Mohawk College of Applied Arts and Technology

BIOL10006Course Notes

Shayne Ward
000106849

Professor Anna Miller

BIOL10006

Table of Contents
Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................................... 3
Module 1: Cell Structure and Function .................................................................................................... 5-10
Module 2: Human Organization............................................................................................................. 11-18
Module 3: Digestive System................................................................................................................... 19-28
Module 4: Blood, Circulatory and Lymphatic Systems .......................................................................... 29-36
Module 5: Respiratory System ............................................................................................................... 37-42
Module 6: Urinary System ..................................................................................................................... 43-48
Module 7: Skeletal and Muscular Systems ............................................................................................ 49-54
Module 8: Nervous System .................................................................................................................... 55-60
Module 9: Reproductive and Endocrine Systems .................................................................................. 61-68

Module 1; Chapter 3
Cell Structure and Function
1) The Cell Theory
a) A cell is the basic unit of life
b) All living things are made up of cells
c) New cells arise only from pre-existing cells
i) Arises from the combination of sperm and ova (egg) cells
2) Cell Size
a) All human cells are too small to be seen macroscopically
3) Microscopes
a) Compound Light Microscope
i) Lower magnification
ii) Uses light beams to view images
iii) Can view live specimens
b) Transmission Electron Microscope
i) 2-D image
ii) Uses electrons to view internal structure
iii) High magnification, no live specimens
c) Scanning Electron Microscope
i) 3-D image
ii) Uses electrons to view surface structures
iii) High magnification, no live specimens
4) Major Types of Cells
a) Prokaryotic Cells
i) Thought to be the first cells to evolve
ii) Lack a nucleus
iii) Represented by bacteria and archaea
b) Eukaryotic Cells
i) Have a nucleus that houses
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
ii) Many membrane-bound organelles

Prokaryotic Cell

Eukaryotic Cell

Nucleus

NO

YES (DNA)

Cell Wall

YES

NO

Membrane

YES

YES

5) Characteristics of the Plasma Membrane

a) It is a phospholipid bilayer (lipid that likes water and has two layers that mirror)
b) Heads of the phospholipid bilayer are hydrophilic; tails are hydrophobic
c) Selectively permeable to control what goes in and out of the cells
d) Embedded with proteins that move in space
e) It contains cholesterol for support
f) It contains carbohydrates on the proteins and lipids
i) Term Glyco= Carbohydrate (CHO) ie. Glycoproteins (protein with CHO attached) and
Glycolipid (lipid with CHO attached)
g) Carbohydrate Chains attach to some protein or lipid molecules to form glycoproteins or
glycolipids
i) Function
(1) Hormone receptors
(2) ABO blood group antigens
ii) Protein Function
(1) Assist in transportation of molecules
(2) Act as an Enzyme
6) Nucleus
a) Control centre for the cells
b) Has a nuclear envelope that holds it together with pores in it
c) Nucleolus inside of nucleus
d) Nucleus contains DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid); DNA is our genetics; arranged in chromosomes
e) Nucleolus contains RNA (ribonucleic acid); RNA makes the ribosomes to make proteins for DNA
7) Ribosomes
a) Organelles made of RNA and protein
b) Found bound to the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum and free floating in the cell
c) Site of protein synthesis
8) Vesicles and Golgi Apparatus
a) Vesicles sounds like vehiclesthey serve as that purpose too
b) Vesicles are membranous sacs made by the ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum). Function is storage
and transportation
c) Lysosomes are specific type of vesicles, made by the Golgi and filled with enzymes to lyse
(dissolve or digest) all sorts of molecules; could dissolve cell material, broken down into amino
acids/individual molecules, will reuse to make new proteins. Think Lysol kills bacteria as
Lysosomes does similar
d) Golgi Apparatus processes, packages and secretes complex molecules
9) Mitochondria
a) The power house for the cell
b) A highly folded organelle
c) Produces energy in the form of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) via cellular respiration
d) Uses glucose and O2 to produce high energy ATP molecule and the waste CO2 and H2O
e) Receives glucose through diet, and O2 from breathing, then produces CO2 and H2O and the ATP
ie. Breath in and Eat/Drink=Exhale and Urination and Energy Source for Cells in Body (ATP)
O2 + Glucose = CO2 + H2O + ATP

10) Centrioles
a) Involved in organizing the cell division
11) Flagella and Cilia
a) Flagella: (flagellum)
i) 20X longer than cilia so move much faster (20 cm/hr)
ii) Found in sperm
b) Cilia: (Cilium)
i) Ciliated cells line in our respiratory tract and are also at the end of the oviducts
ii) Short protein microtubules are covered by plasma membrane
iii) ATP present for energy
iv) We have cilia in through and respiratory tract to help shoot dirt, pollen, etc. out of our
throat and lungs
v) Also, cilia is present in oviducts (fallopian tubes) at the end, constantly moving, to help
direct egg to fallopian tubes
12) Cell Membrane Transportation
a) Selectively permeablei.e. allows certain molecules to pass through
b) Methods include diffusion, osmosis, facilitated transport and endo/endocytosis
13) Diffusion
a) Random movement of small non-charged molecules from areas of high concentration to lower
concentration (move down a concentration gradient)
b) Passiveno energy needed since molecules move down the concentration gradient
c) Oxygen diffuses into cells and carbon dioxide and water diffuses out
14) Osmosis
a) Diffusion of water
b) Passive
c) Moves across membrane from area of low substance concentration to area of higher
concentration
d) Tonicity compares concentration of substance inside and outside the cell
e) Remember its water moving to attempt to equalize the solute concentration on both sides of
the membrane!

15) How Does Tonicity Change a Cell?

a) Hypertonic solutions have more solute than the inside of the cell.
i) Which direction will water go? (Go out of cell)
ii) What will happen to cell shape? (Cell will get smaller)
b) Hypotonic solutions have less solute than the inside of the cell
i) Which direction will water go? (Go in cell)
ii) What will happen to cell shape? (Cell will get bigger)
c) Isotonic solutions have equal amounts of solute inside and outside the cell.
i) Which direction will water go? (Nowhere)
ii) What happens to cell shape? (Nothing)
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16) What Is Osmotic Pressure?

a) A force exerted on selective permeable membrane when water moves to equilibrate solute
concentrations (accounts for the change in the cell shape)
17) Methods of Transportation
a) Facilitated Transportation
i) Molecules cant pass through membrane unless carried by protein carrier in molecules
ii) Passive
iii) Specific carriers for specific molecules located in cell membrane
iv) Common substance transported this way is glucose
b) Active Transportation
i) Passage of molecule up concentration gradient
ii) Requires energy, thus termed active
iii) Requires a protein carrier (termed pumps)ie. Specific channels
iv) Energy acquired from breakdown of ATP molecule to ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) i.e. Na+,
K-, Glucose, NaCl
18) Endocytosis
a) Pouching of the membrane
b) Traps fluids or molecules
c) Termed pinocytosis for fluids
19) Exocytosis
a) Vesicle fuses with membrane and releases its contents outside the membrane

