THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

The body has many defences against disease. The skin, digestive, respiratory, urinary or reproductive systems form a first line of defence by decreasing the chance of entry of pathogens into the body. If a pathogen penetrates these defences, the second and third line of defence comes into force. The Second Line of Defence The Third Line of Defence

Non-specific immune responses (i) inflammation (ii) phagocytosis

Specific immune responses (i) antibodies (ii) T-lymphocytes (ii) B-lymphocytes

SECOND LINE OF DEFENCE

Non-specific Immune Responses (inflammation and phagocytosis) An inflammatory response develops when something damages or kills cells of any given tissue.

Fast acting phagocytes proteins (any white blood cell that is capable of phagocytosis) escape from the bloodstream and enter adjacent tissue engulf pathogens.

Neutrophils leave capillaries

Plasma

leak from the capillaries Blood platelets also leave capillaries

Monocytes arrive later

Mast cells in connective tissue

Both engulf pathogens by

Clotting occurs

phagocytosis Release histamine

Dilation of arteries

Increases permeability of walls of capillaries

Increased blood supply to the area

plasma and protein leave capillaries

Warmth and redness

Swelling

THIRD LINE OF DEFENCE (Also referred to as The Immune System)

Specific Immune Repsonses When inflammation is not enough to overwhelm an invader and an infection becomes well established, then white blood cells called B and T lymphocytes (also called just B and T cells) form armies that engage in battle. Each kind of cell, virus or substance bears unique molecular configurations that give it a unique identity. It is this identity that the lymphocytes will recognize in their response to this infection. Initially the recognition of the invaders identity is enough to make lymphocytes divided repeatedly by mitosis to give rise to huge populations of B and T lymphocyctes. As the divisions proceed, subpopulations of the new cells become specialized to respond to the foreign body/pathogen in different ways, ie:

Effector cells These engage and destroy the enemy.

Memory cells. These enter a resting phase They will take part in a more

rapid response if the same enemy shows up again. How do the B and T lymphocytes actually work? The cells of any organism have a special protein molecule (MHC) on their membranes, which act as an identity tag. This helps the immune system recognize self. BUT cells that do not belong to that organism do not have a self-tag. Any non-self tag = an antigen. The presence of antigens in the blood system triggers an immune response in the following way:Lymphocytes (once produced in the bone marrow) follow one of the following pathways, becoming effector cells -

They pass through the thymus gland

They congregate in lymph nodes, the tonsils , spleen, appendix and patches in the gut

become sensitized and become T lymphocytes On contact with a foreign body or its antigen, some T cells release proteins into the body fluids, which:1. attract phagocytes to the area 2. prevent the foreign matter from leaving the area 3. activate the monocytes (thus, more phagocytosis) 4. kill the foreign matter become B lymphocytes On contact with a foreign body or its antigen, some B cells produce chemicals called antibodies, which:1. coat the foreign matter to help phagocytosis 2. make the foreign matter stick together 3. cause the foreign matter to break up and dissolve

Some of both the B and T cells become memory cells. They persist long after the original antigen has been

removed or destroyed. Although T-cells and B lymphocytes are capable of producing independent immune responses, they sometimes work together. Some T-cells have a helper function, stimulating the production of antibodies from the B Lymphocytes. The AIDS virus attacks helper T-cells, thus inhibiting the whole immune system. The AIDS victim is therefore vulnerable to all sorts of diseases. It has been found that mental stress, bereavement, loneliness and depression affect the operation of the lymphocytes and reduce T-cell activity. Immunological specificity and memory thus involves the following 3 steps:1. recognition of antigen/s 2. repeated cell divisions 3. differentiation into effector cells (which produce antibodies) and memory cells.

ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
Acquired immunity refers to the protection an animal develops against certain types of microbes or foreign particles. Immunity may be naturally acquired, through natural exposure to microbes, or artificially acquired as a result of medical treatment. However, there are two more familiar ways in which we refer to acquired immunity viz:

Active immunity This develops when a person is exposed to microorganisms or foreign substances and that persons immune system responds.

Passive immunity This is acquired when antibodies are transferred from one person to another. The person does not make the antibodies themselves.

Some examples of ways in which immunity is gained can be seen in the flow diagram below. Acquired Immunity

Naturally Acquired

Artificially Acquired

Active Antigens enter the body naturally as in cases where: Microbes cause the person to actually catch the disease Sub-clinical infections (those that produce no evident symptoms)

Passive Antibodies pass from the mother to the foetus via the placenta during pregnancy, or to her infant through her milk. The infants body does not produce any antibodies of its own.

Active Antigens (weakened, dead or fragments of microbes) are introduced in vaccines. The body produces antibodies and specialized lymphocytes.

Passive Preformed antibodies in an immune serum are introduced into the body by injection (e.g. antivenom used to treat snake bites). The body does not produce any antibodies.

The body produces antibodies and specialized lymphocytes