1

MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERNG



ELE2211: ELECTROMAGNETIC FILEDS CLASS NOTES




2
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FIELD AND CIRCUIT THEORY .....................................3
1.1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 3
1.2. CIRCUIT LAWS OBTAINED USING FIELD QUANTITIES ...................................................... 3
1.3. MAXWELLS EQUATIONS AS GENERALISATIONS OF CIRCUIT EQUATIONS .............. 5
1.4. BREAK DOWN OF SIMPLE CIRCUIT THEORY IN PROBLEM ANALYSIS ......................... 8
CHAPTER TWO: UNBOUNDED WAVE PROPAGATION ............................................................... 10
2.1. THE WAVE EQUATION IN A PERFECT DIELECTRIC ......................................................... 10
2.2. UNIFORM PLANE WAVES ........................................................................................................ 12
2.3. FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE OF THE CLASSIFICATION MATERIALS .......................... 14
2.4. WAVE PROPAGATION IN A CONDUCTIVE MEDIUM .......................................................... 15
2.5. POWER FLOW IN ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS ................................................................ 18
2.6. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF UNIFORM PLANE WAVES .................................... 21
2.7. POLARISATION .......................................................................................................................... 24
CHAPTER 3: WAVE PROPAGATION IN TRANSMISSION LINES .................................................. 30
3.1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
3.2. TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATIONS (DISTRIBUTED CIRCUIT ANALYSIS) .................... 30
3.3. STANDING WAVES ON TRANSMISSION LINES .................................................................. 35
3.4. TRANSMISSION LINES MATCHING CONSIDERATIONS................................................... 38
3.5. GRAPHICAL AIDS TO TRANSMISSION LINE CALCULATIONS ........................................ 44
CHAPTER 4: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION IN WAVEGIDES . ERROR! BOOKMARK
NOT DEFINED.
4.1. THE INFINITE PLANE WAVEGUIDE ........................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
4.2. THE RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE. ........................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
4.3. CIRCULAR WAVEGIDES ............................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
CHAPTER 5: WAVE ROPAGATION IN OTHER SYSTEMS ........... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
6.1. PLASMAS ......................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
6.2. MICROSTRIP TRANSMISSION LINES ................................................................................... 50
6.3. PROPAGATION IN OPTICAL FIBERS .................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
REFERENCES: .................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
APPENDICES ...................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
APPENDIX A: GRAPHICAL SOLUTION TO DOUBLE STUB MATCHING ....... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT
DEFINED.
CHAPTER 1: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FIELD AND CIRCUIT
THEORY
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Conventional circuit theory, where we deal with Voltage, V and Current, I, and
field theory, where we use the field vectors E, D, B, H, and J are inter-related.
Consideration of circuits from either point of view gives the same results.
However, there are certain inherent assumptions in the circuit theory approach,
which become invalid as circuit dimensions and the impressed signal wavelength
become comparable. This necessitates either the use of field theory, which is the
more general approach or a modification of the circuit theory approach.
In this chapter, we shall see how the two are related, and why circuit theory has
limitations. It will be shown that the normal expressions can be obtained using
field theory, and that Maxwells equations, the four commandments of
electromagnetic field propagation, can be obtained as generalizations of circuit
expressions.
1.2. CIRCUIT LAWS OBTAINED USING FIELD QUANTITIES
(1) Ohms law:
Consider the conducting rod in figure 1.1 with parameters as shown





Figure 1.1: Conducting Rod of Uniform cross-section and current density
If is the electric field at a point, then J = and

q q
p p
J Jl l
dl dl J

= = =

1.1
Note that we have assumed a uniform rod with a uniform current density, J.
Since:
q
p
dl V =

(potential difference between p and q)

J I = (Current through the rod)
p
q
A
l
J,
4

l
R

(Resistance of the rod)

Equation 1.1 states that V=IR, which is Ohms law derived from field theory.
(ii) The series R-L-C circuit
Figure 1.2 shows a simple series R-L-C circuit





Figure 1.2: Simple R-L-C Circuit
Recall Faradays law in integral form:
dl ds
t

[Surface not changing] 1.2
Consider the RHS. Since the circuit in figure 1.2 is time invariant, the partial
derivative can be replaced by an ordinary one: furthermore, ds = , the total
flux (we assume it links all turns). The RHS can therefore be written as:
( )
d d dI
ds LI L
t dt dt dt

= = =

1.3
The right hand side can be broken into five parts:
The integral from 0 to 1 - V
01
, is the applied voltage. Note that V
01
=-V
10
;
The integral from 2 to 3;
3 3
2 2
J
dl dl IR

= =

1.4
The integral from 4 to 5, where dl

= voltage drop across an element.

Voltage drop across the resistor is not the same as that across the
capacitor. Across resistor, energy is actually lost. Across the capacitor,
energy is stored as
5 5
4 4
D Q
dl dl
C
= =

1.5
Note: D= Q/A, and the integral gives the capacitor plate spacing d
multiplied by Q/A. we then use C = / d
With no charge on the capacitor at t = , the charge Q will be given by
0
1
7
6
5 4 3 2
V
C
R
L
5

5
4
1
,
t t
Q Idt dl Idt
c

= =

1.6
The integral from 6 to 7; By virtue of the fact that we assume a perfectly
conducting filament, which must have zero tangential electric field; this part
of the integral is identically zero.
Combining equation 1.3 to 1.7 then gives us the following result:

10
1
t
dI
V IR L Idt
dt C

= + +

1.7
Equation 1.7 is the familiar expression for the series R-L-C circuit, but this time
derived from field theory. Several assumptions were used:
(A) A filamentary conductor defines the closed path or circuit. This conductor
has zero tangential electric field (E) everywhere. For perfect conductor,
tan
0 =
and 0 dl =

. No voltage drop along conductor.

(B) Maximum circuit dimensions are small compared to the wavelength.
(C) Circuit elements are ideal, i.e., displacement current, magnetic flux and
imperfect conductivity are confined to capacitors, inductors and resistors
respectively.
The above two examples have demonstrated that ordinary circuits, can be
analyzed using field theory.
1.3. MAXWELLS EQUATIONS AS GENERALISATIONS OF CIRCUIT
EQUATIONS
Maxwells equations can be obtained as generalizations of Amperes, Faradays,
and Gausss laws, which are circuit equations.
(i) Amperes law: d l I =

1.8
Note: A Capacitor stores energy predominantly in the electric field while an
Inductor stores energy predominantly in the magnetic field.
Stokes theorem coverts the line integral in equation 1.8 around a closed path to
an integral over the surface enclosed by the path. Consequently, a more general
relation is obtained by substituting for I using the conduction current density, J.
An even more general expression is obtained by including the displacement
current density, D t to give:
s s s
D D
dl J ds ds J ds
t dt
| |
= + = +
|

1.9
6
This is the loop or mesh form of one of Maxwells equations derived from
Amperes law. Using Stokes theorem, LHS of the integral in equation 1.9 can be
converted to an open surface integral. We thus get the point form of the equation:
D
J
t

= +

1.10
(ii) Faradays Law (for constant flux):
d
dt

= 1.11
Where; V is the induced emf in a circuit and is the total magnetic flux linking
the circuit.
Since voltage is the integral around the circuit of , dl and is the integral of
ds over the surface enclosed by the circuit, the more general form of equation
1.11 is:
s
dl ds
t

1.12
The surface may be changing so the time derivative should be inside the integral
sign. This is another one of Maxwells equations. The point relation is obtained by
applying Stokes theorem to get:
t

1.13
(iii) Gausss law (electric field) D ds Q =

1.14
Generally, total charge is the integral, over the volume of interest, of the charge
density, p. Equation 1.14 becomes:
D ds dv =

1.15
The relation is obtained by applying the divergence theorem (which converts an
integral over a closed surface to a volume integral within the volume enclosed) to
the LHS of equation 1.15 to give:
D = 1.16
(iv) Gauss law (magnetic field) 0 ds =

1.17
The magnetic field does not have source points. Thus, there is no such things as
a magnetic charge, implying that magnetic charge = 0 as in equation 1.7.
Applying the divergence theorem gives
0 = 1.18
To summarize these results:
7

