventional test analysis makes no use of information that is available from
component rig tests, for example. It will give no information about the reason why
a component behaves badly. A low efficiency for the fan may be either the result
of operating the fan at aerodynamic overspeed or a poor blade design. To
improve the analysis quality in this respect is the aim of the Analysis by Synthesis
(AnSyn). This method is also known as model based engine monitoring.
When doing analysis by synthesis a model of the engine is automatically matched
to the test data. Applying scaling factors to the component models so that the
measured values and the model values come into agreement does this. An
efficiency scaling factor greater than one indicates, that the component performs
better than predicted, for example.
The mass flow through an engine can be directly measured or analyzed from
various other measurements. For a single spool turboshaft, for example, the
compressor mass flow can be calculated from the turbine flow capacity or from
the measured exit temperature T
5
if fuel flow is known.
For each engine configuration GasTurb offers a selection of mass flow analysis
methods. It depends on the accuracy of the sensors which method provides the
most reasonable test analysis result. Check the effects of sensor errors on the
analysis result with the menu option Task|Effects

Mass flow
analysis
33
2. Theory
The following chapters describe the calculations done for some characteristic
engine types. You only need to read the appropriate section for your engine type,
since the chapters do not depend on each other. The nomenclature used in the
following chapters is consistent with the nomenclature in the source code.
After the general description there are chapters that provide the details of the
calculations.

2.1. Description of some typical engine configurations
2.1.1. Single spool turbojet
The calculation starts with the intake. The altitude, flight Mach number and T
ISA

yield the ambient temperature and pressure, the flight velocity and the total
engine inlet conditions T
1
and P
1
. The pressure at the compressor inlet can be
easily calculated from the input value of the intake pressure ratio P
2
/P
1
or from the
value read from the intake map.
In the case of design calculations the total corrected engine mass flow W
2

R,2
/
2

is an input. W
2
can be derived easily.
In the case of off-design the relative corrected compressor spool speed is
Design
C
C
rel corr C
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
, ,
*
*

The compressor map is read with help of the relative corrected speed and the
auxiliary map coordinate
C
. This yields the standard day corrected mass flow
W
2

R,2
/
2
, the isentropic efficiency
23
, the pressure ratio P
3
/P
2
and the surge
margin. N
C
and
C
are estimated values in an off-design calculation. W
2
can
easily be derived from W
2

R,2
/
2
, T
2
and P
2
.
To perform a simulation of inlet flow distortion as well as to study the transient
behavior one needs some engine geometry data. They will be calculated if you
select Compressor Design. Then W
2
, T
2
, P
2
, the blade tip velocity, the inlet
hub/tip radius ratio and the axial Mach number are used to calculate the tip
diameter, the relative and circumferential Mach numbers, and the angular
velocity.
For the description of the inlet flow distortion the static quantities in the
aerodynamic interface plane are required. The flow area is derived from the
compressor tip diameter.
Now we can calculate the compression process, which yields the compressor exit
temperature T
3
, as well as the specific work dH
23
.
Compressor map
Distortion and
transient
simulations
Aerodynamic
interface plane


34
Next we look at the internal air system. The turbine cooling air mass flow is
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
,
2 ,
*
W
W
W W
T Cl
T Cl

This amount of cooling air is assumed not to do any work; it is mixed with the
main gas stream behind the turbine. The nozzle guide vane (NGV) cooling air
mass flow is calculated in a similar manner:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
,
2 ,
*
W
W
W W
NGV Cl
NGV Cl

The NGV cooling air is mixed with the main stream at station 41 upstream of the
rotor(s), consequently this amount of air does work in the turbine.
2 3 4
41
5 8 6
61
7 9
NGV
Cool.
Overboard
Bleed
Handling
Bleed
HPT
Cooling
31
TJetRHCDPPT.WMF GasTurb

The overboard bleed mass flow can be entered as a linear combination of a
relative and an absolute amount
2 ,
2
1 ,
2
*
Bld
Bld
Bld
W
W
W
W W +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
The work done on the overboard bleed is:
23
*dH f dH
Bld Bld
=
In an operating line calculation and during the simulation of the transient behavior
you can select the handling bleed to be switched automatically. The bleed valve is
closed when the relative corrected compressor speed is higher than N
C,corr,rel,2
. It
will be open if the corrected speed is lower than N
C,corr,rel,1
. If the corrected spool
Internal air
system
Customer bleed
air
Automatic
handling bleed
35
speed is between these boundaries then the handling bleed flow is interpolated
linearly:
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1 , , , 2 , , ,
1 , , , , ,
max
2
2
1 * *
rel corr C rel corr C
rel corr C rel corr C
HdlBld
HdlBld
N N
N N
W
W
W W
The NGV and turbine rotor cooling air as well as the handling bleed air is
compressed fully; the specific power required for this is dH
23
. The mass flow at
the compressor exit W
3
is the flow without the inter-stage bleed that is not fully
compressed (an inter-stage bleed is modeled with f
Bld
<1):
Bld
W W W =
2 3

Between stations 3 and 31 the fully compressed bleeds are taken off:
HdlBld T Cl NGV Cl
W W W W W =
, , 3 31

In design calculations the burner pressure ratio P
4
/P
3
is given, whereas in off-
design calculations it is derived from the corrected flow and the design point
pressure ratio. The amount of fuel is calculated from the required fuel-air-ratio,
which in turn depends on burner pressure, inlet temperature, humidity and
temperature rise.
) ( * /
2
31 34 O H f
W W far W =
The burner exit flow is W
4
=W
31
+W
f
, and the turbine nozzle guide vane exit flow is
W
41
=W
4
+W
Cl,NGV
. The fuel-air-ratio far
41
is
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
41
41

=
Now it is possible to calculate the enthalpy corresponding to the Stator Outlet
Temperature (SOT) or Rotor Inlet Temperature (RIT) of the turbine:
41 3 , 4 4 41
/ ) * * ( W H W H W H
NGV Cl
+ =
The power delivered by the turbine is a product of W
41
and the specific power
dH
41,49
. The energy balance with all power requirements, including the customer
power offtake PWX, is given by
mech
Bld Bld
W
PWX dH W dH W
dH
*
* *
41
23 3
49 , 41
+ +
=
If Turbine Design is selected, then the isentropic efficiency is calculated,
otherwise, it is given as an input property. In off-design simulations the efficiency
is read from the turbine map.
The relative corrected turbine speed is
Burner


36
Design
C
C
rel corr T
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
41
41
, ,
*
*

The turbine efficiency and the corrected flow are read from the map with the
known relative corrected spool speed and the auxiliary coordinate
T
. The
efficiency can be modified in off-design simulations by a tip clearance correction
term, which is a function of the relative mechanical spool speed N
C
:
C
C clearance tip
N
N

* ) 1 ( =
From the specific work dH
41,49
and the efficiency we can calculate P
49
= P
5
and
the turbine rotor exit temperature T
49
. Then the turbine rotor cooling air is added:
T Cl
W W W
, 41 5
+ =
The turbine exit enthalpy H
5
is calculated on the basis of the energy balance:
5
, 3 41 41 41 49
5
* * ) , , (
W
W H W war far T h
H
T Cl
+
=
The fuel air ratio comes from
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
5
5

=
In design calculations the turbine exit duct pressure ratio P
6
/P
5
is given, while in
off-design simulations it is calculated as a function of corrected flow.
If the engine has no reheat system, then the nozzle inlet conditions are the same
as in station 6. Otherwise, a nozzle cooling air flow is detracted from the mass
flow W
6
=W
5
to yield the reheat inlet mass flow W
61
:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
6
,
6 6 61
*
W
W
W W W
Noz Cl

Then the fuel-air-ratio far
7
is calculated from the specified reheat exit temperature
T
7
. Reheat fuel flow is then
|
|
.
|

\
|
= 1 *
6
7
,
far
far
W W
f RH f

The total reheat exit mass flow amounts to W
7
=W
61
+W
f,RH
. The fundamental
pressure loss caused by the heat addition will then be calculated. The correlations
of the Rayleigh line, i.e., heat addition in a pipe with constant area, are used. The
inlet Mach number for this calculation is M
6
.
Reheat
37
The nozzle cooling air is mixed with the main stream before the nozzle calculation
starts. The nozzle total temperature will therefore be lower than T
7
, if nozzle
cooling air is considered.
Two types of nozzles can be calculated: a convergent nozzle and a convergent-
divergent nozzle with a prescribed nozzle area ratio A
9
/A
8
. The net thrust with a
convergent nozzle is
0 2 8 , 8 8 8 ,
* ) ( * * * V W P P A C V W F
amb s FG id N
+ =
For the convergent-divergent nozzle it is
0 2 9 , 9 9 8 ,
* ) ( * * * V W P P A C V W F
amb s FG id N
+ =
The pressure term A
9
*(P
s,9
-P
amb
) will be negative if the nozzle area ratio is too big
for the pressure ratio.
Propulsion efficiency is
0 8
0 2
Pr
*
*
1
2
V W
V W F
N
op
+
+
=
Thermal efficiency is given by:
FHV W
V dH W
f
is
core
*
) 2 / ( *
2
0 5

=
where dH
is
is the enthalpy for an isentropic expansion from P
5
to ambient
pressure.
Besides the numbers on the cycle output page you can also get temperature- and
enthalpy-entropy diagrams of the cycle. These help to understand the calculation
of a cooled turbine in particular. Feel free to modify the scales in this graph and to
enlarge parts of it to get a detailed view.
Nozzle


38
39


2.1.2. Single spool turboshaft
The calculation starts with the intake. The altitude, flight Mach number and T
ISA

yield the ambient temperature and pressure, the flight velocity and the total
engine inlet conditions T
1
and P
1
. The pressure at the compressor inlet can be
easily calculated from the input value of the intake pressure ratio P
2
/P
1
or from the
value read from the intake map.
In the case of design calculations the total corrected engine mass flow W
2

R,2
/
2

is an input. W
2
can be derived easily.
In the case of off-design the relative corrected compressor spool speed is
Design
C
C
rel corr C
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
, ,
*
*

The compressor map is read with help of the relative corrected speed and the
auxiliary map coordinate
C
. This yields the standard day corrected mass flow
W
2

R,2
/
2
, the isentropic efficiency
23
, the pressure ratio P
3
/P
2
and the surge
margin. N
C
and
C
are estimated values in an off-design calculation. W
2
can
easily be derived from W
2

R,2
/
2
, T
2
and P
2
.
To perform a simulation of inlet flow distortion as well as to study the transient
behavior one needs some engine geometry data. They will be calculated if you
select Compressor Design. Then W
2
, T
2
, P
2
, the blade tip velocity, the inlet hub-
tip radius ratio and the axial Mach number are used to calculate the tip diameter,
the relative and circumferential Mach numbers, and the angular velocity.
For the description of the inlet flow distortion the static quantities in the
aerodynamic interface plane are required. The flow area is derived from the
compressor tip diameter.
Now we can calculate the compression process, which yields the compressor exit
temperature T
3
, as well as the specific work dH
23
.
Next we look at the internal air system. The turbine cooling air mass flow is
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
,
2 ,
*
W
W
W W
T Cl
T Cl

This amount of cooling air is assumed not to do any work; it is mixed with the
main gas stream behind the turbine. The nozzle guide vane (NGV) cooling air
mass flow is calculated in a similar manner:
Compressor map
Distortion and
transient
simulations
Aerodynamic
interface plane
Internal air
system


40
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
,
2 ,
*
W
W
W W
NGV Cl
NGV Cl

The NGV cooling air is mixed with the main stream at station 41 upstream of the
rotor(s), consequently this amount of air does work in the turbine.
The overboard bleed mass flow can be entered as a linear combination of a
relative and an absolute amount
2 ,
2
1 ,
2
*
Bld
Bld
Bld
W
W
W
W W +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
The work done on the overboard bleed air is:
23
*dH f dH
Bld Bld
=
In an operating line calculation and during the simulation of the transient behavior
you can select the handling bleed to be switched automatically. The bleed valve is
closed if the relative corrected compressor speed is higher than N
C,corr,rel,2
. It will
be open if the corrected speed is lower than N
C,corr,rel,1
. If the corrected spool
speed is between these boundaries then the handling bleed flow is interpolated
linearly:
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1 , , , 2 , , ,
1 , , , , ,
max
2
2
1 * *
rel corr C rel corr C
rel corr C rel corr C
HdlBld
HdlBld
N N
N N
W
W
W W
2 3 4
41 8 6
5
35
7
31
HPT
Cooling
NGV
Cool.
Overboard
Bleeds
Handling
Bleed
TJetExPPT.WMF GasTurb

The NGV and turbine rotor cooling air as well as the handling bleed air is
compressed fully; the specific power required for this is dH
23
. The mass flow at
Customer bleed
air
Automatic
handling bleed
41
the compressor exit W
3
is the flow without the inter-stage bleed that is not fully
compressed (an inter-stage bleed is modeled with f
Bld
<1):
Bld
W W W =
2 3

Between stations 3 and 31 the fully compressed bleeds are taken off:
HdlBld T Cl NGV Cl
W W W W W =
, , 3 31

However, when the engine is equipped with a heat exchanger then the nozzle
guide vane cooling air is not subtracted from W
31
because W
Cl,NGV
is taken from
the flame tube cooling air:
HdlBld T Cl
W W W W W = =
, 3 35 31

If there is no heat exchanger then T
35
equals T
3
and P
35
equals P
3
. If a turboshaft
with a heat exchanger is to be calculated, an iteration must be initiated. The cold-
side exit temperature of the heat exchanger, T
35
, is estimated to be T
3
+300K. The
pressure loss from station 3 to station 35 is calculated differently for design and
off-design. In the first case the pressure ratio P
35
/P
3
is given as input, whereas in
the second case the losses depend on the corrected flow.
The pressure loss in the burner is calculated in the same way as the heat
exchanger loss: in design calculations the pressure ratio P
4
/P
35
is given, whereas
in off-design calculations it is a function of the corrected flow and the design point
pressure ratio.
The amount of fuel is calculated from the required fuel-air-ratio, which in turn
depends on burner pressure, inlet temperature, humidity of the incoming air and
temperature rise. Water or steam injection into the burner can be considered also.
) ( * /
2
35 34 O H f
W W far W =
The burner exit flow is W
4
=W
35
+(SFR+WFR)*W
f
, and the turbine nozzle guide
vane exit flow is W
41
=W
4
+W
Cl,NGV
. The fuel-air-ratio far
41
is
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
41
41

=
Now it is possible to calculate the enthalpy corresponding to the Stator Outlet
Temperature (SOT) or Rotor Inlet Temperature (RIT) of the turbine:
41 35 , 4 4 41
/ ) * * ( W H W H W H
NGV Cl
+ =
In a design calculation you can specify the nozzle pressure ratio P
6
/P
amb
. From
P
4
, ambient pressure, turbine exit duct pressure ratio P
6
/P
5
and nozzle pressure
ratio, you can calculate the turbine pressure ratio P
4
/P
5
. From mass flow W
41
,
efficiency and pressure ratio, the turbine power follows. The shaft power delivered
will be
C T mech SD
PW PW PW = *
Heat exchanger
Burner
Turbine


42
For off-design calculations the shaft power can be prescribed via the following
formula (The values for c and n in this formula are input data):
n
Design SD SD
PW c PW
,
* =
If Turbine Design is selected then the isentropic efficiency is calculated,
otherwise, it is given as an input property. In off-design simulations the efficiency
is read from the turbine map.
The relative corrected turbine speed is
Design
C
C
rel corr T
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
41
41
, ,
*
*

The turbine efficiency and the corrected flow are read from the map with the
known relative corrected spool speed and the auxiliary coordinate
T
. The
efficiency can be modified in off-design simulations by a tip clearance correction
term, which is a function of the relative mechanical spool speed:
C
C clearance tip
N
N

* ) 1 ( =
The turbine exit conditions, i.e., T
49
and P
5
, can now be calculated using the
pressure ratio and efficiency. The cooling air will be mixed in the next step:
T Cl
W W W
, 41 5
+ =
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
5
5

=
5
49 49 3 ,
5
* *
W
H W H W
H
T Cl
+
=
The turbine exit duct pressure ratio can be found in the usual way. During off-
design calculations the turbine exit flow angle can vary considerably. If you want
to model the pressure losses as a function of flow angle, then you must select
Turbine Design for the turbine. That provides the area A
5
, the mean diameter of
the turbine, and the blade exit flow angle, which is assumed to be equal to the
blade metal angle
Blade

During off-design the axial flow velocity can be found approximately from
5 5
5 5
5 ,
*
* *
P A
T R W
V
ax
=
Turbine exit duct
43
The use of the total quantities T
5
and P
5
instead of the static quantities T
s5
and P
s5

does not matter very much, since the Mach number is usually low behind the
turbine. The absolute turbine exit flow angle can be found using the
circumferential speed U
5
and the blade metal angle.
5 ,
5
tan tan
ax
Blade
V
U
=
You can input the geometric angle of the struts in the turbine exit duct. If there is
zero incidence at the struts leading edge, then the pressure losses will be
minimal. For other flow angles there will be an additional pressure loss due to the
incidence of the flow direction relative to the strut. To describe this a loss factor
f
inc
is calculated
) ( * cos
strut
c
inc
f =
The exponent c in this formula allows one to adapt the loss characteristics as
required. The pressure loss of the turbine exit duct is then
inc
Loss Min
Design R
f
P
P
W P
W
R T
P
P
* 1 *
*
* * 1
5
6
2
, , 5 5
5
5
5
6
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
If a heat exchanger is installed then its hot side pressure losses will be either
given (design case) or calculated (off-design) as a function of the corrected flow.
The heat exchanger exit temperature T
7
is derived from its effectiveness, which is
an input property:
( )
3 6 6 7
* * T T
C
C
T T
h
c
ex
=
with
[ ] 2 / ) ( ) ( *
35 3 31
T c T c W C
p p c
+ =
and
[ ] 2 / )) ( ( ) ( *
3 35 6 6 6
T T T c T c W C
p p h
+ =
Until now only an estimated value has been used for the cold side heat exchanger
exit temperature T
35
. We must check whether this value satisfies the heat balance
equation:
) ( * ) ( *
7 6 6 3 35 31
H H W H H W =
As long as this equation is not satisfied, an improved value for T
35
has to be
estimated, and the calculations must be restarted at the burner inlet.
Heat exchanger


44
Without a heat exchanger the turbine exit duct conditions are identical to the
exhaust diffuser inlet conditions. You have to include the pressure losses of the
exhaust diffusor into the pressure losses of the turbine exhaust diffusor.
For engines with heat exchanger the hot side pressure losses of the heat
exchanger must include the exhaust diffusor losses.
Only a few additional calculations remain now:
Thermal efficiency
FHV W
PW
f
SD
therm
*
=
Core efficiency
FHV W
V dH W
f
is
core
*
) 2 / ( *
2
0 5

=
The enthalpy dH
is
is calculated assuming an isentropic expansion from station 5
to ambient pressure.
If the engine is configured as a turboprop then the total thrust is the sum of
propeller thrust and residual thrust. The details of the propeller calculations are
described in the component simulation chapter. The residual thrust is
0 2 8 8
* * * V W C V W F
FG N
=

You can select an enthalpy-entropy or a temperature-entropy diagram as a graph.
It will show all of the thermodynamic stations of the cycle. Some stations are often
very close to each other. This makes it difficult to distinguish among all of the
details in the original scale. If you are interested in a special part of the cycle
diagram, you should enlarge the relevant section.

Turboprop
45


2.1.3. Two-spool turboshaft, turboprop
The calculation starts with the intake. The altitude, flight Mach number and T
ISA

yield the ambient temperature and pressure, the flight velocity and the total
engine inlet conditions T
1
and P
1
. The pressure at the compressor inlet can be
easily calculated from the input value of the intake pressure ratio P
2
/P
1
or from the
value read from the intake map.
In the case of design calculations the total corrected engine mass flow W
2

R,2
/
2

is an input. W
2
can be derived easily.
In the case of off-design the relative corrected compressor spool speed is
Design
C
C
rel corr C
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
, ,
*
*

The compressor map is read with help of the relative corrected speed and the
auxiliary map coordinate
C
. This yields the standard day corrected mass flow
W
2

R,2
/
2
, the isentropic efficiency
23
, the pressure ratio P
3
/P
2
and the surge
margin. N
C
and
C
are estimated values in an off-design calculation. W
2
can
easily be derived from W
2

R,2
/
2
, T
2
and P
2
.
To perform a simulation of inlet flow distortion as well as to study the transient
behavior one needs some engine geometry data. They will be calculated if you
select Compressor Design. Then W
2
, T
2
, P
2
, the blade tip velocity, the inlet hub-
tip radius ratio and the axial Mach number are used to calculate the tip diameter,
the relative and circumferential Mach numbers, and the angular velocity.
For the description of the inlet flow distortion the static quantities in the
aerodynamic interface plane are required. The flow area is derived from the
compressor tip diameter.
Now we can calculate the compression process, which yields the compressor exit
temperature T
3
, as well as the specific work dH
23
.
Next we look at the internal air system. The high-pressure turbine (HPT) cooling
air mass flow is
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
,
2 ,
*
W
W
W W
HPT Cl
HPT Cl

This amount of cooling air is assumed not to do any work; it is mixed with the
main gas stream downstream of the turbine. The nozzle guide vane (NGV)
cooling air mass flow is calculated in a similar manner:
Compressor map
Distortion and
transient
simulations
Aerodynamic
interface plane
Internal air
system


46
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
,
2 ,
*
W
W
W W
NGV Cl
NGV Cl

The NGV cooling air is mixed with the main stream at station 41 upstream of the
rotor(s), consequently this amount of air does work in the turbine. A leakage from
the compressor exit to the low-pressure turbine exit can also be taken into
account:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
*
W
W
W W
lk
lk

The low-pressure turbine (LPT) needs also some cooling air
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
,
2 ,
*
W
W
W W
LPT Cl
LPT Cl

Specific work done on this air is
23 , ,
*dH f dH
LPT Cl LPT Cl
=
The LPT cooling air is assumed not to do any work, neither in the HPT nor in the
LPT. This air will be mixed with the main stream behind the LPT.
The overboard bleed mass flow can be entered as a linear combination of a
relative and an absolute amount
2 ,
2
1 ,
2
*
Bld
Bld
Bld
W
W
W
W W +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
The work done on the overboard bleed air is:
23
*dH f dH
Bld Bld
=
In an operating line calculation and during the simulation of the transient behavior
you can select the handling bleed to be switched automatically. This bleed valve
is closed if the relative corrected compressor speed is higher than N
C,corr,rel,2
. It will
be open if the corrected speed is lower than N
C,corr,rel,1
. If the corrected spool
speed is between these boundaries then the handling bleed flow is interpolated
linearly:
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1 , , , 2 , , ,
1 , , , , ,
max
2
2
1 * *
rel corr C rel corr C
rel corr C rel corr C
HdlBld
HdlBld
N N
N N
W
W
W W
The NGV and turbine rotor cooling air as well as the handling bleed air is
compressed fully; the specific power required for this is dH
23
. The mass flow at
the compressor exit W
3
is the flow without the inter-stage bleed that is not fully
compressed (an inter-stage bleed is modeled with f
Bld
<1):
Customer bleed
air
Automatic
handling bleed
47
Bld
W W W =
2 3

Between stations 3 and 31 the fully compressed bleeds are taken off:
HdlBld HPT Cl NGV Cl
W W W W W =
, , 3 31

2 3 4
41 8 45 6 5
44
35
7
31
HPT
Cooling
NGV
Cool.
Overboard
Bleeds
Handling
Bleed
HP leak to LPT exit
GasTurb TShtExchPPT.WMF
LPT cooling

However, if the engine is equipped with a heat exchanger then the nozzle guide
vane cooling air is not subtracted from W
31
because W
Cl,NGV
is taken from the
flame tube cooling air:
HdlBld HPT Cl
W W W W W = =
, 3 35 31

If there is no heat exchanger then T
35
equals T
3
and P
35
equals P
3
. If a turboshaft
with a heat exchanger is to be calculated, an iteration must be initiated. The cold-
side exit temperature of the heat exchanger, T
35
, is estimated to be T
3
+300K. The
pressure loss from station 3 to station 35 is calculated differently for design and
off-design. In the first case the pressure ratio P
35
/P
3
is given as input, whereas in
the second case the losses depend on the corrected flow.
The pressure loss in the burner is calculated in the same way as the heat
exchanger loss: in design calculations the pressure ratio P
4
/P
35
is given, whereas
in off-design calculations it is a function of the corrected flow and the design point
pressure ratio.
The amount of fuel is calculated from the required fuel-air-ratio, which in turn
depends on burner pressure, inlet temperature, humidity of the incoming air and
temperature rise. Water or steam injection into the burner can be considered also.
) ( * /
2
35 34 O H f
W W far W =
Heat exchanger
Burner


48
The burner exit flow is W
4
=W
35
+(SFR+WFR)*W
f
and the turbine nozzle guide
vane exit flow W
41
equals W
4
+W
Cl,NGV
. The fuel-air-ratio far
41
is
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
41
41

=
Now it is possible to calculate the enthalpy corresponding to the Stator Outlet
Temperature (SOT) or Rotor Inlet Temperature (RIT) of the turbine:
41 35 , 4 4 41
/ ) * * ( W H W H W H
NGV Cl
+ =
The power delivered by the turbine is a product of W
41
and the specific power
dH
41,44
. The energy balance with all power requirements, including the customer
power offtake PWX, is given by
mech
Bld Bld LPT Cl LPT Cl
W
PWX dH W dH W dH W
dH
*
* * *
41
, , 23 3
44 , 41
+ + +
=
If Turbine Design is selected then the isentropic efficiency is calculated,
otherwise, it is given as an input property. In off-design simulations the efficiency
is read from the turbine map.
The relative corrected turbine speed is
Design
C
C
rel corr HPT
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
41
41
, ,
*
*

The turbine efficiency and the corrected flow are read from the map with the
known relative corrected spool speed and the auxiliary coordinate
HPT
. The
efficiency can be modified in off-design simulations by a tip clearance correction
term, which is a function of the relative mechanical spool speed:
C
C clearance tip
N
N

* ) 1 ( =
From the specific work dH
41,44
and the efficiency we can calculate P
43
= P
44
and
the turbine rotor exit temperature T
43
. Then the turbine rotor cooling air is added:
W
45
=W
41
+W
Cl,HPT
. The LPT inlet enthalpy H
45
is calculated using the energy
balance:
45
, 3 41 41 41 43
45
* * ) , , (
W
W H W war far T h
H
HPT Cl
+
=
The fuel air ratio comes from
High pressure
turbine
49
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
45
45

=
Pressure losses in the inter-duct between both turbines can be calculated in
several ways. For design calculations, when turbine efficiency is an input
property, P
45
/P
44
is a given quantity. If Turbine Design is selected and a value for
the reference Mach number M
44
>0 is given, then the pressure loss will be
adjusted to the actual Mach number level. If the reference Mach number is not
given, then the input value of P
45
/P
44
is used again. During off-design the losses
vary with the corrected flow in the same way as in any duct.
Usually the low-pressure turbine (LPT) efficiency is an input value. Efficiency,
however, can also be calculated in a turbine design calculation. The mechanical
speed of the LPT is an input value. The pressure ratio of the turbine is given by
P
45
and
6
5
7
6
8
7 8
5
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P P
amb
amb
=
Except P
7
/P
8
, which is set to 1.0 in this program, these pressure ratios are input
data. P
6
/P
7
is the heat exchanger hot side pressure ratio (equals 1.0 if no heat
exchanger is present), and P
6
/P
5
is the turbine exit duct pressure ratio.
In the case of off-design the relative corrected speed of the LPT is
Design
LPT
LPT
rel corr LPT
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
45
45
, ,
*
*

The operating point in the map is determined by the estimated value of the
auxiliary coordinate,
LPT
, and the relative corrected speed. Both the corrected
flow, W
45,std
, and the efficiency are read from the tables.
The LPT exit conditions, i.e., T
49
and P
5
, can now be calculated using the
pressure ratio and efficiency. The cooling and the leakage air will be mixed in the
next step:
lk LPT Cl
W W W W + + =
, 45 5

O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
5
5

=
5
3 49 45 , ,
5
* * *
W
H W H W H W
H
lk LPT Cl LPT Cl
+ +
=
The turbine exit duct pressure ratio can be found in the usual way. During off-
design calculations the turbine exit flow angle can vary considerably. If you want
to model the pressure losses as a function of flow angle, then you must select
Turbine inter-
duct
Low-pressure
turbine
Turbine exit duct


50
Turbine Design for the LPT. That provides the area A
5
, the mean diameter of the
low pressure turbine, and the blade exit flow angle, which is assumed to be equal
to the blade metal angle
Blade

During off-design the axial flow velocity can be found approximately from
5 5
5 5
5 ,
*
* *
P A
T R W
V
ax
=
The use of the total quantities T
5
and P
5
instead of the static quantities T
s5
and P
s5

does not matter very much, since the Mach number is usually low behind the
LPT. The absolute flow angle can be found using the circumferential speed U
5

and the blade metal angle.
5 ,
5
tan tan
ax
Blade
V
U
=
You can input the geometric angle of the struts in the turbine exit duct. If there is
zero incidence at the struts leading edge, then the pressure losses will be
minimal. For other flow angles there will be an additional pressure loss due to the
incidence of the flow direction relative to the strut. To describe this a loss factor
f
inc
is calculated
) ( * cos
strut
c
inc
f =
The exponent c in this formula allows one to adapt the loss characteristics as
required. The pressure loss of the turbine exit duct is then
inc
Loss Min
Design R
f
P
P
W P
W
R T
P
P
* 1 *
*
* * 1
5
6
2
, , 5 5
5
5
5
6
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
When a heat exchanger is installed then its hot side pressure losses will be either
given (design case) or calculated (off-design) as a function of the corrected flow.
The heat exchanger exit temperature T
7
is derived from the input value for its
effectiveness:
( )
3 6 6 7
* * T T
C
C
T T
h
c
ex
=
with
[ ] 2 / ) ( ) ( *
35 3 31
T c T c W C
p p c
+ =
and
[ ] 2 / )) ( ( ) ( *
3 35 6 6 6
T T T c T c W C
p p h
+ =
Heat exchanger
51
Until now only an estimated value has been used for the cold side heat exchanger
exit temperature T
35
. We must check whether this value satisfies the heat balance
equation:
) ( * ) ( *
7 6 6 3 35 31
H H W H H W =
As long as this equation is not satisfied, an improved value for T
35
has to be
estimated, and the calculations must be restarted at the burner inlet.
Without a heat exchanger the turbine exit duct conditions are identical to the
exhaust diffuser inlet conditions. You have to include the pressure losses of the
exhaust diffusor into the pressure losses of the turbine exhaust diffusor.
For engines with heat exchanger the hot side pressure losses of the heat
exchanger must include the exhaust diffusor losses.
Only a few additional calculations remain now:
Shaft power delivered
5 , 45 45 ,
* * dH W PW
L mech SD
=
Thermal efficiency
FHV W
PW
f
SD
therm
*
=
Core efficiency
FHV W
V dH W
f
is
core
*
) 2 / ( *
2
0 45

=
The enthalpy dH
is
is calculated assuming an isentropic expansion from station 45
to ambient pressure.
If the engine is configured as a turboprop then the total thrust is the sum of
propeller thrust and residual thrust. The details of the propeller calculations are
described in the component simulation chapter. The residual thrust is
0 2 8 8
* * * V W C V W F
FG N
=

Turboprop
52

2.1.4. Inter-cooled recuperated turboshaft
The engine inlet conditions are specified in terms of total temperature T
1
, total
pressure P
1
and relative humidity. Furthermore, ambient pressure P
amb
must be
known. The pressure at the compressor inlet can be easily calculated from the
input value of the intake pressure ratio P
2
/P
1
or from the value read from the
intake map.
In the case of design calculations the booster pressure ratio P
24
/P
2
and the
isentropic efficiency
2,24
as well as the total corrected engine mass flow
W
2

R,2
/
2
are input properties. W
2
can be derived easily.
In the case of off-design the relative low-pressure spool speed N
L
is specified by
input. The relative corrected low-pressure spool speed is
Design
L
L
rel corr LPC
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
, ,
*
*

The booster map is read with help of the relative corrected speed and the
auxiliary map coordinate
IPC
. This yields the standard day corrected mass flow
W
2

R,2
/
2
, the isentropic efficiency
2,24
, the pressure ratio P
24
/P
2
and the surge
margin.
IPC
is an estimated value in an off-design calculation. W
2
can easily be
derived from W
2

R,2
/
2
, T
2
and P
2
.
To perform a simulation of inlet flow distortion as well as to study the transient
behavior one needs some engine geometry data. They will be calculated if you
select Booster Design. Then W
2
, T
2
, P
2
, the blade tip velocity, the inlet hub-tip
radius ratio and the axial Mach number are used to calculate the tip diameter, the
relative and circumferential Mach numbers, and the angular velocity.
For the description of the inlet flow distortion the static quantities in the
aerodynamic interface plane are required. The flow area is derived from the
booster tip diameter.
Now we can calculate the low-pressure compression process, which yields the
booster exit temperature T
24
, as well as the specific work dH
2,24
. The pressure
losses in the compressor inter-duct are calculated as for any duct.
If an intercooler is selected, it is located between stations 24 and 25. You can
describe the total pressure loss of this device during cycle design calculations
with an input value for P
25
/P
24
. During off-design this pressure loss varies with the
corrected flow as in an inter-duct. The total temperature at the exit of the
intercooler, T
25
, is an input value both for design and off-design.
In the case of off-design the high-pressure spool speed is either an input value or
an estimated value. The relative corrected high-pressure spool speed is given by
Booster
Distortion and
transient
simulations
Aerodynamic
interface plane
53
Design
H
H
rel corr HPC
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
25
, ,
*
*

With this relative corrected speed and the auxiliary map coordinate
HPC
the high-
pressure compressor (HPC) tables are read. This yields the standard day
corrected mass flow W
25

R,25
/
25
, the isentropic efficiency
253
, the pressure ratio
P
3
/P
25
, and the surge margin.
HPC
is an estimated value in an off-design
calculation. In the case of design calculations the isentropic or polytropic
efficiency and the pressure ratio P
3
/P
25
are input quantities.
If you wish to do transient simulations, then you need to select HPC Design.
Then W
25
, T
25
, P
25
, the blade tip velocity, the inlet radius ratio, and the axial Mach
number will be used to calculate the tip diameter, the relative and circumferential
Mach numbers and the angular velocity. The latter is needed besides the polar
moment of inertia for the calculation of the acceleration power during transients.
25
3 4
41 8 45 6 5
44
2
24
HPT
Cooling
NGV
Cool.
HP leak to LPT exit
LPT cooling
Handling
Bleed
Overboard
Bleeds
31
GasTurb TIntShtPPT.WMF

Now we look at the internal air system. A handling bleed can be subtracted from
the inter-duct:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
*
W
W
W W
HdlBld
HdlBld

HdlBld
W W W =
2 25

The high-pressure turbine (HPT) cooling air mass flow is
HPC map
Transient
simulations
Internal air
system
54
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
HPT Cl
HPT Cl

This amount of cooling air is not assumed to do any work; it is mixed with the
main gas stream behind the high-pressure turbine. The nozzle guide vane (NGV)
cooling air mass flow is calculated in a similar manner:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
NGV Cl
NGV Cl

The NGV cooling air is mixed with the main stream at station 41 upstream of the
rotor(s), consequently this amount of air does work in the turbine.
A leakage from the compressor exit to the low-pressure turbine exit can also be
taken into account:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
25
*
W
W
W W
lk
lk

The low-pressure turbine (LPT) needs also some cooling air
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
LPT Cl
LPT Cl

Specific work done on this air is
3 , 25 , ,
*dH f dH
LPT Cl LPT Cl
=
The LPT cooling air is not assumed to do any work, neither in the HPT nor in the
LPT. This air will be mixed with the main stream behind the LPT.
An overboard bleed mass flow can be specified as a linear combination of a
relative and an absolute amount
2 ,
25
1 ,
25
*
Bld
Bld
Bld
W
W
W
W W +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
The work done on the overboard bleed is:
3 , 25
*dH f dH
Bld Bld
=
For the compression of the the NGV cooling air and the turbine rotor cooling air
the specific power dH
25,3
is required. The mass flow at the compressor exit, W
3
, is
the flow without the inter-stage bleeds that are not fully compressed (an inter-
stage bleed is characterized by f
Bld
<1):
Bld LPT Cl
W W W W =
, 25 3

55
Between stations 3 and 31 the fully compressed bleed flows are subtracted:
lk HPT Cl NGV Cl
W W W W W =
, , 25 31

However, when the engine is equipped with a heat exchanger then the nozzle
guide vane cooling air is not subtracted from W
31
because W
Cl,NGV
is taken from
the flame tube cooling air:
HdlBld HPT Cl
W W W W W = =
, 3 35 31

If there is no heat exchanger then T
35
equals T
3
and P
35
equals P
3
. If a gas
turbine with a heat exchanger (recuperator) is to be calculated, an iteration must
be initiated. The cold-side exit temperature of the heat exchanger, T
35
, is
estimated to be T
3
+300K. The pressure loss from station 3 to station 35 is
calculated differently for design and off-design. In the first case the pressure ratio
P
35
/P
3
is given as input, whereas in the second case the losses depend on the
corrected flow.
The pressure loss in the burner is calculated in the same way as the heat
exchanger loss: in design calculations the pressure ratio P
4
/P
35
is given, whereas
in off-design calculations it is a function of the corrected flow and the design point
pressure ratio.
The amount of fuel is calculated from the required fuel-air-ratio, which in turn
depends on burner pressure, inlet temperature, humidity of the incoming air and
temperature rise. Water or steam injection into the burner can be considered also.
) ( * /
2
35 34 O H f
W W far W =
The burner exit flow is W
4
=W
35
+(SFR+WFR)*W
f
and the turbine nozzle guide
vane exit flow W
41
equals W
4
+W
Cl,NGV
. The fuel-air-ratio far
41
is
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
41
41