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Module 2; Chapter 4
Human Organization
1) Levels of Organization
a) MoleculeSame CellsDifferent TissuesDifferent OrgansOrgan System
2) Types of Tissue
a) Specialized cells of the same type
b) Perform common function
c) 4 major types of tissue:
i) Connective
ii) Muscular
iii) Nervous
iv) Epithelial
3) Connective Tissues
a) Purposeconnects and supports body parts, most widely distributed tissue type
b) Componentsspecialized cells, ground substance, protein fibers
c) Typesfibrous, supportive, fluid
d) Ground Substance
i) Acellular
ii) Seperates cells
iii) Solid to semisolid fluid (bone vs. plasma)
e) 3 types of fibers in connective tissue
i) Collagenwhite protein, gives flexibility and strength
ii) Reticularthin protein collagen, branched, support network in liver, bone marrow and
lymphatics
iii) Elasticyellow, elastin, very flexible protein, not as strong as collagen
f) Specialized connective tissue cells
i) Blood Cells
(1) Red Blood CellsCarry oxygen (to get to mitochondria)
(2) White Blood Cellsdefense (fights bacteria, virus)
(3) Plateletsclotting
ii) Mast Cells; repair cells (ie. Tears)
iii) Stem Cellsblank cells, can program these cells to do anything; precursor to specific cells
iv) Adipose Cellsstores fat
v) Fibroblastmakes fibres
g) Fibrous Connective Tissue
i) Loose Fibrous (areolar tissue)
(1) Supports and binds epithelium and internal organs
(2) Allows for expansion of organs ie. Bladder, lungs; spaces between components
(3) Protective covering for internal organs ie. Muscle, nerves, blood cessels; lots of elastic
fibres
ii) Dense Fibrous
(1) Many tightly packed collagen fibres
(2) Ie. Tendon (connects muscle to bone)
(3) Ie. Ligaments (connects bone to other bones at joints)

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h) Supportive Connective Tissue

i) Cartilage
(1) Solid, flexible ground substance
(2) Fibres determine which type
(3) Matrix produced by chondroblasts and chondrocytes found in chambers called lacunae
(4) No direct blood supply so slow healing
(5) Three types of cartilage
(a) Hyaline
(i) Most common type
(ii) Fine collagen fibres
(iii) Glassy, translucent
(iv) Found in long bone ends, nose, rings in respiratory passage walls, fetal skeleton
(b) Elastic
(i) Many elastic fibres
(ii) More flexible than hyaline
(iii) Found in ear framework and epiglottis (covers windpipe while swallowing so no
food goes in the windpipe)
(c) Fibrocartilage
(i) Strong collagen fibres
(ii) Withstand tension and pressure
(iii) Found in vertebral disks, knee
ii) Bone
(1) Most rigid connective tissue
(2) Produced by osteoblasts and osteocytes
(3) Hard ground substance (matrix) of calcium, inorganic salts, collagen fibres
(4) Has nerve cells and blood supply
(5) Two types of bone
(a) Compact
(i) Shaft of long bones and all short bones
(b) Spongy
(i) Ends of long bones
(ii) Solid matric
(iii) Mainly collagen fibres
i) Fluid Connective Tissue
i) Blood
(1) Often not considered connective tissue, but vascular tissue
(2) Made up of formed elements and plasma
(3) Located in blood vessels
(4) Transports nutrients and oxygen to tissue fluid and removes carbon dioxide and wastes
(5) Helps distribute heat, aids in fluid, ion and pH balance
(6) Composition and chemistry controlled by other body systems
(7) Formed elements; Red Blood Cells (cells that carry oxygen), White Blood Cells (cells that
fight infection), and Platelets (pieces of cells that clot blood)
ii) Lymph
(1) Clear watery, yellowish fluid made by lymphatic tissue
(2) Absorb excess tissue fluids and transport dissolved solutes and fate molecules
4) Muscular Tissue
a) PurposeMovement
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b) Componentsmuscle fibres made up of actin and myosin protein filaments

c) Typesskeletal, cardiac and smooth
i) Skeletal Muscular Tissue (Voluntary)
(1) Attached to bones by tendon
(2) Fastest muscular movement (contraction)
(3) Cells are long, cylindrical fibres, appear striated (light and dark bacds) of actin and
myosin filaments
ii) Smooth Muscular Tissue (Visceral/Involuntary)
(1) Walls of viscera (intestine, bladder, other internal organs), and blood vessels
(2) Slow contraction
(3) Lack strations, cells are spindle-shaped, tissue is multinucleated
iii) Cardiac Muscle (Involuntary)
(1) Walls of heart
(2) Slow contraction
(3) Striated, single nucleus
5) Nervous Tissue
a) Purposeallows for communication between cells via sensory intake, date integration, motor
output
b) Componentsneuron and neuroglial cells
i) Neurons
(1) Made of dendrites, a cell body and an axon
(2) Dendrites carry information toward the cell body
(3) Axons carry information towards a cell body (long axons covered with myelin)
(4) Nerves are nerve fibres (axons and dendrite) outside spinal cord and brain, bound by
loose fibrous connective tissue
ii) Neuroglia
(1) 9x more than neurons in number
(2) Communicate with each other
(3) Support and nourish neurons, form myelin sheath, engulf bacteria and cellular debris,
produce hormone (glia) growth factor
(4) Types include microglia (type of phagocyte), astrocytes, schwann cells and
oligodendrocytes
6) Epithelial Tissue
a) Purposeprotective covering, secretion, absorption, excretion, filtration
b) Componentstightly packed continuous layer of cells and basement membrane (thin layer of
carbohydrates and proteins used to anchor epithelial tissue to underlying connective tissue)
c) Locationcover surfaces and line body cavities
d) TypeSimple and Stratified
i) Simple Epithelial
(1) Single layer of cells that are classified by cell shape
(2) Squamous are flattened cells, line air sacs (alveoli) and blood vessel walls to allow good
exchange of nutrients and gases
(3) Cuboidal are cube-shaped, in glands and cover ovaries, line kidney tubules. Absorb
molecules by microvilli (increase surface area) and may have many mitochondria if
involved in active transport
(4) Columnar line digestive tract have microvilli; ciliated cells line oviducts to propel eggs
(5) Pseudostratified Columnar falsely appears layered, line windpipe (trachea), ciliated,
mucous covering traps foreign particles
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7)

8)

9)

10)