0
J D
D
= +
=
=
=
&
&

( )
0
dl D J ds
d l ds
D ds dv
ds

= +
=
=
=

&

&

I
II
III
IV

The above field equations have been obtained as generalizations of circuit
equations. These four equations contain the continuity equation,
J = or J ds dv =

1.19
1.3.1. Free space relationships
In free space, and for most practical purposes in air, the conduction current
density and the charge density are zero, permitting simplification of Maxwells
equation:

0
0
D
D
=
=
=
=
&
&

1.3.2. Harmonic fields
For harmonic time variation of a field,
jwt
e

= ; jw
t

.
In other words,
taking a partial derivative with respect to time for harmonic fields is equivalent to
multiplying the field by j. Similarly, a double partial derivative with respect to
time is equivalent to multiplying by -
2
w . For harmonic time variations, Maxwells
equations therefore are:
I.
( ) jw = +

Circulation of the magnetic field generates
an orthogonal electric field.
II. JW = Circulation of the electric field generates an
orthogonal magnetic field.
III.
, , D

= = =
Source point of an Electric
Field is a charge. Charge enclosed by the surface determines the flux out
of the surface.
IV. 0 = Magnetic field has no source points
Note that the constitutive relations , ; D = = and J = have been used,
and that a homogeneous isotropic medium has been assumed.
8
1.4. BREAK DOWN OF SIMPLE CIRCUIT THEORY IN PROBLEM
ANALYSIS
Simple circuit theory assumes a current (conduction or displacement) which is
constant throughout a circuit element, i.e., even if the current is alternating, the
same current in the same direction exists at all similarly aligned cross-sections of
the circuit element at any instant in time. This is because at low frequencies the
wavelength is much greater than the dimensions of the circuit element, so the
field strength can be assumed constant. This is illustrated in Figure 1.3A.
At higher frequencies, wavelength approaches circuit dimensions so that the
assumptions of constant electric field and current are no longer valid (Figure.
1.3B). These vary from point to point in circuit element at any instant in time.





Figure .1.3: circuit component relative size at low frequencies.
When simple circuit theory breaks down, it is necessary to use distributed circuit
analysis. Circuit quantities (V and I) are permitted to change incrementally along
the circuit. Defining relationships are in the form of differential equations. The
physical circuit is then described in the form of equivalent impedance, to which
simple circuit theory can be applied. This approach will be used when analyzing
transmission lines.
1.5. WAVES & WAVEGUIDING SYSTEMS
In all applications, electromagnetic energy must be guided either for transmission
from a point (telephone wires, component interconnections, etc), or for feeding
antennas before radiation and consequent unguided (unbounded) transmission
can occur.

Figure 1.4: Examples of wave guiding structures

Wave guiding systems are classified into two broad categories:
Component
Half a Wavelength
A
wavelength
B
9
(i) Transmission Lines:
These are characterized by having at least two conductors, and supporting the
TEM mode in normal operation (see examples in Figure 1.4).
(ii) Wave guides:
These are guiding systems, which support the transverse electric (TE) or
transverse magnetic (TM) modes in normal operation. They are incapable of
supporting the TEM mode and are characterized by having a cut- off frequency
for each mode below which propagation cannot occur. Examples include
rectangular and circular wavegides (Figure 1.4) .
We shall study these guiding systems in their normal mode of operation and
derive the important relationships and parameters pertaining to them, starting
with Transmission lines in this chapter.
1.6. ASSIGNMENT ONE:
1.6.1. 1.1. Starting with Maxwells equations derive the continuity equation
1.2. Show that for harmonic time variation of a field
, given as

jwt
e

=
2
2
2
w
t

=

1.3. Show that the partial differential equation
2 2
2 2
A A
x t

=


has a general
solution of the form:
( ) ( )
0 2 0 I
A f V t f v t = + + ; with Vo appropriately defined

10
CHAPTER TWO: UNBOUNDED WAVE PROPAGATION
2.1. THE WAVE EQUATION IN A PERFECT DIELECTRIC
Definition: Wave motion:
A group of phenomena constitute a wave if a physical phenomenon occurring at
one place at a given time is reproduced at other locations later, the time delay
being proportional to the space separation from the first location.
Consider, e.g.,
( )
1 0
f V t at times
1
t and
2
t (Figure 2.1). At any fixed time (e.g.
t=t
1
,t=t
2
etc) the function only depends on X. Evidently the phenomenon travels in
the positive x direction with a velocity
0
V . Similarly,
( )
2 0
f X t + represents a
phenomenon traveling in the negative x direction.







Figure 2.1: Illustration of a propagating phenomenon.
We shall now develop the equation governing the propagation of fields in a
perfect dielectric (no charges, no conduction current), starting with Maxwells
equations.
( ) jw = + I
JW = II
D =
III
0 = IV
We differentiate I w.r.t time and since the curl operation is w.r.t space we can
reverse the order of differentiation:
LHS: ( )
t

&

2 1
( )
o
V t t
1
( )
o
f x v t

2
( )
o
f x v t +

11
RHS:
( )
D
t t


= =

& & &&

Where and have been assumed time- independent.
i.e.
2
2
t

| |
= =
|

\
&
2.1
Taking the curl of LHS and RHS of II, and use =
& &
for time invariant :
=
&
2.2
Use 2.1: =
&&
2.3
Use identity:
2
=
i.e.
2
=
&&
2.4
Therefore:
2
=
&&
2.5
Similarly,
2
=
&&
2.6
Equation 2.5 and 2.6 are the wave equations in a perfect dielectric and must be
satisfied by and for electromagnetic wave propagation. For free space,
0
= and
0
= and, assuming harmonic time dependence, we get Helmholtz
equation (a similar equation can be derived for ):

2 2
0 k E + = 2.7
Where,
2 2
w = 2.8
And
2 2
w
w f
v v

= = = = 2.9
It can be shown that if E and H are independent of the y and z directions (a
common case) 2.5 and 2.6 reduce to
2 2
2 2
t

=

2.10
2 2
2 2
x t

=

2.11
Consider equation 2.10 which is equivalent to three scalar equations in
,
& .
x y z
It will be shown later that 0
x
= for a wave propagating in the x
direction. Taking say the y component (the z component behaves similarly) gives
equation 2.10 as:
12
2 2
2 2
y y
x t

=

2.12
This partial differential equation has a general solution of the form (HW 1.3):
( ) ( )
0 2 0 y I
f V t f v t = + + 2.13

With reference to the definition given earlier, it is evident that equation 2.13
describes wave motion.
2.2. UNIFORM PLANE WAVES
Definition:
A uniform plane wave is an electromagnetic wave in which electric and magnetic
fields are orthogonal, both laying in a plane transverse to the direction of
propagation, each being uniform in any such plane (Figure.2.2). Note that, the
fields in the illustration are functions of x and t only.







Figure 2.2: UPW propagating in positive x direction
Writing the wave equation 2.10 in terms of its components;
2 2
2 2
x x
x t

=

2.14 (a)
2 2
2 2
y y
x t

=

2.14(b)
2 2
2 2
Z
E E
x t

=

2.14(c)
In free space, the divergence of the electric field E is zero, so that:
H
E
y
z
x
y
E

z
H
Direction of motion
13
0
y
x z
E
E
x y z

+ + =

2.15
The last two terms on the LHS are zero because E is independent of y and z.
Therefore even the first component must be zero. This means that either

is
constant or equal to zero. However, a constant cannot be part of wave motion,
therefore 0

= . A similar argument for the magnetic field shows that 0

= .
We can therefore conclude that uniform plane waves are transverse.
2.2.1. Intrinsic impedance
For E, H independent of y and z and having no x components, the curl
expressions can be written as:
y
z
y z
a a
x x

= +

2.16(a)
y
z
y z
a a
x x

= +

2.16(b)
Substitute into I and II:
y y
z z
y z y z
E
E
a a a a
x x t t

| |
+ = +
|

\
2.17(a)
y y
z z
y z y z
a a a a
x x t t

| |
+ = +
|

\
2.17(b)
Equating components in the y and z directions gives:
y
z
x t

=

2.18(a)
y
z
x t

=

2.18(b)
y
z
x t

=

2.19(a)
y
z
x t

=

2.19(b)
With ( )
1 2
0
v

=
,
( )
1 0 y
f V t = for propagation in positive x direction. Then:
( )
( )
( )
0
1
0 1 0
0
y
x v t f
v f x v t
t x v t t