=
Now it is possible to calculate the enthalpy corresponding to the Stator Outlet
Temperature (SOT) or Rotor Inlet Temperature (RIT) of the turbine:
41 35 , 4 4 41
/ ) * * ( W H W H W H
NGV Cl
+ =
The power delivered by the high-pressure turbine (HPT) is a product of W
41
and
the specific power dH
41,44
. The energy balance with all power requirements,
including the customer power offtake PWX, is given by
mech
Bld Bld LPT Cl LPT Cl
W
PWX dH W dH W dH W
dH
*
* * *
41
, , 23 3
44 , 41
+ + +
=
If Turbine Design is selected then the isentropic efficiency is calculated,
otherwise, it is given as an input property. In off-design simulations the efficiency
is read from the turbine map.
The relative corrected turbine speed is
Heat exchanger
Burner
High pressure
turbine
56
Design
H
H
rel corr HPT
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
41
41
, ,
*
*

The turbine efficiency and the corrected flow are read from the map with the
known relative corrected spool speed and the auxiliary coordinate
HPT
. The
efficiency can be modified in off-design simulations by a tip clearance correction
term, which is a function of the relative mechanical spool speed:
H
H clearance tip
N
N

* ) 1 ( =
From the specific work dH
41,44
and the efficiency we can calculate P
43
= P
44
and
the turbine rotor exit temperature T
43
. Then the turbine rotor cooling air is added:
W
45
=W
41
+W
Cl,HPT
. The LPT inlet enthalpy H
45
is calculated using the energy
balance:
45
, 3 41 41 41 43
45
* * ) , , (
W
W H W war far T h
H
HPT Cl
+
=
The fuel air ratio comes from
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
45
45

=
Pressure losses in the inter-duct between both turbines can be calculated in
several ways. For design calculations, when turbine efficiency is taken from input,
P
45
/P
44
is a given quantity. If Turbine Design is selected and a value for the
reference Mach number M
44
>0 is given, then the pressure loss will be adjusted to
the actual Mach number level. When the reference Mach number is not given,
then the input value of P
45
/P
44
is used again. During off-design the losses vary
with the corrected flow in the same way as in any duct.
Usually the low-pressure turbine (LPT) efficiency is an input value. Efficiency,
however, can also be calculated in a turbine design calculation. The mechanical
speed of the LPT is an input value. The pressure ratio of the turbine is given by
P
45
and
6
5
7
6
8
7 8
5
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P P
amb
amb
=
Except P
7
/P
8
, which is set to 1.0 internally, these pressure ratios are input data.
P
6
/P
7
is the heat exchanger hot side pressure ratio (equals 1.0 if no heat
exchanger is present), and P
6
/P
5
is the turbine exit duct pressure ratio.
In the case of off-design the relative corrected speed of the LPT is
Turbine inter-
duct
Low-pressure
turbine
57
Design
L
L
rel corr LPT
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
45
45
, ,
*
*

The operating point in the map is determined by the estimated value of the
auxiliary coordinate,
LPT
, and the relative corrected speed. Both the corrected
flow, W
45,std
, and the efficiency are read from the tables.
The LPT exit conditions, i.e., T
49
and P
5
, can now be calculated using the
pressure ratio and efficiency. The cooling air will be mixed in the next step:
lk LPT Cl
W W W W + + =
, 45 5

O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
5
5

=
5
3 49 45 , ,
5
* * *
W
H W H W H W
H
lk LPT Cl LPT Cl
+ +
=
The turbine exit duct pressure ratio can be found in the usual way. During off-
design calculations the turbine exit flow angle can vary considerably. If you want
to model the pressure losses as a function of flow angle, then you must select
Turbine Design for the LPT. That provides the area A
5
, the mean diameter of the
turbine, and the blade exit flow angle, which is assumed to be equal to the blade
metal angle
Blade

During off-design the axial flow velocity can be found approximately from
5 5
5 5
5 ,
*
* *
P A
T R W
V
ax
=
The use of the total quantities T
5
and P
5
instead of the static quantities T
s5
and P
s5

does not matter very much, since the Mach number is usually low behind the
LPT. The absolute flow angle can be found using the circumferential speed U
5

and the blade metal angle.
5 ,
5
tan tan
ax
Blade
V
U
=
You can input the geometric angle of the struts in the turbine exit duct. If there is
zero incidence at the struts leading edge, then the pressure losses will be
minimal. For other flow angles there will be an additional pressure loss due to the
incidence of the flow direction relative to the strut. To describe this a loss factor
f
inc
is calculated
) ( * cos
strut
c
inc
f =
Turbine exit duct
58
The exponent c in this formula allows one to adapt the loss characteristics as
required. The pressure loss of the turbine exit duct is then
inc
Loss Min
Design R
f
P
P
W P
W
R T
P
P
* 1 *
*
* * 1
5
6
2
, , 5 5
5
5
5
6
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
If a heat exchanger is installed then its hot side pressure losses will be either
given (design case) or calculated (off-design) as a function of the corrected flow.
The heat exchanger (recuperator) exit temperature T
7
is derived from the
effectiveness which is an input property:
( )
3 6 6 7
* * T T
C
C
T T
h
c
ex
=
with
[ ] 2 / ) ( ) ( *
35 3 31
T c T c W C
p p c
+ =
and
[ ] 2 / )) ( ( ) ( *
3 35 6 6 6
T T T c T c W C
p p h
+ =
Until now only an estimated value has been used for the cold side heat exchanger
exit temperature T
35
. We must check whether this value satisfies the heat balance
equation:
) ( * ) ( *
7 6 6 3 35 31
H H W H H W =
As long as this equation is not satisfied, an improved value for T
35
has to be
estimated, and the calculations must be restarted at the burner inlet.
Without a heat exchanger the turbine exit duct conditions are identical to the
exhaust diffuser inlet conditions. You have to include the pressure losses of the
exhaust diffusor into the pressure losses of the turbine exhaust diffusor.
For engines with heat exchanger the hot side pressure losses of the heat
exchanger must include the exhaust diffusor losses.
Only a few additional calculations remain now:
Shaft power delivered
) * * ( *
24 , 2 2 5 , 45 45 ,
dH W dH W PW
L mech SD
=
Thermal efficiency
FHV W
PW
f
SD
therm
*
=
Heat exchanger
59
Core efficiency
FHV W
V dH W
f
is
core
*
) 2 / ( *
2
0 45

=
The enthalpy dH
is
is calculated assuming an isentropic expansion from station 45
to ambient pressure.
You can select an enthalpy-entropy or a temperature-entropy diagram as a graph.
It will show all of the thermodynamic stations of the cycle. Some stations are often
very close to each other. This makes it difficult to distinguish among all of the
details in the original scale. If you are interested in a special part of the cycle
diagram, you should enlarge the relevant section.

60
61


2.1.5. Two-spool unmixed flow turbofan
The calculation starts with the intake. The altitude, flight Mach number and T
ISA

yield the ambient temperature and pressure, the flight velocity and the total
engine inlet conditions T
1
and P
1
. The pressure at the fan inlet can be easily
calculated from the input value of the intake pressure ratio P
2
/P
1
or from the value
read from the intake map.
In the case of off-design the relative corrected fan spool speed is
Design
L
L
rel corr LPC
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
, ,
*
*

The outer fan map is read with help of the relative corrected speed and the
auxiliary map coordinate
LPC
. This yields the standard day corrected mass flow
W
2

R,2
/
2
, the isentropic efficiency
2,13
, the pressure ratio P
13
/P
2
and the surge
margin. N
L
and
LPC
are estimated values in an off-design calculation. W
2
can
easily be derived from W
2

R,2
/
2
, T
2
and P
2
. The values for the efficiency
2,21

and the pressure ratio P
21
/P
2
of the inner stream are derived from those of the
outer stream:
Design
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
13 , 2
21 , 2
13 , 2 21 , 2
*

Design
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
1
1
* 1 1
2
13
2
21
2
13
2
21

In the case of design calculations, isentropic or polytropic efficiencies, and
pressure ratios for both the core and the bypass stream are input quantities. The
compression calculation yields the fan exit temperatures T
21
and T
13
as well as
the specific works dH
2,21
and dH
2,13
.
There are several input options for the mass flow in the case of design
calculations. The first option uses W
2

R,2
/
2
as input. W
2
can be derived easily.
The mass flows of the individual streams are calculated from the bypass ratio:
BPR
W
W
+
=
1
2
21

21 2 13
W W W =
Fan map
Mass flow input
options
62
The second option uses W
25

R,25
/
25
as the input of mass flow. Since T
25
and
P
25
are known, W
25
can be calculated. W
13
is BPR*W
21
and W
2
is the sum of W
21

and W
13
.
Using W
25

R,25
/
25
as input is useful in cycle studies involving the same core
engine. Turbine design calculations are easier to do with a fixed core size, since
all diameters needed as input will stay the same.
The third input option for the engine mass flow is used if an engine with a given
gas generator is simulated. For this purpose you need a map for the high-
pressure compressor HPC. You can use a given map or you may scale a map as
required for your specific task.

In the unscaled map you must enter the map speed value N/T
map
and a value for
the auxiliary coordinate
HPC
in such a way that the operating point in the map fits
to the other data of your cycle design point.

If you want to use a scaled map then you have to enter in addition to the map
speed value N/T
map
and a value for the auxiliary coordinate
HPC
the true values
for the corrected flow W
25

R,25
/
25
, the pressure ratio P
3
/P
25
and the efficiency

HPC.

After the map scaling is completed one can modify the operating point in the HPC
map by changing the values for the map speed N/T
map
and the auxiliary
63
coordinate
HPC
. Pressure ratio, corrected flow and efficiency will be read from the
map. The flow capacities and pressure ratios of the turbines that are needed for
the selected HPC operating point will be calculated.
To perform a simulation of inlet flow distortion as well as to study the transient
behavior one needs some engine geometry data. They will be calculated when
you select LPC Design. Then W
2
, T
2
, P
2
, the blade tip velocity, the inlet radius
ratio and the axial Mach number are used to calculate the tip diameter, the
relative and circumferential Mach numbers, and the angular velocity.
For the description of the inlet flow distortion the static quantities in the
aerodynamic interface plane are required. The flow area is derived from the fan
tip diameter.
For the high-pressure compressor equivalent HPC design calculations can be
selected. Note that you can only do turbine design calculations if the spool speed
is known, i.e., the corresponding Compressor Design has been switched on.
13 18 2 21 25
3 4
41
44 45 5 6 8
16
31
HP leak to LPT exit
a
b
c
LPT cooling
overboard bleeds
handling bleed
leakage from bypass
a HP leakage to bypass
b NGV cooling
c HPT cooling
GasTurb TurbFanPPT.WMF

In an operating line calculation and during the simulation of the transient behavior
you can select the handling bleed to be switched automatically. This bleed valve
is closed as soon as the relative corrected compressor speed is higher than
N
H,corr,rel,2
. It will be open if the corrected speed is lower than N
H,corr,rel,1
. If the
corrected spool speed is between these boundaries then the handling bleed flow
is interpolated linearly:
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1 , , , 2 , , ,
1 , , , , ,
max
21
21
1 * *
rel corr H rel corr H
rel corr H rel corr H
HdlBld
HdlBld
N N
N N
W
W
W W
The pressure at the inlet to the high-pressure compressor is derived from the
inter-duct pressure ratio P
25
/P
21
for design calculations, whereas it depends on
the corrected flow for off design calculations. There is no change in total
temperature and mass flow from station 21 to station 25.
Distortion and
transient
simulations
Aerodynamic
interface plane
Automatic
handling bleed
64
In off-design the compressor map is read using estimated values for the auxiliary
coordinate
HPC
and the relative corrected speed:
Design
H
H
rel corr HPC
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
25
, ,
*
*

The map reading provides W
25

R,25
/
25
, the pressure ratio P
3
/P
25
, the efficiency
and the surge margin. The compression calculation for the HPC yields T
3
, P
3
and
dH
25,3
.
Now we look at the internal air system. The high-pressure turbine (HPT) cooling
air mass flow is
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
HPT Cl
HPT Cl

This amount of cooling air is assumed not to do any work; it is mixed with the
main gas stream behind the high-pressure turbine. The nozzle guide vane (NGV)
cooling air mass flow is calculated in a similar manner:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
NGV Cl
NGV Cl

The NGV cooling air is mixed with the main stream at station 41 upstream of the
rotor(s), consequently this amount of air does work in the turbine. Leakages from
the compressor exit to the bypass and to low-pressure turbine exit can also be
taken into account:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
By lk
By lk

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
LPT lk
LPT lk

The low-pressure turbine (LPT) needs also some cooling air
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
LPT Cl
LPT Cl

This air is often taken as an inter-stage bleed from the high-pressure compressor.
Specific work done on this air is
3 , 25 , ,
*dH f dH
LPT Cl LPT Cl
=
HPC map
Internal air
system
65
The LPT cooling air is assumed not to do any work, neither in the HPT nor in the
LPT. This air will be mixed with the main stream behind the LPT.
An overboard bleed mass flow can be specified as a linear combination of a
relative and an absolute amount
2 ,
25
1 ,
25
*
Bld
Bld
Bld
W
W
W
W W +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
The work done on the overboard bleed air is:
3 , 25
*dH f dH
Bld Bld
=
For the compression of the the NGV cooling air and the turbine rotor cooling air
the specific power dH
25,3
is required. The mass flow at the compressor exit, W
3
, is
the flow without the inter-stage bleeds that are not fully compressed (an inter-
stage bleed is characterized by f
Bld
<1):
Bld LPT Cl
W W W W =
, 25 3

Between stations 3 and 31 the fully compressed bleed flows are subtracted:
LPT lk By lk HPT Cl NGV Cl HdlBld
W W W W W W W
, , , , 3 31
=
The pressure loss in the burner is calculated as usual: in design calculations the
pressure ratio P
4
/P
3
is given, whereas in off-design calculations it is a function of
the corrected flow and the design point pressure ratio.
The amount of fuel is calculated from the required fuel-air-ratio, which in turn
depends on burner pressure, inlet temperature, humidity of the incoming air and
temperature rise.
) ( * /
2
31 34 O H f
W W far W =
The burner exit flow is W
4
=W
31
+W
f
and the turbine nozzle guide vane exit flow
W
41
equals W
4
+W
Cl,NGV
. The fuel-air-ratio far
41
is
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
41
41

=
Now it is possible to calculate the enthalpy corresponding to the Stator Outlet
Temperature (SOT) or Rotor Inlet Temperature (RIT) of the turbine:
41 3 , 4 4 41
/ ) * * ( W H W H W H
NGV Cl
+ =
The power delivered by the high-pressure turbine (HPT) is a product of W
41
and
the specific power dH
41,44
. The energy balance with all power requirements,
including the customer power offtake PWX, is given by
Burner
High pressure
turbine
66
H mech
Bld Bld LPT Cl LPT Cl main C
W
PWX dH W dH W PW
dH
, 41
, , ,
44 , 41
*
* *

+ + +
=
PW
C,main
is the power needed to compress the main gas stream:
3 , 25 , , , , 31 ,
* ) ( dH W W W W W W PW
LPT Lk By Lk HPT cl NGV Cl HdlBld main C
+ + + + + =
If Turbine Design is selected then the isentropic efficiency of the HPT is
calculated, otherwise, it is given as an input property. In off-design simulations the
efficiency is read from the HPT map.
The relative corrected high-pressure turbine speed is
Design
H
H
rel corr HPT
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
41
41
, ,
*
*

The turbine efficiency and the corrected flow are read from the map with the
known relative corrected spool speed and the auxiliary coordinate
HPT
. The
efficiency can be modified in off-design simulations by a tip clearance correction
term, which is a function of the relative mechanical spool speed:
H
H clearance tip
N
N

* ) 1 ( =
From the specific work dH
41,44
and the efficiency we can calculate P
43
=P
44
and the
turbine rotor exit temperature T
43
. Then the turbine rotor cooling air is added:
W
45
=W
41
+W
Cl,HPT
. The LPT inlet enthalpy H
45
is calculated using the energy
balance:
45
, 3 41 41 41 43
45
* * ) , , (
W
W H W war far T h
H
HPT Cl
+
=
The fuel air ratio comes from
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
45
45

=
Pressure losses in the inter-duct between both turbines can be calculated in
several ways. For design calculations, when turbine efficiency is taken from input,
P
45
/P
44
is a given quantity. If Turbine Design is selected and a value for the
reference Mach number M
44
>0 is given, then the pressure loss will be adjusted to
the actual Mach number level. If the reference Mach number is not given, then the
input value of P
45
/P
44
is used again. During off-design the losses vary with the
corrected flow in the same way as in any duct.
Usually, the low-pressure turbine (LPT) efficiency is an input value. Efficiency can
also be derived from turbine design calculations, however. The rotational speed of
Turbine inter-
duct
67
the LPT was calculated in the LPC Design section. The specific power required to
drive the fan is
L mech
W
dH W dH W
dH
, 45
13 , 2 13 21 , 2 21
45
*
* *

+
=
In the case of off-design the relative corrected speed of the LPT is
Design
L
L
rel corr LPT
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
45
45
, ,
*
*

The operating point in the map is determined by the estimated value of the
auxiliary coordinate,
LPT
, and the relative corrected speed. Both the corrected
flow, W
45,std
, and the efficiency are read from the tables.
The LPT exit conditions, i.e., T
49
and P
5
, can now be calculated using the
pressure ratio and efficiency. The cooling and leakage air will be mixed in the next
step:
LPT Lk LPT Cl
W W W W
, , 45 5
+ + =
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
5
5

=
5
49 45 , , ,
5
* *
W
H W W H W
H
LPT Lk LPT Cl LPT Cl
+ +
=
The turbine exit duct pressure ratio P
6
/P
5
can be found in the usual way. There is
no change in the total temperature from station 5 to station 6.
The bypass duct pressure ratio P
16
/P
13
is calculated in the same way as it would
be for any duct. The leakage air through thrust reverser doors, for example, is
calculated from
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
13
,
13 ,
*
W
W
W W
Lk By
Lk By

The bypass exit mass flow is
Lk By By Lk HdlBld
W W W W W
, , 13 16
+ + =
Both streams are expanded through convergent nozzles. The net thrust of the
engine is
68
0 2 18 18 18 , 18 18
8 , 8 8 , 8 8
* ) ( * * *
) ( * * *
V W P P A C V W
P P A C V W F
amb s FG
amb s FG N
+
+ + =

In addition to the real nozzle velocities the ideal velocities are also calculated. The
ideal velocities imply a full expansion from stations 18 and 8 to ambient pressure.
The ratio V
id,18
/V
id,8
can be used to find the optimum combination of the fan outer
pressure ratio and the bypass ratio.
Propulsion efficiency is calculated as follows:
0 18 8
0 2
* ) (
*
1
2
V W W
V W F
N
prop
+
+
+
=
Core efficiency is given by
FHV W
V dH W
f
is
core
*
) 2 / ( *
2
0 45

=
The enthalpy difference dH
is
is calculated assuming an isentropic expansion from
the intermediate station 47 to ambient pressure. Station 47 is found by starting
from station 45 and expanding the flow with the LPT efficiency to get the power
needed for compressing the core flow W
21
from P
2
to P
21
.
For the turbofan cycle you can get both a temperature-entropy and an enthalpy-
entropy diagram. Often the region around station 2 will be very crowded. You
should then enlarge this part of the graph.
69


2.1.6. Two-spool mixed flow turbofan
The calculation starts with the intake. The altitude, flight Mach number and T
ISA

yield the ambient temperature and pressure, the flight velocity and the total
engine inlet conditions T
1
and P
1
. The pressure at the fan inlet can be easily
calculated from the input value of the intake pressure ratio P
2
/P
1
or from the value
read from the intake map.
In the case of off-design the relative corrected fan spool speed is
Design
L
L
rel corr LPC
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
, ,
*
*

There are three ways to simulate the off-design behavior of the low-pressure
compressor (LPC). The first option is the same as described for the unmixed
turbofan engine in the previous chapter. This type of calculation is based on the
map for the outer fan (bypass).
The outer fan map is read with help of the relative corrected speed and the
auxiliary map coordinate
LPC
. This yields the standard day corrected mass flow
W
2

R,2
/
2
, the isentropic efficiency
2,13
, the pressure ratio P
13
/P
2
and the surge
margin. N
L
and
LPC
are estimated values in an off-design calculation. W
2
can
easily be derived from W
2

R,2
/
2
, T
2
and P
2
. The values for the efficiency
2,21

and the pressure ratio P
21
/P
2
of the inner stream are derived from those of the
outer stream:
Design
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
13 , 2
21 , 2
13 , 2 21 , 2
*

Design
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
1
1
* 1 1
2
13
2
21
2
13
2
21

The second method uses an independent map for the booster (core flow
compressor). From the outer map we get the bypass flow flow W
13

R,2
/
2
, and
from the booster map we get W
21

R,2
/
2
. Obviously the corrected speed is the
same for the outer fan and the booster. However, two auxiliary coordinate values

LPC
and
IPC
are needed.
The third method uses also two maps, but they give both the same total mass
flow W
2

R,2
/
2
. This type of characteristic is called a Split Map and needs only
one auxiliary coordinate
LPC
. The surge margin in a split map is calculated from
Fan map
70
the bypass flow conditions when the design bypass ratio is greater than 1.
Otherwise, the core flow defines the surge margin.
In the case of design calculations, isentropic or polytropic efficiencies, and
pressure ratios for both the core and the bypass stream are input quantities. The
compression calculation yields the fan exit temperatures T
21
and T
13
as well as
the specific works dH
2,21
and dH
2,13
.
There are several input options for the mass flow in the case of design
calculations. The first option uses W
2

R,2
/
2
as input. W
2
can be derived easily.
The mass flows of the individual streams are calculated from the bypass ratio:
BPR
W
W
+
=
1
2
21

21 2 13
W W W =
The second option uses W
25

R,25
/
25
as the input of mass flow. Since T
25
and
P
25
are known, W
25
can be calculated. In the inter-duct between the compressors
a handling bleed can be subtracted. W
21
is then equal to W
25
+W
HdlBld
.
W
13
is BPR*W
21
, and W
2
is the sum of W
21
and W
13
. Using W
25

R,25
/
25
as input
is useful in cycle studies involving the same core engine. Turbine design
calculations are easier to do with a fixed core size, since all diameters needed as
input will stay the same.
The third input option for the engine mass flow is used in the case of the
simulation of an engine with a given gas generator. For this purpose you need a
map for the high-pressure compressor HPC. You can use a given map or you
may scale a map as required for your specific task.

In the unscaled map you must enter the map speed value N/T
map
and a value for
the auxiliary coordinate
HPC
in such a way that the operating point in the map fits
to the other data of your cycle design point.
Mass flow input
options
71

When you want to use a scaled map then you have to enter in addition to the map
speed value N/T
map
and a value for the auxiliary coordinate
HPC
the true values
for the corrected flow W
25

R,25
/
25
, the pressure ratio P
3
/P
25
and the efficiency

HPC.

After the map scaling is completed one can modify the operating point in the HPC
map by changing the values for the map speed N/T
map
and the auxiliary
coordinate
HPC
. Pressure ratio, corrected flow and efficiency will be read from the
map. The flow capacities and pressure ratios of the turbines that are needed for
the selected HPC operating point will be calculated.
To perform a simulation of inlet flow distortion as well as to study the transient
behavior one needs some engine geometry data. They will be calculated if you
select LPC Design. Then W
2
, T
2
, P
2
, the blade tip velocity, the inlet hub-tip radius
ratio and the axial Mach number are used to calculate the tip diameter, the
relative and circumferential Mach numbers, and the angular velocity.
For the description of the inlet flow distortion the static quantities in the
aerodynamic interface plane are required. The flow area is derived from the fan
tip diameter.
For the high-pressure compressor equivalent HPC design calculations can be
selected. Note that you can only do turbine design calculations if the spool speed
is known, i.e., the corresponding Compressor Design has been switched on.
In an operating line calculation and during the simulation of the transient behavior
you can select the handling bleed to be switched automatically. The handling
bleed is subtracted between stations 21 and 25 if independent fan maps for the
core and the bypass stream are selected (B_Map=1). For the other fan map
options the handling bleed is subtracted from the high-pressure compressor.
The bleed valve is closed when the relative corrected compressor speed is higher
than N
H,corr,rel,2
. It will be fully open as long as the corrected speed is lower than
N
H,corr,rel,1
. If the corrected spool speed is between these boundaries then the
handling bleed flow is interpolated linearly:
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1 , , , 2 , , ,
1 , , , , ,
max
21
21
1 * *
rel corr H rel corr H
rel corr H rel corr H
HdlBld
HdlBld
N N
N N
W
W
W W
Distortion and
transient
simulations
Aerodynamic
interface plane
Automatic
handling bleed
72
If independent fan maps for the core and the bypass stream are selected
(B_Map=1), then the automatic bleed valve position is scheduled with the low-
pressure spool speed N
L,corr,rel
.
The pressure at the inlet to the high-pressure compressor is derived from the
inter-duct pressure ratio P
25
/P
21
for design calculations, whereas it depends on
the corrected flow for off design calculations. There is no change in total
temperature and mass flow from station 21 to station 25.
In off-design the compressor map is read using estimated values for the auxiliary
coordinate
HPC
and the relative corrected speed:
Design
H
H
rel corr HPC
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
25
, ,
*
*

The map reading provides W
25

R,25
/
25
, the pressure ratio P
3
/P
25
, the efficiency
and the surge margin. The compression calculation for the HPC yields T
3
, P
3
and
dH
25,3
.
13 2 21 25
3 4
64 8
63
44 45 5
16
6
31
163
a b
c
HP leak to LPT exit
LPT cooling
leakage from bypass
a HP leakage to bypass
b NGV cooling
c HPT cooling
handling bleed
overboard bleeds
41
GasTurb MFanHBPRPPT.WMF

Now we look at the internal air system. The high-pressure turbine (HPT) cooling
air mass flow is
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
HPT Cl
HPT Cl

This amount of cooling air is assumed not to do any work; it is mixed with the
main gas stream behind the high-pressure turbine. The nozzle guide vane (NGV)
cooling air mass flow is calculated in a similar manner:
HPC map
Internal air
system
73
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
NGV Cl
NGV Cl

The NGV cooling air is mixed with the main stream at station 41 upstream of the
rotor(s), consequently this amount of air does work in the turbine. Leakages from
the compressor exit to the bypass and to low-pressure turbine exit can also be
taken into account:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
By lk
By lk

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
LPT lk
LPT lk

The low-pressure turbine (LPT) needs also some cooling air
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
LPT Cl
LPT Cl

This air is often taken as an inter-stage bleed from the high-pressure compressor.
Specific work done on this air is
3 , 25 , ,
*dH f dH
LPT Cl LPT Cl
=
The LPT cooling air is not assumed to do any work, neither in the HPT nor in the
LPT. This air will be mixed with the main stream behind the LPT.
An overboard bleed mass flow can be specified as a linear combination of a
relative and an absolute amount
2 ,
25
1 ,
25
*
Bld
Bld
Bld
W
W
W
W W +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
The work done on the overboard bleed air is:
3 , 25
*dH f dH
Bld Bld
=
For the compression of the NGV cooling air and the turbine rotor cooling air the
specific power dH
25,3
is required. The mass flow at the compressor exit, W
3
, is the
flow without the inter-stage bleeds that are not fully compressed (an inter-stage
bleed is characterized by 0<f
Bld
<1):
Bld LPT Cl
W W W W =
, 25 3

Between stations 3 and 31 the fully compressed bleed flows are subtracted:
LPT lk By lk HPT Cl NGV Cl HdlBld
W W W W W W W
, , , , 3 31
=
74
The pressure loss in the burner is calculated as usual: in design calculations the
pressure ratio P
4
/P
3
is given, whereas in off-design calculations it is a function of
the corrected flow and the design point pressure ratio.
The amount of fuel is calculated from the required fuel-air-ratio, which in turn
depends on burner pressure, inlet temperature, humidity of the incoming air and
temperature rise.
) ( * /
2
31 34 O H f
W W far W =
The burner exit flow is W
4
=W
31
+W
f
and the turbine nozzle guide vane exit flow
W
41
equals W
4
+W
Cl,NGV
. The fuel-air-ratio far
41
is
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
41
41

=
Now it is possible to calculate the enthalpy corresponding to the Stator Outlet
Temperature (SOT) or Rotor Inlet Temperature (RIT) of the turbine:
41 3 , 4 4 41
/ ) * * ( W H W H W H
NGV Cl
+ =
The power delivered by the high-pressure turbine (HPT) is a product of W
41
and
the specific power dH
41,44
. The energy balance with all power requirements,
including the customer power offtake PWX, is given by
H mech
Bld Bld LPT Cl LPT Cl main C
W
PWX dH W dH W PW
dH
, 41
, , ,
44 , 41
*
* *

+ + +
=
PW
C,main
is the power needed to compress the main gas stream:
3 , 25 , , , , 31 ,
* ) ( dH W W W W W W PW
LPT Lk By Lk HPT cl NGV Cl HdlBld main C
+ + + + + =
If Turbine Design is selected then the isentropic efficiency of the HPT is
calculated, otherwise, it is given as an input property. In off-design simulations the
efficiency is read from the HPT map.
The relative corrected high-pressure turbine speed is
Design
H
H
rel corr HPT
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
41
41
, ,
*
*

The turbine efficiency and the corrected flow are read from the map with the
known relative corrected spool speed and the auxiliary coordinate
HPT
. The
efficiency can be modified in off-design simulations by a tip clearance correction
term, which is a function of the relative mechanical spool speed:
Burner
High pressure
turbine
75
H
H clearance tip
N
N

* ) 1 ( =
From the specific work dH
41,44
and the efficiency we can calculate P
43
=P
44
and the
turbine rotor exit temperature T
43
. Then the turbine rotor cooling air is added:
W
45
=W
41
+W
Cl,HPT
. The LPT inlet enthalpy H
45
is calculated using the energy
balance:
45
, 3 41 41 41 43
45
* * ) , , (
W
W H W war far T h
H
HPT Cl
+
=
The fuel air ratio comes from
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
45
45

=
Pressure losses in the inter-duct between both turbines can be calculated in
several ways. For design calculations, when turbine efficiency is taken from input,
P
45
/P
44
is a given quantity. If Turbine Design is selected and a value for the
reference Mach number M
44
>0 is given, then the pressure loss will be adjusted to
the actual Mach number level. If the reference Mach number is not given, then the
input value of P
45
/P
44
is used again. During off-design the losses vary with the
corrected flow in the same way as in any duct.
Usually, the low-pressure turbine (LPT) efficiency is an input value. Efficiency can
also be derived from turbine design calculations, however. The rotational speed of
the LPT was calculated in the LPC Design section. The specific power required to
drive the fan is
L mech
W
dH W dH W
dH
, 45
13 , 2 13 21 , 2 21
45
*
* *

+
=
In the case of off-design the relative corrected speed of the LPT is
Design
L
L
rel corr LPT
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
45
45
, ,
*
*

The operating point in the map is determined by the estimated value of the
auxiliary coordinate,
LPT
, and the relative corrected speed. Both the corrected
flow, W
45,std
, and the efficiency are read from the tables.
The LPT exit conditions, i.e., T
49
and P
5
, can now be calculated using the
pressure ratio and efficiency. The cooling and leakage air will be mixed in the next
step:
LPT Lk LPT Cl
W W W W
, , 45 5
+ + =
Turbine inter-
duct
76
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
5
5

=
5
49 45 , , ,
5
* *
W
H W W H W
H
LPT Lk LPT Cl LPT Cl
+ +
=
The turbine exit duct pressure ratio P
6
/P
5
can be found in the usual way. There is
no change in the total temperature from station 5 to station 6.
The bypass duct pressure ratio P
16
/P
13
is calculated in the same way as it would
be for any duct. The leakage air through thrust reverser doors, for example, is
calculated from
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
13
,
13 ,
*
W
W
W W
Lk By
Lk By

The bypass exit mass flow is
Lk By By Lk HdlBld
W W W W W
, , 13 16
+ + =
13 25 21 3 4 44
45
5 2
6
16
63
64
7 8 9 163
a HP leakage to bypass
b NGV cooling
c HPT cooling
d Handling bleed
HP leak to LPT exit
b
c
LPT cooling
overboard bleeds
leakage from bypass
d
a
41 31
GasTurb MFanRHCDPPT.WMF

The inlet conditions for the cold side of the mixer are those from station 16.
However, a nozzle cooling mass flow may be subtracted from the bypass exit
mass flow first for engines with an afterburner:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
16
,
16 16 163
*
W
W
W W W
Noz Cl

Mixer and
afterburner
77
Now both the core and the bypass stream will be mixed. The hot stream mixer
pressure ratio P
63
/P
6
is assumed to vary with corrected flow in off-design
simulations. The area A
63
is derived from the prescribed Mach number M
63
in the
case of design. The cold stream mixer pressure ratio P
163
/P
16
is dependent from
corrected flow in off-design, too. The cold mixer inlet area A
163
is derived from the
given Mach number M
163
during design calculations.
The mixer area A
64
is equal to the sum of A
63
and A
163
. It can be specified by input
or calculated from the mean mixer Mach number M
64
during design calculations.
In off-design the static pressure balance between P
s,63
and P
s,163
is retained. The
areas A
63
and A
163
are taken from the design point calculation. In off-design
simulations you can apply modifiers to the design point mixer areas. Note that in
this case the total area A
64
is recalculated as the sum of A
63
and A
163
.
In the mixing calculation the program uses the conservation of energy for finding
T
64
. The mass flow W
64
is the sum of W
6
and W
161
. P
64
is calculated on the basis
of conservation of momentum in a constant area duct.
Then the fuel-air-ratio far
7
is calculated from the specified reheat exit temperature
T
7
. Reheat fuel flow is then
|
|
.
|

\
|
= 1 *
64
7
,
far
far
W W
f RH f

The total reheat exit mass flow amounts to W
7
=W
64
+W
f,RH
. The fundamental
pressure loss caused by the heat addition will then be calculated. The correlations
of the Rayleigh line, i.e., heat addition in a pipe with constant area, are used. The
inlet Mach number for this calculation is M
64
.
Before the nozzle calculation starts, nozzle cooling air is mixed with the main
stream. The nozzle total temperature will therefore be lower than T
7
, if nozzle
cooling air is considered.
Two types of nozzles can be calculated: a convergent nozzle and a convergent-
divergent nozzle with a prescribed nozzle area ratio A
9
/A
8
. The fully mixed net
thrust for a convergent nozzle is
0 2 8 , 8 8 8 ,
* ) ( * * * V W P P A C V W F
amb s FG id N
+ =
For the convergent-divergent nozzle it is
0 2 9 , 9 9 8 ,
* ) ( * * * V W P P A C V W F
amb s FG id N
+ =
The pressure term A
9
*(P
s,9
-P
amb
) will be negative if the nozzle area ratio is too big
for the pressure ratio.
These formulae apply to a fully mixed flow. However, in reality full mixing is not
achieved. The thrust for a partially mixed flow is calculated on the basis of the
separate expansion of W
16
and W
6
to ambient conditions. For a convergent
nozzle the cold and hot stream gross thrusts are
) ( * * *
, 16 , amb c s c FG c c g
P P A C V W F + =
) ( * * *
, 6 , amb h s h FG h h g
P P A C V W F + =
Nozzle
78
The areas A
c
and A
h
are calculated from continuity. The cold and hot stream
thrust for a convergent-divergent nozzle is found in a similar matter. The partially
mixed thrust is then calculated:
0 2 , , ,
* ) ( * ) 1 ( * V W F F F F
h g c g mix id g mix N
+ + =
Note that in the case of reheat the mixing efficiency
mix
is set to 1.0 internally as
combustion is assumed to enhance the mixing process.
Propulsion efficiency is
0 8
0 2
Pr
*
*
1
2
V W
V W F
N
op
+
+
=
Core efficiency is given by:
FHV W
V dH W
f
is
core
*
) 2 / ( *
2
0 48

=
The enthalpy difference dH
is
is calculated assuming an isentropic expansion from
the intermediate station 47 to ambient pressure. Station 47 is found by starting
from station 45 and expanding the flow with the LPT efficiency to get the power
needed for compressing the core flow W
21
from P
2
to P
21
.
For the mixed flow turbofan cycle you can get both a temperature-entropy and an
enthalpy-entropy diagram. Often the region around station 2 will be very crowded.
You should then enlarge this part of the graph.
79


2.1.7. Geared turbofan
The calculation starts with the intake. The altitude, flight Mach number and T
ISA

yield the ambient temperature and pressure, the flight velocity and the total
engine inlet conditions T
1
and P
1
. The pressure at the compressor inlet can be
easily calculated from the input value of the intake pressure ratio P
2
/P
1
or from the
value read from the intake map.
In the case of design calculations the total corrected engine mass flow W
2

R,2
/
2

is an input. W
2
can be derived easily. The mass flows of the individual streams
are calculated from the bypass ratio:
BPR
W
W
+
=
1
2
21


21 2 13
W W W =
Further input for design calculations are the isentropic or polytropic efficiencies
and the pressure ratios for both streams.
In the case of off-design the relative corrected fan speed is
Design
L
L
rel corr L
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
, ,
*
*

Then the fan map - which primarily is valid for the outer fan (bypass) stream - is
read with the help of the relative corrected speed and the auxiliary map
coordinate
LPC
. This yields the standard day corrected mass flow W
2

R,2
/
2
, the
isentropic efficiency
2,13
, the pressure ratio P
13
/P
2
and the surge margin. N
L
and

LPC
are estimated values in an off-design calculation. W
2
can easily be derived
from W
2

R,2
/
2
, T
2
and P
2
. The efficiency
2,21
and the pressure ratio P
21
/P
2
for
the inner stream are derived from those of the outer stream:
Design
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
13 , 2
21 , 2
13 , 2 21 , 2
*

Design
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
1
1
* 1 1
2
13
2
21
2
13
2
21

Fan Map
80
The compression is calculated as usual. It yields the fan exit temperatures T
21

and T
13
as well as the specific works dH
2,21
and dH
2,13
.
To perform a simulation of inlet flow distortion as well as to study the transient
behavior one needs some engine geometry data. They will be calculated if you
select LPC Design. Then W
2
, T
2
, P
2
, the blade tip velocity, the inlet hub-tip radius
ratio and the axial Mach number are used to calculate the tip diameter, the
relative and circumferential Mach numbers, and the angular velocity.
For the description of the inlet flow distortion the static quantities in the
aerodynamic interface plane are required. The flow area is derived from the fan
tip diameter.
Next is the calculation of the intermediate-pressure compressor (IPC) or booster.
In the case of design calculations the pressure ratio and the efficiency are input
values.
In off-design the IPC map is read with estimated values for the auxiliary
coordinate
IPC
and the relative corrected speed of the intermediate spool:
Design
I
I
rel corr I
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
21
21
, ,
*
*

Note that the rotational speed of the booster differs from N
L
by the gear ratio. The
exit station of the IPC is station 24. The corrected flow W
21

R,21
/
21
, the pressure
ratio P
24
/P
21
and efficiency
21,24
are read from the map. The compression
calculation yields T
24
, P
24
and dH
21,24
.
There are several input options for the mass flow in the case of design
calculations. The first option uses W
2

R,2
/
2
as input. W
2
can be derived easily.
The mass flows of the individual streams are calculated from the bypass ratio:
BPR
W
W
+
=
1
2
21

21 2 13
W W W =
The second option uses W
25

R,25
/
25
as the input of mass flow. Since T
25
and
P
25
are known, W
25
can be calculated. In the inter-duct between the compressors
a handling bleed can be subtracted. W
21
is then equal to W
25
+W
HdlBld
.
W
13
is BPR*W
21
, and W
2
is the sum of W
21
and W
13
. Using W
25

R,25
/
25
as input
is useful in cycle studies involving the same core engine. Turbine design
calculations are easier to do with a fixed core size, since all diameters needed as
input will stay the same.
The third input option for the engine mass flow is used in the case of the
simulation of an engine with a given gas generator. For this purpose you need a
map for the high-pressure compressor HPC. You can use a given map or you
may scale a map as required for your specific task.
Distortion and
transient
simulations
Aerodynamic
interface plane
Intermediate
Compressor
Mass flow input
options
81

In the unscaled map you must enter the map speed value N/T
map
and a value for
the auxiliary coordinate
HPC
in such a way that the operating point in the map fits
to the other data of your cycle design point.