(6) Transitional can change in response to tension, can be contracted and appear cuboidal
or stretch and appear columnar, line bladder, ureters, urethra
ii) Stratified Epithelial
(1) Cells layered on top of each other
(2) Found where lots of friction
(3) Common site for cancer
(4) Nose, mouth, esophagus, anal canal, outer part of cervix and vagina, outer skin layer
(5) May be cuboidal and columnar as well
Glands
a) Epithelial tissue that secretes substances are termed glandular epithelial
b) May be single cells (sweat and mucous glands) or multiple (endocrine glands ie. Pancreas)
c) Exocrine Glandshave ducts to carry secretions to specific site ie. Sweat glands, bile ducts
d) Endocrine Glandsare ductless, secretions are carried via blood stream
Cell Junctions
a) Epithelial cells cover the surface of organs and line body cavities
b) Depending on their location, their function at that site, dictates the manner in which they are
connected to each other and to nerves and muscles
c) If the epithelial layer must be impermeable, proteins will join each cell forming a tight junction.
This occurs in the stomach, intestines and kidneys
d) Tissue that is exposed to mechanical stress is joined by adhesion junctions. Proteins again join
the epithelial cell, but allow some stretching of the cells by creating a small space between the
cell membranes. These junctions are found in skin.
e) If some communication must occur throughout a tissue, the junction must allow for some ions
and molecules to pass from one cell to another. The gap junction makes up part of the cardiac
muscle, allowing electrical impulses to coordinate one heartbeat.
Membranes
a) Epithelial cells line organs and systems
b) If the system opens to the outside, a mucous membrane in present. The epithelium has goblet
cells that secret mucous, which acts as a lubricant and protective barrier. An example of this is
the digestive system and respiratory tract
c) If the system is closed, ie no opening to the outside, a serous membrane is present. The
membrane secretes a watery lubricant. An example of this is in the heart. Serous membranes
are names for their location. Ie. Plural membrane line the thoracic (chest cavity)
d) The membrane that lubricates between bones is termed synovial. It is a loose membrane
allowing fluid movement of the bones. An example in the knee.
e) The lining of the brain and spinal cord is the meninges
Skin
a) The definition of an organ is the combination of two or more different tissues to perform a
common function. Skin is considered and organ since it is made up of all 4 tissues, epithelial,
nervous, muscular and connective. Since it also has various accessory organs, ie hair, nails, etc.
it is termed and integumentary system
b) Biggest organ in the body
c) 15% of body weight

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11) Skin Layers

a) Epidermis
i) Stratified squamous epithelial
ii) Topmost layer
iii) Less than 25% total skin depth
iv) Helps prevent evaporation of water from body and protects internal layer
from trauma
v) Made up of 4 layers, the outermost is dead cells that have become
keratinized (keratin is a type of strong protein). These dead cells are hard
and waterproof.
vi) New cells constantly being produced at innermost layer by stem cells
vii) Specialized cells in epidermis are macrophages (Langerhans cells) that remove pathogens,
and melanocytes that produce melanin pigment responsible for skin colour
b) Dermis
i) Collagen and elastic fibres, blood vessels and nerves
ii) Inner layer
iii) More than 75% total skin depth
iv) Blood vessels nourish the skin and help control body temperature
v) Sensory receptors (nerves) for touch, pressure, temperature and pain
vi) Sebaceous (oil) glands secrete sebum. The oil moves to epidermis layer to act
as a protectant, lubricant and waterproofer
vii) Sweat glands for by temperature control and also anti-bacterial
c) Subcutaneous Layer
i) Located below the dermis, this layer is the site of subcutaneous injections. It is made up
of adipose and loose connective tissue. The subcutaneous layer is NOT part of the kin. Its
function if protection and an energy source.
12) Accessory Organs
a) Hair
i) Follicles start as bulb in dermis and grow to outside epidermis
ii) Colour dictated by melanin (and iron and sulphur content in the pigment)
iii) Muscles cause hair to become erect
b) Nails
i) Nail roots begin in epithelial layer
ii) Cuticle protects root
iii) Lunula (half moon) is thick cell layer
iv) Nail made up of keratin (protein)
c) Sweat Glands
i) Present in all regions of skin
ii) Begins in dermis
iii) Opens to epidermis or hair follicle
iv) Help to control body temperature

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13) Homeostasis
a) Warm blooded animals maintain a constant internal environment by communication between
organ systems
b) If consistency is not maintains, illness results
c) The endocrine and nervous system play a major role in maintaining homeostasis
d) Much of this regulation occurs via the tissue fluid that bathes individual cells
e) Regulation is monitored and controlled by feedback mechanisms
i) Negative Feedback
(1) Change in opposite direction
(2) Reduces original stimulus
(3) Thousands of negative feedback mechanisms in the body
(4) Most prevalent
ii) Positive Feedback
(1) Change in same direction
(2) Cumulative causations (increases original stimulus)
(3) Push levels outside of normal ranges
(4) Does not occur very often as could be risks

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NOTES
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Module 3; Chapter 8
Digestive System
1) Purpose of Digestion
a) Our cells need nutrients in order to make necessary elements
b) The nutrients we ingest are in a form too large and complex to pass through the cell membrane
c) The role of digestion is to break these complex substances into unit molecules, which now can
pass through the cell membrane.
2) 5 Steps of Digestion
a) Ingestionintake of food via the mouth
b) Digestionmechanically or chemically breaking down food into their sub units
c) Movementfood mist be moved along the GI tract in order to fulfill all funtions
d) Absorptionmovement of nutrients across the GI tract wall to be delivered to cell via blood
e) Eliminationremoval of indigestible molecules
3) Pathway of food
a) Mouth-Pharynx-Esophagus-Stomach-Small Intestine-Large Intestine-Rectum-Anus
4) The Mouth
a) Contains teeth that begin the mechanical breakdown of food
b) The tongue is covered in taste buds and also assists in the mechanical breakdown and
movement of food
c) Salivary glands secrete enzyme to chemically begin digestion of carbohydrates
d) The tongue forms a bolus (mass of chewed food) and moves it toward the pharynx
5) Teeth
a) 32 in adult used for mechanical breakdown of food
b) (20 deciduous teeth in infants)
6) Pharynx
a) Cavity between the mouth and esophagus that serves as a passageway for food (and air)
7) Esophagus
a) Long, muscular tube that carries food to the stomach
b) Sphincter-circular muscle; acts as valve to prevent stomach acid from coming up

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8) The Stomach
a) Functions to store food, start digestion of proteins and controls movement of chime into the
small intestine
b) J-shaped organ with a thick wall
c) There are 3 layers of muscle in the muscularis layer of the stomach wall helping in mechanical
digestion and allowing to stretch
d) Glands secrete acidic gastric juice (HCl) to give the stomach a pH of 2 to activate pepsin and also
helps kill bacteria found in food
e) The stomach empties chime into the small intestine after 2-6 hours
9) The Small Intestine
a) Averages 6m (18 ft) in length
b) Duodenum is site of most digestion
c) Enzymes secreted by the pancreas into the small intestine digest carbohydrates, proteins and
fats
d) Bile is produced by the liver and secreted by the gallbladder into the small intestine to emulsify
fats
e) Digested food is absorbed through large surface area created by numerous villi (finger-like
projections) and microvilli
f) Amino acids and sugars enter the capillaries while fatty acids and glycerol enter the lacteals
(small lymph vessels)

10) Accessory Organs

a) Pancreas
b) Liver
c) Gallbladder
11) The Pancreas
a) Fish-shaped spongy organ behind the stomach
b) Functions of the pancreas:
i) Pancreatic Juice
(1) Secretes enzymes into the small intestine
(a) Trypsin digests proteins
(b) Lipase digests fats
(c) Pancreatic amylase digests carbohydrates
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12)