= =

;
where
( )
1
1
0
f
f
x v t

=


14
Using 2.18(a),
0 1, 1
z
z
v f f dx
x

= =

; But
( )
0
1
1 1
x v t f
f f
x x

= =


So
1
1 z
f
x c f c
x

= + = +

We can ignore the constant C since it is not part of wave motion, giving:
;
y
z y
z
E
E


= =

2.20(a)
Similarly,
z
y

2.20(b)
Since,
2 2 2 2
;
y z z y
= + = +

2.21
E is volts/m, and H is in amps/m, so that E/H has dimensions of impedance. This
ratio, which depends only on the dielectric, is called the intrinsic impedance of
the medium. In free space the intrinsic impedance is
( )
0 0
/ 377 = ohm
2.3. FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE OF THE CLASSIFICATION MATERIALS
Before obtaining the wave equation in conducting media, it is instructive to
establish guidelines by which dielectrics and conductors can be distinguished.
Consider equation I

( ) jw E = +
We see that the term on the RHS has two components: conduction current
( )
and a displacement current
( ) jw . While the conduction current is independent
of frequency, the displacement current increases with frequency. This means that
as frequency increases, a material can change from a conductor to a dielectric. It
therefore makes sense to classify materials depending on the relative
magnitudes of conduction and displacement currents:
w >
1
100 w

< Dielectrics
w
1
100
100 w

< < Quasi conductors

w < 100
w

< Conductors
15
It is therefore possible for the same material to behave as a dielectric, a quasi
conductor, or conductor depending on frequency (See example in HW 2.1).
2.4. WAVE PROPAGATION IN A CONDUCTIVE MEDIUM
2.4.1. Propagation Constant for a Conductive medium
Maxwells equations for a conductive medium will retain both the conduction and
displace current components, but there will be no stored charge. As before, we
differentiate I with respect to time; take the curl of II, and carry out the necessary
substitutions to get the wave equation for the electric field E. A similar derivation
can be used to get the wave equation for the magnetic field H (see equation
2.22)

2
= +
&& &
2.22(a)

2
= +
&& &
2.22(b)
For harmonic time dependence, Helmholtz equation for a conducting medium is

( )
2 2
0 w jw + = 2.23(a)

( )
2 2
0 w jw + = 2.23(b)
Rearranging

2 2
0 = 2.24(a)

2 2
0 = 2.24(b)
where,
( )
2
jw jw = + 2.25
a j = + is a complex number known as the propagation constant. For a UPW
propagating in the x direction, 2.24 gives:

2
2
2
E
x

2.26
2.26 has a solution of the form:

( )
( )
0
0
, Re
x
x jwt
x e
x t e

+
=
( =



( )
0
Re
j wt
e e

(
=

2.27
Evidently equation 2.27 represents a wave traveling in the positive x direction,
attenuating (decaying) according to e
-X
with as the phase shift per unit
16
distance. is therefore called the attenuation constant and the phase constant
of the medium.
Using 2.25 and considering only positive square roots, it can be shown that:
2
2 2
1 1
2
w
w

| |
= + |
|
\

and
2
2 2
1 1
2
w
w

| |
= + + |
|
\

2.28
From the definition of ,

2

= so that v =
w
f

=
2.4.2. Good dielectric
A good dielectric will always have some losses (as opposed to a perfect
dielectric). However since
( ) / 1 w
,
it can then be shown that (HW 2.3):

2
a

2.29(a)

2
2 2
1
8
w
w

| |
+
|
\
2.29(b)
The wave velocity, v, will be:

1
2
2 2
1
1
8
w
v
w

| |
= = +
|
\

2
0 2 2
1
8
v
w

| |

|
\
2.30
( )
1
2
0
v = is the velocity of propagation in the unbounded lossless dielectric. It
can be seen that the effect of small losses is a reduction in the velocity of
propagation of the wave.
Good conductor
For a good conductor,
( ) / 1 w This gives:

( ) 45 jw jw jw w w

= + = <

2.31

2
w
a

= 2.32

2
w
= 2.33
17

2 w w
v

= = 2.34
2.4.3. Skin Effect
From 2.32 and 2.33, it is evident that and will be very large for a good
conductor, especially at high frequencies. This has several consequences:
(i) Velocity of propagation will be very low (see 2.34)
(ii) The wave attenuates very rapidly as it propagates through a conductor.
Consequently, radio frequency waves penetrate only to a small depth in a good
conductor before they become negligibly small compared to their surface
magnitude. We define the depth of penetration, or skin depth, , as the depth at
which the wave is 1/e (approximately 37%) of its surface value.
If the electric field strength at the surface is E, then at a depth , the field strength
E
s
, is given by:

1
1
s
s
a
s s s
e e
e

= = = Or
1
s
a
e e

=
=>
1 2
s
w

= = 2.36
Using the result of equation 2.32 for a good conductor
Example: Copper with
7 7
0
5.8 10 / ; 4 10 mhos m

= = =
, the depth at
100Hz, 1 MHz, 1GHz and 100GHz are 6.6m, 6.6x10
-2
mm, 2.1x10
-3
mm and
2.1x10
-4
mm respectively.

Surface Impedance:
From the above example, we see that current is confined to a very thin sheet on
the surface of a good conductor at high frequencies. It is convenient to define
surface impedance,

tan
s
s
J

=
2.37
Where,
tan
is the tangential electric field at the surface and
s
J is the resulting
linear surface current density (total conduction current per meter width of the
surface).
Consider a thick flat plate with a current distribution as shown in figure 2.3:

0
y
J J e

=

2.38
The limit is justified only if the thickness, t>>
s
so that


18

0 0
t
J Jdy Jdy

= =


0
0
0
y
J
J e dy

= =

2.39





Figure 2.3: Conduction current distribution in a thick plate
Since,
tan
0 tan
,
s
J J

= = , then
tan
s
s
Z
J

= =
Recall that for a good conductor,
0
45 w = < (equation 2.33)
( ) ( ) 1
2
s m
jw w
Z j

= = + =

1
s
j

+
= 2.40
Surface resistance
1
2
s
s
w
R


= = 2.41
And Surface reactance
1
s
s
X

= 2.42
We see therefore that a conductor having a thickness >>
s
with exponential
current distribution has the same resistance as a conductor of thickness
s
with
the total current as before uniformly distributed throughout its thickness.
Power loss in the conductor is thus
2
eff
s s
J R = 2.43
With J
seff
as the effective value of the linear current density


2.5. POWER FLOW IN ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
Consider I: xH J D J = + = +
& &

J xH =
&
2.44
Dimensions of 2.44 are those of current density (A/
2
m ). Multiply through by :
J x =
&
2.45(a)
Thick conductor
Thickness
s

t
y
tan E

y
y
o J J e

=

J

19
Dimensions of 2.44(a) are those of power per unit volume
(Amps/m
2
xVolts/mWatts/m
3
)
Applying vector identity xF F x xF = to first term on the right:
x x x =

Or x x x =
Substitute into 2.45(a) J xE x =
&

From II, = =
&

And Substituting: J x =
& &

Since
2
1
2 t

&
and
2
1
2 t

&
(see below)

2 2
2 2
J x
t t

=

2.45(b)


Consider the integral of 2.45(b) over some volume V
( )
2 2
2 2
v v v
E Jdv dv x dv
t
| |
= +
|

\

2.45(c)
Apply divergence theorem to last term:
,
v
x dv x ds =

over S the Surface enclosing V, gives

2 2
2 2
v v s
Jdv dv x ds
t
| |
= +
|

2.46
(1) (2) (3)
Evidently
1. J is power dissipation/ unit volume
v
Jdv

is the total power

dissipated in a volume v.
2.
2
1
2
is Stored electric energy/unit volume and
2
1
2
is Stored magnetic
energy/unit volume. Therefore, the volume integral (2) represents total
stored energy. The negative time derivative represents the rate of decrease
of stored energy.
3. From the law of conservation of energy, the rate of dissipation of energy (1)
must equal the rate at which stored energy is decreasing plus the rate at
0

jwt
e a =
0

jwt
jw e a =
& 2 2
0
jwt
jw e =
&

2 2 2
0
2
jwt
jw e
t

2
1
2 t

&

20
which energy enters the volume V, i.e., (3) must represent the of flow of
energy inwards through the surface of V.
s
x ds

is the rate of energy flow outwards from the volume V.

s
ds

is the rate of energy flow inwards through surface of V

Poyntings theorem:
P x = and called, Poyntings vector, at any point is a measure of the rate of
flow of energy per unit area at that point. The direction of flow (direction of
Poyntings vector) is perpendicular to both & . Note that is normal to &
Perfect Dielectric (UPW):
Total energy density due to electric and magnetic fields is
( )
2 2
1
2
+ . Given
that wave velocity is
0
v , the rate of energy flow per unit area

( )
2 2
0
1
2
v = +

0
0
1
2
sin90
v
v

| |
= +
|
|
\
| |
= = =
|
\

2.5.1. Conducting Medium
The normal component of Poyntings vector at the surface of a conductor
accounts for power loss in the conductor. Assuming a flat metal plate with
thickness
s
The tangential components of electric and magnetic fields,
tan tan
&
are related by

tan tan s
= 2.47
Where 45
s
w

= (see equation. 2.40)

Since & are no longer in time phase we use the complex Poyntings vector.