After the map scaling is completed one can modify the operating point in the HPC
map by changing the values for the map speed N/T
map
and the auxiliary
coordinate
HPC
. Pressure ratio, corrected flow and efficiency will be read from the
map. The flow capacities and pressure ratios of the turbines that are needed for
the selected HPC operating point will be calculated.
For the high-pressure compressor equivalent HPC design calculations can be
selected. Note that you can only do turbine design calculations if the spool speed
is known, i.e., the corresponding Compressor Design has been switched on.
The pressure at the inlet to the high-pressure compressor (HPC) is derived from
the inter-duct pressure ratio P
25
/P
24
for design calculations, whereas it depends
on the corrected flow for off design calculations. There is no change in total
temperature from station 24 to station 25.
In an operating line calculation and during the simulation of the transient behavior
you can select the handling bleed to be switched automatically. This bleed is
closed when the relative corrected low-pressure compressor (LPC) speed is
higher than N
L,corr,rel,2
. It will be open when the corrected speed is lower than
Handling Bleed
82
N
L,corr,rel,1
. If the low-pressure spool speed is between the switch points then the
handling bleed flow is interpolated linearly:
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1 , , , 2 , , ,
1 , , , , ,
max
21
21
1 * *
rel corr L rel corr L
rel corr L rel corr L
HdlBld
HdlBld
N N
N N
W
W
W W
For the simulation of inlet flow distortion effects as well as for the transient
behavior one needs some high-pressure compressor (HPC) geometry data. They
will be calculated if you select HPC Design. Then W
25
, T
25
, P
25
, the blade tip
velocity, the inlet hub-tip radius ratio, and the axial Mach number will be used for
calculating the tip diameter, the relative and circumferential Mach numbers and
the angular velocity. The latter will be converted to revolutions per minute.
In off-design the HPC map is read with estimated values for the auxiliary
coordinate
HPC
and the relative corrected speed:
Design
H
H
rel corr H
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
25
, ,
*
*

This provides W
25

R25
/
25
, the pressure ratio P
3
/P
25
, the efficiency and the surge
margin. The compression calculation for the HPC yields T
3
, P
3
and dH
25,3
.
13
18 2 25
3
41
44 45 5 6 8
16 21 24
31 4
handling bleed
HP leak to LPT exit
LPT cooling
a
b
c
overboard bleeds
a HP leakage to bypass
b NGV cooling
c HPT cooling leakage from bypass
GasTurb GTurbFanPPT.WMF

Now we look at the internal air system. The high-pressure turbine (HPT) cooling
air mass flow is
Internal air
system
83
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
HPT Cl
HPT Cl

This amount of cooling air is assumed not to do any work; it is mixed with the
main gas stream behind the high-pressure turbine. The nozzle guide vane (NGV)
cooling air mass flow is calculated in a similar manner:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
NGV Cl
NGV Cl

The NGV cooling air is mixed with the main stream at station 41 upstream of the
rotor(s), consequently this amount of air does work in the turbine. Leakages from
the compressor exit to the bypass and to low-pressure turbine exit can also be
taken into account:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
By lk
By lk

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
LPT lk
LPT lk

The low-pressure turbine (LPT) needs also some cooling air
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
LPT Cl
LPT Cl

This air is often taken as an inter-stage bleed from the high-pressure compressor.
Specific work done on this air is
3 , 25 , ,
*dH f dH
LPT Cl LPT Cl
=
The NGV and HPT cooling air as well as the leaking air are compressed fully; the
specific power required for this is dH
25,3
.
The LPT cooling air is assumed not to do any work, neither in the HPT nor in the
LPT. This air will be mixed with the main stream behind the LPT.
An overboard bleed mass flow can be specified as a linear combination of a
relative and an absolute amount
2 ,
25
1 ,
25
*
Bld
Bld
Bld
W
W
W
W W +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
The work done on the overboard bleed air is:
3 , 25
*dH f dH
Bld Bld
=
84
For the compression of the NGV cooling air and the turbine rotor cooling air the
specific power dH
25,3
is required. The mass flow at the compressor exit, W
3
, is the
flow without the inter-stage bleeds that are not fully compressed (an inter-stage
bleed is characterized by f
Bld
<1):
Bld LPT Cl
W W W W =
, 25 3

Between stations 3 and 31 the fully compressed bleed flows are subtracted:
LPT lk By lk HPT Cl NGV Cl
W W W W W W
, , , , 3 31
=
The pressure loss in the burner is calculated as usual: in design calculations the
pressure ratio P
4
/P
3
is given, whereas in off-design calculations it is a function of
the corrected flow and the design point pressure ratio.
The amount of fuel is calculated from the required fuel-air-ratio, which in turn
depends on burner pressure, inlet temperature, humidity of the incoming air and
temperature rise.
) ( * /
2
31 34 O H f
W W far W =
The burner exit flow is W
4
=W
31
+W
f
and the turbine nozzle guide vane exit flow
W
41
equals W
4
+W
Cl,NGV
. The fuel-air-ratio far
41
is
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
41
41

=
Now it is possible to calculate the enthalpy corresponding to the Stator Outlet
Temperature (SOT) or Rotor Inlet Temperature (RIT) of the turbine:
41 3 , 4 4 41
/ ) * * ( W H W H W H
NGV Cl
+ =
The power delivered by the high-pressure turbine (HPT) is a product of W
41
and
the specific power dH
41,44
. The energy balance with all power requirements,
including the customer power offtake PWX, is given by
H mech
Bld Bld LPT Cl LPT Cl main C
W
PWX dH W dH W PW
dH
, 41
, , ,
44 , 41
*
* *

+ + +
=
PW
C,main
is the power needed to compress the main gas stream:
3 , 25 , , , , 31 ,
* ) ( dH W W W W W PW
LPT Lk By Lk HPT cl NGV Cl main C
+ + + + =
If Turbine Design is selected then the isentropic efficiency of the HPT is
calculated, otherwise, it is given as an input property. In off-design simulations the
efficiency is read from the HPT map.
The relative corrected high-pressure turbine speed is
Burner
High pressure
turbine
85
Design
H
H
rel corr HPT
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
41
41
, ,
*
*

The turbine efficiency and the corrected flow are read from the map with the
known relative corrected spool speed and the auxiliary coordinate
HPT
. The
efficiency can be modified in off-design simulations by a tip clearance correction
term, which is a function of the relative mechanical spool speed:
H
H clearance tip
N
N

* ) 1 ( =
From the specific work dH
41,44
and the efficiency we can calculate P
43
=P
44
and the
turbine rotor exit temperature T
43
. Then the turbine rotor cooling air is added:
W
45
=W
41
+W
Cl,HPT
. The LPT inlet enthalpy H
45
is calculated using the energy
balance:
45
, 3 41 41 41 43
45
* * ) , , (
W
W H W war far T h
H
HPT Cl
+
=
The fuel air ratio comes from
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
45
45

=
Pressure losses in the inter-duct between both turbines can be calculated in
several ways. For design calculations, when turbine efficiency is taken from input,
P
45
/P
44
is a given quantity. If Turbine Design is selected and a value for the
reference Mach number M
44
>0 is given, then the pressure loss will be adjusted to
the actual Mach number level. When the reference Mach number is not given,
then the input value of P
45
/P
44
is used again. During off-design the losses vary
with the corrected flow in the same way as in any duct.
Usually, the low-pressure turbine (LPT) efficiency is an input value. Efficiency can
also be derived from turbine design calculations, however. The rotational speed of
the LPT was calculated in the LPC Design section. The specific power required to
drive the fan is
45
24 , 21 21 , 13 , 2 13 21 , 2 21
45
* / ) * * (
W
dH W dH W dH W
dH
L mech
+ +
=


In the case of off-design the relative corrected speed of the LPT is
Turbine inter-
duct
86
Design
L
L
rel corr LPT
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
45
45
, ,
*
*

The operating point in the map is determined by the estimated value of the
auxiliary coordinate,
LPT
, and the relative corrected speed. Both the corrected
flow, W
45,std
, and the efficiency are read from the tables.
The LPT exit conditions, i.e., T
49
and P
5
, can now be calculated using the
pressure ratio and efficiency. The cooling and leakage air will be mixed in the next
step:
LPT Lk LPT Cl
W W W W
, , 45 5
+ + =
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
5
5

=
5
49 45 , , ,
5
* *
W
H W W H W
H
LPT Lk LPT Cl LPT Cl
+ +
=
The turbine exit duct pressure ratio P
6
/P
5
can be found in the usual way. There is
no change in the total temperature from station 5 to station 6.
The bypass duct pressure ratio P
16
/P
13
is calculated in the same way, as it would
be for any duct. The leakage air through thrust reverser doors, for example, is
calculated from
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
13
,
13 ,
*
W
W
W W
Lk By
Lk By

The bypass exit mass flow is
Lk By By Lk HdlBld
W W W W W
, , 13 16
+ + =
Both streams are expanded through convergent nozzles. The net thrust of the
engine is
0 2 18 18 18 , 18 18
8 , 8 8 , 8 8
* ) ( * * *
) ( * * *
V W P P A C V W
P P A C V W F
amb s FG
amb s FG N
+
+ + =

In addition to the real nozzle velocities the ideal velocities are also calculated. The
ideal velocities imply a full expansion from stations 18 and 8 to ambient pressure.
The ratio V
id,18
/V
id,8
is used to find the optimum combination of the fan outer
pressure ratio and the bypass ratio.
Propulsion efficiency is calculated as follows:
87
0 18 8
0 2
* ) (
*
1
2
V W W
V W F
N
prop
+
+
+
=
Core efficiency is given by
FHV W
V dH W
f
is
core
*
) 2 / ( *
2
0 45

=
The enthalpy difference dH
is
is calculated assuming an isentropic expansion from
the intermediate station 47 to ambient pressure. Station 47 is found by starting
from station 45 and expanding the flow with the LPT efficiency to get the power
needed for compressing the core flow W
21
from P
2
to P
24
.
Also for the turbofan cycle you can get both a temperature-entropy and an
enthalpy-entropy diagram. Often the region around station 2 will be very crowded.
You should then enlarge this part of the graph.
88
89


2.1.8. Three-spool mixed flow turbofan
The calculation starts with the intake. The altitude, flight Mach number and T
ISA

yield the ambient temperature and pressure, the flight velocity and the total
engine inlet conditions T
1
and P
1
. The pressure at the compressor inlet can be
easily calculated from the input value of the intake pressure ratio P
2
/P
1
or from the
value read from the intake map.
In the case of design calculations the total corrected engine mass flow W
2

R,2
/
2

is an input. W
2
can be derived easily. The mass flows of the individual streams
are calculated from the bypass ratio:
BPR
W
W
+
=
1
2
21


21 2 13
W W W =
Further input for design calculations are the isentropic or polytropic efficiencies
and the pressure ratios for both streams.
In the case of off-design the relative corrected fan speed is
Design
L
L
rel corr L
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
, ,
*
*

Then the fan map - which primarily is valid for the outer fan (bypass) stream - is
read with the help of the relative corrected speed and the auxiliary map
coordinate
LPC
. This yields the standard day corrected mass flow W
2

R,2
/
2
, the
isentropic efficiency
2,13
, the pressure ratio P
13
/P
2
and the surge margin. N
L
and

LPC
are estimated values in an off-design calculation. W
2
can easily be derived
from W
2

R,2
/
2
, T
2
and P
2
. The efficiency
2,21
and the pressure ratio P
21
/P
2
for
the inner stream are derived from those of the outer stream:
Design
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
13 , 2
21 , 2
13 , 2 21 , 2
*

Design
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
1
1
* 1 1
2
13
2
21
2
13
2
21


Fan Map
90
The compression is calculated as usual. It yields the fan exit temperatures T
21

and T
13
as well as the specific works dH
2,21
and dH
2,13
.
To perform a simulation of inlet flow distortion as well as to study the transient
behavior one needs some engine geometry data. They will be calculated if you
select LPC Design. Then W
2
, T
2
, P
2
, the blade tip velocity, the inlet radius ratio
and the axial Mach number are used to calculate the tip diameter, the relative and
circumferential Mach numbers, and the angular velocity. To obtain a description
of the inlet flow distortion the static quantities in the aerodynamic interface plane
are required. The flow area is calculated from the fan tip diameter.
Next is the calculation of the intermediate-pressure compressor (IPC) or booster.
In the case of design calculations the pressure ratio and the efficiency are input
values.
In off-design the IPC map is read with estimated values for the auxiliary
coordinate
IPC
and the relative corrected speed of the intermediate spool:
Design
I
I
rel corr I
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
21
21
, ,
*
*

The exit station of the IPC is station 24. The corrected flow W
21

R,21
/
21
, the
pressure ratio P
24
/P
21
and efficiency
21,24
are read from the map. The
compression calculation yields T
24
, P
24
and dH
21,24
.
3 5 21 31 24
48
25
2
64
6
16
41
4
43
45
47
13
163
63
7
9 8
handling bleed
overboard bleeds
leakage from bypass
NGV
Cool.
IPT NGV cooling
HPT cooling
HP leak to LPT exit
IPT cooling
LPT cooling
leakage to bypass
GasTurb M3spRHCDPPT.WMF

For the simulation of inlet flow distortion effects as well as for the transient
behavior one needs some IPC geometry data. They will be calculated if you
select IPC Design. Then W
21
, T
21
, P
21
, the blade tip velocity, the inlet radius ratio,
and the axial Mach number will serve as a basis for calculating the tip diameter,
Intermediate
Compressor
91
the relative and circumferential Mach numbers as well as the angular velocity.
The latter will be converted to revolutions per minute.
The pressure at the inlet to the high-pressure compressor (HPC) is derived from
the inter-duct pressure ratio P
25
/P
24
for design calculations, whereas it depends
on the corrected flow for off design calculations. There is no change in total
temperature from station 24 to station 25.
In an operating line calculation and during the simulation of the transient behavior
you can select the handling bleed to be switched automatically. This bleed valve
is closed if the relative corrected low-pressure compressor (LPC) speed is higher
than N
L,corr,rel,2
. It will be open if the corrected speed is lower than N
L,corr,rel,1
. If the
low-pressure spool speed is between these boundaries then the handling bleed
flow is interpolated linearly:
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1 , , , 2 , , ,
1 , , , , ,
max
21
21
1 * *
rel corr L rel corr L
rel corr L rel corr L
HdlBld
HdlBld
N N
N N
W
W
W W
For the simulation of inlet flow distortion effects as well as for the transient
behavior one needs some high-pressure compressor (HPC) geometry data. They
will be calculated if you select HPC Design in a similar way as the IPC geometry
data.
In off-design the HPC map is read with estimated values for the auxiliary
coordinate
HPC
and the relative corrected speed:
Design
H
H
rel corr H
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
25
, ,
*
*

This provides W
25

R25
/
25
, the pressure ratio P
3
/P
25
, the efficiency and the surge
margin. The compression calculation for the HPC yields T
3
, P
3
and dH
25,3
.
Now we look at the internal air system. The high-pressure turbine (HPT) cooling
air mass flow is
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
HPT Cl
HPT Cl

This amount of cooling air is assumed not to do any work; it is mixed with the
main gas stream behind the HP turbine. The nozzle guide vane cooling air mass
flow is calculated in a similar manner:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
NGV Cl
NGV Cl

The NGV cooling air is mixed with the main stream at station 41 upstream of the
rotor(s), consequently this amount of air does work in the turbine.
Handling Bleed
Internal Air
System
92
The overboard bleed mass flow can be entered as a linear combination of a
relative and an absolute amount
2 ,
25
1 ,
25
*
Bld
Bld
Bld
W
W
W
W W +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
The work done on the overboard bleed air is:
3 , 25
*dH f dH
Bld Bld
=
Furthermore, there can be leakage from the high-pressure region to the bypass
and to the region downstream of the LPT:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
By Lk
By Lk

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
LPT Lk
LPT Lk

The NGV and HPT cooling air as well as the leaking air are compressed fully; the
specific power required for this is dH
25,3
. The intermediate-pressure turbine (IPT)
also requires also some cooling air both on the guide vane and the rotor:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
, ,
25 , ,
*
W
W
W W
IPT NGV Cl
IPT NGV Cl

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
IPT Cl
IPT Cl

This cooling air is usually taken from an inter-stage bleed of the high-pressure
compressor. The work done on this air is
3 , 25 , ,
*dH f dH
IPT Cl IPT Cl
=
The IPT cooling air is assumed not to do any work, neither in the HPT nor in the
IPT. The air will be mixed with the core stream behind the IPT. The cooling air
temperature for the IPT is derived from the enthalpy:
) (
, 25 , IPT Cl IPT Cl
dH H f T + =
For the cooling of the low-pressure turbine also inter-stage bleed air may be used:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
LPT Cl
LPT Cl

3 , 25 , ,
*dH f dH
LPT Cl LPT Cl
=
The LPT cooling air is assumed not to do any work neither in the HPT, the IPT
nor in the LPT. The air will be mixed with the core stream behind the LPT. The
cooling air temperature for the LPT is derived from the enthalpy:
93
) (
, 25 , LPT Cl LPT Cl
dH H f T + =
The mass flow at the compressor exit W
3
is the flow with the inter-stage bleeds
subtracted:
Bld LPT Cl IPT Cl IPT NGV Cl
W W W W W W =
, , , , 25 3

Between stations 3 and 31 the fully compressed bleeds are subtracted. Burner
inlet flow is:
By Lk LPT Lk HPT Cl NGV Cl
W W W W W W
, , , , 3 31
=
In design calculations the burner pressure ratio P
4
/P
3
is given, whereas in off-
design calculations it is derived from the corrected flow and the design point
pressure ratio. The amount of fuel is calculated from the required fuel-air-ratio,
which in turn depends on burner pressure, inlet temperature, humidity and
temperature rise.
) ( * /
2
31 34 O H f
W W far W =
The burner exit flow is W
4
=W
31
+W
f
, and the turbine nozzle guide vane exit flow is
W
41
=W
4
+W
Cl,NGV
. The fuel-air-ratio far
41
is
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
41
41

=
Now it is possible to calculate the enthalpy corresponding to the HP turbine Stator
Outlet Temperature (SOT) or Rotor Inlet Temperature (RIT):
41 3 , 4 4 41
/ ) * * ( W H W H W H
NGV Cl
+ =
The power delivered by the high-pressure turbine (HPT) is a product of W
41
and
the specific power dH
41,42
. For the compression of the mainstream is needed
3 , 25 , , , , 31 ,
* ) ( dH W W W W W PW
LPT Lk By Lk HPT Cl NGV Cl main C
+ + + + =
The power required to compress the cooling air for the IPT is
IPT Cl IPT Cl IPT NGV Cl IPT C
dH W W PW
, , , , ,
* ) ( + =
For the compression of the LPT cooling air is needed:
LPT Cl LPT Cl LPT C
dH W PW
, , ,
* =
The energy balance with all power requirements for the high-pressure turbine
amounts to
H mech
Bld Bld LPT Cl IPT Cl main C
W
PWX dH W PW PW PW
dH
, 41
, , ,
42 , 41
*
*

+ + + +
=
Burner
94
If Turbine Design is selected then the isentropic efficiency of the HPT is
calculated, otherwise, it is given as an input property. In off-design simulations the
efficiency is read from the HPT map.
The relative corrected high-pressure turbine speed is
Design
H
H
rel corr HPT
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
41
41
, ,
*
*

The turbine efficiency and the corrected flow are read from the map with the
known relative corrected spool speed and the auxiliary coordinate
HPT
. The
efficiency can be modified in off-design simulations by a tip clearance correction
term, which is a function of the relative mechanical spool speed:
H
H clearance tip
N
N

* ) 1 ( =
This allows calculating P
42
= P
43
and the HP turbine exit temperature T
42
.
Now the mass flow of the cooling air is taken into account: W
43
=W
41
+W
Cl,HPT
. The
IPT inlet enthalpy H
43
is calculated on the basis of the energy balance:
43
, 3 41 41 41 42
43
* * ) , , (
W
W H W war far T h
H
HPT Cl
+
=
The turbine exit fuel-air-ratio is
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
43
43

=
Pressure losses in the inter-duct between the high and the intermediate-pressure
turbine can be calculated in several ways. For design calculations, when turbine
efficiency is taken from input, P
44
/P
43
is used as given. If HP turbine design is
selected and a value for the reference Mach number M
43
>0 is given the pressure
loss will be adjusted to the actual Mach number level. If the reference Mach
number is not given, the input value of P
44
/P
43
will be used again. In the case of
off-design the losses vary with the corrected flow in the same way as in any duct.
The IPT nozzle guide vane exit flow is W
45
=W
44
+W
Cl,NGV,IPT
. The fuel-air-ratio far
45

is
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
45
45

=
The enthalpy corresponding with the IPT stator outlet temperature T
45
can now be
evaluated:
Inter-duct 1
95
45 , , , 44 44 45
/ ) * * ( W H W H W H
IPT Cl IPT NGV Cl
+ =
Usually, the intermediate-pressure turbine (IPT) efficiency is an input value in
cycle design calculations. The efficiency can also be derived from turbine design
calculations, however. The rotational speed of the IPT is the same as that of the
IPC (booster). During off-design calculations the efficiency is read from the IPT
map.
The specific power required to drive the booster is
45 ,
24 , 21 21
46 , 45
*
*
W
dH W
dH
I mech

=
Now the mass flow of the cooling air is taken into account: W
47
=W
46
+W
Cl,IPT
. The
LPT inlet enthalpy H
47
=H
48
is calculated on the basis of the energy balance:
47
, , 45 45 45 46
47
* * ) , , (
W
W H W war far T h
H
IPT Cl IPT Cl
+
=
Pressure losses in the inter-duct between the intermediate- and the low-pressure
turbine can be calculated in several ways. For design calculations, when the IPT
efficiency is taken from input, P
48
/P
47
is used as given. If IP turbine design is
selected and a value for the reference Mach number M
47
>0 is given the pressure
loss will be adjusted to the actual Mach number level. If the reference Mach
number is not given, the input value of P
48
/P
47
will be used again.
Usually, the low-pressure turbine (LPT) efficiency is an input value. The efficiency
can also be derived from turbine design calculations, however. The rotational
speed of the LPT is the same as that of the LPC (fan). During off-design
calculations the efficiency is read from the LPT map.
The specific power required to drive the fan is
( )
48 ,
13 , 2 13 21 , 2 21
5 , 48
*
* *
W
dH W dH W
dH
L mech

+
=
LPT exit conditions, i.e., T
49
and P
5
, can now be calculated from the pressure ratio
and the efficiency. Cooling and leakage air are added in the next step:
LPT Lk LPT Cl
W W W W
, , 47 5
+ + =
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
5
5

=
5
49 47 3 , , ,
5
* * *
W
H W H W H W
H
LPT Lk LPT Cl LPT Cl
+ +
=
The turbine exit duct pressure ratio P
6
/P
5
is calculated in the usual way.
The bypass duct pressure ratio P
16
/P
13
is calculated in the same way as it is for
any duct. The bypass leakage air is calculated from
Inter-duct 2
96
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
13
,
13 ,
*
W
W
W W
Lk By
Lk By

The inlet conditions for the cold side of the mixer are those from station 16.
However, a nozzle cooling mass flow may first be subtracted from the bypass exit
mass flow for engines with an afterburner:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
16
,
16 16 163
*
W
W
W W W
Noz Cl

Now both the core and the bypass stream will be mixed. The hot stream mixer
pressure ratio P
63
/P
6
is assumed to vary with corrected flow in off-design
simulations. The cold stream mixer pressure ratio P
163
/P
16
is dependent on
corrected flow in off-design, too. The mixer area A
64
is equal to the sum of A
63
and
A
163
. A
64
can be specified by input or is calculated from the mean mixer Mach
number M
64
during design calculations. In off-design the static pressure balance
between P
s,63
and P
s,163
is retained. The areas A
63
and A
163
are taken from the
design point calculation.
In off-design simulations you can apply modifiers to the design point mixer areas.
Note that in this case the total area A
64
is recalculated as the sum of A
63
and A
163
.
In the mixing calculation the program uses the conservation of energy for finding
T
64
. The mass flow W
64
is the sum of W
6
and W
161
. P
64
is calculated on the basis
of conservation of momentum in a constant area duct.
Then the fuel-air-ratio far
7
is calculated from the specified reheat exit temperature
T
7
. Reheat fuel flow is then
|
|
.
|

\
|
= 1 *
64
7
,
far
far
W W
f RH f

The total reheat exit mass flow amounts to W
7
=W
64
+W
f,RH
. The fundamental
pressure loss caused by the heat addition will then be calculated. The correlations
of the Rayleigh line, i.e., heat addition in a pipe with constant area, are used. The
inlet Mach number for this calculation is M
64
.
Before the nozzle calculation starts, nozzle cooling air is mixed with the main
stream. The nozzle total temperature will therefore be lower than T
7
, if nozzle
cooling air is considered.
Two types of nozzles can be calculated: a convergent nozzle and a convergent-
divergent nozzle with a prescribed nozzle area ratio A
9
/A
8
. The fully mixed net
thrust for a convergent nozzle is
0 2 8 , 8 8 8 ,
* ) ( * * * V W P P A C V W F
amb s FG id N
+ =
For the convergent-divergent nozzle it is
0 2 9 , 9 9 8 ,
* ) ( * * * V W P P A C V W F
amb s FG id N
+ =
Mixer and
afterburner
Nozzle
97
The pressure term A
9
*(P
s,9
-P
amb
) will be negative if the nozzle area ratio is too big
for the pressure ratio.
These formulas apply to a fully mixed flow. However, in reality full mixing is not
achieved. The thrust for a partially mixed flow is calculated on the basis of the
separate expansion of W
16
and W
6
to ambient conditions. For a convergent
nozzle the cold respectively hot stream gross thrust is
) ( * * *
, 16 , amb c s c FG c c g
P P A C V W F + =
) ( * * *
, 6 , amb h s c FG h h g
P P A C V W F + =
The areas A
c
and A
h
are calculated from continuity. The cold and hot stream
thrust for a convergent-divergent nozzle is found in a similar matter. The partially
mixed thrust is then calculated:
0 2 , , ,
* ) ( * ) 1 ( * V W F F F F
h g c g mix id g mix N
+ + =
Note that in the case of reheat the mixing efficiency
mix
is set to 1.0 internally as
combustion is assumed to enhance the mixing process.
Propulsion efficiency is
0 8
0 2
Pr
*
*
1
2
V W
V W F
N
op
+
+
=
Core efficiency is given by:
FHV W
V dH W
f
is
core
*
) 2 / ( *
2
0 48

=
The enthalpy difference dH
is
is calculated assuming an isentropic expansion from
the intermediate station 485 to ambient pressure. Station 485 is found by starting
from station 48 and expanding the flow with the LPT efficiency to get the power
needed for compressing the core flow W
21
from P
2
to P
21
.
For the mixed flow turbofan cycle you can get both a temperature-entropy and an
enthalpy-entropy diagram. Often the region around station 2 will be very crowded.
You should then enlarge this part of the graph.
98
99

2.1.9. Intercooled recuperated turbofan
The calculation starts with the intake. The altitude, flight Mach number and T
ISA

yield the ambient temperature and pressure, the flight velocity and the total
engine inlet conditions T
1
and P
1
. The pressure at the compressor inlet can be
easily calculated from the input value of the intake pressure ratio P
2
/P
1
or from the
value read from the intake map.
In the case of design calculations the total corrected engine mass flow W
2

R,2
/
2

is an input. W
2
can be derived easily. The mass flows of the individual streams
are calculated from the bypass ratio:
BPR
W
W
+
=
1
2
21


21 2 13
W W W =
Further input for design calculations are the isentropic or polytropic efficiencies
and the pressure ratios for both streams.
In the case of off-design the relative corrected fan speed is
Design
L
L
rel corr L
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
, ,
*
*

Then the fan map - which primarily is valid for the outer fan (bypass) stream - is
read with the help of the relative corrected speed and the auxiliary map
coordinate
LPC
. This yields the standard day corrected mass flow W
2

R,2
/
2
, the
isentropic efficiency
2,13
, the pressure ratio P
13
/P
2
and the surge margin. N
L
and

LPC
are estimated values in an off-design calculation. W
2
can easily be derived
from W
2

R,2
/
2
, T
2
and P
2
. The efficiency
2,21
and the pressure ratio P
21
/P
2
for
the inner stream are derived from those of the outer stream:
Design
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
13 , 2
21 , 2
13 , 2 21 , 2
*

Design
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
1
1
* 1 1
2
13
2
21
2
13
2
21

The compression is calculated as usual. It yields the fan exit temperatures T
21

and T
13
as well as the specific works dH
2,21
and dH
2,13
.
Fan Map
100
To perform a simulation of inlet flow distortion as well as to study the transient
behavior one needs some engine geometry data. They will be calculated if you
select LPC Design. Then W
2
, T
2
, P
2
, the blade tip velocity, the inlet hub-tip radius
ratio and the axial Mach number are used to calculate the tip diameter, the
relative and circumferential Mach numbers, and the angular velocity. To obtain a
description of the inlet flow distortion the static quantities in the aerodynamic
interface plane are required. The flow area is calculated from the fan tip diameter.
Next is the calculation of the intermediate-pressure compressor (IPC) or booster.
In the case of design calculations the pressure ratio and the efficiency are input
values.
In off-design the IPC map is read with estimated values for the auxiliary
coordinate
IPC
and the relative corrected speed of the intermediate spool:
Design
I
I
rel corr I
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
21
21
, ,
*
*

The exit station of the IPC is station 24. The corrected flow W
21

R,21
/
21
, the
pressure ratio P
24
/P
21
and efficiency
21,24
are read from the map. The
compression calculation yields T
24
, P
24
and dH
21,24
.
HP leak to LPT exit
LPT cooling
a
b
c
overboard bleeds
leakage from bypass
a HP leakage to bypass
b HPT NGV cooling
c HPT cooling
d IPT NGV cooling
e IPT cooling
e
d
Handling Bleed
18
3 41
43
45
5
31
4
13 14
21 2 24
47 48
8
35
25 16
7
GasTurb IntRecFanPPT.WMF
6


For the simulation of inlet flow distortion effects as well as for the transient
behavior one needs some IPC geometry data. Just as for the LPC, this geometry
is assessed based on W
21
, T
21
, P
21
, the blade tip velocity, the inlet radius ratio,
and the axial Mach number by selecting IPC Design.
Intermediate
Compressor
101
The mass flow passing through the inter-cooler is only a fraction of the total
bypass mass flow:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
13
, 13
13 , 13
*
W
W
W W
IntClr
IntClr

The cold side heat flow is
) ( *
13 , 13
T C W C
p TntClr c
=
and the hot side heat flow is
) ( *
24 21
T C W C
p h
=
The lower value of C
c
and C
h
determines the local total temperature T
14

immediately downstream of the intercooler:
{ }
( )
13 24 13 14
*
, min
* T T
C
C C
T T
c
h c
IntClr
+ =
The bypass exit enthalpy becomes
13
14 , 13 13 , 13 13
16
* * ) (
W
H W H W W
H
IntClr IntClr
+
=
and the hot side inter-cooler exit temperature is
{ }
( )
13 24 24 25
*
, min
* T T
C
C C
T T
h
h c
IntClr
=
The pressure at the inlet to the high-pressure compressor (HPC) is derived from
the specified design point pressure ratio P
25
/P
24
of the inter-cooler. For off design
calculations this pressure ratio is corrected depending on the corrected flow.
In an operating line calculation and during the simulation of the transient behavior
you can select the handling bleed to be switched automatically. This bleed valve
is closed if the relative corrected low-pressure compressor (LPC) speed is higher
than N
L,corr,rel,2
. It will be open if the corrected speed is lower than N
L,corr,rel,1
. If the
low-pressure spool speed is between these boundaries then the handling bleed
flow is interpolated linearly:
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1 , , , 2 , , ,
1 , , , , ,
max
21
21
1 * *
rel corr L rel corr L
rel corr L rel corr L
HdlBld
HdlBld
N N
N N
W
W
W W
For the simulation of inlet flow distortion effects as well as for the transient
behavior one needs some high-pressure compressor (HPC) geometry data. They
will be calculated if you select HPC Design in a similar way as the IPC geometry
data.
Inter-cooler
Handling Bleed
102
In off-design the HPC map is read with estimated values for the auxiliary
coordinate
HPC
and the relative corrected speed:
Design
H
H
rel corr H
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
25
, ,
*
*

This provides W
25

25R
/
25
, the pressure ratio P
3
/P
25
, the efficiency and the surge
margin. The compression calculation for the HPC yields T
3
, P
3
and dH
25,3
.
Now we look at the internal air system. The high-pressure turbine (HPT) cooling
air mass flow is
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
HPT Cl
HPT Cl

This amount of cooling air is assumed not to do any work; it is mixed with the
main gas stream behind the HP turbine. The nozzle guide vane cooling air mass
flow is calculated in a similar manner:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
NGV Cl
NGV Cl

The NGV cooling air is mixed with the main stream at station 41 upstream of the
rotor(s), consequently this amount of air does work in the turbine.
The overboard bleed mass flow can be entered as a linear combination of a
relative and an absolute amount
2 ,
25
1 ,
25
*
Bld
Bld
Bld
W
W
W
W W +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
The work done on the overboard bleed air is:
3 , 25
*dH f dH
Bld Bld
=
Furthermore, there can be leakage from the high-pressure region to the bypass
and to the region downstream of the LPT:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
By Lk
By Lk

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
LPT Lk
LPT Lk

Internal air
system
103
The NGV and HPT cooling air as well as the leaking air are compressed fully; the
specific power required for this is dH
25,3
. The intermediate-pressure turbine (IPT)
also requires some cooling air both on the guide vane and the rotor:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
, ,
25 , ,
*
W
W
W W
IPT NGV Cl
IPT NGV Cl

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
IPT Cl
IPT Cl

This cooling air is normally taken from an inter-stage bleed of the high-pressure
compressor. The work done on this air is
3 , 25 , ,
*dH f dH
IPT Cl IPT Cl
=
The IPT nozzle guide vane cooling air W
Cl,NGV,IPT
is mixed upstream of the rotor
with the main gas stream and will do work in the IPT, while the rotor cooling air
W
Cl,IPT
is assumed not to do any work in the IPT. This air will be mixed with the
core stream behind the IPT. The cooling air temperature for the IPT is derived
from the enthalpy:
) (
, 25 , IPT Cl IPT Cl
dH H f T + =
For the cooling of the low-pressure turbine LPT also inter-stage bleed air may be
used:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
LPT Cl
LPT Cl

3 , 25 , ,
*dH f dH
LPT Cl LPT Cl
=
The LPT cooling air is assumed not to do any work in the LPT, and the air will be
mixed with the core stream behind the LPT. The cooling air temperature for the
LPT is derived from the enthalpy:
) (
, 25 , LPT Cl LPT Cl
dH H f T + =
The mass flow at the compressor exit W
3
is the flow with the inter-stage bleeds
subtracted:
Bld LPT Cl IPT Cl IPT NGV Cl
W W W W W W =
, , , , 25 3

Between stations 3 and 31 the fully compressed bleeds are subtracted. Heat
exchanger inlet flow is:
By Lk LPT Lk HPT Cl
W W W W W
, , , 3 31
=
Note that the nozzle guide vane cooling air is not subtracted from W
3
because
W
Cl,NGV
is taken from the flame tube cooling air.
104
For the heat exchanger (recuperator) the cold-side exit temperature T
35
will be
found by iteration. The temperature ratio T
35
/T
3
is the independent variable of this
iteration.
The pressure loss from station 3 to station 35 is calculated differently for design
and off-design. In the first case the pressure ratio P
35
/P
3
is given as input,
whereas in the second case the losses depend on the corrected flow.
The pressure loss in the burner is calculated in the same way as the heat
exchanger loss: in design calculations the pressure ratio P
4
/P
35
is given, whereas
in off-design calculations it is a function of the corrected flow and the design point
pressure ratio.
The amount of fuel is calculated based on the required fuel-air-ratio, which in turn
depends on burner pressure, inlet temperature, and humidity of the incoming air
and temperature rise.
) ( * /
2
35 34 O H f
W W far W =
The burner exit flow is W
4
=W
35
+W
f
, and the turbine nozzle guide vane exit flow is
W
41
=W
4
+W
Cl,NGV
. The fuel-air-ratio far
41
is
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
41
41