13)

14)

15)

16)

17)

18)

(2) Secretes bicarbonate into the small intestine to neutralize stomach acids
ii) Secretes insulin and glucagon into the blood to keep blood sugar levels under control
The Liver
a) Largest gland in the body
b) Lies under the diaphragm and is made of 100 000 lobules
c) Filters blood from the GI tract thus acting to remove poisons and detoxify the blood
d) Removes iron, vitamins A, D, E, K and B(12) from the blood and stores hem
e) Breaks down amino acids and produces urea waste
f) Stores glucose as glycogen and breaks it down to help retain blood glucose levels
g) Converts glycerol to glucose
h) Makes plasma proteins and helps regulate cholesterol levels by making bile salts
i) Makes bile that is then stored in the gallbladder to be secreted into the small intestine to
emulsify fats
j) Breaks down haemoglobin
Gallbladder
a) Located below the liver
b) Pear-shaped
c) Stores bile
d) Delivers bile to duodenum via common bile duct
e) Bile salts emulsify fats, now have a larger surface area
The Large Intestine
a) Includes the cecum, colon, rectum and anal canal
b) Larger in diameter but shorter than the small intestine
c) The cecum has a projection known as the appendix that may play a role in fighting infections
d) Functions to:
i) Absorb water and salts to prevent dehydration
ii) Absorbs vitamins (B complex and K) produced by intestinal flora
iii) Forms and rids the body of feces through the anus
Feces Composition
a) Odor due to: bacteria and what we ate
b) Gas due to: bacteria and what we ate
c) Colour due to: Bilirubin and oxidized iron
d) Defecation due to occasional peristalsis and stretching and relaxing of the rectal wall, with
nervous stimulation
The Large Intestine
a) Absorbs water and slats to prevent dehydration
b) Absorbs vitamins (B complex and K) produced by intestinal flora
c) Forms and rids the body of feces through the anus
Nutrients
a) A component of food that is needed to perform a physiological body function
b) Nutrients include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, minerals, vitamins
Carbohydrates
a) Sugars or polysaccharides that are digested into simple sugars that are an important energy
source
b) Organic compounds that are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
c) There are two types of carbohydrates, simple (monosaccharaides) and complex
(polysaccharides)

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19) Simple Carbohydrates

a) Found in fruits and dairy products
b) Are more easily digested by the body
c) Also often found in processed, refined foods such as white sugar, pastas, and white bread
i) Refined grains should be minimized in the diet because fiber and vitamins are removed
20) Complex Carbohydrates
a) Chains of sugar molecules and are found in plant foods everywhere
b) Take longer for the body to digest
c) Most commonly found in vegetables (cellulose), while grain breads and pasta, brown rice, and
legumes
d) Recommended as a good source of vitamins and minerals
21) Starch
a) A polymer or long string of glucose molecules, just as a protein is a long string of amino acids
b) Starch-containing plants are the universal staple foods
c) Starch is the most valuable polysaccharide
d) Starch molecule is tree-like, with branches of varying length
22) Carbohydrate Digestion
a) Starches broken down by amylases found in mouth and small intestine (produced by pancreas)
into smaller molecules (disaccharides)
b) Disaccharide sugars; maltose, lactose and sucrose are now broken down by duodenal enzymes
(maltase, lactase and sucrose)
23) Protein
a) Large molecules made from smaller units called amino acids
b) 20 different amino acids commonly found in both plant and animal proteins
c) Essential amino acids are the 10 amino acids that must be attained through diet
d) Proteins are necessary for maintaining tissues and for sustaining growth
e) Complete proteins that have all essential amino acids are usually derived from animals such as
meat and dairy
f) Non-animal sources of complete proteins are tofu, soymilk, and other processed food from
soybeans
g) Incomplete proteins are ones that lack at least one essential amino acid (ie. Legumes, nuts,
grains etc.) and need to be combined with another incomplete protein to allow all amino acids
to be used in the body
h) Amino acids cannot be stored in the body, thus small amounts (2 servings) need to be ingested
on a daily basis
24) Goods and Bads about Protein
a) Whats good about proteins?
i) Proteins are necessary for maintaining tissues and for sustaining growth
ii) They are also used to make hormones and other physiologically active substances ie.
Enzymes
b) Whats bad about proteins?
i) Excessive protein consumption may be associated with health risks
ii) Kidney function can be compromised by too much protein in older people and in patients
with kidney disease
iii) High protein intake may adversely affect calcium balance and contribute to mineral loss
from bone

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25) Lipids
a) Include: fats, oils and cholesterol
b) Fats are organic compounds that are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
c) Saturated fats (usually of animal origin) are usually solid at room temperature while unsaturated
fats are usually liquid at room temperature
26) Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fat
a) The difference between saturated and unsaturated fat in a word is hydrogen
b) All fats contain carbon, hydrogen and a little oxygen to form what are called fatty acids
c) If the fatty acids contain all the hydrogen possible, they are said to be saturated
d) If not completely full of hydrogen, fatty acids are termed unsaturated
e) Animal fat tends to be highly saturated with hydrogen, while vegetable fats are unsaturated to
varying degrees
f) However, all foods contain a mixture of saturated and unsaturated fats
g) For example, poultry contains 30% saturated fat and 70% unsaturated fat. Beef, pork, and lamb
have about equal amounts of each. Vegetable fats, like corn oil, olive oil, sesame oil, soybean
oil, and peanut oil, contain approximately 14% saturated and 85% unsaturated
27) Trans Fats
a) Actually unsaturated fats, but they can raise total and LDL (bad) cholesterol levels while also
lowering HDL (good) cholesterol levels
b) Trans fats are used to extend the shelf life of processed foods, typically cakes, fries and donuts
c) Any item that contains hydrogenated oil or partially hydrogenated oil likely contains trans
fats. Hydrogenation is the chemical process that changes liquid oils into solid fats. Since
January 2006, all food manufacturers are required to list trans-fat content on food labels.
28) Monounsaturated fats
a) Liquid are room temperature but begin to solidify at cold temperatures
b) This type of fat is preferable to other types of fat and can be found in olives, olive oil, nuts,
peanut oil, canola oil and avocados
c) Some studies have shown that these kinds of fats can actually lower LDL cholesterol and
maintain HDL cholesterol
29) Polyunsaturated fats
a) Liquid at room temperature. Found in safflower, sesame, corn, cottonseed and soybean oils
b) This type of fat has also been shown to reduce levels of LDL cholesterol, but too much can also
reduce HDL cholesterol
c) Cholesterol cant dissolve in the blood. It has to be transported to and from the cells by carriers
called lipoproteins. Low-density lipoprotein, or LDL, is known as bad cholesterol. High-density
lipoprotein, or HDL, is known as good cholesterol.
30) Cholesterol
a) HDL (good) Cholesterol
i) About one-fourth to one-third of blood cholesterol is carried by high-density lipoprotein
(HDL)
ii) HDL cholesterol is known as good cholesterol, because high levels of HDL seem to protect
against heart attack
iii) Low levels of HDL (less than 40 mg/Dl) also increase the risk of heart disease
iv) Medical experts think that HDL tends to carry cholesterol away from the arteries and back
to the liver where it is passed from the body
v) Some experts believe that HDL removes excess cholesterol from arterial plaque, thus
slowing its build up
31) Triglycerides
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32)