1
2
x

= 2.48
21

tan tan
1
2
x =

2.49
Then
( )
tan tan
1
Re
2
av
x

= 2.50
Note:
tan tan
& are in space quadrature so that the cross product maintains
both magnitudes. However,
tan
leads
tan
by 45 in time (see equation 2.47) so
that a factor of cos45 is introduced.
i.e,
0
tan tan
1
cos 45
2
av
= 2.51

2
2 tan
tan
2 2
1 1
2 2
s
s

= =

2.52
Now
s
J is equal in magnitude to the tangential magnetic field

2 2
2
1
/
2
av s s
J watts m =

( )
2
s s
R J eff = 2.53
i.e., Poyntings vector can be used to account for power loss in the conductor.
2.6. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF UNIFORM PLANE WAVES

We shall consider only normal incidence. (see Jordan & Balmain,
Electromagnetic Waves and radiating systems, for the case of incidence at
angles
0
90 < )
2.6.1. Perfect conductor
2
0
s
w

= = for i.e., all energy will be reflected. Let the perfectly

conducting surface be at X=0 (Figure 2.4). Then;
Incident wave:
j x
i
e

= 2.54(a)
Reflected wave:
j x
r
e

= 2.54(b)

Figure 2.4 standing & waves near the surface of a perfect conductor
22
Since the transmitted field is zero, continuity of tangential E field across the
boundary requires that:
0,
r i
+ = or
r i
= 2.55
At any point x from the x=0 plane, the total field
T
is:

( )
j x j x
T i r
x e e
+
= +

( )
j j
i
e e
+
=
2 sin
i
j =
( ) { }
, Re 2 sin
jwt
T i
x t j xe =
2 sin sin
i
x wt = 2.56
Equation 2.56 represents a standing wave of maximum amplitude, 2
i
which
varies sinusoidally with distance from the reflecting plane (Figure 2.4)
By considering Poyntings vector ( x ), it is evident that for a reversal of power
flow, only one of the fields can have a phase reversal (Both reversed power
flow direction unchanged). i.e.

( )
j x j x
i r T X
e e

= +
2
i
cos x =
( ) ( )
, Re
jwt
T T
x t e =
2 cos cos
i
x wt = 2.57
Which is also a standing wave. The surface current density
1
s T
J Am

=
Meanwhile, whereas &
i i
are in time phase, &
T T
and
2

out of phase,
so that there is no average flow of power.
2.6.2. Perfect Dielectric (Figure . 2.5)
1 X = 0 2

1 1, 1
,
2 2 2
, ,

,
,
i i
r r



2 2 2
, ,
,
t t



, , , i r t incident, reflected, transmitted respectively. Recall that for a perfect
dielectric.

1 1 2
, ;
i i r r t t
= = = Where = is the intrinsic impedance.
23
Continuity requirements are that:
i r t
i r t
+ =
+ =

Given the relationships above, derive equation 2.58- 2.61:

1 2
2 1
2 1
1 2
r
i

= =
+
+
2.58

1 2
2 1
2 1
1 2
r
i

= =
+
+
2.58

2
1 2
2 1
1 2
2
t
i

=
+
+
2.59

t r
i i

=

2.60

1
2
t t
i i

=

2.61
Equations 2.58- 2.61 define the reflection and transmission coefficients for the
electric and magnetic fields.

Re
Amplitudeofreflectedwave
flectionCoefficient
Amplitudeofincidentwave
Amplitudeoftransmittedwave
TransmissionCoefficient
Amplitudeofincidentwave
=
=

The field reflection coefficient, is given by:
r r
i i


= =

2.62
In the general case, is complex, with 1& 180 180 .


Assume that is in the y Direction i.e.,

( )
{ }
( )
{ }
Re
Re
j wt x
yi i
j wt x
yr r
e
e

+ +
=
=

phase difference between &
yr yi
at X = 0, which we shall ignore here for
convenience of manipulation because we are only interested in the general
nature of the wave.

TY yi yr
= +

( ) ( )
{ }
Re
j wt x j wt x
i r
e e
+
= +
24

( ) ( ) cos cos
i r
wt x wt x = + + 2.63

( ) cos cos sin sin cos cos sin
i r
wt x wt x wt x x = + +

( ) ( )
cos cos sin sin
i r i r
wt x wt x = +
For
( ) ( )
cos & sin ,
i r i r
x x = + = It can be shown that (HW 2.4)
( ) ( )
{ }
( )
2 2
2 2
cos sin sin
TY i r i r
x x wt x = + + 2.64
TY
is therefore a traveling wave contained in standing (stationary) envelope.
The maximum value at each point, or the shape of the standing wave envelope is
obtained when
( ) sin 1 wt X = and is given by :
( ) ( )
{ }
2 2
2 2
cos sin
TY i r i r
x x = + + 2.65
Note the oscillation of stored energy in both time and space over
&
2 2
x wt

= = respectively.

Figure 2.5 standing waves at a dielectric boundary
This envelope in Figure 2.5 is a result of the incident and reflected waves
reinforcing each other at some points and canceling at other points.
Max value:
i r
E E +
Min Value:
i r
E E
The standing wave ratio is defined as the ratio of the maximum value to the
minimum value of the envelope (normally called VSWR or S).

(max)
(min)
T
i r
T i r
E
E E
VSWR
E E E
+
= =

2.66
2.7. POLARISATION
Polarisation refers to the time-varying behaviour of the electric field vector at a
fixed point in space during the duration of at least one full cycle. It refers in the
same sense to the behaviour of the electric field radiated by an antenna (e.g., a
vertical dipole is said to be vertically polarized, etc).
25
Knowledge of the polarization of the received signal enables one to align or to set
up a suitable antenna system for reception.
(i) General case:
Assume propagation in the Z direction, i.e.,

( )
0
j z
z
e

=
( ) { }
, Re
j z jwt
z t e e

= 2.27
( ) , z t lies in the X- Y plane .
Assume a case where &
y x
are present, with different amplitude, with
y

leading
x
by
2

, i.e.

x y
j = + 2.75
( ) ( ) { }
0, Re
jwt
x y
t j e = + 2.76
cos sin cos sin
x x x y y
wt wt a wt a E wt = =
i.e., cos
x x
wt = & sin
y y
wt =
So that
2
2 2
1
y x
x y

+ =

2.77
Evidently the end point of
( ) 0, t traces out an ellipse and the wave is said to be
elliptically polarized (Figure 2.6).
The ellipticity is defined as the minor to major axis ratio (normally given in dB).
(ii) Linear Polarisation
Let &
y x
be in phase,

( ) 0, cos cos
x y
t wt wt = +

( )
cos
x y
wt = + 2.78
The resultant direction, which depends only on the relative magnitudes of the two
fields, is fixed, making an angle arctan
( )
y x
with the X- axis. The wave is
said to be linearly polarized (Figure 2.6b). This can be considered as elliptical
polarization with an ellipticity of dB .
(iii) Circular polarization
Let &
y x
have the same amplitude
a
with
y
leading
x
by
2