=
Now it is possible to calculate the enthalpy corresponding to the HP turbine Stator
Outlet Temperature (SOT) or Rotor Inlet Temperature (RIT):
41 35 , 4 4 41
/ ) * * ( W H W H W H
NGV Cl
+ =
The power delivered by the high-pressure turbine (HPT) is a product of W
41
and
the specific power dH
41,42
. The power needed for the compression of the
mainstream is:
3 , 25 , , , , 31 ,
* ) ( dH W W W W W PW
LPT Lk By Lk HPT Cl NGV Cl main C
+ + + + =
The power required to compress the cooling air for the IPT is
IPT Cl IPT Cl IPT NGV Cl IPT C
dH W W PW
, , , , ,
* ) ( + = ,
and finally for the compression of the LPT cooling air the power
LPT Cl LPT Cl LPT C
dH W PW
, , ,
* =
is needed.
The energy balance with all power requirements for the high-pressure turbine
amounts to
H mech
Bld Bld LPT Cl IPT Cl main C
W
PWX dH W PW PW PW
dH
, 41
, , ,
42 , 41
*
*

+ + + +
=
Burner
105
If Turbine Design is selected then the isentropic efficiency of the HPT is
calculated, otherwise, it is given as an input property. In off-design simulations the
efficiency is read from the HPT map.
The relative corrected high-pressure turbine speed is
Design
H
H
rel corr HPT
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
41
41
, ,
*
*

The turbine efficiency and the corrected flow are read from the map with the
known relative corrected spool speed and the auxiliary coordinate
HPT
. The
efficiency can be modified in off-design simulations by a tip clearance correction
term, which is a function of the relative mechanical spool speed:
H
H clearance tip
N
N

* ) 1 ( =
This allows calculating P
42
= P
43
and the HP turbine exit temperature T
42
.
Now the mass flow of the cooling air is taken into account: W
43
=W
41
+W
Cl,HPT
. The
IPT inlet enthalpy H
43
is calculated on the basis of the energy balance:
43
, 3 41 41 41 42
43
* * ) , , (
W
W H W war far T h
H
HPT Cl
+
=
The turbine exit fuel-air-ratio is
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
43
43

=
Pressure losses in the inter-duct between the high and the intermediate-pressure
turbine can be calculated in several ways. For design calculations, if turbine
efficiency is taken from input, P
44
/P
43
is used as given. If HP turbine design is
selected and a value for the reference Mach number M
43
>0 is given the pressure
loss will be adjusted according to the actual Mach number level. If the reference
Mach number is not given, the input value of P
44
/P
43
will be used again.
During of off-design simulations the losses vary with corrected flow in the same
way as in any duct.
The IPT nozzle guide vane exit flow is W
45
=W
44
+W
Cl,NGV,IPT
. The fuel-air-ratio far
45

is
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
45
45

=
The enthalpy corresponding to the IPT stator outlet temperature T
45
can now be
evaluated:
Inter-duct 1
106
45 , , , 44 44 45
/ ) * * ( W H W H W H
IPT Cl IPT NGV Cl
+ =
Normally, the intermediate-pressure turbine (IPT) efficiency is an input value in
cycle design calculations. However, the efficiency can also be derived from
turbine design calculations. The rotational speed of the IPT is the same as that of
the IPC (booster). During off-design calculations the efficiency is read from the
IPT map.
The specific power required to drive the booster is
45 ,
24 , 21 21
46 , 45
*
*
W
dH W
dH
I mech

=
Now the mass flow of the cooling air is taken into account: W
47
=W
46
+W
Cl,IPT
. The
LPT inlet enthalpy H
47
=H
48
is calculated on the basis of the energy balance:
47
, , 45 45 45 46
47
* * ) , , (
W
W H W war far T h
H
IPT Cl IPT Cl
+
=
Pressure losses in the inter-duct between the intermediate- and the low-pressure
turbine will be calculated as described for the inter-duct 1. For design
calculations, if the IPT efficiency is taken from input, P
48
/P
47
is used as given. If IP
turbine design is selected and a value for the reference Mach number M
47
>0 is
given the pressure loss will be adjusted to the actual Mach number level. If the
reference Mach number is not given, the input value of P
48
/P
47
will be used again.
Normally, the low-pressure turbine (LPT) design point efficiency is an input value.
However, it can also be derived from turbine design calculations. The rotational
speed of the LPT is the same as that of the LPC (fan). During off-design
calculations the efficiency is read from the LPT map.
The specific power required to drive the fan is
( )
48 ,
13 , 2 13 21 , 2 21
5 , 48
*
* *
W
dH W dH W
dH
L mech

+
=
LPT exit conditions, i.e., T
49
and P
5
, can now be calculated from the pressure ratio
and the efficiency. Cooling and leakage air are added in the next step:
LPT Lk LPT Cl
W W W W
, , 47 5
+ + =
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
5
5

=
5
49 47 3 , , ,
5
* * *
W
H W H W H W
H
LPT Lk LPT Cl LPT Cl
+ +
=
The turbine exit duct pressure ratio P
6
/P
5
is calculated in the usual way.
If a heat exchanger is installed then its hot side pressure losses will be either
given (design case) or calculated (off-design) as a function of the corrected flow.
Inter-duct 2
107
The heat exchanger (recuperator) exit temperature T
7
is derived from the input
value for its effectiveness:
( )
3 6 6 7
* * T T
C
C
T T
h
c
ex
=
with
{ } 2 / ) ( ) ( *
35 3 31
T c T c W C
p p c
+ =
and
{ } 2 / )) ( ( ) ( *
3 35 6 6 6
T T T c T c W C
p p h
+ =
Until now only an estimated value has been used for the cold side heat exchanger
exit temperature T
35
. We must check whether this value satisfies the heat balance
equation:
) ( * ) ( *
7 6 6 3 35 31
H H W H H W =
The inter-cooler causes the first part of the bypass duct pressure loss:
13
14
13 13 13
16
* 1
P
P
W
W
W
W
P
P
IntClr IntClr
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
In cycle design calculations P
14
/P
13
is an input value, in off-design the pressure
loss varies with corrected flow as in any duct.
The second part of the bypass pressure loss is described by P
18
/P
16
, which is
calculated in the same way as it is for any duct. The bypass leakage air is
calculated from
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
13
,
13 ,
*
W
W
W W
Lk By
Lk By

The bypass exit mass flow is
Lk By By Lk HdlBld
W W W W W
, , 13 16
+ + =
Both streams are expanded through convergent nozzles. The net thrust of the
engine is
0 2 18 18 18 , 18 18
8 , 8 8 , 8 8
* ) ( * * *
) ( * * *
V W P P A C V W
P P A C V W F
amb s FG
amb s FG N
+
+ + =

In addition to the real nozzle velocities the ideal velocities are also calculated. The
ideal velocities imply a full expansion from stations 18 and 8 to ambient pressure.
The ratio V
id,18
/V
id,8
is used to find the optimum combination of the fan outer
pressure ratio and the bypass ratio.
Heat exchanger
108
Propulsion efficiency is calculated as follows:
0 18 8
0 2
* ) (
*
1
2
V W W
V W F
N
prop
+
+
+
=
Core efficiency is given by
FHV W
V dH W
f
is
core
*
) 2 / ( *
2
0 48

=
The enthalpy difference dH
is
is calculated assuming an isentropic expansion from
the intermediate station 485 to ambient pressure. Station 485 is found by starting
from station 48 and expanding the flow with the LPT efficiency to get the power
needed for compressing the core flow W
21
from P
2
to P
24
.
For the turbofan cycle you can get both a temperature-entropy and an enthalpy-
entropy diagram. Often the region around station 2 will be very crowded. You
should then enlarge this part of the graph.
109


2.1.10. Variable cycle engine
The calculation starts with the intake. The altitude, flight Mach number and T
ISA

yield the ambient temperature and pressure, the flight velocity and the total
engine inlet conditions T
1
and P
1
. The pressure at the compressor inlet can be
easily calculated from the input value of the intake pressure ratio P
2
/P
1
or from the
value read from the intake map.
In the case of design calculations the total corrected engine mass flow W
2

R,2
/
2

is an input. W
2
can be derived easily. The mass flows of the individual streams
are calculated from the bypass ratio in station 13 (BPR
13
):
13
2
21
1 BPR
W
W
+
=

21 2 13
W W W =
During cycle design calculations all three Variable Bypass Injectors (VABI) are
always open. In off-design, the first VABI may be closed; then the bypass ratio
BPR
13
is zero.
Further input for design calculations are the isentropic or polytropic efficiencies
and the pressure ratios for both streams of the fan.
In the case of off-design the relative corrected fan speed is
Design
L
L
rel corr L
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
, ,
*
*

Then the fan map - which primarily is valid for the outer fan (bypass) stream - is
read with the help of the relative corrected speed and the auxiliary map
coordinate
LPC
. This yields the standard day corrected mass flow W
2

R,2
/
2
, the
isentropic efficiency
2,13
, the pressure ratio P
13
/P
2
and the surge margin. N
L
and

LPC
are estimated values in an off-design calculation. W
2
can easily be derived
from W
2

R,2
/
2
, T
2
and P
2
. The efficiency
2,21
and the pressure ratio P
21
/P
2
for
the inner stream are derived from those of the outer stream:
Design
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
13 , 2
21 , 2
13 , 2 21 , 2
*

The compression is calculated as usual. It yields the fan exit temperatures T
21

and T
13
as well as the specific works dH
2,21
and dH
2,13
.
Fan Map
110
Design
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
1
1
* 1 1
2
13
2
21
2
13
2
21


Next is the calculation of the core driven fan stage, which is in effect the
intermediate-pressure compressor (IPC). In the case of design calculations the
pressure ratio and the efficiency are input values.
3 5 31 2425
2
64
6
16
41
4
44
45
13
163
63
7
9 8
b handling bleed
overboard bleeds
leakage from bypass
NGV
Cool.
HPT cooling
a leakage to bypass
21
125
225
15
HP leak to LPT exit
b
a
VABI 1
LPT cooling
VABI 3
VABI 2
VarCyc111RHCDPPT.WMF GasTurb
263

In off-design the IPC map is read with estimated values for the auxiliary
coordinate
IPC
and the relative corrected speed of the intermediate spool:
Design
H
H
rel corr I
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
21
21
, ,
*
*

The exit station of the IPC is station 24. The corrected flow W
21

R,21
/
21
, the
pressure ratio P
24
/P
21
and efficiency
21,24
are read from the map. Note that you
must employ variable geometry with the core driven fan stage if one of the front
VABIs is closed in off-design simulations. The compression calculation yields T
24
,
P
24
and dH
21,24
.
The pressure at the inlet to the high-pressure compressor (HPC) is derived from
the inter-duct pressure ratio P
25
/P
24
for design calculations, whereas it depends
on the corrected flow for off design calculations. There is no change in total
temperature from station 24 to station 25.
Core driven fan
stage
111
The second front VABI is located upstream of the high-pressure compressor. The
mass flow through the open valve is given by the bypass ratio in station 15
(BPR
15
):
15
15
2 15
1
*
BPR
BPR
W W
+
=
Thus the core inlet mass flow is W
25
= W
2
- W
15
and the mass flows into the
bypass mixer are W
125
= W
24
- W
25
and W
225
= W
15
- W
125
.
In an operating line calculation and during the simulation of the transient behavior
you can select the handling bleed to be switched automatically. This bleed valve
is closed if the relative corrected high-pressure compressor (HPC) speed is
higher than N
H,corr,rel,2
. It will be open if the corrected speed is lower than N
H,corr,rel,1
.
In between these boundaries then the handling bleed flow is interpolated linearly:
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1 , , , 2 , , ,
1 , , , , ,
max
25
25
1 * *
rel corr H rel corr H
rel corr H rel corr H
HdlBld
HdlBld
N N
N N
W
W
W W
In off-design the HPC map is read with estimated values for the auxiliary
coordinate
HPC
and the relative corrected speed:
Design
H
H
rel corr H
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
25
, ,
*
*

Now we look at the internal air system. The high-pressure turbine (HPT) cooling
air mass flow is
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
HPT Cl
HPT Cl

This amount of cooling air is assumed not to do any work; it is mixed with the
main gas stream behind the high-pressure turbine. The nozzle guide vane (NGV)
cooling air mass flow is calculated in a similar manner:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
NGV Cl
NGV Cl

The NGV cooling air is mixed with the main stream at station 41 upstream of the
rotor(s), consequently this amount of air does work in the turbine. Leakages from
the compressor exit to the bypass and to low-pressure turbine exit can also be
taken into account:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
By lk
By lk

Handling Bleed
Internal air
system
112
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
LPT lk
LPT lk

The low-pressure turbine (LPT) needs also some cooling air
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
25
,
25 ,
*
W
W
W W
LPT Cl
LPT Cl

This air is often taken as an inter-stage bleed from the high-pressure compressor.
Specific work done on this air is
3 , 25 , ,
*dH f dH
LPT Cl LPT Cl
=
The cooling air W
Cl,LPT
is assumed not to do any work, it will be mixed with the
main stream behind the LPT.
An overboard bleed mass flow can be specified as a linear combination of a
relative and an absolute amount
2 ,
25
1 ,
25
*
Bld
Bld
Bld
W
W
W
W W +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
The work done on the overboard bleed air is:
3 , 25
*dH f dH
Bld Bld
=
For the compression of the NGV cooling air and the turbine rotor cooling air the
specific power dH
25,3
is required. The mass flow at the compressor exit W
3
is the
flow without the inter-stage bleeds that are not fully compressed (an inter-stage
bleed is characterized by 0<f
Bld
<1):
Bld LPT Cl
W W W W =
, 25 3

Between stations 3 and 31 the fully compressed bleed flows are subtracted:
LPT lk By lk HPT Cl NGV Cl HdlBld
W W W W W W W
, , , , 3 31
=
The pressure loss in the burner is calculated as usual: in design calculations the
pressure ratio P
4
/P
3
is given, whereas in off-design calculations it is a function of
the corrected flow and the design point pressure ratio.
The amount of fuel is calculated from the required fuel-air-ratio, which in turn
depends on burner pressure, inlet temperature, humidity of the incoming air and
temperature rise.
) ( * /
2
31 34 O H f
W W far W =
The burner exit flow is W
4
=W
31
+W
f
and the turbine nozzle guide vane exit flow
W
41
equals W
4
+W
Cl,NGV
. The fuel-air-ratio far
41
is
Burner
113
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
41
41

=
Now it is possible to calculate the enthalpy corresponding to the Stator Outlet
Temperature (SOT) or Rotor Inlet Temperature (RIT) of the turbine:
41 3 , 4 4 41
/ ) * * ( W H W H W H
NGV Cl
+ =
The power delivered by the high-pressure turbine (HPT) is a product of W
41
and
the specific power dH
41,44
. The energy balance with all power requirements,
including the customer power offtake PWX, is given by
H mech
Bld Bld LPT Cl LPT Cl main HPC
W
PWX dH W dH W PW dH W
dH
, 41
, , , 24 , 21 21
44 , 41
*
* * *

+ + + +
=

PW
HPC,main
is the power needed to compress the main gas stream:
3 , 25 , , , , 31 ,
* ) ( dH W W W W W W PW
LPT Lk By Lk HPT Cl NGV Cl HdlBld main C
+ + + + + =
If Turbine Design is selected then the isentropic efficiency of the HPT is
calculated, otherwise, it is given as an input property. In off-design simulations the
efficiency is read from the HPT map.
The relative corrected high-pressure turbine speed is
Design
H
H
rel corr HPT
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
41
41
, ,
*
*

The turbine efficiency and the corrected flow are read from the map with the
known relative corrected spool speed and the auxiliary coordinate
HPT
. The
efficiency can be modified in off-design simulations by a tip clearance correction
term, which is a function of the relative mechanical spool speed:
H
H clearance tip
N
N

* ) 1 ( =
From the specific work dH
41,44
and the efficiency we can calculate P
43
=P
44
and the
turbine rotor exit temperature T
43
. Then the turbine rotor cooling air is added:
W
45
=W
41
+W
Cl,HPT
. The LPT inlet enthalpy H
45
is calculated using the energy
balance:
45
, 3 41 41 41 43
45
* * ) , , (
W
W H W war far T h
H
HPT Cl
+
=
The fuel air ratio comes from
High pressure
turbine
114
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
45
45

=
Pressure losses in the inter-duct between both turbines can be calculated in
several ways. For design calculations, if turbine efficiency is taken from input,
P
45
/P
44
is a given quantity. If Turbine Design is selected and a value for the
reference Mach number M
44
>0 is given, then the pressure loss will be adjusted
according to the actual Mach number level. If the reference Mach number is not
given, then the input value of P
45
/P
44
is used again. During off-design the losses
vary with the corrected flow in the same way as in any duct.
Normally, the low-pressure turbine (LPT) efficiency is an input value. However,
efficiency can also be derived from turbine design calculations. The rotational
speed of the LPT was calculated in the LPC Design section. The specific power
required to drive the fan is
L mech
W
dH W dH W
dH
, 45
13 , 2 13 21 , 2 21
49 , 45
*
* *

+
=
In the case of off-design the relative corrected speed of the LPT is
Design
L
L
rel corr LPT
T R
N
T R
N
N
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
45
45
, ,
*
*

The operating point in the map is determined by the estimated value of the
auxiliary coordinate,
LPT
, and the relative corrected speed. Both the corrected
flow, W
45,std
, and the efficiency are read from the map.
Now the LPT exit conditions, i.e., T
49
and P
5
, can be calculated using the pressure
ratio and efficiency. The cooling and leakage air will be mixed in the next step:
LPT Lk LPT Cl
W W W W
, , 45 5
+ + =
O H f
f
W W W
W
far
2
5
5

=
5
49 45 , , , ,
5
* * *
W
H W H W H W
H
LPT Lk LPT Lk LPT Cl LPT Cl
+ +
=
The turbine exit duct pressure ratio P
6
/P
5
can be found in the usual way. There is
no change in the total temperature from station 5 to station 6.
From station 13 to 225 and from station 24 to 125 there are pressure losses that
must be specified as P
225
/P
13
and P
125
/P
24
for the cycle design calculation. In off-
design these pressure losses will vary with the corresponding corrected mass
flows.
Turbine inter-
duct
115
In station 15 the streams originating from stations 125 and 225 are mixed. In a
design calculation either the Mach number Ma
15
or the flow area A
15
must be
given. The mixer area A
15
is split into A
125
and A
225
during the cycle design
calculation in such a way that the static pressures P
s,125
and P
s,225
are equal. In
off-design the static pressure balance between P
s,125
and P
s,225
is retained.
Downstream of the mixer there are additional pressure losses. These are
specified as P
16
/P
15
in a cycle design calculation and depend on corrected flow
during off-design. The bypass exit mass flow is found from
By Lk HdlBld
lk By
W W
W
W
W W
,
15
,
15 16
1 * + +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
The inlet conditions for the cold side of the mixer are those from station 16.
However, a nozzle cooling mass flow may first be subtracted from the bypass exit
mass flow for engines with an afterburner:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
16
,
16 16 163
*
W
W
W W W
Noz Cl

If the rear VABI is closed then all of the bypass air passes behind the cooling air
liner of the afterburner.
If the rear VABI is open, then both the core and the bypass stream will be mixed.
The hot stream mixer pressure ratio P
63
/P
6
is assumed to vary with corrected flow
in off-design simulations. The cold stream mixer pressure ratio P
163
/P
16
is
dependent on corrected flow in off-design, too.
The mixer area A
64
is equal to the sum of A
63
and A
163
. A
64
can be specified by
input or is calculated from the mean mixer Mach number M
64
during design
calculations. In off-design the static pressure balance between P
s,63
and P
s,163
is
retained. The areas A
63
and A
163
are taken from the design point calculation.
However, in off-design simulations you can also apply modifiers to the design
point mixer areas to account for variable settings of the rear VABI. Note that in
this case the total area A
64
is recalculated as the sum of A
63
and A
163
.
In the mixing calculation the program uses the conservation of energy for finding
T
64
. The mass flow W
64
is the sum of W
6
and W
161
. P
64
is calculated on the basis
of conservation of momentum in a constant area duct.
Then the fuel-air-ratio far
7
is calculated from the specified reheat exit temperature
T
7
. Reheat fuel flow is then
|
|
.
|

\
|
= 1 *
64
7
,
far
far
W W
f RH f

The total reheat exit mass flow amounts to W
7
=W
64
+W
f,RH
. The fundamental
pressure loss caused by the heat addition will then be calculated. The correlations
of the Rayleigh line, i.e., heat addition in a pipe with constant area, are used. The
inlet Mach number for this calculation is M
64
.
Before the nozzle calculation starts, nozzle cooling air is mixed with the main
stream. The nozzle total temperature will therefore be lower than T
7
, if nozzle
cooling air is considered.
Mixer and
afterburner
116
Two types of nozzles can be calculated: a convergent nozzle and a convergent-
divergent nozzle with a prescribed nozzle area ratio A
9
/A
8
. The fully mixed net
thrust for a convergent nozzle is
0 2 8 , 8 8 8 ,
* ) ( * * * V W P P A C V W F
amb s FG id N
+ =
For the convergent-divergent nozzle it is
0 2 9 , 9 9 8 ,
* ) ( * * * V W P P A C V W F
amb s FG id N
+ =
The pressure term A
9
*(P
s,9
-P
amb
) will be negative if the nozzle area ratio is too big
for the pressure ratio.
These formulae apply to a fully mixed flow. However, in reality full mixing is not
achieved. The thrust for a partially mixed flow is calculated on the basis of the
separate expansion of W
16
and W
6
to ambient conditions. For a convergent
nozzle the cold and hot stream gross thrusts are
) ( * * *
, 16 , amb c s c FG c c g
P P A C V W F + =
) ( * * *
, 6 , amb h s c FG h h g
P P A C V W F + =
The areas A
c
and A
h
are calculated from continuity. The cold and hot stream
thrust for a convergent-divergent nozzle is found in a similar matter. The partially
mixed thrust is then calculated:
0 2 , , ,
* ) ( * ) 1 ( * V W F F F F
h g c g mix id g mix N
+ + =
Note that in the case of reheat the mixing efficiency
mix
is set to 1.0 internally
since combustion is assumed to enhance the mixing process.
Propulsion efficiency is
0 8
0 2
Pr
*
*
1
2
V W
V W F
N
op
+
+
=
Core efficiency is given by:
FHV W
V dH W
f
is
core
*
) 2 / ( *
2
0 45

=
The enthalpy difference dH
is
is calculated assuming an isentropic expansion from
the intermediate station 47 to ambient pressure. Station 47 is found by starting
from station 45 and expanding the flow with the LPT efficiency to get the power
needed for compressing the core flow W
21
from P
2
to P
21
.
For the mixed flow turbofan cycle you can get both a temperature-entropy and an
enthalpy-entropy diagram. Often the region around station 2 will be very crowded.
You should then enlarge this part of the graph.
Nozzle
117


2.1.11. Ramjet
The calculation starts with the intake. Altitude, the flight Mach number and T
ISA

provide the ambient temperature and pressure, the flight velocity as well as the
total engine inlet conditions T
1
and P
1
. P
2
can easily be calculated from the input
value of the intake pressure ratio P
2
/P
1
. Only design calculations are possible for
the ramjet. The diffusor pressure ratio P
6
/P
2
is an input quantity.
7 8 9 0 2 6 61
RamjetCDPPT.WMF GasTurb

Before burning the fuel the nozzle cooling flow is first subtracted from the total
mass flow:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
6
,
6 ,
*
W
W
W W
Noz Cl
Noz Cl

Noz Cl
W W W
, 6 61
=
The required amount of fuel is calculated from the fuel-air-ratio which in turn
depends on burner pressure, inlet temperature and temperature rise.
) ( *
2
61
67
7
O H f
W W
far
W =

The total nozzle inlet mass flow is W
7
=W
61
+W
f
. The fundamental pressure loss
caused by the heat addition is then calculated by means of the Rayleigh line
correlations, i.e., heat addition in a pipe with a constant area. The inlet Mach
number M
6
is an input value for this calculation. Before the nozzle calculation
Rayleigh line
118
starts, the cooling air is mixed with the main stream. The nozzle total temperature
will therefore be lower than T
7
if cooling is considered.
Two types of nozzles can be modeled: a convergent nozzle and a convergent-
divergent nozzle with a prescribed nozzle area ratio A
9
/A
8
. Note, however, that
the convergent-divergent nozzle subroutine will stop with an error message if the
nozzle pressure ratio / nozzle area ratio combination implies a shock inside the
nozzle.
The thrust for a ramjet with a convergent nozzle is
0 2 8 8 8 8
* ) ( * * * V W P P A C V W F
amb s FG N
+ =
For a convergent-divergent nozzle it is
0 2 9 9 9 8
* ) ( * * * V W P P A C V W F
amb s FG N
+ =
The pressure term A
9
*(P
s9
-P
amb
) will be negative if the nozzle area ratio is too big
for the pressure ratio.
Propulsion efficiency of the ramjet is
0 8
0 2
Pr
*
*
1
2
V W
V W F
N
op
+
+
=



119

2.2. Details of the calculation
In this chapter you will find a description of the component calculations as
performed in GasTurb. The same procedures are implemented in the program
GasTurb Details.

2.2.1. Gas properties
The state of a thermodynamic system is described fully by two state variables.
For example, enthalpy h may be written as a function of temperature and
pressure:
) , ( P T f h =
The total differential of this relationship is
dP
P
h
dT
T
h
dh
const T const P = =
|
.
|

\
|

+ |
.
|

\
|

=
Specific heat at constant pressure is defined by
p
const P
c
T
h
= |
.
|

\
|

=

The specific heat at constant pressure c
P
of a real gas depends on both
temperature and pressure. Furthermore,
0 |
.
|

\
|

=const T
P
h

For an ideal gas c
p
is constant and
0 = |
.
|

\
|

=const T
P
h

We now introduce the half-ideal gas for which the following relations hold:
) ( ), ( P f c T f c
p p
=
0 = |
.
|

\
|

=const T
P
h

Dry air behaves very much like a half-ideal gas at temperatures above
approximately 200K.
120
The enthalpy of a half-ideal gas is

=
T
T
p
ref
dT T c T h ) ( ) (
The reference temperature T
ref
can be selected arbitrarily. Its magnitude is not
important for isentropic compression and expansion calculations because these
involve only enthalpy differences.
For an isentropic process with a thermally ideal gas the following relationship
holds
T
dT
R
T c
P
dP
p
) (
=
In integral form this is
dT
T
T c
R P
dP
T
T
p
P
P

=
2
1
2
1
) (
1

We now define the entropy function as
dT
T
T c
R
T
T
T
p
ref

=
) (
1
) (
Again the reference temperature can be selected arbitrarily. Just as for the
enthalpy, the calculation of isentropic compression and expansion processes
uses only differences of entropy function values, not the absolute values
themselves.
Use of the entropy function allows us to write the following simple formula for an
isentropic change of state
1 2
1
2
ln =
|
|
.
|

\
|
P
P

In gas turbines hydrocarbons are often used as fuel. Hydrocarbons composed of
86.08% carbon and 13.92% hydrogen (by mass) burn with air such that the
molecular weight, and therefore also the gas constant of the combustion
products, is exactly that of dry air {R=287.05 J/(kg K)}. The lower heating value is
43.1 MJ/kg at T=288K. In GasTurb this type of fuel is called the Generic fuel.
Kerosene, JP-4 and other fuels used in aviation and in gas turbines for power
generation are composed of hydrocarbons in such a way that their properties
come close to that of the generic fuel described above. However, you can also
select other fuels such as natural gas or hydrogen for your cycle calculation.
The chemical composition of natural gas can vary widely. For the calculation of
the data used in GasTurb natural gas with 90%(by mass) CH
4
and 10% C
2
H
6
is
considered.
Fuel and
combustion
products
121
The gas properties of air and combustion products are stored in tables that are
read when a type of fuel is selected. These tables have been calculated with the
NASA equilibrium code from Gordon McBride (ref. 15&16]. They contain data for
the isentropic exponent, specific heat, molecular weight, enthalpy and entropy as
a function of temperature, fuel-air-ratio and water-air-ratio.
For the evaluation of the isentropic exponent, the specific heat etc. the only
species considered are N
2
, O
2
, H
2
O, CO
2
and Ar. This guarantees that the
composition of the combustion products is independent of pressure. All
calculations in GasTurb, except those for combustion, are done for constant gas
compositions. Allowing combustion products like CO or NO
x
while generating the
gas property tables would cause erroneous calculation results.
The equilibrium temperature of the combustion process is stored as a function of
fuel type, fuel-air-ratio, air temperature, pressure, humidity, water-fuel-ratio and
steam-fuel-ratio. While calculating the equilibrium temperature there are no
restrictions to the type of combustion products imposed, i.e. dissociation is taken
into account.
The temperature of the fuel is 298.15K. The water temperature is the same while
the steam temperature is assumed to be equal to the air temperature.

2.2.2. Intake
For the specification of the engine inlet conditions there are two options. With the
Ground mode you can specify the total pressure P
1
and the total temperature T
1
upstream of the engine inlet as well as the ambient pressure surrounding the
engine respectively the exhaust. With the Flight mode you specify altitude,
deviation from standard atmosphere temperature and flight Mach number.
Given the flight altitude both static temperature and pressure are calculated using
the international standard atmosphere (ISA). Below 11000m the ambient ISA
temperature is
m
alt
K T
ISA amb
1000
* 5 . 6 15 . 288
,
=
Ambient pressure in this altitude range is
25588 . 5
1000
* 0225577 . 0
1 * 325 . 101
|
.
|

\
|
=
m
alt
kPa P
amb

Between 11000m and 20000m the temperature is constant and equals 216.65K.
Ambient pressure is
62 . 6341
11000
* 632 . 22
alt m
amb
e kPa P

=

Ambient temperature for non-ISA days is T
amb
= T
amb,ISA
+ T
ISA
. Extreme
temperatures for cold and hot days are defined in MIL 210.
Flight mode
122


The velocity of sound depends on the static temperature and gas properties:
amb
p
p
sonic
T R
R c
c
V * *

=
The flight velocity V
0
equals M
0
*V
sonic
. Total temperature T
0
is calculated from total
enthalpy:
2
) (
2
0
0
V
T h H
amb
+ =
An isentropic compression starting from P
amb
gives P
0
:
) ( ) (
0
0
*
amb
T T
amb
e P P

=
Since there is no energy transfer upstream of the first compressor, T
2
equals T
0
.
No pressure losses are assumed between stations 0 and 1. Therefore, P
1
equals
P
0
.
The intake pressure ratio P
2
/P
1
is an input quantity. Positive values are used as
they are, negative values are corrected for shock losses (supersonic flight only)
according to MIL-E-5007:
[ ]
35 . 1
1
2
1
2
) 1 ( * 075 . 0 1 *
|
|
.
|

\
|
= M
P
P
P
P
input


123
2.2.3. Compressor design
The term Compressor Design" in this program means to find compressor inlet
dimensions and the rotational speed. These quantities are needed for inlet flow
distortion and turbine design calculations and for transient simulations.
The input data are mass flow W, total pressure P, and temperature T. Tip speed
u
T
, axial Mach number M
ax
, and inlet radius ratio are also required. A minimum
value for the hub diameter can furthermore be specified. This option is useful
when different fan versions of a family of engines based on the same gas
generator are to be studied.
From M
ax
the static data P
s
and T
s
are found. The given mass flow requires a
certain flow area, which implies a certain tip diameter for the given radius ratio.
When the hub diameter calculated with this procedure is lower than the
prescribed value then the radius ratio is recalculated based on the given hub
diameter and the flow area. Angular velocity follows from blade tip speed.
The diameter of the engine inlet at the aerodynamic interface plane (AIP) is
derived from the tip diameter of the first compressor. From that diameter one can
calculate the flow area at the interface plane:
*
2
*
2
,
,
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
tip C
tip C
AIP
d
d
d
AIP
The velocity head (/2 V
2
)
AIP
will be used in the definition of the inlet flow
distortion coefficient.

2.2.4. Compression
For a given inlet temperature T
1
, pressure ratio P
2
/P
1
and efficiency (isentropic
or polytropic) the required specific work dH
2,1
and the exit temperature T
2
are
calculated. First the entropy function for T
1
is evaluated, and added to the
logarithm of the pressure ratio:
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
1
2
1 2
ln ) ( ) (
P
P
T T
is

The inversion of the entropy function gives the isentropic exit temperature T
2,is
.
Then the isentropic enthalpy rise is divided by the isentropic efficiency to give the
effective specific work dH
1,2
.

) ( ) (
1 , 2
2 , 1
T h T h
dH
is

=
Polytropic and isentropic efficiency are related by
Aerodynamic
Interface Plane
124
1
1
*
1
1
2
1
1
2

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

pol
P
P
P
P
is

This formula was used in previous versions of GasTurb to convert between the
two efficiencies. Now polytropic efficiency is calculated as
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
, 2
1
2
ln
ln
P
P
P
P
is
pol

and isentropic efficiency as
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
1 2
1 , 2
T h T h
T h T h
is
is

=
During cycle design calculations you can specify either polytropic or isentropic
efficiency. Note, however, that any off-design calculations must follow a design
point calculation in which all component efficiencies are specified as isentropic.
Isentropic efficiency may also be calculated as a function of stage loading and
corrected flow. For this purpose the formulas for advanced technology
compressors from ref. [11] have been implemented. The efficiency level can be
adjusted with the help of the loss correction factor K
loss
:
) 1 ( * 1
tan dard S loss
K =

2.2.5. Pressure losses
In design calculations the pressure ratio across a duct is normally taken as an
input value. For turbine inter-ducts an additional option for the pressure loss
calculation is available. When turbine design is selected, then the turbine exit
duct inlet Mach number is calculated. The data for the duct pressure ratio can be
specified for a reference Mach number. The actual pressure ratio then depends
on duct inlet Mach number M. The loss coefficient is defined as:
2
1
2
1
2
*
2
1
1
* 1
ref
ref
M
M
P
P

|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

The actual pressure ratio for the duct inlet Mach number M is then
Polytropic and
isentropic
efficiency
125
1
2
2
1
2
*
2
1
1
* 1

|
.
|

\
|
+
=

M
M
P
P

In off-design calculations duct losses are dependent on the relative corrected
flow:
Design
Design
P
P
P
T R
W
P
T R
W
P
P
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
2
2
1
2
1 *
*
*
*
*
1
A special case is the pressure loss due to heat addition. This loss is neglected in
the main burner. In reheat systems the pressure losses are calculated from the
Rayleigh line, i.e., a constant area duct without friction is assumed and from
conservation of momentum the pressure loss is found.
Another special case is the pressure loss due to mixing. It is only taken into
account for the mixing of core and bypass streams, and not for the mixing of
cooling or leakage air with the mainstream.

2.2.6. Combustion chamber
Efficiency
Modern combustion chambers have at design condition very high efficiency, at
part load near idle and at very high altitude, however, the burner efficiency can
deviate noticeable from 100%.
Burner efficiency can be correlated with burner loading which is defined as
Vol e P
W
K T
* *
300 / 8 . 1
3
31
3
=
where Vol is the burner volume.
For the cycle design point in GasTurb the burner efficiency is an input property
and the burner loading is by definition equal to 100%. For part load conditions the
relative burner loading /
dp
can be determined without knowing the burner
volume because the volume is invariant.
In literature it can be found that the change in burner efficiency with load can be
approximated by
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
dp
b a log * ) 1 log(
126





The constant a in this formula is correlated with the design point efficiency:
) 1 log(
dp
a =
Thus it is possible to describe the burner part load efficiency trend with a single
property, the burner part load constant b. Both the design point efficiency and the
part load constant have an influence on the burner efficiency.
127

Pressure loss
There are two reasons for pressure losses in combustion systems: friction and
heat addition. Pressure losses due to friction are given as pressure ratio P
4
/P
3
in
the cycle design point. During off-design simulations the pressure losses vary
proportional to corrected burner inlet flow squared.
Pressure losses due to heat addition are neglected in the main burner because
the Mach number there is very low. In reheat systems the pressure losses are
calculated from the Rayleigh line, i.e., a constant area duct without friction is
assumed and from conservation of momentum the pressure loss is found.

Emissions
The combustion products of hydrocarbon fuel with air are mainly water and
carbon dioxide. Thus the emission of CO2 is directly coupled to the fuel
consumption of a gas turbine.
At full load additionally nitrogen oxides NO
x
are produced while at part power
carbon monoxide CO and unburned hydrocarbons UHC are the problem.
The production of nitrogen oxides increases with pressure, temperature and
residence time in the combustor while water in the combustion air reduces the
amount of nitrogen oxides. The NO
x
severity parameter is defined as
|
.
|

\
|
+

|
.
|

\
|
=
2 . 53
* 100 29 . 6
194
826 4 . 0
3
3
*
2965
war
K
K T
NO
e
kPa
P
S
x

The NO
x
Emission Index EI [g/kg fuel] increases linearly with the NO
x
severity
parameter. For conventional combustors holds
x
NO
S EI * 32
while for dual annular combustors the NO
x
emission is approximately
x
NO
S EI * 23
Consequently, reduction techniques focus on just what latitude one has with
these variables in view of the engine cycle requirements. Not only is temperature
the most sensitive of these, but owing to the design of conventional burners, it
also offers the greatest possibility for control. In the conventional engine, fuel is
initially burned at approximately stoichiometric conditions and subsequently
diluted to the desired leaner condition. The high temperatures in the primary
combustion zone result in rapid production of NO
x
during its residence time and
set the value of the final emission level. The advantages of this arrangement are
that the hot, stoichiometric primary zone provides good stability, ignition and
relight, while the addition of dilution air allows convenient cooling of the
combustor liner.
128
The low-NOx burners are consequently designed to avoid the hot stoichiometric
and dilution zones, thereby reducing emissions, but at the expense of stability and
cooling problems.
Incomplete combustion results in the production of carbon monoxide CO and
unburned hydrocarbons UHC. The amount of these species can be correlated
with the combustion (in)efficiency:
( )
UHC CO
EI EI + = * 232 . 0 * 1 . 0 100 * ) 1 (
There is a relationship between the two emission indices:
2 1
) log( * ) log( c EI c EI
CO UHC
+ =
Data from an extensive measurement campaign with the CFM56 engine correlate
well when c1 = 3.15 and c2 = - 4.3 are used in this formula, for example.