33)

34)

35)

36)

37)

38)

a) Form of fat made in the body

b) Elevated triglycerides can be due to overweight/obesity, physical inactivity, cigarette smoking,
excess alcohol consumption and a diet very high in carbohydrates (60% of total calories or more)
c) People with high triglycerides often have a high total cholesterol level, including a high LDL level
and a low HDL level
d) Many people with heart disease and/or diabetes also have high triglyceride levels
Lp(a) Cholesterol
a) Lp(a) is a genetic variation of LDL cholesterol
b) A high level of Lp(a) is a significant risk factor for the premature development of fatty deposits in
arteries
c) Lp(a) isnt fully understood, but may interact with substances found in artery walls and
contribute to the build-up of fatty deposits
Free Fatty Acids (FFA)
a) Released from adipose tissue
b) Due to breakdown of triglycerides
c) Important fuel source especially for skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle
d) Accounts for 10% total body fat
Omega-3,-6,-9 Fatty Acids
a) These include essential fatty acids (linolenic acid)
b) Omega-3,-6,-9 contributes to efficient functioning of the brain and the body at a cellular level as
well as anti-inflammatory functions
c) Good source of omega-3 fatty acids include cold-water fish, flax seed, soy and walnuts
d) These fatty acids may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease and also boost our immune
systems
Atherosclerosis
a) When too much LDL cholesterol circulates in the blood, it can slowly build up in the inner walls
of the arteries that feed the heart and brain
b) Together with other substances, it can form plaque, a thick, hard deposit that can narrow the
arteries and make them less flexible
c) This condition is known as atherosclerosis. If a clot forms and blocks a narrowed artery, heart
attack or stroke can result.
So whats good about fats?
a) We need fats in our diets!
i) As the most concentrated source of calories (nine calories per gram of fat compared with
four calories per gram for protein and carbohydrates), it helps supple energy
ii) Fat provides linolenic acid, an essential fatty acid for growth, healthy skin and metabolism
iii) It also helps absorb fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K)
Fat Digestion
a) The gall bladder stores bile that has been produced by the liver. The bile is carried by the bile
duct to the small intestine where the fat molecules are first emulsified (become soluble in
water)
b) Once the fat is emulsified, the digestive enzyme lipase, further breaks it down into glycerol
(fatty acids with alcohol groups)
Transportation of Digested Molecules to the Bloodstream
a) The small intestinal wall has many finger-like projections called villi (villus)
b) Each villus in turn has many microvilli (see slide 14)
c) The surface area is tremendously increased thus enhancing intestinal absorption
d) Each villus have a blood capillary and a lacteal (a lymphatic capillary)
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e) The now simpler molecules derived from carbohydrates and proteins are actively transported
through the villi and into the blood capillaries
f) The simpler molecules derived from fat digestion are combined with proteins in the villi (termed
chylomicrons) and then diffuse into the lacteal as lipoproteins
g) The blood travels to the liver where glucose and amino acids are stored
h) The blood now travels to the heart via inferior vena cava
39) Digestive Regulation
a) Controlled by nervous system and digestive hormones
b) Parasympathetic nervous systemstimulates gastric secretion when food smelled or seen
i) Gastrin produced by stomach when protein rich meal eaten, also stimulates gastric
secretion
Duodenal hormonal secretions
ii) Secretin and
iii) CCK(cholecystokinin), stimulate increase in pancreatic juice
iv) CCK also stimulates liver production of bile and gallbladder to release bile
c) Leptin is released by adipose cells as they increase in size to signal the brain that calories (food)
is no longer needed

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Module 4; Chapter 5,6 & 7

Blood, Circulatory and Lymphatic Systems
1) Blood
a) Purposebodies most significant transportation system for removing waste products from
tissue fluid and bringing tissue fluid the oxygen and nutrients cells need
b) Bodies defense system
c) Part of bodies regulatory system

2) Hemoglobin
a) 280 000 000 molecules per red blood cells
b) Pigmented moleculegives blood its colour
c) Made up of globin1 protein and 4 hemin parts (iron groups)
d) Iron combines with oxygen and carbon monoxide and cyanide
e) Iron has a much greater affinity for carbon monoxide and cyanide than oxygen
f) Hemoglobin + O2 = oxyhemoglobin (red colour)
Hemoglobin O2 =reduced hemoglobin
Hemoglobin + CO2 = carbaminohemoglobin
Hemoglobin CO2 = carboxyhemoglobin (bright red colour)
3) Plasma
a) 55% whole blood

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4)

5)
6)

7)

b) Termed solvent since it has dissolved solutes (Na+, Cl-. Glucose, etc.) in it as well as suspended
cells
c) Distributes heat produced during metabolism
d) 91% water, rest is salts, molecules and dissolved gasses; molecules includes glucose, urea,
amino acids and proteins (such as albumin, globulin and fibrinogen)
e) Albumin controls blood volume (pressure) through osmotic pressure**
f) Globulins are antibodies**
g) Fibrinogen is part of the clotting process**
**produced by liver
Circulatory Diseases
a) Anemia
i) Due to a low red blood cell count or low iron in hemoglobin
ii) Cause: inadequate intake of dietary iron, which causes insufficient hemoglobin synthesis.
iii) Symptoms: fatigue
b) Aplastic Anemia
i) Bone marrow stops producing red blood cells
ii) Cause:
iii) Symptoms:
c) Sickle Cell Anemia
i) Inherited abnormal red blood cells shape
ii) Sub-Sahara Africa
iii) Due to abnormal amino acids
iv) Cells destroyed in capillaries
d) Leukemia
i) Due to increase white blood cells count, but cells are immature and non-functioning
ii) Type of cancer of the bone marrow
e) Infectious Mononucleosis
i) Herpes (virus) infection of lymphocytes
ii) Symptoms: Fever, sore throat and swollen lymph glands
f) Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Disease (SCID)
i) White blood cell stem cells lack enzymes so they cant fight infections
ii) Treatment: enzyme replacement and gene therapy
g) Hemolytic Disease of the New Born (HDNB)
i) Cause: Mom is Rh negative and baby is Rh positive (from dad)
ii) Treatment: immunoglobulin after birth to destroy antibodies against babies cells
Blood Vessels
a) ArteriesArteriolesCapillariesVenulesVeins
Arteries
a) Endothelium (thin squamous epithelial cell layer)
b) Smooth muscle and elastic tissue (connective)
c) Connective tissue (loose fibrous)
d) Designed to be strong and flexible
e) Arterioles are mainly muscular with little elasticity
Veins
a) Same type as arteries but less muscle and outer connective tissue, so thinner than arteries (can
expand more)
b) Also have valves that allow blood flow towards heart, not away from. Mostly in lower
extremities.why?
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c) Skeletal muscle massages the blood up veins towards the heart