. Then 2.77
gives:
26

2 2
2
x y a
+ =
2.79
i.e.,
( ) 0, t traces out a circle and the wave is said to be circularly polarized
(Figure 2.6c). This can be considered as elliptical polarization with an ellipticity
of 0 dB


27


28

2.8. ASSIGNMENT TWO:
2.1. Investigate the behavior of ground with a relative permittivity of 14 and
conductivity 0.01 siemens per meter at 100Hz, 1KHZ, 10MHZ, and 100 GHz.
2.2. Using equation 2.25 and considering only positive square roots, shown that:

2
2 2
1 1
2
w
w

| |
= + |
|
\
2.28(a)
and
2
2 2
1 1
2
w
w

| |
= + + |
|
\
2.28(b)
2.3. Show that for a dielectric, the attenuation, phase constants and wave
velocity are respectively given as

2
a

2.29(a)

2
2 2
1
8
w
w

| |
+
|
\
2.29(b)

1
2
2 2
1
1
8
w
v
w

| |
= = +
|
\

2
0 2 2
1
8
v
w

| |

|
\
2.30
2.4. Let
( ) ( )
cos & sin ,
i r i r
x x = + =
It can be shown that (see assignment)
( ) ( )
{ }
( )
2 2
2 2
cos sin sin
TY i r i r
x x wt x = + + 2.64

29

30
CHAPTER 3: WAVE PROPAGATION IN TRANSMISSION LINES
3.1. TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY (DISTRIBUTED CIRCUIT ANALYSIS)
3.1.1. The Infinite Transmission line
Consider a differential length, z, taken out of an infinite uniform 2- wire
transmission line (Figure 3.)





Figure .3.3: Infinite Uniform two wire transmission line.
Let R be the series resistance per m
L be the series inductance per m
G be the shunt conductance per m
C be the shunt capacitance per m
Notes:
1. The above parameters are uniformly distributed over the whole length of
the line.
2. L and C account for the energy storage in the magnetic and electric fields
respectively, while R and G account for conductor loss and dielectric loss
respectively.
Then the differential length z be represented by the equivalent lumped element
circuit shown in Figure . 3.4





Figure . 3.4: Equivalent lumped parameter circuit of the differential length, dz.
The input current and voltage are i(z,t) and v(z,t) respectively so that the outputs
are
i
i z
z

and .
v
v z
z

dz
Conductors
Homogenous
Isotropic
medium
V
z
I
Ldz
Rdz
Cdz
Gdz
V
I
v
v dz
z

i
i dz
z

31
Apply Kirchoffs voltage and current laws:
v i
v v dz iRdz Ldz
z t
| |
+ = +
|

\


v i
iR L
z t

=

3.1(a)
Similarly,
i v
vG C
z t

=

3.1(b)
Differentiate 3.1(a) with respect to z: and 3.2(b) with respect to time
2 2
2
v i i
R L
z z z t

=

3.2(a)
2 2
2
i v v
G C
t z t t

=

3.2(b)
Substitute into 3.2 (a) using .3.1(b) and 3.2(b):
( )
2 2
2 2
0
v v V
RC LG LC RGv
z t t

+ =

3.3(a)
Assignment: Obtain a similar equation for the current I:
( )
2 2
2 2
0
i i i
RC LG LC RGi
z t t

+ =

3.3(b)
For sinusoidal time variation, we can use phasor notation so that
( )
V
R jwL I ZI
z

= + =

3.4(a)
and ( )
I
G jwC v YV
z

= + =

3.4(b)
where Z = R + jwL is the series impedance per unit length
Y = G + jwC is the shunt admittance per unit length.
The one dimensional wave equation 3.3 then becomes;

( ) ( )
2
2
2
0
V
RG w LC V jw RC LG V
z

+ =

or
2
2
0
V
ZYV
z

3.5(a)
Similarly,
2
2
0
I
ZYI
z

3.5(b)
32
Equations 3.5 are the basic differential equations, or wave equations for the
second order with constant coefficients. Let
2
ZY = , where is some constant,
then we have, 3.5(a) as
2
2
2
0
V
V
z

with a general solution,

z z
V V e V e
+
= + 3.6
Note that
z
V e
+
, from our earlier consideration, denotes a wave traveling in the
positive Z- direction, while
z
V e

denotes a wave traveling in the negative Z-
direction, i.e. both waves are present on the transmission line. In the general
case, is given by:
( ) ( ) ZY R jwL G jwC = = + + (

3.7
We also have from 3.4(a):
( )
1 1
z z
V
I V e V e
R jwL z R jwL z
+

= = +
+ +


( )
( )
1
z z
V e V e
R jwL


+
= +
+

( )
z z
V e V e
R jwL

+
| |
=
|
+
\


z z
z z
c c
V e V e
I e I e
z z



+
+
= = 3.8
where
c
R jwL R jwL
Z
G jwC
+ +
= =
+
3.9
is called the characteristic impedance of the line. It is evident that,

c
V V
Z
I I
+
+
= =
c
Z is the impedance seen looking into a uniform infinite transmission line at any
point (Figure 3.5).


Figure . 3.5: Characteristic impedence of a transmission line at different points
Lossless line (R = G = 0)
For a lossless line, jw LC j = = 3.10
Z
c
Z
c
Z
c
33
i.e., LC = and 0 =
so that
c
L
Z
C
= 3.11
Low loss line
( ) ; R wL G wC << <<
At very high frequencies (UHF), the condition R<<L and G<<C is obtained.
Using the binomial expansion and neglecting higher order terms for this case;
( )( )
1
2
R G
j R jwL G jwC jw LC LC
L C

| |
== + = + + + +
|
\
3.12

It can be seen that for a low loss line,
, w LC = which is the same as the lossless case
and ( )
1 1
2 2
c c
R G
LC RY GZ
L C

| |
= + = +
|
\

c
Y is the characteristic admittance
1
c
Z
=
3.1.2. The Terminated line
For an infinite line, we expect that we have only the incident waves, & V I
+ +
with
V andI

identically zero. For termination with some impedance
R
Z different
from
, c
Z we shall have both incident and reflected waves.
Let a section of line length I, characteristic impedance,
c
Z , and propagation
constant and be terminated in
R
Z as shown in Figure 3.6.






Figure . 3.6 Terminated transmission line
R
Z is located at the plane Z = 0 while ,
s s
V I are sending end voltage and current
respectively and &
R R
V I are the corresponding receiving end quantities.
In hyperbolic function form, solutions 3.6 and 3.8 are:
Direction z
I
s
I
R,
z=0
Z
R
V
R
Length, l
,
c
Z
34
1 1
cosh sinh V z z = + 3.13(a)
2 2
cosh sinh I z z = + 3.13(b)
The Boundary conditions are:
R
V V = and
R
I I = at 0 z =
s
V V = and
s
I I = at
1
z z =
So
1 1
cosh 0 sinh 0
R
V = +
1 R
V =
From 3.13(a); and 3.4(a)
( )
1 1
sinh cosh
V
z z R jwL I
Z

= + = +

At Z = 0,
( )
1 1
sinh 0 cos 0
R
R jwL I + = +
Or
( )
1 R c R
R jwL
I Z I

+
= =
We similarly obtain
2 R
I =
and
2
R
c
V
Z
=
Equations 3.13 become:
1 1
cosh sinh
s R c R
V V z Z I z =
1 1
cosh sinh
R
s R
c
V
I I z Z
Z
=
Now
1
l Z = where lis, measured from the receiving end, so that:
cosh sinh
s R c R
V V l Z I l = + 3.14(a)
cosh sinh
R
s R
c
V
I I l l
Z
= + 3.14(b)
Equations 3.14 relate the voltage and currents at the two ends of the
transmission line. The input impedance of the line is given by
( )
cosh sinh
cos / sinh
s R c R
in
s R R c
V V l Z I l
Z
I I l V Z l


+
= =
+
3.15
( )
cosh sinh
cosh sinh
in
R c
R c
Z l Z l
Z
l Z Z l


+
=
+

where we have set / .
R R R
Z V I =
There are three cases of special interest
35
i. Short circuited line
( )( ) 0 0
R R
Z V = =
tanh
in c sc
Z Z l Z = = 3.16
ii. open circuited line
( )
R
Z =>
coth
in c oc
Z Z l Z = =

3.17
iii. Line terminated in its characteristic impedance
( )
R c
Z Z =
in c
Z Z =