2.2.7. Turbine design
A preliminary turbine design may be selected. Turbine geometry and efficiency
calculations are performed on a mean section basis assuming symmetrical
diagrams for each stage (except the first stage, which has axial inlet flow).

Figure 1: Turbine velocity triangles and Smith diagram
The method used is a simplified version of the NASA program published as ref.
[3]. The details cannot be described in this manual. Some advice with respect to
the input and output is given below.
129
The first input is the number of turbine stages (maximum 10). Then the inlet
radius ratio (a number less than 1) must be given. It is defined at the exit of the
first rotor. Obviously for one-stage turbines the exit radius ratio is the same as the
inlet radius ratio. Inlet and exit mean diameters are defined at the same location
as the radius ratios. For one-stage turbines both values are again the same. The
next quantity that must be input is the axial velocity ratio, which is the ratio of exit
axial velocity to mean axial velocity.
The efficiency calculated by the program can be adapted to any technology level
by adjusting the loss coefficient K
loss
. The NASA report proposes a value for K
loss

in the range of 0.35 to 0.4. The large uncooled turbines of modern engines are
better described with values as low as 0.3.
Another method may also be used for adjusting the efficiency level. Especially in
small engines the tip clearance can be - expressed in relative blade height - quite
large. The tip clearance and the exchange rate for efficiency with relative tip
clearance (a typical value is 2) can be input after selecting tip clearance
corrections by a separate switch.

Figure 2: Cooling air constant
The reference Mach number for calculating the turbine inter-duct loss between a
high and a low-pressure turbine (see preceding chapter) is another value that
must be input. If it is set to zero, then the input value for the inter-duct pressure
ratio will be used.
For the calculation of blade metal temperature the cooling effectiveness must be
known. It may be found using the following equation (ref. [2]):
cool ref cl
ref cl
cool
C W W
W W
+ /
/

The cooling air constant C
cool
(range: 0.03 to 0.07) has to be adjusted to get
reasonable results. Metal temperature is calculated from
) ( *
air cooling rel cool rel Metal
T T T T =
130
As a measure for blade stress the product of area times speed squared is
employed. Its value found from
6 2 2 2
10 * *
1
1
* * *

+

= RPM
d
d
d
d
d N A
o
i
o
i
mean

Flow angles are measured relative to the turbine axis. Positive angles are in the
direction of rotation. You will get useful results for the efficiency from turbine
design only for a limited range of input data. The diameters needed for input can
be estimated from compressor calculations: a good first estimate for the mean
HPT turbine inlet diameter is the HPC inlet tip diameter.

2.2.8. Expansion
For a given inlet temperature T
1
, specific work dH
1,2
and efficiency (isentropic
or polytropic) the pressure ratio P
1
/P
2
and the exit temperature T
2
are calculated.
First the isentropic specific work is found from specific work and isentropic
efficiency. This gives the isentropic exit temperature T
2,is
:
is
is
dH
T h T h

2 , 1
1 , 2
) ( ) ( =
The difference in the entropy functions for T
1
and T
2,is
is equal to the logarithm of
the pressure ratio. From this it follows that
) ( ) (
1 2
1 , 2
*
T T
is
e P P

=
The exit temperature is found easily by using the enthalpy H
2
=H
1
-dH
1,2
. Polytropic
and isentropic efficiencies are related by
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
1

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

P
P
P
P
pol
is

This formula was used in previous versions of GasTurb to convert between the
two efficiencies. Now polytropic efficiency is calculated as
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
1
, 2
1
ln
ln
P
P
P
P
is
pol

131
and isentropic efficiency as
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
, 2 1
2 1
is
is
T h T h
T h T h

=

2.2.9. Reheat
Heat addition in a frictionless duct with constant area results in a loss of total
pressure. This loss is sometimes called a fundamental pressure loss, while the
line connecting different amounts of heat addition plotted in a temperature-
entropy diagram is called a Rayleigh line. No more heat can be added after sonic
velocity at the duct exit is reached.
In the afterburner simulation of GasTurb the heat addition pressure loss is
calculated as described above. Note that high afterburner inlet Mach numbers
cause significant pressure losses.
Reheat efficiency varies with burner loading. Basically, the same algorithm is
used for reheat efficiency as for the efficiency of combustors, see above.
However, since the efficiency of afterburners is much lower compared to
combustors, the numbers to be used for the part load constant will be different.


2.2.10. Nozzle
Two types of nozzles may be selected: the convergent nozzle and the
convergent-divergent nozzle. In both cases an isentropic flow is assumed.
The convergent nozzle calculation is fairly simple. First an isentropic expansion to
ambient pressure is calculated. If the resulting Mach number is subsonic, then the
Convergent
nozzle
132
static conditions in the nozzle exit plane have already been found. Otherwise the
nozzle exit Mach number is set to 1.0, and using this condition we obtain new
values for T
s,8
and P
s,8
.
Discharge coefficient
The correlation between the effective flow area A
eff,8
and the geometric nozzle
area A
8
is described by the nozzle discharge coefficient C
D,8
= A
eff,8
/A
8
. The
magnitude of this coefficient depends on the nozzle petal angle and the nozzle
pressure ratio P
8
/P
s,8
.
GasTurb approximates the discharge coefficient of real nozzles with the empirical
correlation as shown in the figure. Note that you can achieve C
D,8
=1 by setting the
design nozzle petal angle to zero.
During off-design simulations the petal angle is found from the geometric nozzle
area A
8
.


For the convergent-divergent nozzle the calculation from the inlet to the throat
(station 8) is normally an expansion to sonic conditions. From station 8 to station
9 the flow is expanded supersonically in accordance with the given area ratio
A
9
/A
8
. If the nozzle exit static pressure P
s,9
is higher than ambient pressure then
the solution has been found and the calculation is finished.
Otherwise, a vertical shock is calculated using the upstream Mach number M
9
.
When the static pressure downstream of the shock is lower than ambient
pressure, there will be a shock inside the divergent part of the nozzle. If not, then
the pressure term in the thrust formula is negative; however, the result with P
s9

less than P
amb
is valid.
At very low nozzle pressure ratios the flow will be completely subsonic. In such
cases the nozzle behaves like a venturi.
Convergent-
divergent nozzle
133
With the help of the program GasTurb Details you can study in detail all the flow
phenomena that can occur within a convergent-divergent nozzle.
For convergent-divergent nozzles the ideal thrust coefficient c
V9
is calculated by
relating the actual thrust to the ideal thrust of a convergent-divergent nozzle. The
latter has the optimum area ratio A
9
/A
8
, i.e., it expands the flow exactly to ambient
pressure.
The mass flow through a convergent-divergent nozzle is calculated using the
formulas for a convergent nozzle. This is not correct for subcritical pressure
ratios, but it is a much simpler calculation.
The geometry of a convergent divergent nozzle is described with the primary
petal angle and the area ratio A
9
/A
8
.

The mechanical design of a convergent-divergent nozzle is often such that the
nozzle area ratio A
9
/A
8
changes when the nozzle throat area A
8
is modulated. To
describe this, during off-design simulations the area ratio A
9
/A
8
can be made a
function of A
8
.
2
, 8
8
, 8
8
8
9
* *
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
ds ds
A
A
c
A
A
b a
A
A

When you only want to do cycle design point calculations, then set a to the
desired nozzle area ratio and set both b and c to zero.


2.2.11. Propeller
From GasTurb you will get information about an ideal propeller and a real
propeller. For the real propeller you can use a map and thus accurately describe
the behavior of this device.

134
Ideal propeller
Some interesting correlations for the ideal propeller can be derived from one-
dimensional theory. Across the small control volume X which surrounds an
actuator disk (with area A) there is a sudden rise in pressure, but no change in
the local velocity V
P
. The change in pressure follows from Bernoullis formula
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2
* *
0 2 1
V
V V p p
V
0
p
1
p
2
p
0
p
0
V
0
+V
Propeller Disk Area A
Y
X

The thrust of the propeller is
|
.
|

\
|
+ = =
2
* * * ) ( *
0 1 2
V
V V A p p A F
id

We can also apply the conservation of momentum to the large control volume Y,
and then we get a second expression for the ideal propeller thrust:
V V A F
P id
= * * *
Combining both formulas for the thrust results in
2
0
V
V V
P

+ =
That means, that far downstream of the propeller the jet velocity V
id
is twice the
velocity in the propeller plane. The ideal propeller efficiency is
Ideal efficiency
135
) ( * *
*
1 2
0
,
p p V A
V F
P
id
id P

=
which can be transformed to
0
,
1
2
V
V
id
id P
+
=
The ideal thrust coefficient is a measure of thrust per unit of propeller disk area:
A V
F
C
id
id F
* *
2
2
0
,

=
Another propeller performance indicator is the ideal power coefficient, which is
defined as
A V
p p V A
C
P
id PW
* *
2
) ( * *
3
0
1 2
,

=

Real propeller
In reality there are always losses like frictional drag on the blades, uneven
velocity distribution over the propeller disk area, swirl in the slipstream etc.
Therefore, the performance of a real propeller will never be as good as that of an
ideal propeller.
Traditionally the performance of real propellers is described by some
dimensionless parameters, see Ref. [6]. The thrust coefficient is
4 2
* * d n
F
C
F

=
with n = rotational speed (in revolutions per second) and d = propeller diameter.
The quantity V
0
/(n*d) is known as the advance ratio J. It is a measure of the
forward movement of the propeller per revolution.
There is the power coefficient C
PW
defined as
5 3
* * d n
PW
C
SD
PW

=
The efficiency of the propeller is
Ideal thrust
coefficient
Ideal power
coefficient
Thrust
coefficient
Advance ratio
Power coefficient
Propeller
efficiency
136
PW
F
SD
P
C
J C
PW
V F * *
0
= =
For static conditions (J=0) this definition leads to
P
= 0. In this case the following
definition of the propeller quality is appropriate (Ref. [6]):
PW
F
static P
C
C
2 / 3
,
*
2

=
From the cycle calculation the shaft power delivered, PW
SD,
is known and the
power coefficient of the propeller can be calculated easily. The static thrust
follows from
4 2
3 / 2
,
* * *
2
* d n
C
F
PW
static P static

|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
The ratio of thrust coefficient to power coefficient C
F
/C
PW
is another measure of
static propeller efficiency. From this ratio you can also calculate the static thrust:
d n
PW
C
C
F
SD
PW
F
static
*
* =
When you do not use a propeller map with GasTurb, then the input value for the
propeller efficiency is interpreted as
P
for V
0
>0 and as
P,static
in the case of static
conditions.
You can also use a propeller map that will give you the efficiency as a function of
the advance ratio and the power coefficient. For static conditions an additional
correlation is stored in a separate table as C
F
/C
PW
= f (C
PW
).
The propeller map is difficult to read in the region of low advance ratios. There the
thrust will be linearly interpolated between the static thrust and the value derived
from
P
for an advance ratio of 0.2.
The propeller efficiency read from the map can be corrected for Mach number
effects. Above the critical Mach number, efficiency will drop according to
2
) ( *
crit P
M M C =


When you do not have a map of the propeller which fits to your engine design
point, then you can scale the map delivered with the program.
Static efficiency
Propeller map
137

Figure 3: Propeller map
When designing a turboprop engine the question arises as to what ratio of
propeller thrust to residual jet thrust is best. As shown for example in ref. [1], the
optimum velocity ratio is
P mech LPT
opt
V
V
* *
0
, 8
=
138
139
2.3. Iteration technique
2.3.1. Mathematical background
The calculation of each off-design point requires an iteration. Several input
variables for the thermodynamic cycle must be estimated. The result of each pass
through the cycle calculations is a set of "errors". Inconsistencies in the aero-
thermodynamics are introduced through the use of imperfect estimates for the
variables. The number of errors equals the number of variables.
The algorithm used to manipulate the variables in such a way that in the end all
errors will be insignificant is a Newton-Raphson iteration. With two variables V
j

and two errors E
i
this algorithm works as follows.
First the variable V
1
is changed by the small amount of V
1
. Both errors E
1
and E
2

will change, and we will get the influence coefficients E
1
/V
1
and E
2
/V
1
. Then
V
1
is reset to its original value and the second variable V
2
is changed by V
2
.
Again both errors will change and we will get E
1
/V
2
and E
2
/V
2
.
Let us assume for the moment that the influence coefficients Ei/Vj are constant.
Then we can immediately calculate how the variables V
j
need to be changed to
reduce the errors E
i
to zero:
1 2
2
1
1
1
1
E V
V
E
V
V
E
=

2 2
2
2
1
1
2
E V
V
E
V
V
E
=

In reality, the influence coefficients are not constant and these changes of the V
j

will not directly lead to E
i
=0 after this single correction.
The algorithm can be applied to any number of variables. The matrix of influence
coefficients is called the Jacobi matrix. The system of linear equations is solved
by means of the Gauss algorithm.
A numerical example involving two variables illustrates the iteration technique.
Lets look at the following linear relationships:
4 3 5
2 1 1
+ + = V V E
24 7 3
2 1 2
+ + = V V E
We are looking for the set of variables that reduces both errors E
1
and E
2
to zero.
Let us guess and set V
1
=3 and V
2
=7. By checking the equation we find that
E
1
=40 and E
2
=64. Now the Newton-Raphson iteration is started. First the partial
derivatives needed to create the Jacobi matrix are calculated:
5
1
1
=

V
E
3
2
1
=

V
E

Newton-Raphson
Jacobi matrix
140
3
1
2
=

V
E
7
2
2
=

V
E

The changes needed to reduce both E
1
and E
2
to zero can then be calculated as
follows:
40 3 5
2 1
= + V V
64 7 3
2 1
= + V V
The solution to this system of linear equations is V
1
= -2 and V
2
= -10. The new
values for the iteration variables are then V
1
= 3 - 2 = 1 and V
2
= 7 - 10 = -3.
When we insert these values into the equations for E
1
and E
2
we will see that both
E
1
and E
2
are zero as desired.
In the previous example the relation between the variables and the errors was
linear. We now try the following quadratic functions as an exercise:
5400 2515 307 5
2 1
2
2
2
1 1
= V V V V E
4800 503 921 3
2 1
2
2
2
1 2
+ + + = V V V V E
We start with V
1
=11 and V
2
=3. After creating the Jacobi matrix and solving the
linear equation the improved estimates are V
1
=6.944 and V
2
=-2.929. The exact
solution is V
1
=7 and V
2
=-3.
GasTurb marks the iteration variables as estimated values in the off-design input
data notebook. You can thus distinguish them from the normal input data.
Reasonable estimates are required for the iteration variables. If the estimates are
too far away from the solution, the program may have convergence problems. In
this case you must make several intermediate steps from the design point toward
the desired off-design operating condition.
Besides the normal cycle data the output for each off-design point contains the
number of iteration loops used. If the iteration has not converged, then the sum of
the square of the iteration errors Error=E
i
is also shown. The last digit of
Error will be zero or one after full convergence. If GasTurb fails to achieve full
convergence (Error>10
-8
), it will show the point with the smallest Error
encountered during the iteration process. Such a solution will be quite acceptable
most of the time.
In the case of non-convergence it may help to restart the iteration. GasTurb
changes the step size for calculating the Jacobi matrix, i.e. the V
j
, randomly, so
that repeating the iteration may yield a better result than before.


141
2.3.2. Single spool turbojet
Let us go through an off-design calculation with a given rotational speed. We will
find the variables and the errors mentioned in the previous section. The sequence
of the calculations is outlined.
The calculation starts with the inlet. This provides the compressor inlet conditions.
The compressor map has to be read next. Although we know the aerodynamic
speed N/
R2
, this is not sufficient to place the operating point in the map. An
estimate for the auxiliary coordinate
C
is required.
C
is our first variable.
We can read the mass flow, the pressure ratio and the efficiency from the
compressor map and calculate burner inlet conditions. The amount of fuel
required running the engine at the specified rotational speed is still unknown. An
estimate for the burner exit temperature T
4
will yield the fuel-air-ratio. T
4
is the
second variable.
The combustor exit mass flow W
4
is derived from the compressor exit flow W
3
, the
internal air system (cooling air, bleed) and the fuel flow W
F
. The pressure loss in
the burner depends on the corrected burner inlet flow only. It's no problem to find
the total pressure at the burner exit P
4
. We can directly calculate the corrected
flow W
4

R4
/
4
at the inlet to the turbine.
Selecting the turbine operating point is similar to selecting that of the compressor:
we know the corrected speed N/
R4
, but not the value of the auxiliary map
coordinate for reading the turbine map.
T
is the third variable we have to
estimate.
Reading the turbine map provides us with the corrected flow (W
4

R4
/
4
)
map
and
the efficiency. Here the corrected flow is derived from a second source. The
difference between both corrected flows constitutes the first error of our iteration.
We will ignore this error for the moment and go on. The turbine exit conditions
and the shaft power produced are calculated using the values read from the map.
The difference between the power required driving the compressor and the power
produced by the turbine (it is obvious that they must be equal to ensure steady
state operation) is the second error of the iteration.
The pressure loss (P
5
-P
6
)/P
5
in the turbine exit duct depends only on the
corrected flow. When reheat is not switched on then P
6
equals the nozzle total
pressure P
8
. Furthermore W
8
equals W
6
and T
8
equals T
6
. Thus the nozzle inlet
conditions are fully fixed.
A certain total pressure P
8,req
is required to force the flow W
8
with the total
temperature T
8
through the given area A
8
, while the back pressure is equal to
P
amb
. As long as the iteration has not yet converged there will be a difference
between P
8
and P
8,req
. This constitutes the third error of the iteration.
We have found three variables and three errors. The Newton-Raphson iteration
algorithm modifies the variables in such a way that all errors equal zero.
The above explanation applies when the compressor rotational speed is
specified. Alternatively the burner exit temperature T
4
can be specified. In this
case the first variable will be the spool speed instead of T
4
; the calculation
procedure and the iteration errors will remain the same.
Estimate
C
Estimate T
4
Estimate
T
Turbine flow
error
Turbine work
error
Nozzle inlet
pressure error
142
When limiters are active then an additional error is generated, i.e., the deviation
from one of the specified limiting values. We now need an additional variable, and
therefore we use both the compressor rotational speed and the burner exit
temperature T
4
as estimated values.
GasTurb calculates the deviations for all limiters. The limiter errors are formulated
in such a way that any value higher than the limiter setting results in a positive
number. The selection of the biggest error out of all limiter errors ensures that no
value will exceed its limit after convergence. The biggest error - which is nearly
zero - defines the active limiter.
The Limiters option also makes it possible to run an off-design cycle for a
specified thrust or fuel flow while reheat is switched off. Here you first need to
define the composed value number 20 as the net thrust or as fuel flow. You enter
your target number on the limiter page of the tabbed notebook and start the off-
design calculation.
If you have also switched on other limiters, you can for example get a solution for
the following problem: "I want x kN thrust if the turbine inlet temperature is below
y K and the compressor speed is less than or equal to z%."
If reheat is selected the calculation described above will be done first. Reheat fuel
will not be taken into account until the iteration converges. GasTurb uses an
equivalent dry nozzle area during this part of the calculation. After convergence
the afterburner is switched on. The calculation restarts in station 6, with new
nozzle inlet conditions. These new conditions require a certain area A
8
in order
that the flow can pass through the nozzle. The output screen displays the result of
this recalculated area. If you wish to study the effect of different nozzle areas on
the reheated performance, you need to modify the equivalent dry nozzle area by
entering a value of, say, 5% for Delta Nozzle Area.
Since reheat is calculated only after the iteration has converged, it is not possible
to iterate for a given thrust or fuel flow while reheat is switched on. The problem is
ambiguous, as reheat thrust depends on both the turbomachinery performance
and the reheat exit temperature. You must vary the input value of the reheat exit
temperature to get a thrust at a constant dry engine rating.

2.3.3. Two-spool turboshaft, turboprop
In GasTurb the setup of the off-design iteration for the two-spool turboshaft
resembles that of the turbojet. Up to the high-pressure turbine exit the procedure
remains the same. The first variable is the auxiliary coordinate
C
which is used to
read the compressor map. The second variable is either the rotational speed N
H
of the compressor or the burner exit temperature T
4
. The third variable is the
auxiliary coordinate
HPT
needed to read the map of the high-pressure turbine.
The burner exit corrected flow will not be equal to the HPT corrected flow as long
as the iteration has not yet converged. The difference between both corrected
flows constitutes the first error of our iteration.
The high-pressure turbine (HPT) exit conditions and the shaft power produced are
calculated using the values read from the map. The difference between the power
required driving the compressor and the power produced by the turbine (it is
obvious that they must be equal to ensure steady state operation) is the second
error of the iteration.
Reheat
Estimate
C
, N
H

or T
4
and
HPT
HPT flow error
HPT work error
143
We ignore this error for the moment and go on. The HPT exit conditions are
derived from the power required to drive the attached compressor and from HPT
efficiency. It is no problem to find the turbine inter-duct pressure loss. We can
directly calculate the low-pressure turbine inlet corrected flow.
Selecting the low-pressure turbine operating point is similar to selecting that of the
compressor: we know the corrected speed N
L
/
R45
for reading the LPT map, but
not the value of the auxiliary map coordinate.
LPT
is the forth variable that we
have to estimate.
Reading the turbine map provides us with the corrected flow (W
45

R45
/
45
)
map
as
well as the LPT efficiency. Here the corrected flow is derived from a second
source. The difference between both corrected flows constitutes the second error
of the iteration.
We will ignore this error for the moment and go on. The turbine exit conditions
and the shaft power delivered are calculated by means of the values read from
the map.
The pressure loss (P
5
-P
6
)/P
5
of the turbine exit duct depends only on the
corrected flow. P
6
is equal to the total pressure within the nozzle, P
8
. Furthermore
W
8
equals W
6
and T
8
equals T
6
. The nozzle inlet conditions are thus fully
determined.
A certain total pressure P
8,req
is required to force the flow W
8
with the total
temperature T
8
through the given area A
8
, while the back pressure is equal to
P
amb
. As long as the iteration has not yet converged, there will be a difference
between P
8
and P
8,req
. This constitutes the forth error of the iteration.
We have found four variables and four errors. The Newton-Raphson iteration
algorithm modifies the variables in such a way that all errors equal zero.
If limiters are used, then an additional error will occur, i.e. the deviation from one
of the specified limiting values. An additional variable is required. Without limiters
either N
HPC
or T
4
can serve as a variable, but with limiters both N
HPC
and T
4
are
variables.
GasTurb calculates the deviations for all limiters. The limiter errors are formulated
in such a way that a value higher than the limit results in a positive number. The
selection of the biggest limiter error ensures that after convergence no limiter will
be exceeded. The biggest error - which is nearly zero - defines the "active limiter".
The limiter option also makes it possible to run an off-design cycle for a specified
shaft power or fuel flow. You first need to define the composed value number 20
as the shaft power or as the fuel flow. You enter your target number in the limiter-
input menu and start the off-design calculation.
If you have switched on other limiters simultaneously, you can, for example, get a
solution to the following problem: "I want x kW power provided that the turbine
inlet temperature is below y K and the compressor speed N
H
is less or equal to
z%."

Estimate
LPT
LPT flow error
Nozzle inlet
pressure error
Prescribed shaft
power or fuel
flow
144
2.3.4. Boosted turboshaft, turboprop
For this type of engine, the low-pressure spool speed N
L
is an input quantity. The
booster map auxiliary coordinate
IPC
must be estimated; it is the first variable of
the iteration. The inlet conditions and the data read from the map yield W
2
, T
24

and P
24
.
After the compressor inter-duct, the mass flow is reduced by the handling bleed,
and W
25
equals W
24
- W
HdlBld
. Total temperature does not change, and the
pressure loss can be calculated easily. The corrected mass flow in station 25 is
now known. Next the HP compressor map is read using N
HPC
(which is either
specified or estimated) and
HPC
yielding another value for the corrected flow:
(W
25

R25
/
25
)
map
. The difference between those two flows constitutes the first
error of the iteration.
We find two turbine mass flow errors, the HPT work error and the nozzle inlet
pressure error, as in the case of the two-spool turboshaft. The iteration scheme
consists of the following variables and errors:
variable error

IPC
HP compressor mass flow
N
HPC
HPT mass flow

HPC
HPT work

HPT
LPT mass flow

LPT
nozzle inlet pressure
This assumes that N
HPC
is a specified value. In the alternative procedure T
4
is
specified, and N
HPC
is a variable for the iteration instead of T
4
. When limiters are
used, the other variable is also employed giving a total of six errors and six
variables.

2.3.5. Unmixed flow turbofan
The iteration starts with estimated values for the rotational speed of the low-
pressure spool N
L
and for the auxiliary coordinate
LPC
. This allows us to read the
fan (LPC) map. The inlet conditions and the data read from the map yield T
21
, P
21
,
T
13
and P
13
. The total mass flow W
2
is also derived from the map. We need to split
this mass flow between the core and the bypass streams and estimate the bypass
ratio, which constitutes the third variable of the turbofan iteration.
Core stream calculations will be done next. The compressor inter-duct pressure
loss depends only on W
21

R21
/
21
. After subtracting the handling bleed flow
W
HDBld
, we can find the corrected flow W
25

R21
/
25
at the high pressure
compressor (HPC) inlet.
Let us assume that the rotational speed of the high-pressure spool N
H
is
specified. To read the HPC map we need an estimate for the auxiliary coordinate

HPC
, which constitutes our fourth variable.
The pressure ratio P
3
/P
25
, efficiency
HPC
and the corrected flow (W
25

R25
/
25
)
map

can be read from the map. The difference between this corrected flow and the
one calculated before constitutes the first error of the turbofan iteration.

Estimate N
L
,
LPC

and bypass ratio
Estimate
HPC
HPC flow error
145
We will ignore this error and calculate the burner inlet conditions by means of the
values read from the HPC map. Burner exit temperature T
4
is an estimated value,
the fifth variable of the iteration.
Selecting the turbine operating point is similar to selecting that of the compressor:
we know the corrected speed N
H
/
R4
, but not the value of the auxiliary map
coordinate for reading the high-pressure turbine map.
HPT
is the sixth variable we
have to estimate.
The burner exit corrected flow will not be equal to the HPT corrected flow as long
as the iteration has not yet converged. The difference between both corrected
flows constitutes the second error of our iteration.
The high-pressure turbine (HPT) exit conditions and the shaft power produced are
calculated using the values read from the map. The difference between the power
required driving the high-pressure compressor and the power produced by the
HPT (it is obvious that they must be equal to ensure steady state operation) is the
third error of the iteration.
We will ignore this error for the moment and go on. The HPT exit conditions are
derived from the power required to drive the high pressure compressor and from
HPT efficiency. It presents no problem to find the turbine inter-duct pressure loss.
We can directly calculate the low-pressure turbine inlet corrected flow
W
45

R45
/
45
.
Selecting the low pressure turbine operating point is similar to selecting that of a
compressor: we know the corrected speed N
L
/
R45
, but not the value of the
auxiliary map coordinate used for reading the LPT map.
LPT
is the seventh
variable which we have to estimate.
Reading the turbine map provides us with the corrected flow (W
45

R45
/
45
)
map

and the LPT efficiency. Here the corrected flow is derived from a second source.
The difference between these corrected flows constitutes the forth error of the
iteration.
As usual we will ignore this error for the moment and proceed. The turbine exit
conditions and the shaft power delivered are calculated using the values read
from the map. The difference between the power required to drive the low-
pressure compressor (fan) and the power delivered by the LPT (it is obvious that
they must be equal to ensure steady state operation!) yields the fifth error of the
iteration.
The pressure loss (P
5
-P
6
)/P
5
of the turbine exit duct depends only on the
corrected flow W
5

R5
/
5
. P
6
is equal to the total pressure P
8
in the core nozzle.
Furthermore, W
8
is equal to W
6
and T
8
is equal to T
6
. The core nozzle inlet
conditions are thus fully fixed.
A certain total pressure P
8,req
is required to force the flow W
8
which has the total
temperature T
8
through the given area A
8
, while the back pressure is equal to
P
amb
. As long as the iteration has not yet converged there will be a difference
between P
8
and P
8,req
. This difference constitutes the sixth error of the iteration.
We now go on with the bypass stream. Its pressure loss depends only on the
bypass inlet corrected flow. P
18
, T
18
and W
18
define secondary nozzle inlet
conditions. Analogously to the core nozzle procedure we can calculate the
pressure P
18,req
which is required to force the flow through the given area A
18
. P
18

will not be equal to P
18,req
during the iteration. This constitutes the seventh error.
Estimate T
4
Estimate
HPT
HPT flow error
HPT work error
Estimate
LPT
LPT flow error
LPT work error
Core nozzle inlet
pressure error
Secondary nozzle
pressure error
146
We have found seven variables and seven errors. The Newton-Raphson iteration
algorithm modifies the variables in such a way that all errors equal zero.
The limiter option also makes it possible to run an off-design cycle for a specified
thrust or fuel flow. You first need to define the composed value number 20 as the
net thrust or as the fuel flow. You enter your target number in the limiter-input
menu and start the off-design calculation.
If you have switched on other limiters simultaneously, you can get a solution to
the following problem: "I want x kN thrust provided that the turbine inlet
temperature is below y K and the HP compressor speed is less than or equal to
z%."

2.3.6. Mixed flow turbofan
The iteration for a mixed turbofan is very similar to that for an unmixed turbofan,
as described in the previous chapter. It leads to the same variables, and all the
errors are the same except one. We obviously have to replace the error derived
from continuity in the secondary nozzle.
The seventh error for the mixed turbofan is the difference between the static
pressures P
s63
and P
s163
in the mixing plane.

2.3.7. Geared Turbofan
The iteration for the geared turbofan is also very similar to that described for the
unmixed turbofan. The difference is in the additional intermediate pressure
compressor (IPC). Its rotational speed is easily derived from N
L
, since it is
connected to the fan mechanically. We must, however, make an estimate for the
auxiliary coordinate
IPC
in addition to the seven variables of the unmixed
turbofan.
There is also an additional error: The corrected flow W
21

R21
/
21
downstream of
the low pressure compressor (fan) will not be the same as the value read from the
IPC map (W
21

R21
/
21
)
map
.
There will be eight variables and eight errors for the geared turbofan, if we have
not switched on some limiters. With limiters there will be nine errors and nine
variables. For the Newton-Raphson iteration this does not present a problem.

2.3.8. Variable cycle engine
The variable cycle engine is a special case because the iteration problem varies
with the switch position of the VABIs (variable bypass injectors). When all VABIs
are open, then the variables and errors are


Specified thrust
or fuel flow
147
variable error
N
L
HPT mass flow

LPC
HPT work
BPR
2
nozzle inlet pressure
BPR
15
LPT flow

IPC
Mixer error (station 64)
N
H
Core driven fan stage flow

HPC
HP compressor mass flow

HPT
LPT work

LPT
Bypass mixer error (station 15)
Thus there are nine variables and nine errors.
When either the first or the second VABI is closed then the two bypass ratios are
the same and there is no bypass mixer error. The iteration employs in this case
only eight variables and errors.

2.3.9. Other engines
When you have gone through the previous sections, it will not be difficult to
understand the iteration set-up for all other engine types also. You can easily
recognize the iteration variables on the off-design input screen because the data
are labelled as estimate.
148

149
2.4. Inlet flow distortion
Only the first compressor of an engine can operate without inlet flow distortion -
and that only while the uninstalled engine is running on a test bed. When an
engine is installed in an aircraft, there are often more or less severe pressure
non-uniformities at the engine face. In some cases, for example during thrust
reverser operation, the engine inlet temperature is not uniform. In this case the
downstream compressors see both pressure and temperature distortions.
GasTurb allows you to simulate the effects of both total temperature and total
pressure distortions on compressor system performance and stability.
It is very difficult to predict the stability limits of compressors even for clean inlet
flow. Distortion obviously aggravates the problem. In ref. [4] you find an
introduction to the subject from a specialist's point of view.
Presently the most appropriate method to simulate flow distortion effects within
performance synthesis programs is the parallel compressor theory. If used in
conjunction with empirical corrections, this can be a valuable tool for the
prediction of both stability and performance when distorted inlet flow is present;
see also ref. [5].

Parallel compressor theory
The engine intake, especially in case of a fighter aircraft, produces a quite
complex total pressure distribution. This distribution is described in a simplistic
way with the parallel compressor theory by two or more streams with different but
uniform total pressures. Each stream fills a sector of the stream tube. This
simplified pressure field is characterized by a distortion coefficient that describes
the intensity of the flow non-uniformity. For example, in a 60 sector with the total
pressure lower than average, the pressure distortion coefficient DC
60
is defined as
mean s
Sector mean
P P
P P
DC
) (
60
60

=


Now it is assumed that there are two compressors working in parallel. They both
have the same characteristics - those measured on the rig for undistorted flow.
One of the theoretical compressors has a flow capacity of 60/360 = 1/6; the
other one has 5/6 of the real compressor's capacity. Further assumptions are that
there is no mass transfer between the compressors, and that downstream of the
compressor exit there is a static pressure balance circumferentially.
For the sake of simplicity figure 1 shows distortion patterns of equal size. As can
be seen in the figure for total pressure distortion, the compressors are operating
in different points of the map. Both points must be on the same speed line. The
compressor with the lower inlet pressure, however, needs to produce a higher
pressure ratio. When the difference in inlet pressure increases, then the distance
between the two operating points also increases. According to basic parallel
compressor theory as soon as the point marked L reaches the (clean) surge line,
the stability boundary of the total compressor is reached. The compressor is
predicted to surge in spite of the fact that the mean operating point M is still far
from the surge line.
150
H
L
H
L
L
L
M
M
H
H
Pressure Distortion
c
le
a
n

s
u
r
g
e

lin
e
L L
M
H H
Temperature Distortion
c
le
a
n

s
u
r
g
e

lin
e
Pressure
Distribution
Temperature
Distribution

Figure 4: Parallel compressor theory
In its basic form the parallel compressor model gives the right tendencies but
does not agree very well with reality in terms of absolute numbers. The model can
be improved by fairly simple corrections [4,5].
At the exit of the compressor the static pressure is circumferentially constant as
mentioned above. Since the pressure ratio, however, is different, the total
temperature at the exit of the compressor will not be uniform. When there is
another compressor downstream of the first one, then the operating points in the
map of the second compressor will no longer be on the same speed line. This has
a more detrimental effect to the stability than has a pure pressure distortion. The
main differences between pressure and temperature distortion can be seen from
the figure.

Description of flow distortion
In GasTurb you can select either pressure or temperature distortion or a
combination of both for a given sector angle. Radial distortion can also be
specified for bypass engines. Engine inlet flow distortion is described by two
distortion coefficients.
The pressure distortion coefficient was defined previously; it uses the static
pressure in the aerodynamic interface plane AIP. The temperature distortion
coefficient for a sector angle of 60 is defined as:
mean
mean Sector
T
T T
DT

=
60
60

When the distortion extends over the full sector, then the total temperature in the
spoiled sector T
2,
is
Pressure
distortion is
converted into
temperature
distortion
151

2 , 2
*
) 1 ( *
360
1
) 1 ( *
360
1
T
DT
DT
T

+ |
.
|

\
|

=
For a temperature distortion only in the bypass stream the following holds
2 , 2
*
) 1 ( *
360
1 * 1
) 1 ( *
360
1 * 1
T
DT BPR
DT BPR
T
|
.
|

\
|
+

+
+
(

|
.
|

\
|

+
=

and for the case where temperature is only distorted in the core flow sector, the
correlation is
2 , 2
*
) 1 ( *
360
1
) 1 ( *
360
1
T
DT BPR
DT BPR
T

+
+
(

+
=
Parallel compressor theory postulates that the static pressures between the clean
and the spoiled sectors are balanced at the exit. To calculate the static pressure,
one needs an area that must be calculated in the engine design process. This is
done in GasTurb by assuming that in the combustor (station 31) the Mach
number is 0.25, and in the compressor inter-duct as well as in the bypass the
Mach number is 0.5.

Mathematical procedure
For a compressor with distorted inlet flow we get two operating points. To
describe them both for each compressor we need an additional auxiliary
coordinate . We may need to use the bypass ratio in the spoiled sector as a
further variable in case of two-stream engines. The additional iteration errors are
the differences in the static pressures downstream of the compressors.
You must be careful when inputting values for the distortion coefficients. It is
important to begin with low numbers, especially for the temperature distortion
coefficient. Begin your experiments with values around 0.5 for DC
60
and with 0.02
for DT
60
, for example. The iteration will not converge when the solution implies
operating conditions in the spoiled sector well above the surge line.
In the compressor maps you will see the operating points in the spoiled sector as
well as the mean operating point, and the type of distortion will be indicated. Note
that the compressors downstream of the first compressor will encounter a
temperature distortion even if just a pressure distortion is specified.
152
153

2.5. Transient simulations
A complete gas turbine performance model must also allow for the calculation of
the transient behavior. For such a model two things are required. First one needs
to expand the thermodynamic description of the gas turbine. Second one must
have some sort of control system to drive the model as required.

2.5.1. Additions to the steady state model
The most important addition to the steady state model in the transient engine
model is a term that takes the polar moment of inertia into account, resulting in a
modification of the power balance between compressors and turbines. During
accelerations, for example, more turbine power is needed than in a steady state
operating point.
Other phenomena that are inherent in transients normally have only a limited
influence on the results. These phenomena are not described within GasTurb,
since this would require a significant amount of additional input data, and the
program would no longer be easy to use. The detailed thermodynamic modeling
including volume dynamics, heat transfer, variable tip clearance, etc. is left to
larger, more specialized programs.
The simplifications in the transient model have the consequence that the
calculated value for certain parameters, especially fuel flow, are not realistic
during transients. This is because there is no model included for the considerable
amount of heat that is exchanged between the gas and the engine parts.
In addition to limiters such as maximum spool speeds, temperatures and
pressures, which are used for the definition of the steady state operating point
there are additional limiters that are required for the transient operation. These
are acceleration and deceleration rates, minimum and maximum fuel-air-ratios in
the burner, and/or limiters for pressure corrected fuel flow W
f
/P
3
as a function of
corrected spool speed.
The power required to accelerate the spool of a turbojet, for example, is
2
30
* * * *
|
.
|

\
|

=

Design Spool rel acc
N N
t
N
PW
The spool speed N
Design
will be calculated when you select Compressor Design
during your design point calculation.
Spool
is the polar moment of inertia of the
spool.
Accelerating a spool is similar to a performing a power offtake PWX during steady
state operation, with respect to the shift of the operating points in the turbo-
machinery maps. The effect of power offtake is dependent on the engine inlet
conditions. From similarity in Mach numbers one can derive that PW
acc
/(
R,2
*
2
)
is the relevant parameter. We can rewrite the above formula and get for the
corrected acceleration rate
Transient limiters
154
2
2 ,
2 2 ,
2
30
* * *
*
/
|
.
|

\
|

Design Spool
R
R
acc
N
N
PW
t N

The shift of the turbomachinery operating points will be the same when the
corrected acceleration rate is held constant.
In GasTurb you can enter limits for the acceleration and deceleration rates that
are corrected for engine inlet pressure. Thus you will automatically get a
corresponding shift of the compressor operating points for sea level static
conditions and for high altitudes. During accelerations the high-pressure
compressor operating point will be above the steady state operating line and
during decelerations it will be below that line.