8) Capillary Exchange
a) Controlled by blood pressure (BP) also known as hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure. BP
causes flow out of capillary, and osmotic pressure causes flow into capillary
b) Blood pressure is pressure exerted on inside wall of blood vessel
9) Osmotic Pressure
a) Concentration of salts and plasma proteins (albumin, globulin and fibrinogen)
b) Capillary Arterial End
i) Controlled by arterial flow before it
ii) BP > OPso water leaves capillary
c) Midpoint (between artery and vein)
i) BP=OPso molecules diffuse by concentration gradient
d) Venous End
i) BP < OPso water returns to capillary
e) Why exchange only at capillary?
i) Blood flow slow due to small diameter of capillary, so greater chance of exchange
ii) Single layer of squamous epithelial cells
iii) Sphincter muscles can control flow through capillaries
10) Cardiac
a) Definitions
i) PulseArterial expansion and contraction with each heartbeat
ii) Heart Murmurswishing sound heard using stethoscope, due to faulty heart valve
iii) Systolewhen heart chambers contract, pushing blood out
iv) Diastolewhen chambers relax, blood not being pushed out
b) Blood Flow Through The Heart

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c) Cardiac Cycle
i) A cardiac cycle is each heart beat
ii) Beginning of a cycle is contraction of both atria (controlled by SA node)
iii) Next both ventricles contract (controlled by AV node)
iv) All chambers then relax (are filling). The semi-lunar valves are closed and the AV valves are
open
v) Contraction stages called systole; relaxation stage called a diastole
vi) Approximately 70 cycles (heartbeats) per minute
vii) Each cycle lasts approximately 0.85 seconds
viii) Control
(1) The heart is internally and externally controlled
(2) Internal
(a) Controlled by nodial tissue located in 2 areas in the right atrium. It is a cardiac
muscle made up of both muscle and nervous characteristics
(b) Sinoatrial (SA) node in upper right near superior vena cava. It starts the heartbeat
(c) Atrioventricular (AV) node in upper right near septum. Receives signal from SA
node, initiates ventricular contraction (sends signal to 2 branches of AV bundle
(Purkinje fibres))
(3) External
(a) Controlled by part of the brain (medulla oblongata). Can alter heartbeat
(b) Monitors CO2
(c) Hormones, Adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenalin (norepinephrine) increase
heart rate
d) Cardiovascular Diseases (CVD)
i) Atherosclerosis
(1) Caused by the formation of lesions, or atherosclerotic plaques, on the inside of the
blood vessels
(2) The plaques narrow blood vessel diameter, choking off blood and oxygen supply to the
tissues
ii) Hypertension
(1) May lead to heart attack, stroke, kidney failure or aneurysm
(2) Caused by Atherosclerosis, blood clot (thrombus) blocking an artery, and life style
(3) Treatments include drugs to lower blood pressure, coronary bypass surgery, gene
therapy or stent
e) Cardiac/Circulatory Conditions
i) Stroke (cerebrovascular accidentCVA)
(1) Causecranial arteriole blockage or bursting due to clot
(2) Treatmentdrugs such as aspirin
ii) Heart Attack (Myocardial infarctionMI)
(1) Causelack of blood supply of part of the cardiac muscle due to blockage of a blood
vessel
(2) Warning Signsmay be in pain in left arm (angina) if only partial blockage
(3) Treatmenttreatment for angina pectoris is nitroglycerin to increase blood flow (dilate
blood vessels)
iii) Aneurysm
(1) Weakening of artery; if vessels bursts, likely fatal
(2) Causeatherosclerosis and hypertension
(3) Treatmentreplace weakened part with plastic tube
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iv) Varicose Veins

(1) Causeweakened valves in veins allow backflow and buildup of blood
(2) Mainly seen in legs
(3) Cause twisting and swelling of veins
(4) Treatmentsurgery or laser
11) Lymphatic System
a) The lymphatic system works closely with the cardiovascular system for homeostasis
b) Absorb digestive fats (lipoproteins) (dumps into vena cava) via lacteals
c) Filters lymph at nodes
d) Antiviral cells (T-lymphocytes)
e) Absorb excess tissue fluid to join with circulatory system via subclavian veins that dump into
vena cava
f) Basic Components
i) Lymphatic capillaries (lacteals) absorb excess tissue fluid and intestinal (mesenteries)
lipoproteins return fluid to bloodstream
ii) Lymphatic duct (thoracic and right lymphatic) mix lymph with blood at the subclavian veins
which then goes to vena cava and to heart
iii) Lymph fluid inside lymphatic vessels resembles tissue fluid
iv) Lymph nodes occur throughout lymphatic vessels, filter lymph by macrophages and
lymphocytes (B & T cells)
v) Red bone marrow in adults found in sternum, ribs, upper ends of humerus and demur, and
vertebrae, produces all types of blood cells (T-lymphs now go to thymus for education)
vi) Thymusthymosin hormone programs specialized lymphocytes (t-lymph) mainly verse viral
infection
g) Lymphatic Immune Functions
i) TonsilsLymphatic nodules (patches of tissue) in pharynx, same function as nodes
ii) Appendixsame function as nodes
iii) Spleenlargest lymphatic organ, filters blood
iv) Peyers patches in intestinal wall and appendix vs. pathogens

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Module 5; Chapter 9
Respiratory System
1) Purpose
a) Exchange of gases
2) Supper Respiratory Tract
a) Made up of nasal cavity, pharynx and larynx
b) Nose: opens at nares (nostrils) to outside and leads to nasal cavity with narrow canals that are
separated by the septum, made up of bone and cartilage
3) Lower Respiratory Tract
a) Made up of trachea, bronchi and lungs
b) Trachea (windpipe), connects larynx to bronchi
i) Made up of connective tissue, and smooth muscle with cartilaginous rings. C-shaped with
opening towards oesophagus so it can expand during swallowing of food
ii) Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium sweep mucous and debris towards pharynx
c) Bronchi is divided into branches (R & L), thinnest (1mm in diameter, called bronchioles)
i) Ends at alveoli
d) Lungs
i) Right lung has 3 lobesleft lung has 2 lobeswhy
ii) Alveoli (air sacs)
iii) 300 x 106 cell thick (squamous epithelia)
iv) Surrounded by capillaries
v) Lined with surfactant (lipoprotein)