3.18
Note that:
a)
2
sc oc c
Z Z Z =

b) For a line terminated in its characteristic impedance, the input impedance
at any point looking towards the load is constant and equal to Z
c
.
c) For an open circuit or short- circuited line, the input impedance looking
towards the load varies from zero to infinity depending on the distance from
the load.
Low loss lines
At ultra high frequencies and above, lines designed for these frequencies have
very low losses and we can use the approximations given by 3.12 for & .
Generally, unless we are evaluating attenuation, we can neglect the expression
l in l l j l = + in comparison to l at these high frequencies. Equations
3.14 and 3.15 can therefore be written in their lossless form:
cos sin
s R R c
V V l jI Z l = +

3.19 (a)
( ) cos sin
s R R C
I I l j V Z l = +

3.19(b)
( )
( )
cos / sin
cos sin
c R
s R
R c
l j Z Z l
Z Z
l j Z Z l


| | +
=
|
|
+
\


cos sin
cos sin
R c
c
c R
Z l jZ l
Z
Z l jZ l


| | +
=
|
+
\

3.20
Note also that
c
Z L C is a pure resistance.
3.2. STANDING WAVES ON TRANSMISSION LINES
The voltage and current distributions at any point Z from the termination are
obtained by replacing I by Z in equations 3.19. We shall consider the case where
36
R
Z is real. The case where
R
Z complex can be inferred from these results. We
have equations 3.21, which are familiar standing wave envelopes.
( )
2
2 2
cos sin ]
z R c
V V R R = +

3.21 (a)
( )
2
2 2
cos sin
z R c
I I z R R z
(
= +


3.21 (b)
,
R c c
Z R Z L C R
(
= = =


It is normally convenient to consider the standing wave in terms of the voltage
standing wave ratio (VSWR) or the current standing wave ratio which are easily
measured. These are simply the ratios of the maximum (V
max
, I
max
) to the
minimum (V
min
, I
min
) amplitudes.
3.2.1. Standing wave Patterns
Case 1: R<Rc
The maximum voltage value occurs when sin 1, 0 z cos z = = and the minimum
voltage value occurs when cos 1, sin 0 z z = =

max
c
R
R
V V
R
=
and
min R
V V =
max max
min min
V I
V I
=

3.22
Case 2: R>Rc
It can be similarly shown that for this case

max max
min min c
V I R
V I R
= = 3.23
Figure 3.7 shows standing wave patterns for R = 0, ,
c
R R R = and a
general case R
c
R






37









Figure 3.7: standing wave patterns on a lossless line for various terminations.

Note that the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR), S, is a measurable quantity. If
we know
c
R - readily calculated from line dimensions, we can measure S and
determine the value of terminating resistance, R, using 3.22 or 3.23. the
ambiguity is cleared by determining if it is voltage or current which is a maximum
at the termination:
If voltage is maximum, R>Rc
If current is maximum, R<Rc
3.2.2. Reflection Coefficient, Input Impedance and Standing Wave Ratio
We also have, as in the case of fields, the reflection coefficient, as.

V I
V I

+ +
= = 3.24(a)
However, ;
c
V
Z
I
+
+
=

;
c
V
Z
I

+
=

and
( )
R c
I I
V V
Z Z
I I I I
+
+
+ +

+
= =
+ +



1 / 1
1 / 1
R
c
Z I I I I
Z I I I I

+ +
+ +
+
= = =
+ +


and
R c
R c
Z Z
Z Z

=
+

3.24
Since
1
1 /
V V V V
S
V V V V
+ +
+ +
+ +
= =


38
it follows that
1
1
S

+
=

3.25
and, conversely,
1
1
S
S

=
+
3.26
Also, the input impedance
in
Z at any point is given by:
( )
in c
V V V
Z Z
+
+
+ +

+
= = =
+ +

1 1
1 1
in
in
c
Z
Z
Z

+
+
+
= = =
+

3.27(a)
1 1
1
in
in
Y
Z

= =
+

3.27(b)
At a voltage minimum, V and V
+
are out of phase making the angle of
180 ;
V
V

+
| |
= <
|
\

or =
so that
1 1
1 1
in
Y S


+
= = =
+
3.27(c).
3.3. TRANSMISSION LINES MATCHING CONSIDERATIONS
It is normally necessary to minimize standing waves on transmission lines owing
to the following:
i. To maximum power carrying capacity: standing waves produce voltage
peaks higher than those of the impressed wave form, thus leading to an
earlier possibility of dielectric break-down.
ii. To achieve a higher transfer of power to the load. Note that most high
frequency lines have a characteristic impedance which is purely resistive,
so that maximum power is transferred when load resistance R
L
= R
C
the
Characteristic impedance.
iii. In communication systems, reflections and re-reflections can cause echoes
in the system.
iv. In some systems, like those employing microwaves tubes or high power
transmitter tubes, a high level of reflections can lead to destruction of the
tube or a drastic shortening of its life time. Isolators can be used for tube
protection but these become unacceptably expensive at high power levels.
In practical systems, steps are therefore always taken to obtain the best match
possible. The commonest methods make use of line transformers and /or stub
tuning.
3.3.1. Quarter Wave Transformer
39
Consider a load
L L L
Z R jX = + connected through a line of length 4 and
characteristic impedance
2
Z (Figure 3.8). The idea is to match the load
L
Z to
the line with
1 c
Z Z = .

Figure 3.8: Quarter Wave transformer network
Using equation 3.20 (lossless line) show that the impedance,
in
Z presented to the
main line, 4 l = is given by:

2
2
in
L

3.28
We require
1 in
=
i.e.
2
2
1
,
L

or
2 1 L
=

3.29
In other words, the load Z
L
is matched to the line characteristic impedance Z
1
if
the intermediate quarter wave section has a characteristic impedance
1 L
.
The 4 line acts like an ideal transformer of turns ratio
1 L
. The quarter
wave transformer is normally used for matching lines of different characteristic
impedances.
Note that it is a narrow-band device. For broad matching, multi- section 4
transformers are used.
For an Example see HW 3.4:
3.3.2. Single Stub-Matching
Stub matching makes use of reactive elements connected in shut or series with
the load. Stubs may be open-circuited or short-circuited lengths of transmission
line. Their matching ability arises from the fact that the impedance looking into
the section as given by equations 3.16 and 3.17 varies with the stub length as
the input impedence is the function of the length of the line.
For single stub matching, Figure 3.9 shows a line of normalized characteristic
admittance 1
C
Y = (Normalisation w.r.t the characteristic admittance) terminated
in a pure conductive load of normalized admittance
L
Y G = . We want to obtain
expressions for the length, I
o
, of a short circuited stub with characteristic
impedance
C
Y and its distance d from the load where it is matched to the line.
40
In general, short-circuit stubs are preferred to open circuit stubs because of their
ease of adjustment and better mechanical rigidity.

Figure 3.9: Single-stub matching network.
Principle:
Because of the impedance transforming properties of a transmission line, there
will be some point distance d from the load at which the normalized input
admittance will be 1
in
Y j = + . If we connect a stub with normalized input
susceptance j at this point, the resultant is 1 1
in
Y j j = + = ; i.e., the load
will be matched to the line.
We shall consider two approaches to obtaining l
o
and d:
Approach 1: Obtain d and l
o
directly
We have: 1 ;
1
t
L
in
L
Y jt
Y j
jY
+
= + =
+
where t=tan d
With
L
Y G = (pure, real)
( ) ( )
1 1 j jGt G jt + + = +
To obtain d, equate real and imaginary parts and solve for t to show that:
1
cos
2 1
G
d
G

=
+
3.30(a)
or
1
1
cos
4 1
G
d
G

=
+
3.30(b)
where the alternative solutions 3.30(a) and (b) are obtained according as
we set
2
2
2
1 cos
tan
cos
d
d
d

= or we replace 2
2
cos d by 1 cos 2 . d +
Note that if
1
d is solution to 3.30,
1
2
d n

are all solutions.