2.5.2. The control system
A turbine engine is operated using a Power Lever mounted in the cockpit of the
aircraft. By changing the setting of the lever one may modulate the power of the
engine. The position of the lever is normally described by the Power Lever Angle
(PLA).
Actually the pilot of an aircraft wants to control the thrust of his engine directly.
Because thrust is not measurable on the installed engine, another parameter is
used for setting the engine power. In GasTurb the position of the power lever is
directly correlated with the mechanical spool speed for thrust producing engine
types. In the case of a turbofan, for example, there is a linear relationship
between PLA and the fan speed. You must input which speed corresponds to 0%
and 100% PLA.
Special cases are the two and three spool turboshaft engines. There you normally
want to keep the low-pressure spool speed constant, while the shaft power
demand varies. A typical example of such a control problem is the helicopter
application. There the pilot pulls say, the collective pitch, and this increases the
power requirement of the rotor. The gas generator must then react quickly in
order to avoid rotor speed loss. In GasTurb you specify the power requirement as
a function of time, and an equivalent moment of inertia for the low-pressure spool
including all elements in the drive train.
You can also make power offtake and overboard bleed functions of time. As in
the case of the PLA input, you need to specify these quantities in terms of
percentage. You must set 100% power offtake in terms of kW, and similarly the
amount of air corresponding to 100% bleed in terms of kg/s.
As with steady state simulations you can switch on several limiters. The program
will satisfy all steady state and transient limiters simultaneously. Temperature
sensors are modelled with a first order time lag for which you can specify a time
constant. This time constant is valid for all of the temperature limits you select.
Note that you cannot do transient simulations when reheat is switched on.
In a real (fixed geometry) engine the only way to influence the operating point is
to modulate fuel flow. Sensors deliver signals to the control system, which
compares the power delivered with the power demanded. Depending on the
Two spool
turboshaft
155
differences between actual and demanded values the fuel flow is either increased
or decreased. The very simple control system included in GasTurb is of the
proportional-integral-differential type. By setting the constants accordingly one
can get the desired behavior.
The proportional term of the speed control loop, for example, modulates the fuel
flow according to
) ( *
,
N N C W
Demand P P f
=
while the integral term is calculated as

= dt N N C W
Demand I I f
) ( *
,

Finally the differential term is
dt
N N d
C W
Demand
D D f
) (
*
,

=
You can define your control system by setting the constants C
P
, C
I
and C
D
. These
constants are also called the gains of the corresponding control loops. In many
cases it is sufficient to use only C
p
and to set the other two constants to zero. This
type of control reacts quickly but might eventually not be able to achieve the
demanded value accurately.
When you use only C
I
, then you can get exactly the demanded value. However,
this takes some time. Often it's better to use both C
P
and C
I
. The differential term
reacts very well to changes in the demanded value and can thus contribute to the
stability of the control system. It should be used in combination with C
P
and C
I
.
Note that the control system of GasTurb can deal with many limiters
simultaneously. The control loop, which requires the lowest fuel flow change, sets
the demand. On the transient output screen you will see which limiter is active.
It is often very useful in designing a control system to know the transfer function
of some engine parameters for different flight conditions. For that purpose you
can select the calculation option Fuel Flow Step.

2.5.3. Mathematical procedure
You first select Transient Performance from the off-design input screen. Before
you can commence the transient simulation, you need to calculate a reference
operating line. After the transient calculation has finished this line will be shown,
for purposes of comparison, in the graphical output. Information from the
operating line is also used for adjusting the different control loops.
The standard transient calculation begins after the input of PLA, power offtake
and bleed as a function of time. The control system then dictates the fuel flow and
accelerates or decelerates the engine. One can observe on the screen the
behavior of some important parameters like burner exit temperature, and thrust
and spool speeds. The active limiter is indicated at the bottom of the screen.
156
A transient calculation uses constant time steps that can be selected as 0.05, 0.1
or 0.2 seconds. The iteration variables are fuel flow, acceleration rates for the
rotors, and the auxiliary coordinates in the component maps. As an example you
find in the table below all the variables and the corresponding errors for a very
complex engine, the geared turbofan:
variable error
N
L
/t IPC flow error
N
H
/t HPC flow error
W
f
W
f
W
f,Control System
BPR HPT flow error

HPT
HPT work error

LPC
LPT flow error

IPC
LPT work error

HPC
P
8
required

LPT
P
18
required

After the calculation is finished, one gets a variety of graphs showing all of the
results as a function of time, or in any other combination. The operating lines in
the component maps may be viewed by clicking with the mouse. Starting with
these results, it is very easy to get an insight into the transient behavior of gas
turbine engines.
An interesting option is to use the slider on the right side of the window as a
power lever. You may observe the operating points moving around in the
compressor or turbine map while you are playing with the slider. On a modern
computer you will achieve a nearly real time simulation.

2.5.4. Transient test analysis
When you have actual transient test data available, and you wish to compare the
GasTurb results with the measured data, then you should use spool speed as a
function of time as input. This can be done with the Schedules option from the
menu.
Be careful with inputting your data. When you encounter numerical problems
during test analysis, most probably the measured speed values imply unrealistic
N/t values.
Certainly you will observe differences between measured and calculated data.
The reasons for this is, that the transient simulation with GasTurb does not
consider time dependent tip clearances, heat soakage, volume dynamics and
similar effects.
157

3. Application examples
3.1. Cycle design calculations for a single spool turbojet
3.1.1. Calculate Single Cycle
The turbojet simulation involves a very simple cycle requiring only a few input
data. If you use the program for the first time, you should select this type of
engine and read the file DEMO_JET.CYJ. This file contains the following data on
the first page of the notebook (Basic Data):
Altitude [m] 0
Delta T from ISA [K] 0
Relative Humidity [%] 0
Mach Number 0

Inlet Corr. Flow W2RStd [kg/s] 20
Intake Pressure Ratio 0.99
Pressure Ratio 12
Burner Exit Temperature [K] 1450
Burner Design Efficiency 0.9999
Burner Partload Constant 1.6
Fuel Heating Value [MJ/kg] 43.124
Rel. Handling Bleed 0
Overboard Bleed [kg/s] 0
Power Offtake [kW] 0
Mechanical Efficiency 0.9999
Burner Pressure Ratio 0.97
Turbine Exit Duct Pressure Ratio 0.98
Nozzle Thrust Coefficient 1
Design Nozzle Petal Angle [] 0

On the air system page of the notebook the following properties are listed:

Rel. Handling Bleed 0
Rel. Enthaply of Handling Bleed 1
Rel. Overboard Bleed W_Bld/W2 0.01
Rel. Enthalpy of Overb. Bleed 1
Turbine Cooling Air W_Cl/W2 0.05
NGV Cooling Air W_Cl_NGV/W2 0.05

Whether you need to enter a point or a comma as the decimal separator depends
on your Windows setup. You will get a cross section of the engine, which includes
the secondary air system, when you click on the menu option Nomenclature. On
the page Comp Efficiency the isentropic option is pre-selected and the active
input is
Isentropic Compr. Efficiency 0.85
Decimal
separator
158
The Comp Design option is activated in the example data set. This is not
required for simple cycle design calculations, and therefore you should deselect it
by clicking on the circle marked no. The Nominal Spool Speed is of no relevance
for cycle design calculations.
On the Turb Efficiency page you can select among three options. The example
is for a specified isentropic efficiency:
Isentropic Turbine Efficiency 0.89
All the other options for the single spool gas turbine are set in such a way that no
input data is required.
The calculation will start when you click the button Ok. The output will be a
summary table of the cycle details (see figure).

The left column shows the thermodynamic station name. The next columns
contain the mass flow W in kg/s, the total temperature T in K, and the total
pressure P in kPa. For some stations the standard day corrected flow (WRstd)
W
R
/ is provided also. (= T/288.15K, =P/101.325kPa).
You can get explanations for the abbreviated property names in the right column
by clicking on the name. The thermodynamic stations and the internal air system
are shown graphically on the page marked Stations.
The unit system used for the input data also applies to the output data. At the end
of this manual you will find a list of the SI and Imperial units used in GasTurb.
Note that a Unit Conversion tool can be called from the menu.
You should try to perform some more cycle calculations with modified input data
to get accustomed to the program. If you switch on reheat, you will be prompted
for additional input data. You will then need to specify the reheat inlet Mach
number, the exit total temperature T
7
, the design efficiency, the reheat partload
159
constant and the amount of nozzle cooling air. The latter bypasses the reheat
system.
Afterburners not only increase the thrust, but also the specific fuel consumption.
Study the effects of the flight Mach number, the compressor pressure ratio, and
the burner exit temperature. For supersonic flight conditions (i.e., flight conditions
with high nozzle pressure ratios) you will find that a convergent-divergent nozzle
is best. If this type of nozzle is used, the nozzle area ratio A
9
/A
8
will be an
additional input quantity.
You can make the nozzle area ratio a function of the nozzle throat area. This is
useful for off-design calculations. When you do not intend to do off-design
simulations then you should set the constants b and c to zero, as in the example
data set. Remember that a convergent-divergent nozzle will need more cooling air
than a convergent nozzle.
A turbojet is not the best choice for sea level static conditions, but when you
change the flight condition to {altitude=11 000m, Mach=2.2} you get a more
realistic example. The intake pressure ratio should be entered as a negative
number, i.e. -0.99 for running the example. The program will adjust the pressure
ratio for shock losses in the following way:
[ ]
35 . 1
1
2
1
2
) 1 ( * 075 . 0 1 *
|
|
.
|

\
|
= M
P
P
P
P
input


3.1.2. Parametric Study
We now consider the case in which you switch on reheat and select a
convergent-divergent nozzle with the area ratio A
9
/A
8
= 1.8. We will take you
through a parametric study with these data. Close the data input window, and go
back to the program-opening screen. Select Parametric Study from the task list,
and then Ok. The data input window will open again, but below the Ok button it
says that the Parametric Study task is to be performed. Clicking on Ok opens the
parameter selection window.
To take the compressor pressure ratio as the first parameter click on Pressure
Ratio in the list on the left side of the window. Use 5 as the lowest value, 9 as the
number of values, and 2.5 as the step size. Then click on the circle left of the text
Second Parameter, and select as the second parameter from the list Burner Exit
Temperature (lowest value 1400, 7 values, step size 50). Clicking on the Ok
button opens a new window. From there you start the calculation.
You can observe the progress of the parametric study on the screen (provided
your computer is not too fast). That a cycle has been calculated for a specific
parameter combination will be indicated in the field shown in the middle of the
screen. When for unrealistic parameter combinations no valid cycle can be found,
the corresponding square in the field will not be marked.
After the calculation you can decide which type of graph you would like to have as
output. The figure shows the specific fuel consumption over turbine pressure ratio
with contour lines for turbine exit temperature T
5
.
Note that the scales on the x- and y-axis are always reasonable. They are
established automatically. If you want a series of plots with the same scales, then
Convergent-
divergent nozzle
160
you must select Scales from the menu or click on the button with the magnifying
glass. You can then enter minimum and maximum values for both axes. If you
type in values that do not allow reasonable numbers on the axes, the program will
correct this.
If the numbers describing the curves are not optimally placed then select
Description|Rearrange once or several times until you get the desired result.
You will probably see a black square in the carpet plot. This marks the cycle that
has been calculated as a single cycle before commencing the parametric study.
You can hide this reference point by clicking on the button with the sun or by
selecting Description|Reference from the menu.
52
54
56
58
60
62
64
66
S
p
.

F
u
e
l

C
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

[
g
/
(
k
N
*
s
)
]
0 5 10 15 20 25
Turbine Pressure Ratio
Pressure Ratio = 5 ... 25
Burner Exit Temperature = 1400 ... 1700 [K]
1
4
0
0

1
4
5
0

1
5
0
0

15
50

1600
1650
1700
800
900
1000
1100
1
2
0
0
1
3
0
0
Dotted Lines = Turbine Exit Temperature T5 [K]

5


7
.
5


1
0


1
2
.
5


1
5

1
7
.5

2
0

2
2
.5
2
5

1%

It is useful to draw grid lines in the plot when you want to read numbers from it.
On the screen you can toggle between no grid lines and coarse grid lines,
while for printing you can also select fine grid lines from the menu option Grid. If
your printer does not have enough built in memory, then the fine grid lines option
may not work properly. You should try the different options and see what you get
on paper.
Normally straight lines connect the calculated points. You can change this with
the menu option Splines. Note, however, that contour lines are always calculated
from linear interpolations, and when the step size of your parameters is big then
contour lines should not be combined with splines. For precise plots with contour
lines you should select the parameter step size to be so small, that there is
practically no difference between straight lines and splines.
You can also write selected data to a file that you can read with another program
like a spreadsheet or a word processor. To do this, you click on the menu option
Output | Define and select the contents and the name of the file. Then you can
click on Write to File and thus actually store the data. When the data have been
written to file you can look at them and add comments, for example. You can also
add more data with the same or different parameter selections.
161
A parametric study can be combined with iteration. Let us take the example from
above and add an iteration with the variable Inlet Corr. Flow W2Rstd (min=1,
max=200) and the target Net Thrust which shall be equal to 50kN. Additionally
we will iterate the Burner Exit Temperature T4 (min=1000, max=2000) such that
the Turbine Exit Temperature T5 is equal to 1100K. The latter condition takes
into account a hypothetical temperature limit for the afterburner flame-holder. The
second parameter of the parametric study must be cleared before the calculation
can commence.
While the parametric study is running you will see gauges which indicate the
magnitude of the variables and the errors of the iteration. This screen will help
you diagnose convergence problems in more complex examples.
As a result we get a graphic which can contain up to 4 y-axes. In the figure the
scales of some of the y-axes has been adjusted.
3
0
3
1
3
2
3
3
3
4
3
5
I
n
l
e
t

C
o
r
r
.

F
l
o
w

W
2
R
s
t
d

[
k
g
/
s
]
1
5
0
0
1
5
5
0
1
6
0
0
1
6
5
0
1
7
0
0
1
7
5
0
1
8
0
0
B
u
r
n
e
r

E
x
i
t

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

[
K
]
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
0
T
u
r
b
i
n
e

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

R
a
t
i
o
5
0
5
2
5
4
5
6
5
8
6
0
S
p
.

F
u
e
l

C
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

[
g
/
(
k
N
*
s
)
]
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Pressure Ratio
Pressure Ratio = 10 ... 25
ZW2Rstd iterated for FN=50
T4_D iterated for T5=1100

The black square is not consistent with the parametric study because it has not
the same burner exit temperature and not the same thrust as the engines
represented by the lines. Note that you can move the text ZW2Rstd iterated for
FN=50 with your mouse to a suitable place if it covers an important part of the
graphic.

3.1.3. Small Effects
An alternative to the parametric variation - which only allows you to look at a few
input data at the same time, Small Effects may be selected from the task list on
the opening screen. With this option you can select up to 27 variables
simultaneously and examine how the variations affect up to 14 calculated
parameters. The results will be presented in the form of a table such as the one
shown on the next page.
Parametric study
combined with
iteration
162
The first column contains a list of reference or basis data. Those are nothing else
than the present input data. In the next column there is a "delta" for each
parameter. The program provides this delta, you need not enter it.

The remaining columns contain the calculated influence coefficients. To get an
idea of how to read the table: The net thrust FN will, for example, change by
minus 3.45% if the deviation from the ISA ambient temperature is changed from 0
to 10K. Also, if the burner exit temperature ZT4 is increased from 1450K to
1460K, the net thrust FN will increase by 0.76% and the turbine exit temperature
T5 by 9.79K. The abbreviations used may be shown on the screen and can also
be printed out.
163

3.2. Cycle optimization for a helicopter engine
3.2.1. Introduction
A normal helicopter engine is composed of a gas generator and a power turbine.
The cycle study to be discussed is based on the following data, which are typical
for a real engine cycle in the 1000kW power class:
Take-off power 929 kW
Spec. fuel consumption 284 g/kWh
Mass flow 3.5 kg/s
Pressure ratio 13

Selecting an optimum cycle is not a trivial task. First you have to define what is
"optimum". This depends very much on the application, but usually involves cost.
The cost of engine operation is mainly fuel and maintenance cost. Procurement
cost is another issue. Of course even the minimum cost engine has to fulfill the
power requirements without exceeding given weight and volume limits.
An optimal engine has low fuel consumption, a low weight and a small volume. It
is composed of a minimum number of long lasting parts. The selection of
materials and manufacturing technology is very much dependent on the intended
production price.

3.2.2. Simple cycle parameter study
The thermodynamic cycle of this type of engine is fairly simple: it is the Joule
process. The parameters to be optimized are mainly the pressure ratio of the
compressor and the turbine inlet temperature. Figure 1 shows results from a
parametric variation for constant isentropic component efficiencies
C
=0.8,

HT
=0.85,
LT
=0.89). The graph was calculated assuming a constant amount of
high-pressure turbine cooling air of 5%, independent of burner exit temperature.
However, this is unrealistic. In figure 2 the influence of cooling air on the results is
shown for a constant pressure ratio to illustrate this point.
The amount of cooling air required for a given burner exit temperature depends
on the cooling technology to be applied, on the material to be used and on the
number of turbine stages. We will discuss this further in the next section.
From the first figure one can read that for high specific power (which results in an
engine of low weight and volume) one needs a high burner exit temperature.
Moreover, the higher the temperature, the lower the specific fuel consumption.
Let us assume now that for manufacturing cost or durability reasons the
maximum tolerable burner exit temperature is 1500K. Keeping this constraint in
mind, we read from the figure for minimum specific fuel consumption that the
optimum pressure ratio is approximately 21.
164
.24
.26
.28
.3
.32
.34
.36
P
o
w
e
r

S
p
.

F
u
e
l

C
o
n
s
.

[
k
g
/
(
k
W
*
h
)
]
150 200 250 300 350
Specific Power [kW/(kg/s)]
Pressure Ratio = 8 ... 24
Burner Exit Temperature = 1350 ... 1650 [K]

1
3
5
0


1
4
0
0

1
4
5
0


1
5
0
0


1
5
5
0


1
6
0
0


1
6
5
0

8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
1%

Figure 5: Simple cycle parameter study
The engines in this class operate with a burner exit temperature in the range of
1450K to 1550K, but with much lower pressure ratio than 21. Is it possible that
they are not designed to the optimum cycle? In fact, they are optimum engines.
The cycle parameter study shown above is too simplistic for finding a realistic
optimum.
.26
.27
.28
.29
.3
.31
.32
.33
.34
.35
P
o
w
e
r

S
p
.

F
u
e
l

C
o
n
s
.

[
k
g
/
(
k
W
*
h
)
]
200 250 300 350 400
Specific Power [kW/(kg/s)]
HP Turbine Cool Air W_Cl_T/W2 = 0 ... 0.1
Burner Exit Temperature = 1350 ... 1650 [K]

1
3
5
0


1
4
0
0

1
4
5
0

1
5
0
0

1
5
5
0
1
6
0
0
1
6
5
0

0

0
.0
2
5

0
.0
5


0
.
0
7
5


0
.
1

1%

Figure 6: Influence of cooling air on specific power and fuel consumption

165
3.2.3. Realistic optimization
For figure 1, constant isentropic component efficiencies have been assumed. This
is standard practice, but not fully correct. Rerunning the parametric study with
constant polytropic efficiencies leads to an optimum pressure ratio that is only
slightly lower than 21. Switching to polytropic efficiencies is not the key to getting
the right answer. It is necessary to go into more depth. Especially on the turbine
side you have to consider the number of stages. You must use either a one- or a
two-stage turbine. (There is no such thing as a 1 stage turbine). It is necessary
to run the parametric study twice, once for a single-stage turbine and a second
time for a two-stage turbine.

Engines with single stage turbines
The efficiency of a turbine is very much dependent on the aerodynamic loading
and on geometrical parameters. The GasTurb program has an integrated
preliminary turbine design routine based on that described in ref. [7]. The blade
loss characteristics are correlated with the mean-section velocity diagrams, which
are assumed to be symmetrical. The aerodynamic loading is described by a
speed-work parameter, defined as the ratio of the overall specific work output to
the mean-section blade speed squared. Other factors affecting the calculated
efficiency are the number of turbine stages, the stator exit angle, the Reynolds
number and the exit loss.
.25
.26
.27
.28
.29
.3
.31
.32
.33
.34
P
o
w
e
r

S
p
.

F
u
e
l

C
o
n
s
.

[
k
g
/
(
k
W
*
h
)
]
200 250 300 350
Specific Power [kW/(kg/s)]
Pressure Ratio = 8 ... 20
Burner Exit Temperature = 1350 ... 1650 [K]

1
3
5
0


1
4
0
0

1
4
5
0


1
5
0
0


1
5
5
0


1
6
0
0


1
6
5
0

8
10
12
14
16
18 20
1%

Figure 7: Cycle study with single-stage gas generator turbines
The turbine design routine primarily gives relations between important
parameters. The absolute numbers calculated for efficiency must be adjusted to
the technology level considered. Adapting an empirical loss factor can do this.
In the following parametric studies some geometrical parameters are fixed so that
near the point marked in all figures of this chapter (pressure ratio 13, burner exit
temperature 1500K), there are reasonable velocity triangles calculated by the
166
turbine design routine. Speed is set indirectly by selecting the mean axial Mach
number, the tip speed and the radius ratio at the compressor inlet.
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
H
P
T

E
x
i
t

A
n
g
l
e
.45 .5 .55 .6 .65 .7 .75 .8
HPT Exit Mach Number
Pressure Ratio = 8 ... 20
Burner Exit Temperature = 1350 ... 1650 [K]
1350
1400
1450
1500 1550
1
60
0
1
6
5
0

0.84
0.85
0. 86
0.87
0.88
Dotted Lines = Calculated HP Turb. Efficiency
8
10
12
14
16
18
20

Figure 8: Gas generator turbine exit flow conditions

Since engine mass flow is the same for all cycles calculated, we get the same
spool speeds and diameters for all engines. With turbine diameter and radius ratio
held constant, we also get the same turbine exit area A and the same stress level,
expressed as A*N
2
. Since the specific power varies from cycle to cycle, a different
value for the absolute shaft power will be calculated for each point.
Figure 3, which is valid for single-stage high-pressure turbines, is significantly
different from figure 1. The pressure ratio for the lowest fuel consumption with
burner exit temperature 1500K is now only 16. This value is much nearer to the
pressure ratio of real engines than the value originally found to be optimum (i.e.
21).
In figure 4 some features of the single-stage turbine can be seen. High Mach
number and swirl cause increased losses in the turbine inter-duct and possibly in
the low-pressure turbine. Mach numbers above 0.5 and swirl angles higher than
30 (relative to the axis) should be avoided. The dotted lines in figure 4 are lines
of constant turbine efficiency.
Now we look at another important result, which is only available when a
preliminary turbine design is integrated into the cycle parameter study. Figure 5
shows the mean metal temperature of the rotor blade. Note that for constant
burner exit temperature the metal temperature is not constant, a result mainly of
the increase in cooling air temperature when the compressor pressure ratio is
raised. An important fact is also that the ratio of the relative rotor inlet temperature
to burner exit temperature decreases when turbine loading rises due to an
increasing compressor pressure ratio. We will discuss this in more detail when
selecting the number of turbine stages.

167
850
875
900
925
950
975
1000
1025
1050
1075
H
P
T

1
.
R
o
t
o
r

B
l
d

M
e
t
a
l

T
e
m
p

[
K
]
150 200 250 300 350
Specific Power [kW/(kg/s)]
Pressure Ratio = 8 ... 20
Burner Exit Temperature = 1350 ... 1650 [K]
1
3
5
0

1
4
0
0

1
4
5
0

1
5
0
0

1
5
5
0

1
6
0
0

1
6
5
0

8

1
0

1
2

1
4

1
6

1
8

2
0


Figure 9: Blade metal temperature

Design with prescribed metal temperature
The price of a turbine blade depends very much on the material used. Single
crystal blades allow high metal temperatures. However, they are very expensive.
For any material there is a blade metal temperature limit. This limit also depends
on the stress level and on the blade life requirement. As mentioned above, the
blade stress level expressed as A*N is assumed constant in this study.
Therefore, in this special case it is not necessary to consider the relation among
blade life, stress level and temperature.
The amount of cooling air can be estimated from an empirical formula that
correlates the cooling effectiveness
Cl
with the relative amount of cooling air
required (ref. [2]):
Cl ref Cl
ref Cl
Cl
C W W
W W
+
=
/
/

The constant C
cl
(range 0.04 to 0.07) has to be adjusted to yield reasonable
results. The metal temperature is calculated as follows:
( )
air cooling rel Cl rel Metal
T T T T = *
All of the previous parametric studies were done with 5% cooling air. For constant
metal temperature you need a variable amount of cooling air. The cooling
effectiveness required is shown in figure 6. The amount of cooling air increases
with compressor pressure ratio, because the temperature of the cooling air
increases.

168
.35
.4
.45
.5
.55
.6
.65
.7
.75
H
P
T

1
.
R
o
t
o
r

C
o
o
l
.
E
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e
n
e
s
s
800 1000 1200 1400
HP Turbine Exit Temp T44 [K]
Pressure Ratio = 8 ... 20
Burner Exit Temperature = 1350 ... 1650 [K]
1
3
5
0

1
4
0
0

1
4
5
0

1
5
0
0

1
5
5
0

1
6
0
0

1
6
5
0

8


1
0


1
2

1
4


1
6


1
8


2
0

WCLTq2 iterated for T_m_T=922.7

Figure 10: Cooling effectiveness required
Figure 7 corresponds to figures 1 and 3. Here the pressure ratio for minimum
specific fuel consumption and a burner inlet temperature 1500K is only 14. An
important observation from this figure is that, in spite of the significant increase in
the cooling air flow, the specific fuel consumption still decreases while the burner
exit temperature increases. You cannot easily infer from this parametric study the
best burner exit temperature for minimum specific fuel consumption. You have to
consider other arguments.
.26
.27
.28
.29
.3
.31
.32
.33
P
o
w
e
r

S
p
.

F
u
e
l

C
o
n
s
.

[
k
g
/
(
k
W
*
h
)
]
200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360
Specific Power [kW/(kg/s)]
Pressure Ratio = 8 ... 16
Burner Exit Temperature = 1350 ... 1650 [K]

1
3
5
0

1
4
0
0


1
4
5
0


1
5
0
0


1
5
5
0


1
6
0
0


1
6
5
0

1
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
5
0
1
2
0
0
1
2
5
0 1
3
0
0
1
3
5
0
Dotted Lines = HP Turbine Exit Temp T44 [K]
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15 16
1%
WCLTq2 iterated for T_m_T=922.7

Figure 11: Parametric study with single-stage gas generator turbines and constant blade
metal temperature
169
One of these is that there might be a limit to the low-pressure turbine inlet
temperature. For cost reasons an uncooled design is preferred. In figure 7, if you
look at the dotted line corresponding to an LPT inlet temperature of 1100K then
you see that an optimum engine, with respect to fuel consumption, is a machine
with pressure ratio 16 and burner exit temperature 1550K.
However, there are some other points to consider. As can be seen from figure 6,
going from the reference cycle to the optimum cycle means increasing the cooling
effectiveness from 0.5 to 0.56. This change may result in a more complex cooling
scheme for the rotor blade. Increasing the pressure ratio from 13 to 16 also
means using a compressor of better quality that is probably more expensive and
heavier.
We conclude that the optimum pressure ratio for a turboshaft with a single-stage
high-pressure turbine is approximately 13, and that the most practical burner exit
temperature is about 1500K.

Engines with two-stage turbines
Selecting the number of turbine stages is not a trivial task. The advantages of the
single-stage design are that it has fewer cooling air requirements, that it is lighter,
with a smaller volume and moment of inertia, and that the costs of manufacturing
and maintaining it are lower. On the other hand the two-stage design gives a
better efficiency, a lower exit Mach number and less swirl in the flow downstream
of the turbine.
With GasTurb you can easily evaluate for several compressor pressure ratios and
a constant burner inlet temperature of 1500K the correlations among the turbine
pressure ratio, the efficiency and the relative temperature of the (first) rotor blade.
If you look at the specific fuel consumption and the specific power, you will see
that an optimum design for a turboshaft with a two-stage gas generator turbine
would require a pressure ratio of around 15. The advantage in terms of fuel
consumption is around 3% compared to a single stage design.

3.2.4. Summary and concluding remarks
A simple, conventional cycle study does not yield a realistic result. Only when you
consider the constraints imposed by the component design requirements do you
find answers for compressor pressure ratio and burner exit temperature that are
in line with reality.
The example shown was only one of many alternatives. The computer makes it
easy to repeat the exercise for examples with different levels of component
efficiencies. You can look into the details of the power turbine design. You may
also study how the inclusion of a heat exchanger into the cycle affects the results.
The results of the GasTurb cycle calculations have been found to agree with
those of the big performance programs used in industry. Component design
calculations, however, are fairly basic. The details should be used only for relative
comparisons.
As demonstrated by the figures there are many things to be checked while
selecting an optimum cycle. For getting a quick overview it is essential to present
170
the results graphically. Only then can the huge amount of data produced by a
computer be judged. You should always remember: the computer does not think -
that is left to the user.
171

3.3. Off-design calculations for a two-spool turboshaft
Most modern helicopters have one or more two-spool turboshaft engines as
propulsion unit. The gas generator turbine drives the compressor of such an
engine. The shaft power delivered to the helicopter gearbox for driving the main
and tail rotors is produced by the power turbine, which rotates independently of
the gas generator. During flight the power turbine must maintain a constant
mechanical speed. When the power requirement of the helicopter changes - as in
the case of manoeuvres, for example - the gas generator has to deliver the gas
power which keeps the rotational speed of the power turbine constant.
This chapter describes how GasTurb can be used for the steady state
performance calculation of a two-spool turboshaft.
To start, select the Turboshaft, Turboprop configuration and calculate the cycle
design point. Use the example data file DEMO_SHT.CYS delivered with the
program for this purpose. The compressor and turbine maps are scaled by the
program in such a way that they are in line with the cycle design point. The
options available for design point calculations are described in detail in the two
preceding chapters.

Figure 12: Special map scaling
After selecting Off Design in the programs opening window, you must select
maps for the compressor and the turbines before initiating an off-design
calculation. You can choose either Standard or Special. In many cases the
standard component maps yield quite typical results. To explore the scope of the
program you should select the option Special. A new window will open in which a
tabbed notebook shows the currently loaded component maps, together with
172
some additional information. When you get to this window for the first time,
program loads the standard map files by default.
3.3.1. Compressor map scaling
The compressor map needs to be scaled in such a way that the cycle design
point is properly located. In the map on the screen, you will see a yellow square
that marks the cycle design point in map coordinates. GasTurb calculates map
scalers for the mass flow, the pressure ratio and the efficiency:
DP RNI W Map R
DP R
W
f W
W
f
, ,
* ) / (
) / (

=
1 ) /
1 ) / (
/

=
Map
DP
P P
P P
P P
f
DP RNI Map
DP
f
f
, ,
*

=
The map will be scaled with these factors prior to the actual off-design calculation.
Note that the Reynolds number correction factors for efficiency f
,RNI,DP
and mass
flow f
W,RNI,DP
are considered separately.
You can drag the map scaling point with the mouse. Two important criteria must
be met to achieve a reasonable scaling of the map. First you have to ensure that
the surge margin for the cycle design point is sufficient. The surge margin,
expressed in %, is defined for a constant mass flow from the pressure ratios of
the operating point and at the surge line:
100 * 1
1 /
1 /
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
Line Operating
Line Surge
P P
P P
SM
The surge margin should normally be between 20 and 30% at the design point.
The second criterion is that the efficiency scaling must make sense. Efficiency
varies throughout the compressor map. The design point efficiency
dp
, however,
is a fixed value. The size of the map scaling factor f

, which brings the map and

the cycle design point into line with each other, therefore depends on the location
of the map scaling point.
When you place the map scaling point in a region where map efficiency is low, the
efficiency scaling factor f

will be large. Since the program applies the scaling

factor to all points in the map, the resulting peak efficiency will be ridiculously high
if the cycle design point efficiency is at a high level already. If you have used a
high value for efficiency in your cycle design point, you must place the map
scaling point near the optimum efficiency contour in the map.
While you are dragging the design point around in the map, you will see the
values changing for the surge margin and peak efficiency in the table. It is easy to
see whether or not your selection is meaningful. You will also see the previous
setting of the design point, indicated by a square.
Selecting the
design point
surge margin
Efficiency
scaling
considerations
173
The map scaling point can also be entered via the keyboard directly into the last
two columns of the table. This option is the best choice if you want to reproduce a
map scaling point selection that you have made earlier.
If you select the standard component maps, then the map scaling point is
automatically placed on the map speed line 1.0 with
HPC
= 0.5. This leads to a
surge margin of around 25%.

3.3.2. Turbine map scaling
The scaling of the turbine maps is done in a similar way as the scaling of
compressor map. There is no surge line in a turbine map and therefore the task is
simpler. The only thing to be checked is peak efficiency, which is dependent on
both the map scaling point selection and the cycle design point efficiency.
Both the efficiency and the corrected flow of the high-pressure turbine (HPT)
remain fairly constant throughout the operating range of the gas generator of a
multi-spool engine. This is because in highly loaded turbines, the corrected flow
changes very little for a wide range of corrected speeds and pressure ratios.
When the corrected flows at the inlet and the exit of a turbine remain constant, the
term P
45
/P
4
/(T
4
/T
45
) must also be constant because
45
45 45
4
4 4
45
4
4
45
P
T W
P
T W
T
T
P
P
=
The temperature ratio T
4
/T
45
and the pressure ratio P
45
/P
5
are connected by the
efficiency:
(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

1
4
45
4
45
1 1
P
P
T
T
HPT

In the area near to the turbine design point, efficiency normally does not change
very much; the efficiency islands in a turbine map are fairly large. Gas generator
turbines will therefore operate at constant pressure ratio and constant efficiency
as long as the corrected flow of the power turbine (PT) does not change.
Since the corrected speed N
L
/T
45
in a helicopter engine normally increases
toward partload, the map scaling point should be placed at a moderate map
speed, and at a pressure ratio which is higher than the pressure ratio for
maximum efficiency. A typical PT operating line can be found in the next chapter.

3.3.3. Off-design calculation options
Only a few input data are required for off-design calculations. On the notebook
page with the heading Steady State the first group of input data defines the flight
High-pressure
turbine
Power turbine
174
conditions in terms of of altitude, T
ISA
, relative humidity and the Mach number.
Installation features like the intake pressure ratio, the power offtake from the gas
generator spool, and the bleed air offtake begin the second group of data. Next
follow the data that specify the iteration. You can either prescribe the mechanical
speed ZXN of the gas generator or the burner exit temperature ZT4. The quantity
not specified will be an iteration variable. -values in component maps are always
iteration variables. All values entered for the iteration variables are used as
starting values for the iteration algorithm.
Then there is the input for the relative PT speed. After that are the quantities
defining the engine inlet flow distortion. For simulating a variable tip clearance you
can make the gas generator turbine efficiency dependent on mechanical speed.
On the notebook page named Modifiers you can specify changes in the turbine
flow capacities, the nozzle (=exhaust diffusor exit) area and component
efficiencies. Turbine flow capacity is just a different name for the corrected flow.
To calculate the design point in the off-design calculation mode select
Task|Single Point and then click the Ok button. You will get a similar cycle
summary output on your screen as in the case of a design point calculation. On
the page Oper. Point specific off-design data will be provided in addition. On
further notebook pages the operating points in the component maps are shown.
Now increase the ambient temperature by setting Delta T from ISA to 10 K and
run the cycle calculation again. In the component maps you will see two points.
The circle is the design point and the yellow square is the operating point for the
increased ambient temperature.
Note that the efficiency contours in the map are valid for Reynolds number index
equal 1 and =0. The actual efficiencies will not be in line with the map values if
Reynolds number corrections are applied or if efficiency is modified by the input of
a value for .
Now calculate other operating points and try some of the other input options.
When you make large changes in the operating condition from one point to the
next the iteration may not converge. Try with better estimates for the variables in
such a case or calculate a series of points that are not too far apart in terms of
gas generator corrected speed.

3.3.4. Limiters
When calculating a single operating point, you can specify either the gas
generator speed or the burner exit temperature. A more flexible option for defining
specific operating conditions is to use a limiter from the forth page of the off
design input notebook. The program can satisfy several limiters simultaneously.
The lowest limit will be the active one.
You can, for example, set limits for N
H
, T
45
, T
5
, W
F
and for the torque at the output
shaft. In addition you can define your own limits using Composed Values. This
feature can also be used for calculating a partload case with a specified output
shaft power. To do this you must switch off all limiters apart from the general
limiter and define the last composed value as PWSD.