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4) Breathing (Ventilation) Mechanism

a) Inspiration (inhalation)
i) Termed active since muscles (intercostal and diaphragm) contract
ii) Diaphragm becomes flattened and moves down, intercostals and ribs move up and out
b) Expiration (exhalation)
i) Termed passive since no effort and involuntary most often
ii) Lung volume decreases as diaphragm and ribs move back to normal shape and position
iii) Air pushed out of lungs
iv) Alveoli prevented from collapsing due to surfactant decreasing surface tension and lower
pressure outside of the lungs
v) Pneumothorax: collapsed lung due to atmospheric air in thoracic cavity (due to trauma)
c) Tidal Volume
i) The amount of air we breathe in and out during relaxed breathing (about 500 mL)
d) Vital Capacity
i) Necessary to increase amount of air inhaled and exhaled during increased demand
(exercise)
e) Residual Volume
i) Approximately 1000 mL of oxygen that always remains in lungs
5) Breathing Control
a) Nervous and Chemical controls
b) Nervous Control
i) Respiratory control centre in the brain (medulla oblongata at brain stem)
ii) Sends impulses to diaphragm and intercostal rib cage muscles to initate inspiration
iii) Controls rate and depth
iv) Voluntary inputwe can influence nervous control (ie. We can hold our breath!)
c) Chemical Control
i) Sensory receptors (chemoreceptors) sensitive to pH change in blood (increase in CO(2)
ii) One in brain stem breathing centre and one in circulatory system (in carotid artery & aorta)
iii) Speeds up breathing rate & depth when blood pH becomes too acidic (too many H+)
iv) Blood pH is usually 7.35-7.45
6) Respiration.External, Internal & Cellular
a) Refers to transfer of gases
b) What happens to CO2 as soon as it diffuses INTO the capillaries?
HbCO2
Combines with Hb (HbH+)
CO2
rbc

Carbonic Anhydrase
CO2+H2O

Disossiates
H2CO3

Carbonic Acid

H+

HCO3Bicarbonate Ion

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7) Hyperventilation
a) If you breathe at an increased rate, the rx above goes to the right at an elevated rate, the blood
H+ level will be lowered. The pH will become more alkaline, which can lead to muscular tetany
(continuous contractions) and dizziness
8) Hypoventilation
a) pH will become more acid as H+ build up. Plasma buffers will compensate for most of the
excess acidic ions
9) Respiratory Abnormal Conditions
a) Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (S.I.D.S.)
i) Believed to be due to disruption of nervous impulse that initiates inhalation
b) Bronchitis
i) Infection of bronchi
c) Pneumonia
i) Infection of the lungs
d) Emphysema
i) Alveoli lose elasticity & may burst
e) Asthma
i) Allergic reaction to irritant. Bronchi and bronchioles undergo spasms
f) Cyanide Poisoning
i) Cells of body cannot use O2. Weakness, confusion, sleepiness and coma
g) Altitude Sickness
i) Cells of body not getting enough O2 due to low atmospheric pressure. Symptoms as cyanide
poisoning

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Module 6; Chapter 10
Urinary System and Excretion
1) Function of the Urinary System
a) Excretion of Metabolic Wastes
i) Ureaby product of amino acid metabolism. The breakdown of amino acids in the liver
releases ammonia which the liver rapidly combines with carbon dioxide to produce urea
ii) Creatininemetabolic breakdown of creatine phosphate.
iii) Uric acidbreakdown of nucleotides, such as those containing adenine and thymine
b) Maintain the water-salt balance of blood
i) Salts in blood increase osmotic pressure which increases blood volume due to water flowing
into capillaries; kidneys do not excrete as much water) which increases blood pressure
c) Maintain acid-base balance of blood
i) Healthy pH range of 7.35-7.45
ii) If the pH starts to fall, kidneys excrete more H+ into the urine and keep more HCO3d) Secretes Hormones
i) Secretes renin which helps regulate water-salt balance by triggering adrenals to secrete
aldosterone
ii) Secrete erythropoietin to stimulate red blood cell production if O2 level is lower than normal
iii) Aids in calcium absorption from gut by activating vitamin D made by skin
2) Excretory Organs
a) KidneysCreates Urine
b) UretersTransports Urine
c) Urinary BladderStores Urine
d) UrethraPasses to Outside

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3) Kidneys
a) Contains adipose tissue on outside
b) Renal artery, vein and ureter enter organ on concave side
c) 3 regions
i) Renal Cortex (outer edge)
ii) Renal Medulla (middle layer)
iii) Renal Pelvis (forms ureter)
d) Nephron (Renal Tubule)
i) > 1 000 000 per kidney
ii) Produce urine
iii) Has own blood supply with 2 capillary areas
e) Blood Supply
i) Renal ArteryAfferent ArteriolesGlomerulusEfferent ArteriolePeritubular Capillary
NetworkVenuleRenal Vein
f) Nephron Structure and Urine Formation
i) Urine is formed in a series of steps
(1) Filtration
(2) Reabsorption
(3) Secretion
ii) Glomerular Filtration
(1) Filtration of the blood takes place in the Glomerulus
(2) It is located in the renal cortex
iii) Tubular Reabsorption
(1) Proximal Convoluted Tubule
(2) Located in the Renal Cortex
(3) Microvilli line lumen of tubules to increase surface area of reabsorption
(4) Abundance of mitochondria for ATP required for active transport of molecules from
tubule lumen back into the capillary
(5) Water moves back via osmosis
iv) Loop of Henle (Loop of the Nephron)
(1) In Renal Medulla
(2) U-shaped tubule
(3) In ascending limb, the pores are designed so water cannot move through it, salt (NaCl)
and potassium (K+) actively transported out
(4) The descending portion is highly permeable to water (aquaporins), filtrate continues to
be reabsorbed
(5) Water moved out of the tubule via osmosis (hypertonic conditions in medulla)
(6) Countercurrent (Multiplier) Mechanism
(a) Why does water leave the descending loop?
(i) Because salt has left the ascending loop creating a hypertonic condition in the
medulla
(b) Why does the salt leave the ascending loop?
(i) Because water left the filtrate in the descending loop, increasing the salt
concentration left in the loop, so Na+ is diffused and actively transported out
into the medulla
v) Distal Convoluted Tubule
(1) In Renal Cortex
(2) Mitochondria to actively move molecules from blood into tubule
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(3) No microvilli as no reabsorption takes place

(4) Site of tubular secretion (K+, H+, penicillin, creatinine are actively transported out of the
blood capillaries)
(5) Water reabsorption is regulated here by an antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which opens up
more aquaporins in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting tubules/duct
(6) ADH is secreted by the pituitary when our fluid intake is low
(7) An area in thee distal tubule (justaglomerular apparatus) measures blood pressure and
secretes renin
(8) Renin stimulates the adrenal gland to secrete aldosterone
(9) Aldosterone causes excretion of K+ and reabsorption of Na+ and water
(10)Atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH) in the heart will be secreted if blood volume is
increase, this counters renin, increases water and Na+ excretion
vi) Collecting Tubules (Not considered part of the nephron)
(1) The distal tubule joins with other distal tubules to form a collecting duct
(2) Water continues to leave through the collecting duct to be reabsorbed into the blood if
ADH is present
4) Review a Role of the Kidneys in Homeostasis
a) Water-Salt Balance
i) Especially sodium with water following
ii) Blood pressure influences diffusion across capillaries
iii) Low blood sodium (excess sweating) can lead to low blood pressure, aldosterone secreted
to reabsorb most sodium
iv) High sodium can cause hypertension, pituitary secretes ADH to reabsorb more water
hypertension can be controlled by limiting salt in diet
b) Acid-Base Balance of Body Fluids
i) Excrete acids and bases
ii) Have very important role in maintaining pH
iii) Excrete H+ ions, reabsorb HCO3- ions
iv) pH also controlled by respiratory centre and buffers in the blood
c) Metabolic Waste Removal
i) Especially nitrogenous wastes
ii) Liver produces urea and muscles produce creatinine, uric acid produced by cells
5) Kidney Function Disorders
a) Infection
i) UrethritisUrethra
ii) CystitisBladder
iii) PyelonephritisKidney
b) Kidney Stonesdue to increase calcium, pH imbalance, enlarged prostate gland
c) Uremiadamage to nephrons so nitrogenous wastes build up in blood, water and salt retention