To obtain l
o
we have the value of given by:
41
( )
1
1
G
G t
G

= = 3.31
Using equation 3.16 for the input impedance of a short circuited transmission line
and using tanh tan l j l = for a lossless line, we have;
0
cot j j l =

or
0
1
cot
G
l
G

=
And
1
0
tan
2
1
G
l
G

3.32
The sign of G must be chosen to give the correct sign for : Use G + for
0
4
d

< < and G for .
4 2
d

< <
The above analysis is easy if
L
Y is real, but becomes rather involved for
L
Y
complex. In that case, the second method below is preferred.
Approach 2: Obtain d and l
o
through d
min

First, Locate the position of a voltage minimum say at a distance
min
d from the
load (Figure 3.10). At this point, the reflection coefficient is a negative real
quantity and the normalized input admittance is pure real given by (see eqn
3.27(c)):

1
1
in
Y S

+
= =

(Standing wave ratio) 3.33

Figure 3.10: location of stub relative to voltage minimum.
If
0
d is the distance from the voltage minimum to the point where the input
admittance is 1
in
Y j = + , we can solve the equation for
0
&
o
d I as before with
S replacing G :
42
1
0
1
cos
4 1
S
d
S

=
+

3.34
( )
1
0
tan
2 1
S
l
S

3.35
Then
0
d d = + (distance d
min
of V
min
from the load).
For an example refer to HW 3.5
Series Stubs
It is possible to use a series stub (Figure 3.11) for matching, in which case we
consider solution in terms of the normalized input impedance. This has been left
as an exercise for the Student.

Figure 3.11: Series stub.
3.3.3. Double and Triple Stub Matching

Figure 3.12: Double Stub Tuner (Left) and Triple Stub Tuner (Right)
Both the tuners in Figure 3.12 can be used for matching, the triple stub tuner
matching a wider range of loads. We shall consider only the double stub tuner. A
common approach to the problem is graphic, but we shall first attempt the
analytic approach for completeness.
43
We can transform the admittance
L
Y to plane aa to obtain
L L L
Y G j = + .
Just to the right of the first stub
1, a L L
Y G j j = + +
and just to the right of the second stub,
( )
1
1
1
L L
b
L L
G j J jt
Y
jt G j j
+ + +
=
+ + +
3.36
where tan t d = .
We have now got the case of the single stub tuner for which we require
1
b
Y j = + so that with the second stub having a susceptance j the load will
be matched to the line. Equating the real part of the RHS of 3.36 to 1 gives:
( )
2
2
1
2 2 2
4 1
1
1 1
2 (1 )
L
L
t t t
t
G
t t
(

+
(
=
(
+
(


3.37
From 3.37
( )
2 2 2
1
1 1
L L
L
t G G t
t
+
= + 3.38
By equating the imaginary part of 3.36 to j and substituting for
1
we get:

( )
2 2 2
1
L
L L
L
G t G t G
G t
+
= 3.39
The upper and lower signs in 3.38 and 3.39 go together. For a match, we then
chose
2
j j = .
General comment on stub tuners (comparative)
With a single stub tuner, each load and frequency requires a new position of the
stub, which is extremely inconvenient in a practical system. This problem is
overcome by using two stubs located at fixed distance from the load. However if
we consider equation 3.37 we see that
L
G must be real, this putting limits on the
expression under the square root sign. A necessary condition is that the value of
the square root term lies between zero and one, i.e., the limits on
L
G are
2
2 2
1 1
0
sin
L
t
G
t d
+
=
This means that some load admittances cannot be matched with a double-stub
tuner. This problem is overcome using the triple stub tuner. If the stubs are
44
spaced 3 8 apart and each one can be varied in length over at least half a
wavelength, any admittance can be matched to the line.
Baluns (Balance to unbalance Transformers)
Baluns are used to connect unbalance to balanced transmission line (or
balanced loads e.g. many antenna types. This part has been left out to be
discussed on study of antennas.
3.4. GRAPHICAL AIDS TO TRANSMISSION LINE CALCULATIONS
The solution of a wide range of transmission line problems is simplified by the
use of graphical aids. Most prominent among these graphical aids is the Smith
Chart which we shall consider in detail.
3.4.1. The Smith Chart: Development
Recall that the reflection coefficient is in general given by,

R C
R C

=
+
3.40(a)
We can define the reflection coefficient, (l) at a distance I from the termination:
( )
( )
( )
in C
in C
l
l
l

=
+

where
( )
in
l is the input impedance at the distance l.
i.e.
1
1
C
C

=
+
3.40(b)
Where l now refer to any point on the line. Let u jv = + and
( ) / ,
C C C n n n
R jX r jX = + = = + where we have assumed that Zc is
real ( a good approximation for most high freguency lines ). 3.40(b) becomes:

1
1
n n
n n
r jx
u jv
r jx
+
+ =
+ +

X- multiply and equate real and imaginary parts:

( ) ( )
( )
1 1 3.419( )
1 3.41( )
n n
n n
r u x v u a
r v x u v b
= +
+ =

Eliminate
n
X
45

( ) ( )
2 2
1 2 1 1
n n n n
u r ur v r r + + + =
Divide through by
( ) 1
n
r + and complete the square of the resulting terms
containing
2
& : u u

( )
2
2
2
1
1
1
n
n
n
r
u v
r
r

+ =
`
+
+
)
3.42
If we plot equation 3.42 on rectangular co-ordinates of u and v, we obtain, for any
value of
n
r , a circle on the - plane with centre , 0
1
n
n
r
u v
r
| |
= =
|
+
\
and radius
1
1
n
r +

Note particularly that 0
n
r = , the radius is 1, and
n
r , the radius is zero. In
other words, for all values of
n
r , the loci (circles ) will lie within the unit circle for
0
n
r = (Figure .3.12). for the bounding circle
( ) 0
n
r = ,

2
2
1 1
1
1
1
n n
n
n
jx x
jx
x

+
= = =
+
+







Figure . 3.12: Co-ordinate circles for constant normalized resistance
If we now go back to equations 3.41(a) and (b) and eliminate
n
r instead of
n
x ,
the locus of any constant value of
n
x on the -plane is found to be given by:
( )
2 2
2
1 1
1
n n
u v
x x
| | | |
+ =
| |
\ \
3.43

46
These loci are again circles of radius
1
n
x
and center
1
1,
n
x
| |
|
\
(Figure . 3.13):
only the portions within the bounding circle
( )
1 = are plotted.








Figure . 3.13: Co-ordinate circles for constant normalized resistance
A combination of Figure . 3.12 and Figure .3.13 gives the Smith Chart.
Standing wave data
From a consideration of the equation,

1
1
S

+
=

it is evident that loci for constant VSWR on the p-plane are also circle with center
(0,0). The circle for S = 1 (matched case, 0 = ) corresponds to the center of the
chart and the bounding circle for S = corresponds to the bounding circle
( )
1 = . For any required value of S, the radial scaling is shown on the scale
next to the Smith chart.
It can also be shown (student to show) that if
min
d is the distance of a voltage
minimum from the point of reflection, then

min
1
4 2
d n

| |
= +
|
\

or
min
1 1
1
4 2
d
n

| |
= +
|
\
3.44

47
where is the wavelength, is the angle of the reflection co-efficient, and n is
an integer. From equation 3.44, it can be seen that
min
d

varies from 0.25 to

0.75 as varies from 0 to 2 , so that
min
d

can be plotted round the

circumference of the chart (Figure . 3.14).










Figure . 3.14: Radial line loci of constant
min
d

on the -plane.
Note that loci of constant
min
d

are radial lies as shown in Figure . 3.14. since

the standing wave pattern is periodic in 2 (lossless line), the maximum value
of
min
d is 0.5

3.4.2. Some application of the Smith Chart
Exercise.1: Ex. 9.1, page 189 (Chipman):
Determination of reflection co-efficient
A transmission line with characteristic impedance 50 0
C
j = + is terminated in
an impedance 25- j100ohms. Determine the reflection co-efficient at the load end
of the line.
Normalize load impedance: 0.5 2.00.
n n n
r jx j = + =
48
Locate the normalized impedance on the Smith chart (intersection of constant
( ) 0.5
n
r = and constant
( ) 2.00
n
= .
Draw a radial line through this point from the center of the chart (1,0) to meet
the angle of reflection co-efficient circle
0
309 = .
Note that constant loci are concentric circles whose radii relative to the
bounding circle
( )
1 = gives the reflection co-efficient. Get the radial
distance
n
from the obtain from the radially scaled chart next to the
Smith chart: 0.82 = .