Running the
cycle to a
prescribed shaft
power
175
3.3.5. Operating line
An operating line is a series of performance points. The first point is either with
specified gas generator speed or a point with limiters switched on. All further
points will be calculated with decreasing gas generator speeds. The relative
speed will decrease in steps of 0.025. The operating line will either be finished
after the specified number of points, or when the operating conditions are far
beyond the useful range of one of the component maps.
The number of points to be calculated can be selected from the little box to the
right of the red upwards arrow. The sequence of the points to be calculated can
be changed using the menu option Direction. An operating line with increasing
load is completed when either the mechanical gas generator speed is higher than
104% or when a limiter prevents further increases in load.
Run the example and look at the operating line in the compressor. At very low
speed the compressor will surge. There are two ways around this problem: You
can either place the design point in the map in such a way that more surge
margin is available everywhere or you can bleed off some air at low speed. In
practice mostly the second option is used because the first option involves losing
compressor efficiency at high power.
A handling bleed schedule can be defined and switched on/off using the option
Bleed in the off design input window. The bleed valve will be operated
automatically. For this example you should use 0.8 as the upper switch-point and
0.7 as the lower switch-point. The maximum amount of handling bleed could be
20% of the compressor inlet flow, for example. Enter the number 0.2 into the
schedule to achieve this.
Look at the operating line of the power turbine. The shape you see is typical for a
helicopter engine with a constant rotational power turbine speed. It is quite
different from the operating line of the low-pressure turbine of a turbofan.
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

R
a
t
i
o

P
4
5
/
P
5
.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6
NL/sqrt(T45) * W45*sqrt(T45)/(P45/Pstd) [Kg/s]
PT
0
.6

0
.7

0
.8

0
.9

1

1
.1

1
.2

0
.9
3
0.92
0.91
0.90
0
.8
8
0.85
0.80

Figure 13: Operating line of the power turbine
Avoiding surge
Operating line in
the power turbine
map
176
In addition to the component operating lines you can plot any combination of
calculated data. You can compare different operating lines and shifts in parameter
combinations caused by changes in flight conditions, installation losses,
deterioration (efficiency losses) etc.

3.3.6. Flight envelope calculation
This option calculates a series of performance points for different flight speeds
and altitudes. Before starting you should set some limiters. For the fuel flow limiter
you need to use the General Limiter, and define the Composed Value 20 as WF.
With the model data set DEMO_SHT.CYS the following limiter values might be
used for an ISA day flight envelope:
Max fuel flow 0.077 kg/s
Max torque 110% of design point torque
Max T
45
1120 K
Max T
5
870 K
Max N
H
/
R,2
105 % of design point value
This combination of limiters gives an interesting picture of which limiter is active
throughout the flight envelope (altitude 0-6000m, Mach no 0-0.5)
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
A
l
t
i
t
u
d
e

[
m
]
0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6
Mach Number
NH/sqrt(T)
T45
T5
TRQ

Figure 14 Active limiters within the flight envelope

177


3.4. Turbofan engines
3.4.1. Engine design for subsonic aircraft
Subsonic transport aircraft typically use turbofan engines. The flight condition
"end of climb" is usually selected as the design point for such engines. This
condition is around 35 000 - 40 000ft altitude and flight Mach number 0.8 - 0.85.
The engine design point corresponds to the Max Climb rating.
The file DEMO_TF.CYF, which belongs to the Two-Spool Unmixed Flow
Turbofan engine configuration, contains data which are representative of a
typical business jet engine. The "end of climb" or "begin of cruise" is assumed to
be at an altitude of 11000m (=36089ft) and Mach 0.8. The main design
parameters of this engine are
Thrust@11km/0.8 3.12 kN
SFC 19.19 g/(kN*s)
Corrected Flow W
2RStd
55.44 kg/s
Overall Pressure Ratio P
3
/P
2
17.325
Burner Exit Temperature T
4
1450 K
Bypass Ratio 6
The overall pressure ratio of the engine is fairly moderate. The reason for
choosing such a design could be to meet the stringent weight and cost targets of
the engine. Doing a parametric study will show you what you could gain in terms
of the specific fuel consumption by increasing the overall pressure ratio.
The basis of a balanced turbofan cycle design is an optimum combination of the
bypass ratio and the fan pressure ratio. How to find this optimum combination is
discussed in the next chapter. We will now concentrate on the off-design
performance calculations.

Scaling the component maps
First we have to correlate the design point with the component maps. You begin
by selecting Standard maps from the main off-design menu. In the standard
compressor maps the design point is automatically placed at the map speed line
marked 1.0 and at =0.5. This point corresponds approximately to the
compressor design point. The surge margin is 45% for the fan and 24% for the
high-pressure compressor.
The operating point in the high-pressure turbine map is placed slightly above the
peak efficiency island with the coordinates (N
H
/T
4
)
map
=1 and
HPT
=0.5.
In the standard low pressure turbine map the automatic procedure sets the design
point at coordinates corresponding to (N
L
/T
45
)
map
=1.1 and the relative pressure
ratio (i.e.,
LPT
) at 0.5. This point is close to maximum efficiency, leaving some
margin for aerodynamic over-speed operating conditions.
178
You may have a more detailed look at the standard map scaling procedure by
selecting Special maps in the main off-design menu. The standard maps are
loaded as the default. If you click on the button marked LPC, you will see the fan
map. The design point set by the standard map scaling procedure is indicated by
a yellow square. If you use the mouse to move the point to the speed line 1.0 and
you set the surge margin to 30%, you will get 93.7% as peak efficiency in the
map. This is 3.7% higher than the design point efficiency.
An increase of 3.7% in efficiency in going from the aerodynamic design speed to
partload is quite reasonable. The absolute level of peak efficiency in our example
is high. If you think it is unrealistic, then you should modify the design point
efficiency.
You should look at the HPC and the LPT maps as well. You will find peak HPC
efficiency to be 0.7% higher than at the design point. The LPT peak efficiency will
be 0.1% higher than at the design point.
In the compressor maps in particular the design point need not necessarily be
placed at an aerodynamic speed of 100%. If you decide on a lower (N
L
/T
2
)
map

you will get a greater over-speed margin. There is no need for this, however, if the
engine design point corresponds to (nearly) maximum aerodynamic speed. At
high altitude, the Max Climb rating is a flight condition with low T
2
and high thrust.
It practically defines the maximum aerodynamic speed requirements for the
turbomachines. It is therefore a good choice to use Max Climb at cruise altitude
as the design point, along with the standard map scaling option.

Sea level performance
Go back to the main off-design menu and confirm that the Standard map option
is selected to make sure that any modifications you may have made to the map
scaling will be reversed. We will now calculate the most important off-design
point: sea level "hot day" Take Off. Usually a "hot day" is defined as having
between ISA+10K and ISA+20K. You enter Altitude=0, Mach Number = 0 and
Delta T
amb
= 15K, and set the high pressure spool speed ZXNH to 1.07. You can
then start the calculation.
In this example we consider a burner exit temperature T
4
=1542K, 92K higher than
at the design point. This is a reasonable number, since the engine only runs at
Take Off rating for a short time compared to the time it runs at Max Climb rating.
When the ambient temperature is lower than ISA+15K, the engine can
theoretically deliver more thrust. The thermodynamic thrust of an engine is the
thrust developed at ISA inlet conditions with the burner exit temperature of a hot
day. Since the aircraft does not need this much power, the engine is normally flat
rated. This means that the thrust delivered is limited to the level that the engine
produces on a hot day. The curve {thrust versus ambient temperature} is flat for
temperatures below ISA+15K. Consequently, the engine will run colder than
T
4
=1542K on all days with a temperature less than 30C. At higher ambient
temperatures thrust decreases sharply because the burner exit temperature
remains constant.
Not every day is a hot day with an ambient temperature of 30C (86F) or higher.
The peak burner exit temperature is therefore seldom used. The difference
between the burner exit temperatures at Max Climb and at maximum Take Off in
the example above is quite reasonable.
Max Climb as
cycle design
point
Hot day take off
179
Engine rating
Since thrust cannot be measured when the engine is installed on the aircraft, how
is the "flat rating" achieved? There are two alternatives: either N
L
/T
2
or the
engine pressure ratio (EPR) P
5
/P
2
can be kept constant while T
amb
decreases
below ISA+15K. Try both alternatives! Select the corrected fan speed as the
limiter and enter the value N
L
/
2
which you have calculated for T
amb
=ISA+15K.
Run the cycle at lower ambient temperature, and then observe the thrust; it will be
nearly constant.
You cannot enter a limit for the engine pressure ratio directly. First you must
define the composed value 20 as P
5
/P
2
and switch on this newly defined limiter.
You will see that also in this case the thrust will be nearly independent of the
ambient temperature.
Ambient Temperature
ISA ISA+15K
Flat Rating
T
h
r
u
s
t
Burner
Exit
Temperature
Thermodynamic Thrust
1469K
12.98kN
14.96kN
1542K

Figure 15: Thrust rating
You can also study the problem the other way around. Define the composed
value 20 as the net thrust F
N
. Then check which cycle quantities are independent
of the ambient temperature for constant thrust. Engines with FADEC (Full
Authority Digital Engine Control) do not require that you use constant values for
the rating parameters. A microcomputer can handle very complicated rating
schedules. It is quite normal for the rating parameter to be a complex function of
the flight Mach number, the altitude and the deviation from the ISA temperature.
Another feature of rating an engine to N
L
/T
2
or EPR is that deterioration of the
component efficiencies caused by dirt, erosion and increased tip clearances will
not cause a thrust loss. Fuel flow will automatically increase and thus cover the
additional losses. To look at this, you can enter component deficiencies as Delta
Efficiency in your off-design calculations.
GasTurb allows you to use not only constant values for the limiters but also
schedules. The off design input window has a menu option Schedules for this
purpose. For example, you can specify turbine exit temperature T
5
as a function
Control
schedules
180
of compressor inlet temperature T
2
, and so achieve a special thrust characteristic
over the flight envelope.

3.4.2. Mixed versus unmixed turbofans
Some engines for subsonic transports have a mixer while others do not. There is
a lot to be said for both versions. With GasTurb you can study the consequences
of mixing the core and the bypass streams.

Unmixed Flow turbofan
Let us start with the unmixed engine. We want to design a low-pressure system
for a given core engine. Which is the best combination of bypass ratio and fan
pressure ratio? This problem can be solved analytically; see for example ref. [8].
The answer is that specific fuel consumption will be lowest when the ideal jet
velocities V
18
and V
8
are related to the low spool efficiencies according to
LPT Fan
ideal
V
V
*
8
18
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

Note that this formula implies special definitions for both the jet velocities and the
efficiencies. V
8,id
and V
18,id
are ideal velocities: they are calculated from a full
expansion to ambient pressure.
Fan
takes into account the entire bypass stream
pressure loss, and
LPT
all the losses downstream of the low-pressure turbine.
18.8
19
19.2
19.4
19.6
19.8
20
S
p
.

F
u
e
l

C
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

[
g
/
(
k
N
*
s
)
]
.5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1 1.1 1.2
Ideal Jet Velocity Ratio V18/V8
Design Bypass Ratio = 5 ... 7
Outer Fan Pressure Ratio = 1.7 ... 1.9

1
.
7


1
.
7
5


1
.
8


1
.
8
5
1
.9


5


5
.
2
5

5
.5

5
.7
5

6
6.25
6.5
6
.7
5
7

1%

Figure 16: Bypass ratio and fan pressure ratio optimization
You can easily convince yourself that the above formula - even if applied to
efficiencies that do not take bypass or turbine exit losses into account - is fairly
181
good. Do a parametric study, using the file DEMO_TF.CYF, over a range of
bypass ratios and fan outer pressure ratios, and look at the resulting graph SFC
versus Ideal Jet Velocity Ratio. Note that you must modify the scales to get the
figure to look like the one shown here.

Mixed flow turbofan
For the mixed turbofan there is also a rule for selecting the best combination of
fan pressure and bypass ratios. At the mixer entry the ratio of the total pressures
P
16
/P
6
must be close to unity. Otherwise, there will be high mixing losses which
will decrease the thrust gain. Toward partload the pressure ratio P
16
/P
6
increases.
It is therefore good to select a value for P
16
/P
6
that is slightly below 1 for the
design point.
The optimum fan pressure ratio for a mixed flow engine is generally lower than
that for an unmixed engine, provided that both have the same bypass ratio. When
you compare engines with the same fan pressure ratio, the mixed flow engine will
have a lower bypass ratio and a higher specific thrust F
N
/W
2
. The amount of
power, which the low-pressure turbine has to supply to drive the fan, will be
smaller when both streams are mixed. This usually allows the mixed engine to be
designed with one fewer LPT stage than the unmixed turbofan. The weight saved
by this turbine stage helps to compensate for the higher weight of the long duct
nacelle needed for the mixed flow engine.
There are other arguments for and against mixed flow engines, involving
installation drag, fan noise, reverse thrust etc. You can do a fairly realistic
thermodynamic cycle optimization with GasTurb, which includes the effects of
low-pressure turbine loading on LPT efficiency. For cycle parameter studies of
mixed flow turbofans the fan pressure ratio should be iterated in such a way that
P
16
/P
6
is somewhere between 0.95 and 1.

3.4.3. Engine design for supersonic aircraft
The design requirements for an engine of a supersonic aircraft are quite different
to those for the engine of a subsonic transport aircraft. We will study the problem
using the file DEMO_MTF.CYM, which contains data for a low bypass ratio,
mixed flow turbofan with reheat and a convergent-divergent nozzle.
There are several conflicting design requirements for such an engine. High
specific thrust and low specific fuel consumption for supersonic flight are the most
important criteria. We must also consider Take Off performance. Also the specific
fuel consumption for subsonic cruise conditions should not be too high.
Fulfilling this latter criterion leads to a high bypass ratio engine, while fulfilling the
first criterion mentioned favors a low bypass ratio. The choices you make very
much depend on the mission the aircraft has to fulfill.
The example data file provides you with the performance at sea level static (SLS)
conditions, which are shown in the following table. Note that the area ratio of the
convergent-divergent nozzle A
9
/A
8
is different for dry and reheated operation. In
both cases the nozzle pressure ratio is too low for the given area ratio. The nozzle
over-expands the flow, as you can see from the negative pressure thrust term.
This and other details will appear on the output screen when you run the
182
example. Note that you must adjust the nozzle area ratio when you switch from
dry to reheated operation.

Bypass ratio 1
Burner exit temperature T
4
1600 K
Overall pressure ratio 17.325
Reheated thrust 48.7 kN
Nozzle inlet temperature in reheat T
7
2000 K
Nozzle area ration in reheat (A
9
/A
8
)
RH
1.35
Dry thrust 29.4 kN
Nozzle area ration in dry (A
9
/A
8
)
dry
1.2
We will now look at supersonic flight conditions. Calculate the design point with
reheat switched on first. Then select the off-design calculation option and use the
standard component maps together with the Booster Map Type equal to zero.
The area ratio A
9
/A
8
of the convergent divergent nozzle in off design depends on
the nozzle throat area A
8
:
2
, 8
8
, 8
8
8
9
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
Design Design
A
A
c
A
A
b a
A
A

Use a=0.8705, b=0.7325 and c=-0.253. Then enter the following data and start
the off-design calculation:
Altitude m 11000
Mach Number 2
HPC Spool Speed ZXNH 1.01
After that change the nozzle area on the page Modifiers by 10%:
Delta Nozzle Area % 10
The table on the next page contains the most important results for the two cases
A
8
=A
8,Design
and A
8
=A
8,Design
+10% For the nominal nozzle area, the mechanical
spool speed of the gas generator N
H
exceeds the sea level value (all design point
speeds are defined as 100%), but the aerodynamic speed N
H
/
25,R
decreases to
91.9%. The aerodynamic speed of the fan N
L
/
2,R
drops to an even greater
extent. This explains the overall pressure ratio of 10.5, which is quite low
compared to the pressure ratio at sea level.
The result clearly shows that the standard map scaling procedure must not be
applied to supersonic flight conditions. The standard procedure would place the
design point at a corrected speed of 100% in all maps. When you run a sea level
static flight case, for example, the operating point in the compressor maps would
be found at excessively high aerodynamic spool speeds.
You can, of course, also use the standard component maps when defining your
engine design point at supersonic flight conditions. You will then have to set the
design point in the component maps to an appropriate map speed value
significantly below 100%. This can be done with the option Special maps.
The table contains two columns with numbers. Both apply to the same high-
pressure spool speed. A bigger nozzle area will improve performance in this case.
183
Whether an increase in the nozzle area helps depends on the flight condition. To
see this, take a look at a subsonic high altitude cruise case, for example.

A
8
=0% A
8
=+10%
Thrust 47.1 kN 50.65 kN
Burner exit temperature T
4
1689 K 1678 K
Bypass ratio 1.21 1.36
Overall pressure ratio 10.5 10.6
Nozzle area ratio A
9
/A
8
1.339 1.385
Nozzle pressure ratio P
8
/P
amb
12.32 11.56
Low-pressure spool speed N
L
89.4 % 92.6 %
High-pressure spool speed N
H
101 % 101 %
Fan aerodynamic speed N
L
/
2,R
76.8 % 79.6%
HPC aerodynamic speed N
H
/
25,R
91.9% 91.9%
For the calculation of dry performance at 11000m, Mach number 0.8 you need to
enter some data in addition to the modified altitude and Mach number. Reset the
nozzle area to 100%, switch on the N
L
/
2,R
limiter and set it to 104%. You can
now start the calculation.
This specific iteration sometimes fails to converge. What can you do to get a valid
solution? Click on the Ok button to restart the calculation, this might lead to
convergence. If not, look at the data input screen: you may find an unrealistic
number for the bypass ratio, for example. Correct it to BPR=1 to provide a revised
estimate for the iteration. This should help. If it does not, then look at the
estimates for the other iteration variables and enter reasonable numbers.
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
S
p
.

F
u
e
l

C
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

[
g
/
(
k
N
*
s
)
]
2 4 6 8
Net Thrust [kN]
nominal A8
A8 + 10%

Figure 17: SFC loops for two nozzle area settings
After you have a solution that converges, start the calculation of an operating line
to get a so-called SFC loop which has the shape of a bucket. Bucket SFC is the
lowest value you can find along the curve.
184
Figure 3 shows SFC loops for both nozzle areas. In contrast to the supersonic
flight case with reheat switched on, the nozzle area has only a minor effect on the
SFC loop at partload. However, the maximum thrust decreases when the nozzle
area is increased while in the supersonic case the opposite is true.

3.4.4. Engine families
The most expensive part of an engine is the gas generator respectively the core",
which consists of the high-pressure compressor HPC, the burner and the high-
pressure turbine HPT. Engine companies therefore strive to use the same core
for several applications. Engines with a common core constitute an "engine
family".
GasTurb provides special input options that simplify the design of turbofan engine
families. We will use the file DEMO_TF.CYF to study an engine family of unmixed
flow turbofans.
The Mass Flow Input page offers three ways to define the engine mass flow. If
you select option 1, you can enter the fan inlet flow W
2

R2
/
2
. This is the mass
flow corrected to standard day conditions (
R2
= T
2
/288.15 K* R/R
dry air
, =
P
2
/101.325 kPa). If you select option 2, you can enter the core inlet corrected flow
W
25

R25
/
25
. The fan flow will be calculated using the bypass ratio in this case.
The third option also allows you to specify the core flow. You can use an HPC
map during design calculations. On the mass flow input page for option 3, you
specify the map coordinates
HPC
and (NT)
Map
of the HPC operating point. The
flow capacities of the turbines will be calculated in such a way that this operating
point is achieved.

Before you can start the cycle calculation using the third option you must load an
HPC map and adapt it to a reference cycle. Select HPC Map from the menu
and read the standard HPC map HPC_01.MAP as an example. In the following
window you can decide to use the map scaled to specified values or you can use
the map as it is. Note however, that the mass flow units must be specified when
you want to use the un-scaled map.
185
We will scale the map to the standard day corrected mass flow of 3.7 kg/s, an
efficiency value of 0.87 and to the pressure ratio of 7 as shown in the top left
table.
The values for HPC mass flow, pressure ratio and efficiency will be read from the
map as long as option 3 from the Mass Flow Input page remains selected. For
example if you set (N/T)
Map
=1.1 you will see that core mass flow and pressure
ratio will increase and HPC efficiency will decrease.
The value relative NH printed in the right column on the summary page is
calculated as (T
25
/T
std
*R/R
dry air
). You can use a composed value and multiply
this value by a constant factor to get a more meaningful number for your specific
problem.
By doing the experiment with (N/T)
Map
=1.1 you will see that the values of the
turbine flow capacities W41Rstd and W45Rstd are not the same as those in the
reference cycle. Also the HP turbine pressure ratio is significantly different.
Obviously the two cycles with (N/T)
Map
=1.0 and (N/T)
Map
=1.1 do not have the
same gas generator and therefore they are not members of the same engine
family.
How can you correct this? You must select an iteration with two variables that are
adjusted so that the two turbine flow capacities are the same as in the reference
cycle. This will automatically result in the HP turbine pressure ratio remaining
practically unchanged. As variables you should use the map auxiliary coordinate

HPC
and the design burner exit temperature.
The iteration will converge on a solution in which the jet velocity ratio V
18
/V
8,id
is
far from its optimum value; this is highlighted by an arrow pointing to the
unfavourable number. You can correct this by introducing a third iteration with
Outer Fan Pressure Ratio as a variable and V
18
/V
8,id
=0.85 as the target.

Now you can do some parametric studies. Leave the gas generator corrected
speed at its present value of (N/T)
Map
=1 for the moment. Select the design
bypass ratio and the inner fan pressure ratio as variables. The latter can take
booster stages into account if required.
Do a second parametric study with (N/T)
Map
=0.9 to see that a wide range of
thrust is available from one core engine. Figures 4 and 5 show SFC over thrust
for both parametric studies. You should also plot other properties like burner exit
temperature and HP spool speed, for example.
All the points from the first and the second parametric study represent engines
with the same gas generator. The compressor of the engines in the second case
runs at a lower speed and at a lower burner exit temperature T
4
. Full use of the
core temperature and speed potential is required to get a very high thrust. For
medium thrust levels alternatives exist that have similar specific fuel consumption
values.
Before selecting a cycle you should consider many factors. Both the fan pressure
ratio and the number of booster and low-pressure turbine stages are important.
You should use the turbine design options offered by GasTurb for the LPT and
186
study different designs. When you have a task with many design variables and
constraints, you should use the optimization capabilities of GasTurb.
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
S
p
.

F
u
e
l

C
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

[
g
/
(
k
N
*
s
)
]
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Net Thrust [kN]
Design Bypass Ratio = 5 ... 7
Inner Fan Pressure Ratio = 1.5 ... 3

1
.
5


1
.
7
5


2


2
.
2
5


2
.
5


2
.
7
5


3

5
5.5
6
6.5
7
1%
T4_D iterated for W41Rstd=1.037
Beta iterated for W45Rstd=2.798
ZP13q2 iterated for V18q8id=0.85

Figure 18: Parametric study with (N/T)
Map
=1

18
19
20
21
22
23
24
S
p
.

F
u
e
l

C
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

[
g
/
(
k
N
*
s
)
]
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Net Thrust [kN]
Design Bypass Ratio = 5 ... 7
Inner Fan Pressure Ratio = 1.5 ... 3

1
.
5


1
.
7
5


2


2
.
2
5


2
.
5


2
.
7
5


3

5

5
.5
6

6
.5
7

1%
T4_D iterated for W41Rstd=1.037
Beta iterated for W45Rstd=2.798
ZP13q2 iterated for V18q8id=0.85

Figure 19 Parametric study with (N/T)
Map
=0.9
187
3.5. Test analysis and engine monitoring
3.5.1. Turbofan test analysis
When a turbofan engine is on the testbed, many measurements are taken. From
these measurements the component efficiencies and the high-pressure turbine
inlet temperature must be found in a test analysis calculation.
The total engine mass flow W
2
is derived from pressure measurements in a
bellmouth or in a venturi. The total inlet and exit temperatures and pressures for
the compressors are measured. Compressor pressure ratios and efficiencies can
be easily calculated.
One part of the total mass flow goes into the core engine, while the other part
goes into the bypass duct. It is not possible to measure the core or bypass mass
flow directly. Indirect methods must be used to find the flow split.
Make an estimate for the bypass ratio first. This will yield the high-pressure
compressor inlet flow W
25
. Let us assume that we know the amount of bleed and
cooling air as a percentage of W
25
. The air mass flow W
3
enters the burner. Now
the burner exit temperature T
4
can be calculated using the measured value for the
fuel flow. The power required to drive the high-pressure compressor can be
derived from the compressor mass flow and the measured total temperatures T
25

and T
3
. The temperature T
45
at the exit of the high-pressure turbine may then be
calculated. The low-pressure turbine exit temperature T
5
can be determined on
the basis of the power balance between the turbine and the compressors it drives.
For the analysis of the turbine efficiencies the pressures P
45
and P
5
need to be
measured. The turbine inlet pressure P
4
is derived from the measured value of
the compressor exit pressure P
3
using the standard burner theory. The power
delivered by the turbines can be calculated from the measurements around the
compressors and the core flow.
Now the bypass ratio must be iterated in such a way that the calculated
temperature T
5
matches the measured value for T
5
, for example. This method of
core flow analysis is called a Heat Balance.
There are, however, several ways to make a core flow analysis. The so-called
HPT Capacity method is often used, it is based on a known value for W
4
T
4
/P
4
.
Similarly one can use the LPT capacity W
45
T
45
/P
45
to find the core flow.
GasTurb offers Test Analysis for many engine configurations as a special data
input option for a cycle design point calculation. For a mixed flow turbofan engine,
for example, test analysis can be performed with the following input data:
Measured Fan Exit Temperature T
13

Measured Fan Exit Pressure P
13

Measured Booster Exit Temperature T
21

Measured Booster Exit Pressure P
21

Measured HPC Exit Temperature T
3

Measured HPC Exit Pressure P
3

Burner Fuel Flow W
F

Measured HPT Exit Pressure P
44

Measured LPT Exit Pressure P
5

Estimate bypass
ratio
Heat balance

Turbine capacity
188
Do not forget to adjust the engine inlet conditions T
2
and P
2
to the measured
values before starting a test analysis calculation.
From the measured data the compressor pressure ratios and the efficiencies will
be calculated. Furthermore, the burner exit temperature T
4
and the turbine exit
temperatures T
45
and T
5,
as well as the turbine efficiencies will be found.
For the core flow analysis define an iteration of bypass ratio to achieve that T
5
=
T
5,measured
or that W
4
T
4
/P
4
= (W
4
T
4
/P
4
)
measured
.

3.5.2. Test analysis accuracy
Every measurement has a certain tolerance, so the quantities that are derived
from the direct measurements are not exact. This is especially true of the
efficiencies of fan and low-pressure turbines of high bypass engines.
GasTurb offers the Monte Carlo method for examining the problem. Take as an
example the file DEMO_GTF.CYG and modify the following data:
Altitude from 12000 to 0
Mach number from 0.8 to 0
Bypass Ratio from 8 to 7
Burner Exit Temperature from 1600 to 1830
Switch off LPC Design and HPC Design and then calculate a cycle for sea level
static conditions. Print the summary page because we will use this reference
cycle output and enter the data from it as measured values for the Test
Analysis calculation option.
When you have entered all the necessary data for the test analysis option you
should do a check calculation. The result should give you values very similar to
those of the data you printed earlier. The reason for the very small differences is
that the numbers in the printout are rounded.
As an example for a core flow test analysis we select the HP turbine capacity
method. We will iterate the bypass ratio in such a way that the turbine flow
function value W41Rstd remains constant and equal to the value from our
reference printout. Change the bypass ratio for a test to 6 now and try the
iteration. When set up correctly, the program will restore the bypass ratio to 7
again.
Go back to the program opening screen and select Monte Carlo from the task
list. Do not switch off the iteration. In the Monte Carlo input window you can select
quantities which have been measured with a random error. Select in addition to
t
amb
all input quantities for the test analysis option. We assume now for sake of
simplicity that all of the temperatures are measured with a standard deviation of
0.1K. This means that 95% of all measurements are within the range 0.2K
around the mean value.
For the pressure measurements, enter a standard deviation equal to 0.5% and
use for the fuel flow 0.2% of the reference value. Note that you need to calculate
the value of the standard deviation in units of kPa respectively kg/s before you
enter it into the table.
189

Figure 20: Input for the Monte Carlo study

Before you click the Ok button you can select a quantity to be shown on the
screen while the Monte Carlo simulation is running. Select one you expect to
change during the calculation, such as (in our example) the low pressure turbine
efficiency.
In a Monte Carlo simulation the specified input parameters will be randomly
disturbed with a normal distribution with the specified standard deviation. All
randomly generated parameters are independent of each other. When you restart
the calculation you will get a new result for the same input because the random
numbers are not repeated.
GasTurb can store up to 900 cycle results from a Monte Carlo simulation in a file.
From this file you can read selected data, evaluate their statistical properties and
plot bar charts. However, you can run the Monte Carlo simulation for many more
cycles and observe the quantity that you have selected, before pressing the Start
button. When you click the Stop button then the mean value as well as the
standard deviation for all of the simulated cycles will be shown on the screen.
The calculation you have started will take some time because an iteration is
required for each cycle.
From this exercise we get many statistical distributions. Some interesting data
describing the test analysis accuracy are:
mean 2
Outer Fan Efficiency 0.879 0.017
LPT Efficiency 0.900 0.006
Stator Outlet Temperature 1785 K 10 K

190
Certainly the accuracy for the Outer Fan Efficiency is not acceptable. Every effort
must be made to measure the fan inlet and exit temperatures as precisely as
possible.

3.5.3. Comparing a performance simulation with test data
When you have got data from another cycle program, from measurements or from
literature you are certainly interested how these data compare to simulation
results from GasTurb. You can read those data from file and show them together
with the GasTurb results for an operating line.
Using the Test Analysis option makes the adjustments of the GasTurb input data
for a single cycle very easy. On the compressor side all temperatures and
pressures are given and that defines implicitly efficiency and pressure ratio for
each compressor. On the turbine side the pressures are also input to GasTurb.
The only unknowns are the air system properties and the mechanical efficiencies.
Adjust the air system properties in such a way that the calculated temperatures in
the hot section of the engine line up with the given values. This can be done with
parametric studies, possibly combined with iterations. You can also use an
optimization in which the air system properties are the optimization variables and
the figure of merit is the sum of all (T
calculated
-T
given
) from the hot section of the
engine.
When you have found the best match to the given data, then mark the checkbox
Overwrite P/P, Eff and T4 input and run the calculation once more. This will
modify your compressor pressure ratio, T4 and efficiency input data in such a
way, that you get with the Test Analysis switch in off position the same result as
with the on position.
You can compare off-design data you have got from elsewhere with the
calculated data from your model. Select File|Read Comparative Figures in the
operating line calculation window to read the given data from a file before
calculating an operating line, and then plot them together with the calculated data
from a single operating line.
The file with the given data is an ASCII file, which can be produced with any
editor. The default file name extension is tst (file name example: PassOff.tst). The
file format is described in the GasTurb Help file under the heading Compare Data
with GasTurb Results.

3.5.4. Test analyis by synthesis
The test analysis method described above makes no use of information that is
available from component rig tests, for example. It will give no information about
the reason, why a component behaves badly. A low efficiency for the fan may be
either the result of operating the fan at aerodynamic over-speed or the result of a
poor blade design. To improve the analysis quality in this respect is the aim of
Analysis by Synthesis (AnSyn). This method is also known as model based
engine monitoring.
When doing analysis by synthesis a model of the engine is automatically matched
to the test data. This is done with scaling factors to the component models, which
Adjusting a
GasTurb model
Comparing data
for an operating
line
191
close the gap between the measured efficiency and the model. An efficiency
scaling factor greater than one indicates, that the component performs better than
predicted, for example.
The AnSyn factor for efficiency is defined as
el
measured
E AnSyn
f
mod
,

=
Similarly, the flow capacity AnSyn factor is defined as
el
R
measured
R
C AnSyn
W
W
f
mod
,
*
*
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

=

A factor of 1.0 means perfect agreement between the model and the
measurement. For each compressor respectively turbine there is a flow capacity
and an efficiency factor defined.
Similarly other AnSyn factors can be derived from the difference between
measured and calculated thrust of a jet engine, for example. It depends on the
engine configuration which AnSyn factors are used during test analysis.

Finding compressor map scaling factors
Let us explain the procedure for the example of a compressor. The model of the
compressor is a calculated or measured map which contains pressure ratio over
corrected flow for many values of corrected spool speed N/sqrt(T). During the test
analysis we obtain from the measurements the pressure ratio, the corrected mass
flow, the efficiency and the corrected spool speed. Normally we will find, that the
point in the map defined by the measured pressure ratio and the measured
corrected flow (marked in the figure by the open circle) will not be on the line for
N/sqrt(T) in the original map.
We can shift the line marked N/sqrt(T)
map
in such a way, that it passes through the
open circle. This is done along a scaling line that connects the open circle with
the solid circle. The mass flow and the pressure ratio scaling factors can describe
the distance between the two circles. The efficiency scaling factor compares the
analyzed efficiency with the value read from the map at the solid point.
There are many ways to select a scaling line. A good choice is scaling along a
line with H/N=constant. In GasTurb the auxiliary map coordinate is used as a
scaling line because this makes the calculations simple and at the same time
approximates the scaling along a line with H/N=constant very well.
Compressor
performance
monitoring
192

Figure 21: Compressor analysis by synthesis
Along the scaling line there is a correlation between the mass flow scaling factor
and the pressure ratio scaling factor. Therefore it is sufficient to use the mass flow
scaling factor alone. The pressure ratio scaling factor is calculated from the mass
flow scaling factor from the rule =constant.

Data input for a single scan
Test analysis by synthesis is an option in the off-design input window, select it
from the menu as Task|Analysis by Synthesis. It is a good idea to set all
modifiers to zero before actually starting test analysis. When you use the file
DEMO_MTF.CYM (Two Spool Mixed Flow Turbofan), you will get the following
data input example on your screen:
The scan identification number is an arbitrary number, which serves for
documentation purposes. Running the model for 500m altitude, -20K deviation
from ISA ambient temperature and
HPC
=0.01 has produced the other data in the
table.
To the right of the test data table you can select between four core flow analysis
methods. Select one of them and click the Ok button to start the test analysis
calculation. When completed, the notebook page Deviations from Model will
show up, see next figure. Select View|Detailed Output to get the full diagnosis
output for this scan.
The deviations from the model are shown as factors and temperature differences.
In this example only the HP compressor efficiency factor deviates from the
nominal value, the program identifies correctly the abnormality in the data.
193

Figure 22: Single point test data input for a mixed flow turbofan

Figure 23: Test analysis result
Now go back to the off-design input window and change the model by entering 1
for Delta HPC Efficiency [%] on the Modifiers page. Rerun test analysis for the
example data and you will find that now no deviation from the model is diagnosed.
194
Change back Delta HPC Efficiency [%] to 0 and run again the test analysis. The
HPC efficiency factor is calculated as 1.01183, which equals 0.8558/0.8458. The
efficiency difference is exactly 1%.
Clicking on the button with the two-sided arrow (or selecting Task|Effects) will
show the effects of small changes in the measurements on the results for the
AnSyn factors. The step sizes are equal to the measurement tolerances given
with the measured data.
You can customize your simulation model, which is normally representing an
average new engine, and adapt the turbine flow capacities and the internal air
system to the specific test vehicle where your measurements come from. On the
second page of the notebook you can enter relative turbine capacities, there the
nominal value is 100%. The numbers you enter here will have an impact on the
result especially when you use a turbine capacity analysis method. Similarly the
numbers on the Air System page can be used to customize the model.

Sensor checking
The interpretation of measurements poses always the question: is the sensor
inaccurate or a component of the gas turbine degraded? The option Check
Sensors tries to answer this question with the help of AnSyn as described below:
It is assumed that only one sensor is inaccurate. At first the sum q
0
of the
absolute deviations of all AnSyn factors from 1 is calculated:

= 1
0 AnSyn
f q
Next for each of the sensors an optimization is done in which the optimization
variable is the sensor reading and the figure of merit is:

= 1
Ansyn i
f fom
Thus for sensor i a theoretical reading r
i
is found together with the figure of merit
fom
i
.
When all optimizations are finished, then the differences d
i
= q
0
- fom
i
are
checked. The sensor j for which dj has the highest value is potentially indicating
the wrong value. When the measured value deviates more than the measurement
tolerance from the theoretical reading r
j
then a sensor error is declared.
Note that the magnitude of the AnSyn factors depends on the flow analysis
method. Therefore the result of a sensor check depends also on the mass flow
analysis method.
Do an experiment with the example data: set T
3
to 690K and select Task|Sensor
Checking
The program will find that T
3
is potentially incorrect and supposes as reading the
value 701.8K, which is correct. Note however, that this method of sensor
checking will not in all cases give right answers. For example, when compressor
capacity has changed, then a spool speed measurement problem might be
diagnosed.
195

ISA correction
During a normal engine test at a standard sea level testbed, for example, both the
inlet pressure and the inlet temperature will deviate from ISA sea level standard
conditions (T = 288.15K, P = 101.325kPa). The test results must be corrected to
these engine inlet conditions to make the data comparable.
The correction of the measured values to ISA standard day (respectively nominal)
conditions is very easy when the AnSyn approach is used. The scaling factors
found from the analysis of the scan are applied to the model and then the model
is run at the same corrected low-pressure spool speed and the ISA engine inlet
conditions.
The operating conditions of the turbofan engine will not be exactly the same for
both the test and the calculation of the ISA corrected performance. This can be
seen eventually from the calculated value for the corrected high-pressure spool
speed which will be only very near to (but not exactly the same as) the measured
value. The reason for that are the many small effects which do not allow strict
Mach number similarity between the tested and the ISA corrected cases like
gearbox drag
fuel, oil and hydraulic pump power
changes in gas properties
Reynolds number effects
thermal expansion of rotors, blades and casings

Schedule correction
The measured test data from a single scan can be corrected to ISA conditions.
However, also the rated performance has to be derived from engine performance
tests. With the conventional test analysis this requires a set of scans which
include the power range of interest. Then a curve fit is applied to the ISA
corrected data and the resulting curve is read at the exact value of the rating
parameter. This might be a rated temperature, a spool speed or an engine
pressure ratio, for example.
With the AnSyn approach one can easily evaluate the rated performance by just
running the calibrated model (which is either based on a single or on multiple
scans) at rated power. The rated power is defined by a limiter or by a control
schedule like T
5
=f(T
2
), for example. Therefore the correction to rated power is
called schedule correction.