Exercise .2: (pp 191, EX. 9.3 chipman )
Det of S and
min
d .
The value of is -0.30+ j0.55 at the load end of low-loss transmission line.
Determine S and
min
d .

Express in polar from:
0
0.63 118.6 =
Establish this point on the chart using the scale for and the constant circle,
0.63 = .
Determine S either using the radially scaled chart next to the Smith chart, or, by
moving along the constant circle to the axis where 0
n
x = . Here 4.4.
n
r = since
0 n
r R Z = it follows from equation 3.23 that 4.4
n
S r = = .
min
d is directly obtained by drawing the line of constant
min
d through the point
of interest to the scale for
min
d .

Exercise 3: Ex. 2 (pp 193, Ex. 9.4 Chipman):
Determination of load impedance: Slotted line measurements on a coaxial line
operating at 800MHZ with 50
c
jo = + give a VSWR of 2.5 and a voltage
minimum 8.75cm from the termination. Determine the load impedance if the
dielectric is air.

49
Air dielectric
0
& 0.375 v C c f m = = =

min
/ 0.233 d =
ii Locate the required point on the chart using:

( )( )
min
0.233& 2.5:
0.5; 2.35
2.35 0.5
2.35 0.5 50 0 117 25
n n
n
L
d s
x r
z j
andZ j j j
= =
= =
=
= + =


Impedance Transformation
We again assume a lossless line (or a high frequency line which approximates a
lossless line when we are not evaluating attenuation). On such a line , the
reflection coefficient magnitude, is essentially constant everywhere on the
line so that impedance transformation simply consists of moving an appropriate
distance along a constant circle. Starting at any point, the transformed
impedance at any point can be obtained by moving the right number of
wavelengths towards the load (outer scale of the chart ) or towards the generator
(inner scale). The normalized transformed impedance is then read off the chart.
Exercise 4: (Ex. 9.6, pp 196-Chipman)
An air dielectric slotted section is connected to an air dielectric transmission line
of the same characteristic impedance 50 0 j + by a reflection less connector.
The transmission line is 3.75m long and is terminated in an antenna. On the
slotted section, the VSWR is measured to be 2.25. There are successive voltage
minima at 0.180 and 0.630m from the connector. Assuming negligible attenuation
on the line and the slotted section, determine the impedance of the antenna and
the frequency of he measurements.
Preliminary Information:
Air dielectric for TEM wave
8
3 10 sec v m =
Separation of minima 0.45 2 0.9m = =
Frequency 3.33 v MHZ = =
Line length in wavelengths 3.75 / 0.9 4.17wavelengths = =
Normalised impedance at connector: S = 2.25,
min
0.18/ 0.9 d = = 0.2
(Ref. Ex.3): 1.62 0.86
n
j = .
50
Transform impedance by moving 0.17 wavelength towards the load. (Can
you see why?. Always subtract an integral number of half wavelengths from
d ). .077 0.70, & 50 37.5 35 .
ant ant ant
j z x j = + = = +

Normalised admittance co-ordinates on the Smith Chart
Recall that a 4 section of lossless line inverts the normalized impedance
values (ref. equation. 3.28):
2
2
,
in
L

where
2
is the characteristic impedance of the quarter wave
section.
( )
( )
1
m in
n L
=

This implies that any normalized impedance co-ordinate on the Smith Chart
can be transformed to the corresponding normalized admittance co-
ordinate by transforming it through a quarter wavelength, i.e., rotating
through 180.
Exercise. 5: (Ex. 9.9, pp200-Chipman)
A VSWR of 3.25 is observed on a slotted section with a voltage minimum 0.205
wavelengths from the load end of the section. Determine the value of the
normalized admittance at the terminal load end.
Wavelengths towards the load: 0.205. Using this and the VSWR of 3.25, we
move 0.205 wavelengths towards the load on the constant VSWR circle to
obtain 0.33 0.26.
n
y j = +
Exercise 6: Stub Matching (problem 9.23 Chipman)
The VSWR on a lossless transmission line is 3.0.
Where relative to a voltage minimum on the line might stub lines be placed to
remove standing waves at the generator side of the stub?
Obtain the required short circuit stub length for matching if the characteristic
impedance of the stub is the same as that of the transmission line.
3.5. MICROSTRIP TRANSMISSION LINES
As circuits have been reduced in size with integrated semiconductor electron
devices, a transmission structure was required that was compatible with circuit
construction techniques to provide guided waves over limited distances. This was
51
realized with a planar form of single wire transmission line over a ground plane,
called microstrip. Microstrip employs a flat strip conductor suspended above a
ground plane by a low-loss dielectric material. The size of the circuit can be
reduced through judicious use of a dielectric constant some 2-10 times that of
free space (or air), with a penalty that the existence of two different dielectric
constants (below and above the strip) makes the circuit difficult to analyze in
closed form (and also introduces a variability of propagation velocity with
frequency that can be a limitation on some applications). The solution is to find
an effective relative permittivity
reff
for the combination.
The advantages of microstrip have been well established, and it is a convenient
form of transmission line structure for probe measurements of voltage, current
and waves. Microstrip structures are also used in integrated semiconductor form,
directly interconnected in microwave integrated circuits.
(a)
(b)
Figure 6.1: (a) The Microstrip and (b) The Stripline Conductor
Waves and Impedances in Microstrip
Although the presence of two dielectric regimes in microstrip precludes the strict
propagation of TEM waves, the same type of transmission-line characteristics
are present, as can be seen from the fact that microstrip can propagate energy
down to zero frequency (direct current). Microstrip construction lends itself to
small structures that can carry semiconductor devices and surface-mount lumped
elements, which can be attached by automatic means.
This extreme usefulness of microstrip makes the lack of an elegant closed-form
solution acceptable, and accurate approximations based on the
velocity/capacitance method are used to estimate Zo and other parameters.
Unwanted modes are dealt with in part by using material with a relatively high
dielectric constant, but waveguide modes are present and represent an upper
frequency limit. The effects of unwanted waveguide modes can be restricted by
choosing dielectric thickness less than /4 and strip width w less than /2 at the
highest frequency of interest. Thus, for a maximum frequency of interest f
max
, we
chose

The velocity of propagation in microstrip is relatively constant with varying w/h,
and Zo can be estimated accurately using a number of methods and software
applications. Some downloadable applications include AppCad2, Txline3,
Microstrip Calculator4 and Sonnet5.
52
Some Microstrip Relations

Note that It's difficult to get more than 200W for Z
0
in a microstrip. For the simple
closed form solution, the approximations below would be used in the relations
above.

Stripline Conductor
Also called shielded microstrip, it uses a different dielectric (different from air) on
the upper side of the line. The effective relative permittivity is used in calculations
above.
Assuming w10h,
where er1 = the relative permittivity of the dielectric of thickness h1.
er2 = the relative permittivity of the dielectric of thickness h2.
3.6. ASSIGNMENT THREE
53
3.1. Starting from maxwells equations, Obtain the one dimension current
wave equation in 3.3(b) (below)
( )
2 2
2 2
0
i i i
RC LG LC RGi
z t t

+ =

3.3(b)
3.2. Prove that for a Low loss line at very high frequencies (UHF), the condition
( ) ( )
1
2
R G
R jwL G jwC jw LC LC j
L C

| |
= + + + + = +
|
\

3.3. Using equation 3.20 (lossless line) show that the input impedance,
in
Z ,
presented to a transmission line of length, 4 l = and characteristic
impedance Z
2
by a load of impedance Z
L
is given by:

2
2
in
L

3.28
3.4. Design a quarter-wave transformer to match an antenna array with an input
impedance of 36 0 j + , operating at 40 MHZ to a generator of output
impedance 500 0 j + located at 30m from the antennas terminals. A
parallel wire transmission line with 500 0
C
j = + runs from the generator
to the vicinity of the antenna. Assume you will use a parallel wire
transmission line on which the phase velocity is 97% of the free space
velocity of light for the 4 tx .
Solution: 134 0 ; 1.82
a tx
j L m = + =
3.5. Example: Design a network to match a 75 load to a 50 coaxial line
using a ingle stub. Assume an operating frequency of 100MHZ, air
dielectric and a lossless line.
Answer:
0
0
d
=
=

54