Data input for multiple scans
Test data for multiple points can be read from a file with the extension .MEA. The
file format is as follows


196
ScanId humid! W2! XN_LP_A! XN_HP_A! T2! P2!
Tolerances
0 10 0.5 0.03 0.03 0.2 0.3
Measured Data
10 60 182.5 100 100.5 288 99.02
11 60 180.2 99.5 99.8 287.5 99.1
12 60 172.5 99.1 99.5 287.8 99.05
13 60 168.2 98.5 99.3 287.9 99.07
14 60 164.1 97.8 98.9 287.4 99.04

The first line must begin with ScanId followed by the short names of all measured
data that are defined for the selected engine configuration. The next two lines are
optional. They give the tolerances for the measurements in percent of the actual
value.
The key words Measured Data precede the lines with the measured data. The
number of scans is limited to 30. When more than 30 scans are in the file, then
only the first 30 scans will be read.
You can create an example file with measured data for AnSyn by selecting
Help|Create Data File Example from the menu in the Analysis by Synthesis
window.
The data in this example file will be based on the measured data shown on the
Test Data page. The numbers will follow a normal distribution with the standard
deviation equal to the measurement tolerance.

Analysis of multiple scans
After you have loaded a series of scans you can use the spin edit box marked
Scan Sequence No. to scroll through the scans and analyze scan after scan.
However, you can also run the analysis automatically for all scans by selecting
View|AnSyn Graphs.
This will open a window in which you can select, for example, a graph in which
the HPC Efficiency Factor is plotted over Scan Identification No.. In this graph you
will see, that the HPC Efficiency Factor is scattered around 1.12. The reason for
this result is, that the test data set was created after loading the file
DEMO_MTF.CYM (which contains test data produced with
HPC
=0.01) with the
menu option Help|Create Data File Example.
You can also compare the model with the test data by selecting View|Model
Comparison. Then the model will be run automatically in such a way, that T
2
, P
2
,
P
amb
and the gas generator spool speed are as measured. All other measured
data will deviate more or less from the model because the model is never perfect.
It is a good idea to use Composed Values when comparing measured data with a
model. Plotting the ratio P25/P25! over W25Rstd is much more meaningful than
plotting P25 over P25!, for example.
There is a further option to compare the measured data with the model. After you
have loaded many scans, you can close the Test Analysis window and run a
single operating line with engine inlet conditions in terms of T
2
, P
2
and P
amb
that
are typical for the test. The test data are automatically stored as Comparative
Comparing test
data with a
model
A second option
for comparing
test data with a
model
197
Figures as you can see from the menu option File|Show Comparative Figures
in the operating line window:

Figure 24: Compare test data with the results from an operating line calculation
When you do not get test data plotted with the operating line then check the
scales of the graph: the test points might be outside of the x- respectively y-axis
ranges.

Output of analysis results to file
You can direct the output of the calculation to a file, which you can later read with
other programs, for example. A pure ASCII file will be created with the short
names as headline. At first you have to define the quantities you want to store in
the file by selecting Output|Define from the menu.
Select from both the input and output quantities. By clicking on the button INPUT
respectively OUTPUT you can toggle between the two lists. You can also add
groups of data to the list by selecting Quantities|AnSyn Input and
Quantities|AnSyn Output from the menu.
Save your output parameter selection with the command File|Save Selection.
This will write just the headline with the short names of the selected properties to
the file. Opening a file with File|Read Selection will evaluate the file header and
fill the output list box.
Besides defining the file content you have to specify a file name. You need not
specify an extension for the filename because it will be selected automatically.
After closing the output selection window the file is open for output of the analysis
results from a single scan or from all scans. After writing to the file you can edit it
and add comments, for example. You can write the test data as measured, or
after ISA or schedule correction to file.
198
Engine monitoring
For engine performance monitoring take measurements at stabilized operating
conditions, analyze the scans and monitor the changes in engine health
parameters. The AnSyn factors are especially well suited as health parameters
because they describe the difference between a nominal engine and the engine
being monitored.
For long term monitoring you should read groups of scans into GasTurb, analyze
them with one or several core flow analysis methods and store the results in a file.
You can store ISA corrected data, schedule corrected data or just the measured
values together with the AnSyn factors, for example.
Read the GasTurb output file into a spreadsheet and look for trends in the data.
You may observe that the flow capacity of the first compressor decreases slightly,
and so does the efficiency AnSyn factor. This would give you a hint that the
compressor should be washed to recover some of the performance, for example.
199

3.6. Optimization
In a parametric study with only two variables it is easy to find an optimum
solution. If there are three variables the situation is not so clear. With more than
three variables the picture may get obscure. In complex studies the true optimum
may never be found. However, mathematical optimization routines make it
possible to handle many variables.
3.6.1. The use of optimization
What is "optimization" in a mathematical sense? It requires a mathematical model
of reality. A complex engine model, for example, provides many outputs such as
thrust, fuel consumption, weight, noise, manufacturing cost etc., for any
meaningful combination of input variables.
One quantity is selected as a figure of merit: The mathematical model is then
driven to an extreme value of the figure of merit by the optimization algorithm.
You can, for example, ask for the engine with the lowest weight.
The figure of merit alone does not fully describe the problem. Normally there are
constraints for both the variables and the results. For an engine of a subsonic
transport aircraft the optimization task could be: Minimize specific fuel
consumption (figure of merit = SFC) with the following variables:
min max
Bypass ratio 6 BPR 12
Outer fan pressure ratio 1.5 P
13
/P
2
1.8
IPC pressure ratio 1.5 P
24
/P
2
6
HPC pressure ratio 6 P
3
/P
25
12
Burner exit temperature 1400K T
4
1800K
The constraints are:
min max
HPC exit temperature T
3
840K
HPT exit temperature T
45
1250K
Thrust 30 kN F
N

HPT pressure ratio P
4
/P
45
3.2
It is not obvious how the variables affect the constraints. In many cases the
relation between optimization variables and the constraints is very complex. It is
impossible to see instantly whether a specific set of variables fulfils the
constraints.
Let us be more general now: The mathematical model of the engine is a function
which provides exactly one value for the figure of merit Z and several values C
j
for
the constraints, for a set of optimization variables V
i
.
There are only a few rules for setting up a mathematical model. The figure of
merit and the values for the constraints must depend on the optimization variables
directly. If a certain combination of variables results in an invalid figure of merit,
the model must reply with an error message. Then it must give the control back to
the optimization algorithm again.
Figure of merit
Variables and
constraints
200
We are looking for an algorithm to find the optimum set of variables. This set must
have the highest figure of merit possible without violating any constraint. A
minimization task can, by the way, be easily converted into a maximization task
by multiplying the figure of merit by -1.
Here is a good analogy for the task: A mountaineer shall climb the highest peak in
a certain region. He has no map, and the weather is foggy. His only tool is an
altimeter. What will he do? He will certainly check his surroundings first and then
go in the direction of the steepest ascent. In the end he will come to the top of a
mountain. This is a place where each step leads downwards.
The steepest ascent may, however, lead toward a border of the region. Then our
mountaineer will walk along the border until he reaches the place where each
step leads downwards, or out of the allowed region. Is that the end of the story?
Not necessarily. There might be several summits within the region. Our
mountaineer may have found the highest peak by chance, but he cannot be sure
of that. He has to check other parts of the region. In mathematical terms there
might be "local" optimums in addition to the "global" optimum.
Up until now we have not spoken of constraints. These are like fences. A part of
the region is forbidden to our mountaineer. His task is made more difficult
because on his way to the summit he may have to walk downwards for a while to
avoid a forbidden region. The fences, or constraints, often exclude a summit
(where each step leads downwards) as an acceptable solution. They create local
optima that would not exist without fences. Constraints make the task of
optimization difficult.

Gradient strategy
Let us turn to the mathematical algorithm now. The mountaineer who first makes
test steps in several directions uses the gradient strategy as a search method. He
takes test steps in order to find the partial derivatives Z/V
i
. For each
optimization variable he must make one test step before he can start his way in
the right direction.
When the mountaineer takes the first step uphill, the local gradients change. He
must take new test steps to find the new direction of steepest ascent. Taking test
steps takes time, however, and it is therefore better for the mountaineer to
continue in the same direction as long as the altitude increases. When he reaches
a fence (i.e. violates a constraint), the mountaineer stops climbing. Only then will
he make new test steps (seek gradients). The process will eventually take him
along a fence.
GasTurb offers two optimization algorithms. The first is derived from ref. [9]. The
principle is the following (see figure). We begin at the point marked "Start 1",
looking for the direction of the steepest gradient ("Direction 1"). Following this
direction we walk to the highest point. Then we change direction by 90
(orthogonal). We can do this without evaluating the local gradient. Then once
again we look for the highest point. To define the third direction we use the
knowledge of the first two directions. We connect the point "Start 1" with the
optimum point found along "Direction 2". We follow this direction as long as
altitude increases.
This procedure can be reapplied until the search steps or the changes in the
figure of merit become very small. There is a maximum limit for the number of
Local and global
optima
201
optimization steps. In the example shown in the figure the optimum is found along
search direction 7.
Start 1
Start 2
D
ir
e
c
t
io
n

1
D
i
r

2
Direction 3
Dir 4
A

Figure 25: Optimization with a gradient strategy
Up until now we have only dealt with optimization without constraints. In the figure
there is a shaded zone which suggests a forbidden region. If we use the strategy
just described the search for the optimum will end at point "A" along "Direction 2".
We cannot find the global optimum if we begin at "Start 1". If we begin at "Start 2",
however, we will reach the top of the hill very quickly.
Do not underestimate the danger of finding only a local optimum, particularly in
cases involving several constraints. You should repeat the optimization from
several starting points. GasTurb offers the option Restart for this purpose. The
program uses random numbers as the optimization variables and checks, which
is the worst combination. The constraints must be fulfilled for a new starting point.
When you have found the same optimal solution from several starting points, you
can be quite sure that you have found the global optimum.

Adaptive random search
Alternatively, you can try the second optimization strategy offered by GasTurb,
which is based on ref. [10]. In an adaptive random search, random numbers
concentrated around the best solution found previously are used as the
optimization variables. The algorithm is
( )
v
k
R
i
i i
k
R
V V 1 2
*
+ =
with
202
V
i
new value of optimisation variable
V
i
*
value of V
i
producing the best figure of merit
R
i
search region for variable V
i

k
R
range reduction coefficient (positive integer)
k
v
distribution coefficient (positive odd integer)
random number between zero and one
To start an adaptive random search you should have a variable combination that
fulfils all of the constraints. At the start of the search k
R
is 10 and k
v
is 1. In one
search run GasTurb tries {40 times the number of Optimization Variables} random
engine cycles. When all cycles have been calculated, then k
R
will be duplicated
and k
v
will be increased by 2. The search region will get smaller. Another {40
times the number of Optimization Variables} cycles will be calculated, and then k
R

will be duplicated again and k
v
will be further increased by 2. This procedure will
be repeated until all cycles for k
R
=80 have been tried. Cycles that do not fulfil the
constraints will be ignored.
Each time the adaptive random search stops you can also switch over to the
alternate search strategy. Along with the Restart option this constitutes a very
flexible tool for mathematical optimization.

3.6.2. A simple example
An optimization task involving five variables and four constraints was presented in
the introduction to the previous chapter. You can solve this task using GasTurb.
Select a "geared turbofan" as engine and use the data file DEMO_GTF.CYG.
The optimum solution shows a figure of merit (=SFC) of 16.45 and the following
variables:
Bypass ratio 8.4
Outer fan pressure ratio 1.65
IPC pressure ratio 5.99
HPC pressure ratio 6.22
Burner exit temperature 1644K
All constraints are fulfilled with this cycle. Thrust is exactly 30kN. The HPT exit
(=LPT inlet) temperature is at its limit of 1220 K and the HPT pressure ratio is 3.2.
However, the compressor exit temperature, which is 824K doesn't reach its
maximum value.
You will not get this solution on the first trial, but will probably need to restart the
optimization several times. When you have come reasonably close to the
solution, you should also look at the landscape in the vicinity of the optimum. Is
there a distinct optimum or is the region around the optimum fairly flat? Would it
be better to deviate slightly from the optimum to get a benefit that is not described
by the figure of merit?
Sometimes you will get a surprising result for the optimization variables. If you
have obtained the optimum according to the mathematical model, but the result
looks unreasonable, the figure of merit or a constraint may have been defined
awkwardly. Alternatively, the mathematical model may not be representative.
Often you can see immediately which part of reality has not been described
correctly. In such cases optimization gives you a hint as to how to improve your
203
model. Also the result might not be as unreasonable as it looks at first sight.
Optimization may give you new ideas - and that can never do any harm.

3.6.3. Cycle selection for a derivative turbofan
A very common design task is adapting an existing engine for a new application.
In this case there are more constraints than in the design of a brand new engine.
In this chapter first the basic engine, and then the design variables, the
constraints and the figure of merit for the numerical optimization of a derivative
engine, will be described.

Description of the basic engine
Let us assume that we can start from an existing unmixed flow turbofan engine for
a business jet. This type of engine has a rather low overall pressure ratio and a
moderate burner exit temperature, compared to the big turbofan engines used on
commercial airliners. The main cycle parameters are shown in the table below.
Flight condition 11km/Mach 0.8, Max
Climb, installed
Thrust 3.63kN
SFC 19.7 g/(kN*s)
Bypass ratio 4.5
Burner exit temperature 1350K
Overall pressure ratio 17.82
Core pressure ratio 12
ISA corrected mass flow 60 kg/s

Design variables, constraints and figure of merit
Besides the pressure ratios of the new booster and of the fan, the bypass ratio
and the burner exit temperature are among the design variables of the growth
engine. A new low-pressure turbine will be required, but the gas generator will
remain unchanged.
The core compressor of the new engine must not necessarily be operated at the
same operating point as in the basic engine. In fact doing that might be
impossible, because it would require an increase in the mechanical spool speed
beyond the limits of the original design. Thus we obtain the core compressor
mass flow and pressure ratio as two additional design variables for the derivative
engine.
It is standard practice to read a compressor map using given corrected speed and
a value for an auxiliary coordinate (here called beta) rather than using given mass
flow and pressure ratio; see for example ref. 4. In the list of the design variables
we get, instead of the compressor mass flow and its pressure ratio, the two
equivalent variables corrected speed and map coordinate beta.
Altogether there are six design variables for the derivative engine.
Design variables
204
There are several constraints that must be observed in designing the new engine.
For the common core with the basic engine, both high-pressure turbines must
have practically the same flow capacity. We also want the Mach number at the
core exit to be nearly the same for both engines, and consequently, the flow
capacity of the low-pressure turbine must be very similar in both engines. Hence
there will be practically no difference in the high-pressure turbine pressure ratios
of the engines.
An additional constraint is that the low pressure turbine inlet temperature T
45
must
be below say, 1150K, which allows us to design an un-cooled low pressure
turbine from inexpensive materials.
The core compressor is responsible for several constraints in the design. There
might be a temperature limit if the last stage is made from titanium, for example.
Also, a mechanical speed limit may exist. There may be constraints associated
with meeting the minimum surge margin requirements. Another possible
constraint, which will limit the fan diameter of the growth engine, is associated
with the nacelle in which the engine has to be installed.
In our example the task is to increase the Max Climb thrust by 23% to 4.5 kN.
Engine designs with less thrust than required will not be acceptable; therefore the
thrust is a design constraint for the growth engine. In summary, the design
constraints for the derivative engine are:
HP turbine flow capacity Reference value 5%
LP turbine flow capacity Reference value 5%
LP turbine inlet temperature T
45
< 1150K
HPC exit temperature T
3
< 750 K
Core spool speed N
H
< Reference value + 5%
Fan tip diameter < 0.75 m
Max Climb thrust > 4.5 kN

The specific fuel consumption (SFC) for Max Climb rating is the figure of merit
which is to be minimized. A low fuel consumption for cruise will result
automatically.

Mathematical model of the engine
A mathematical model of the growth engine requires a combination of design and
off-design calculations. The components of the low-pressure spool will be newly
designed, while the core components will be operated at some off-design
condition with respect to the design point of the basic engine.
We select the Max Climb rating at altitude as the cycle design point for the growth
engine. For this flight condition the optimum values of the design variables will be
found.
The mathematical model of the engine must take into account that the design
point efficiencies of the fan, the booster, and the low-pressure turbine will change
with the aerodynamic loading. For axial compressors we can use an appropriate
correlation which has been published by Glassman (ref. 11), and for the low-
pressure turbine we can use a simplified version of the preliminary turbine design
routine from Warner (ref. 3).
Constraints
Figure of merit
205
The efficiency and the surge margin of the core compressor will be read from the
map using the values for the design variables core compressor corrected speed
and map coordinate beta.
Note that the temperature limits for T
3
and T
45
in the list of constraints are not
applicable to the Max Climb rating, but to the flight case in which temperatures
are highest. Hence the numerical model of the engine must be capable of
simulating both the Max Climb flight case at altitude (as a cycle design point) and
the Take Off rating for the hot day (ISA+15K) at sea level, Mach 0.2 (as an off-
design condition). Note that during Take Off the engine runs with a 7% higher
mechanical high-pressure spool speed than at Max Climb in this example.
When constraints from an off-design point must be taken into account, then go for
off-design, select Task|Mission and define a mission with one single point before
initiating the optimization. Then you have for each of the seven constraints the
choice, whether it applies to the design point or to the off-design point.

Optimizing the growth engine
Before performing the numerical optimization algorithm, we need to define a
range for the design variables. On one hand this range should be as narrow as
possible so that the search for the optimum will take less effort. However, if the
range is too narrow, the true optimum might be excluded from the search
unintentionally.
Another reason for setting the range of a design variable can be that either the
lower or the upper limit represents a true limit for the engine design. In our
example this is the case for the pressure ratio of the single stage fan, which is
introduced with an upper limit of 1.9. In the table the ranges for all six design
variables are given.
The numerical optimization algorithm requires that a set of design variables,
which fulfills all constraints, be known before the calculation can commence. The
cycle of the basic engine is within the ranges of all design variables; however, it
does not fulfill the minimum thrust constraint.
How can we get a valid cycle to start with? One possible approach is to do a
rough parametric study, which aims to find only a feasible solution, but not the
best solution for the problem. However, such a parametric study would take more
effort than necessary. For the moment, we can redefine the figure of merit and do
a slave optimization to maximize the Max Climb thrust. The minimum thrust
constraint is dropped for this preliminary exercise, which assumes that the basic
engine cycle is valid as a starting point.
While the slave optimization is running, we can observe the progress on the
computer screen. As soon as a cycle is found which has more Max Climb thrust
than required (and fulfills all constraints) we can stop. We redefine the figure of
merit as specific fuel consumption and introduce the minimum thrust constraint.
Then we can begin the final optimization.
The figure shows the optimization window of GasTurb for the example given here,
with six horizontal gauges for the design variables on the left and seven gauges
for the constraints in the upper right part. The gauges are continuously updated
while the optimization is running. In the lower part of the screen the figure of merit
is represented both graphically, with a dot for every valid solution, and
numerically.
Ranges for the
design variables
Starting point
Graphical user
interface
206
We can immediately see from the gauges when a variable or a constraint is
driven toward a range boundary. When the range boundary of a design variable is
not a true limit for the engine design, we can stop the calculation and redefine the
range for the corresponding design variable.
In practice it happens quite often that during the first attempts the optimization
problem is not formulated correctly. In such cases the numerical algorithm drives
the mathematical model in a direction which is obviously nonsense because a
constraint was forgotten, for example. An easy to survey graphical user interface
helps us avoid a waste of computing time.
The optimization can be stopped at any time, so that we may check the best
solution found in more detail than would be possible from the values for the
design variable and constraints alone. For both the engine design point (Max
Climb at altitude) and the off-design condition (SL Take Off ISA+15K Mach 0.2) all
details are accessible, including graphs displaying the low-pressure turbine
design and the operating points in the component maps at off-design.

Figure 26: Graphical user interface during optimization
As explained before there is always the danger that the algorithm finds only a
local optimum, but not the global optimum within the parameter range. When
there are several local optima within the feasible region, then which local optimum
will be found depends on the starting point of the algorithm. Therefore you should
repeat the optimization run several times and pick the best of all the local optima
that are found.
You can easily find a new starting point for the optimization by redefining the
search direction. Instead of minimizing the specific fuel consumption, you look
during a restart run for the cycle with the maximum SFC. The random adaptive
search will lead, for each restart run, to a different starting point even when it
commences several times from the same optimum.
Local and global
optima
207
In the figure one can see from the graphics for the figure of merit that a restart
has happened twice. This is because the algorithm Endless Random Search
restarts automatically after it has homed into an optimum. The best solution found
will be stored in memory and can be restored as soon as the calculation is
stopped.
Some important data for our growth engine example is summarized and
compared to the basic cycle data in the next table.
Basic engine Growth engine
Max Climb Hot day
Take off
Max Climb Hot day
Take off
Thrust [kN] 3.63 12.1 4.5 16.1
SFC 19.7 14.4 19.0 13.5
Bypass ratio 4.5 4.67 5.03 5.15
Fan P
13
/P
2
1.8 1.59 1.69 1.56
Ideal Jet Vel. Ratio 0.78 0.91 0.68 0.77
Booster P
24
/P
2
1.5 1.27 1.82 1.58
HPC P
3
/P
25
12 11.3 12.4 11.7
T
4
[K] 1350 1460 1399 1522
HPT flow capacity 1.378 1.39 1.31 1.32
LPT flow capacity 4.95 4.92 4.95 4.95
T
3
[K] 611 700 654 750
T
45
[K] 976 1060 1005 1097

Discussion of the result
The optimum growth engine is affected by three design constraints: First, it has a
fan diameter of 0,75m; i.e., it uses the largest fan allowed in this exercise.
Second, the compressor exit temperature is at the limit of 750 K for the hot day
Take Off case. Last, the minimum high-pressure turbine flow capacity is found to
be the best solution.
All design variables did remain within the predefined range during the
optimization. The thrust for Max Climb rating at altitude is 4.5 kN. The specific fuel
consumption at altitude is 3.5% better for the growth engine than for the original.
The table also contains a row for the ideal jet velocity ratio. From theoretical
considerations we can derive that this ratio should be equal to the product of fan
and low-pressure turbine efficiencies when an unmixed flow turbofan is to be
optimized for SFC. Note that the numerical optimization algorithm has
automatically found a cycle for which the jet velocity ratio is near to its
theoretically best value.
208
209

4. Nomenclature
4.1. Station Definition

The station definition used in the program follows the international standard for
performance computer programs. This standard has been published by the
Society of Automotive Engineers SAE as ARP 755A.

0 ambient
1 aircraft-engine interface
2 first compressor inlet

125 bypass mixer inner inlet
13 outer stream fan exit
16 bypass exit
161 cold side mixer inlet
163 cold side mixing plane
18 bypass nozzle throat

21 inner stream fan exit
225 bypass mixer outer inlet
24 intermediate compressor exit
25 high pressure compressor inlet

3 last compressor exit, cold side heat exchanger inlet
31 burner inlet
35 cold side heat exchanger exit

4 burner exit
41 first turbine stator exit = rotor inlet
42 high pressure turbine exit before addition of cooling air
(three spool engines)
43 high pressure turbine exit before addition of cooling air
(two spool engines)
43 high pressure turbine exit after addition of cooling air
(three spool engines)
44 high pressure turbine exit after addition of cooling air
(two spool engines)
44 intermediate pressure turbine inlet
(three spool engines)
45 low pressure turbine inlet
(two spool engines)
45 intermediate pressure turbine rotor inlet
(three spool engines)
46 intermediate pressure turbine exit before addition of cooling air
(three spool engines)
47 low pressure turbine inlet
(three spool engines)
48 low pressure turbine exit before addition of cooling air

5 low pressure turbine exit after addition of cooling air

6 jet pipe inlet, reheat entry for turbojet, hot side heat exchanger inlet
210
61 hot side mixer inlet
63 hot side mixing plane
64 mixed flow, reheat entry

7 reheat exit, hot side heat exchanger exit
8 nozzle throat
9 nozzle exit (convergent-divergent nozzle only)


211

4.2. Symbols
The symbols for mass flow, pressures and other quantities are also defined in
ARP 755C. They are composed of the station name and some leading letters.
The following symbols are used in this manual and the program:
A area
alt altitude
amb ambient
ax axial
Bld bleed
BPR bypass ratio
corr corrected
C constant value, coefficient
C compressor
CFG thrust coefficient
Cl cooling
d diameter
dH enthalpy difference
dp design point
ds design
DC pressure distortion coefficient
DT temperature distortion coefficient
f factor
f fuel
far fuel-air-ratio
F thrust
FN net thrust
FG gross thrust
h enthalpy
H high pressure spool
HdlBld handling bleed
HPC high pressure compressor
HPT high pressure turbine
i inner
I intermediate pressure spool
IPC intermediate pressure compressor
IPT intermediate pressure turbine
L low pressure spool
Lk leakage
LPC low pressure compressor (fan)
LPT low pressure turbine
M Mach number
N spool speed
NGV nozzle guide vane
NHR N
H
T/( N
H
T)
dp

NLR N
L
T/( N
L
T)
dp

o outer
P total pressure
prop propulsion
PSFC power specific fuel consumption
PT power turbine
PW shaft power
R gas constant
rel relative
RH reheat
212
RNI Reynolds number index
s static
SD shaft, delivered
SFC specific fuel consumption
SFR steam-fuel-ratio
t (blade) tip
t time
T total temperature
TRQ torque
TSFC thrust specific fuel consumption
U blade (tip) velocity
V velocity
VABI variable bypass injector
VCE variable cycle engine
W mass flow
WFR (injected) water-fuel-ratio


flow angle
nozzle petal angle
sector angle of flow distortion
auxiliary coordinate in maps
difference
P/101.325 kPa
pressure loss coefficient
T/288.15K

R
R*T/(R
dry air
*288.15K)
isentropic exponent
efficiency, effectiveness
entropy function
213

4.3. Units

Property SI unit Imperial unit
Altitude m ft
Temperature K R
Pressure kPa psia
Mass flow kg/s lb
m
/s
Shaft power kW hp
Thrust kN lb
f
TSFC g/(kN s) lb
m
/(lb
f
h)
PSFC kg/(kW h) lb
m
/(hp h)
Velocity m/s ft/s
Specific thrust m/s ft/s
Area m in
Diameter m in
Spec. work H/T J/(kg K) BTU/(lb
m
R)
A*N m RPM 10
-6
in RPM 10
-6
Tip clearance mm mil (=1/1000 in)
Torque Nm lb
f
ft
Spec. shaftpower kW/(kg/s) hp/(lb
m
/s)

214
215

4.4. Limiter codes
Steady state
1 NL_max max low pressure spool speed
2 NLR_max max corrected low pressure spool speed
3 NH_max max high pressure spool speed
4 NHR_max max corrected high pressure spool speed
5 T3_max max burner inlet temperature
6 P3_max max burner inlet pressure
7 T41_max max stator outlet temperature (SOT)
8 T45_max max low pressure turbine inlet temperature
9 T5_max max turbine exit temperature
10 TRQ_max max torque
11 cp_valx_max max composed value


Transient, single spool engines
1 Control normal operation
2 N max spool speed
3 N,corr max corrected spool speed
4 T3 max burner inlet temperature
5 P3 max burner inlet pressure
6 T41 max stator outlet temperature (SOT)
7 T5 max turbine exit temperature
8 cp_valx_max max composed value
9 N_dot_max max dN/dt (acceleration)
10 far_max max fuel-air-ratio (acceleration)
11 WF/P3 max max WF/P3 (acceleration)
12 N_dot_min min dN/dt (deceleration)
13 far_min min fuel-air-ratio (deceleration)
14 WF/P3 min min WF/P3 (deceleration)


Transient, engines with free power turbine
1 Control normal operation
2 NGG max gas generator spool speed
3 NGG,corr max corrected gas generator spool speed
4 T3 max burner inlet temperature
5 P3 max burner inlet pressure
6 T41 max stator outlet temperature (SOT)
7 T45 max power turbine inlet temperature
8 T5 max turbine exit temperature
9 cp_valx_max max composed value
10 NGG_dot_max max dNGG/dt (acceleration)
11 far_max max fuel-air-ratio (acceleration)
12 WF/P3 max max WF/P3 (acceleration)
13 NGG_dot_min min dNGG/dt (deceleration)
14 far_min min fuel-air-ratio (deceleration)
15 WF/P3 min min WF/P3 (deceleration)

216
Transient, turbofan engines
1 Control normal operation
2 NH max high pressure spool speed
3 NH,corr max corrected high pressure spool speed
4 T3 max burner inlet temperature
5 P3 max burner inlet pressure
6 T41 max stator outlet temperature (SOT)
7 T45 max power turbine inlet temperature
8 T5 max turbine exit temperature
9 NL max low pressure spool speed
10 NL,corr max corrected low pressure spool speed
11 cp_valx_max max composed value
12 NH_dot_max max dNH/dt (acceleration)
13 far_max max fuel-air-ratio (acceleration)
14 WF/P3 max max WF/P3 (acceleration)
15 NH_dot_min min dNH/dt (deceleration)
16 far_min min fuel-air-ratio (deceleration)
17 WF/P3 min min WF/P3 (deceleration)
217

5. References

[1] Flugantriebe
H. G. Mnzberg
Springer Verlag, 1972

[2] Gasturbinen - Betriebsverhalten und Optimierung
H. G. Mnzberg, Joachim Kurzke
Springer Verlag, 1977

[3] Computer Program for Preliminary Design Analysis of Axial Flow Turbines
Arthur J. Glassmann
NASA TN D-6702, 1972

[4] Inlet Distortion Effects in Aircraft Propulsion System Integration
J. P. Longley, E. M. Greitzer
in: AGARD Lecture Series 183, 1992

[5] Calculation of Installation Effects within Performance Computer Programs
Joachim Kurzke
in: AGARD Lecture Series 183, 1992

[6] Prop-Fan Performance Terminology
H. S. Wainauski, C. Rohrbach, T. A. Wynosky
SAE Technical Paper 871838, 1987

[7] A Study of Axial-Flow Turbine Efficiency Characteristics in Terms of Velocity
Diagram Parameters
Warner L. Stewart
ASME Paper 61-WA-37, 1961

[8] Das Zweistromtriebwerk bei optimaler und nicht-optimaler Auslegung.
Nebosja Gasparovic
Forsch. Ing.-Wesen 42 (1976) Nr.5

[9] Rechnergesttzte Optimierung statischer und dynamischer Systeme
Heinrich G. Jacob
Fachberichte Messen - Steuern - Regeln
Springer Verlag 1982

[10] Application of the adaptive random search to discrete and mixed integer
optimization.
R. C. Kelahan, J. L. Gaddy
International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, Vol. 12, 289-298
(1978)

[11] Users Manual for Updated Computer Code for Axial-Flow Compressor
Conceptual Design
Arthur J. Glassman
NASA Contractor Report 189171, 1992



218
[12] Advanced User-Friendly Gas Turbine Performance Calculations on a Personal
Computer
Joachim Kurzke
ASME 95-GT-147, 1995

[13] How to Get Component Maps for Aircraft Gas Turbine Performance
Calculations
Joachim Kurzke
ASME 96-GT-164, 1996

[14] Some Applications of the Monte Carlo Method to Gas Turbine Performance
Simulations
Joachim Kurzke
ASME 97-GT-48, 1997

[15] Computer Program for Calculation of Complex Chemical Equilibrium
Compositions and Applications
I. Analysis
Sanford Gordon and Bonnie J. McBride
NASA Reference Publication 1311 October 1994

[16] Computer Program for Calculation of Complex Chemical Equilibrium
Compositions and Applications
II Users Manual and Program Description
Bonnie J. McBride and Sanford Gordon
NASA Reference Publication 1311 June 1996

[17] Gas Turbine Cycle Design Methodology:
A Comparison of Parameter Variation with Numerical Optimization
Joachim Kurzke
ASME 98-GT-343, 1998

[18] A universal combustor model for the prediction of aeroengine pollutant
emissions
A. Wulff, J. Hourmouziadis
ISABE 99-7162, 1999

[19] Aeronautical Technology for the Twenty-First Century
Committee of Aeronautical Technologies
Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board
Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems
National Research Council

National Academy Press
Washington, D.C. 1992

[20] A New Compressor Map Scaling Procedure for Preliminary Conceptional Design
of Gas Turbines
Joachim Kurzke, Claus Riegler
ASME 2000-GT-0006

[21] Some Aspects of Modelling Compressor Behaviour in Gas Turbine Performance
Calculations
Claus Riegler, Michael Bauer, Joachim Kurzke
ASME 2000-GT-0574


219
6. Frequently asked questions

I want to run an off-design point for a given thrust (or fuel flow). How can I do
that?
Define the composed value 20 as thrust FN (or fuel flow WF) and then click in the
Off Design Input window of the notebook page entitled Limiters. Then switch on
the newly defined thrust limiter, which you find on the last line of the limiters page.
Do not forget to enter the value for the thrust.

I am used to using a dot as the decimal separator, as is done in previous
GasTurb versions. Now the program uses a comma. What is the reason behind
this?
The decimal separator in any Windows program is defined by the Windows setup
for your country. GasTurb uses the selection you have made for Windows in
general.

When I click a button or menu there is sometimes no reaction from the program,
but instead I hear a peep from the loudspeaker.
When that happens, you have clicked outside the active window.

The selection list does not show the quantity, which I want to plot.
After, say, a parametric study, the data is scanned for constant values. Quantities
that remained unchanged during the study are not plotted. In an exercise with
bypass ratio and burner exit temperature as parameters the fan inlet temperature
T
2
will not change, for example. In this case, it does not make sense to use T
2
in a
graph, and therefore it is excluded from the plot selection list.

When I perform transient simulations with the slider input option switched on, the
program does not react when I press the PgUp and PgDn keys.
This happens when you use the PgUp and PgDn keys on your numerical keypad,
but the keypad is set up to accept only numerical input. To be able to use PgUp
and PgDn, you must press the NumLock key.

What=s the best way to make GasTurb results agree with the output of my more
sophisticated performance program?
220
Use the Test Analysis option of the program and enter the data from your
program as measured values. This will automatically make many important data
agree. Then set up the internal air system in such a way that you get the values
for mass flow in all thermodynamic stations to agree as closely as possible in both
programs. If the temperatures in the hot section do not line up, then adjust the
burner efficiency or the fuel heating value. Finally you should adjust the nozzle
thrust coefficient(s). The efficiency values within GasTurb might be quite different
from yours in the case of highly cooled turbines when the definition of efficiency is
not the same in both programs.
221


Index

active limiter 142
adaptive random search 201
advance ratio 135
aerodynamic interface plane 33,
123, 150
aerodynamic speed 29, 182
afterburner 131
air system 190
ambient 121
analysis accuracy 188
analysis by synthesis 190
AnSyn factor 191
automatic handling bleed 30
auxiliary coordinate 24
blade metal angle 43
blade metal temperature 129
blade stress 167
booster 69
bucket SFC 183
burner efficiency 125
burner loading 125
business jet 203
business jet engine 177
bypass ratio 187
comparison 190, 196
composed value 17, 142
composed values 174
compressor flow capacity 28
compressor map 24
constraint 32, 199
contour lines 160
control schedules 29
control system 155
convergent nozzle 131
convergent-divergent nozzle 159
cooling effectiveness 167
copyright 13
core efficiency 37, 44, 51, 59, 68,
78, 87, 97, 108, 116
core flow analysis 188
derivative engine 203
discharge coefficient 132
dissociation 121
distortion 149
emission index 127
emissions 127
endless random search 207
engine configuration 15
engine family 184
engine monitoring 32, 190, 198
engine pressure ratio 179
entropy function 120
equilibrium temperature 121
equivalent air speed 30
equivalent dry nozzle area 30, 142
estimated values 28
fan diameter 204
fan map 79
figure of merit 199, 200
flat rating 178
flight envelope 30, 176
flight velocity 122
fuel 120
Fundamental pressure loss 117
gas generator 163, 185
GasTurb Details 133
gradient strategy 200
growth engine 204
half-ideal gas 119
handling bleed 175
heat balance 187
heat exchanger 43
helicopter 163, 171
hot day 178
hydrogen 120
Ideal gas 119
ideal jet velocity 180
ideal power coefficient 135
ideal propeller efficiency 134
ideal thrust coefficient 133, 135
intake map 24
intake pressure ratio 122
intercooler 101
inter-duct 56
inter-stage bleed 46
ISA correction 195
isentropic efficiency 123, 130
iteration 17
iterations 17
Jacobi matrix 139
Joule process 163
JP-4 120
kerosene 120
key for a table 24
keyword 25
limiter 29, 142, 153, 174
local optimum 201, 206
loss coefficient 129
loss correction factor 124
lower heating value 120
222
map scaling 173, 177
mass flow input 61, 70, 80, 184
metafiles 14
mission 31
mixed flow turbofan 181
mixer 76, 96, 115, 180
mixing efficiency 78
Monte Carlo 21, 31, 188
natural gas 120
Newton-Raphson 139
NO
x
severity parameter 127
nozzle 131
nozzle area ratio 133, 159, 182
nozzle petal angle 132
operating line 175, 190
optimization 20, 32, 190, 194, 199
outer fan map 69
output to file 197
parallel compressor theory 149
parametric study 19
peak efficiency 23, 172, 178
polytropic efficiency 123, 130
power generation 28
power lever 154
power turbine 163
propeller 133
propeller map 26, 136
propulsion efficiency 37, 68, 78, 86,
97, 108, 116, 118
ramjet 117
Rayleigh line 125
reheat 29, 142, 154, 159
reheat efficiency 131
reheat part load constant 131
Reynolds correction 30
scan 192
schedule correction 195
sensor checking 194
SFC loop 183
small changes 31, 194
Smith diagram 19
SmoothC 24
splines 160
steam injection 41
steam-fuel-ratio 121
steepest ascent 200
supersonic aircraft 181
surge margin 31, 69, 151, 172, 175
table 24
test analysis 187
thermal efficiency 44, 51, 58
thermodynamic thrust 178
thrust rating 179
tip clearance 42, 129
tolerance 196
transient 153
turbine capacity method 187
turbine design 19, 128, 165
turbine flow capacity 28
turbine map 26
turbofan 177, 187
turbojet 157
turboprop 44
variable geometry 28
water injection 41
water-fuel-ratio 121
working directory 14