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Module 7; Chapter 11 & 12

Skeletal and Muscular Systems
1) Function
a) Provide support legs and pelvic girdle
b) Protection of soft body parts:
i) Skull protects; brain
ii) Ribcage protects; heart and lungs
iii) Vertebrae protects; spinal cord
c) Blood cell production
i) Cells produced by; red bone marrow
d) Store mineral and fats
i) Minerals found where in bone?; medullary cavity (ground substance)
ii) Fats stored where in bone?; yellow bone marrow
e) For flexible body movement (articulations)
2) Bone Types
a) Compact
i) Yellow Marrow
b) Spongy
i) Red Marrow
c) At birth, all bone marrow is red. With age, more and more of it is converted to the yellow type.
About half of the bone marrow is red. Red marrow is found mainly in the flat bones, such as the
hip bone, breast bone, skull, ribs, vertebrae and shoulder blades and in the sponge material at
the ends (epiphysis) of the long bones such as femur and humerus
d) Yellow marrow is found in the hollow interior of the middle portion of long bones
e) In cases of severe blood loss, the body can convert yellow marrow back to red marrow in order
to increase blood cell production
3) Life of a bone
a) Growth
i) Most growth stops at adolescence when epiphyseal growth plate closes (hormonal
influence)
b) Remodeling
i) Can change; shape size and strength
ii) Also up to 18% bone replaced annually to ensure strength (whole skeleton is replaced every
10 years)
iii) Activity requiring use of a specific bone, diameter will increase at specific site where most
activity
c) Repair
i) May take several months, after hematoma, cartilage fills space between break, spongy bone
starts to develop, then compact bone grows with spongy bone being absorbed

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4) Bone Cells
a) Osteoblastsbone forming cells; secrete matrix (cytoplasm) & calcium salt deposits in matric
b) Osteocytesmature bone cells derived from osteoblasts
c) Osteoclastsbone-absorbing, break-down bone, deposit calcium salts in blood
d) Ossificationbone formation in fetus
5) Hormones needed for bone formation and strength
a) Vitamin D converted to a hormone by kidney for intestinal absorption of calcium
b) Growth hormone stimulates bone growth and epiphyseal plate
c) Thyroid hormone for metabolic cell activity
d) Sex hormones for growth (increase osteoblast activity)
e) Parathyroid (PTH) increases osteoclasts and kidney reabsorption of calcium
f) Calcitonin (thyroid) increases osteoblasts
6) Articulations (Bone to Bone Joint)
a) There are three types of joints, fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial
i) Fibrous
(1) Ex. Cranium, Rigid movability
ii) Cartilaginous
(1) Ex. Ribs to sternum; Vertebral discs; slight movability
iii) Synovial
(1) Ex. Hip and shoulders; Elbow; Movable
(2) Most common type of joint, allows mobility of the skeleton
(3) Cavity gilled with synovial fluid as a lubricant
7) Cartilage
a) Not as strong as bone, but more flexible because of presence of protein fibers
b) Cartilage cells are called chondrocytes and also lie in lacunae
c) Cartilage lacks direct blood supply so it heals slowly
d) Cartilage has no nerve so it can pad joints where stresses of movements are intense (and would
be painful) if there were nerves
e) Three types of cartilage; hyaline, elastic and fibrous
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1) Types of Muscle
a) Three types of muscle
i) Cardiac
ii) Smooth
iii) Skeletal
b) Skeletal Muscle Functions
i) Support
ii) Bone movement
iii) Help to keep temperature constancy
(1) Preserve heat in body core by:
(a) Shivering
(b) Goose bumps
(c) Surface blood decrease
iv) Vascular and lymphatic movement as discussed in circulatory and lymphatic section
v) Protect internal organs
2) Muscular Anatomy
a) Myofilaments (myosin and actin protein) are the smallest units
b) Bundles of these myofilaments make up a myofibril
c) Myofibrils are the contractile units (there may be 100s to 1000s of these). Units termed
sarcomeres
d) These myofibrils are now bundled into muscle myofibres
e) A muscle is composed of bunches of these myofibres
3) Muscular Movement
a) Joined to bone by tendon
b) Muscular contraction and relaxation is stimulated by nerves
c) Prime mover muscle is dedicated to move 1 particular bone
d) Synergist muscles help prime mover
e) Muscles contract (become shorter) and relax
f) Muscles work in opposite pairs. Antagonistone contracts while antagonist relaxes
g) How it works:
i) Neurotransmitter (acetylcholine) attaches to receptor sites on muscle membrane
ii) Sarcoplasmic reticulum then releases Ca2+. This initiates the muscle contraction known as
the Sliding Filament Model
(1) Filaments inside muscle are made up of myosin and actin proteins
(2) Actin filaments have myosin receptor sites that, when relaxed, are blocked by troponin
and tropomyosin
iii) Presence of Ca2+ uncovers the receptor sites
iv) Hook-like structures on the myosin filament attach to receptor sites on the actin filaments
v) The actin filaments are pulled over the myosin filaments due to the hook-like structures
bending which causes the sarcomere (contractile unit) to shorten
h) Muscle contraction is all of nothing meaning there is no such thing as partial contractions
i) The strength of muscle contraction is determined by how many muscle fibres are initially excited
by the neurotransmitter
j) Muscle, like all other body cells, use the high energy of the ATP molecule for its energy source
k) The ATP molecule can be made via 3 pathways (only one is aerobic. Ie. Uses oxygen)

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i)

Cellular respiration using oxygen stored in myoglobin and glycogen inside muscle cell or
glucose and fatty acids from blood
ii) Creatinemuscle will use creatine phosphate also stored in its cell
iii) Fermentation pathway makes twice as much ATP, but lactate (lactic acid) produced causes
fatigue and aching during long term exercise and glycogen in muscle or glucose is fermented
4) Muscle Terms
a) Twitchsingler, very short term contraction
b) Muscular Fatiguedue to tetanus, muscle will fatigue and stop contracting even though
stimulus is still present
c) Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS)tissue injury. Occurs 24-48 hours after exertion
5) Muscular Disorders
a) Spasmssudden involuntary contraction. Occurs in smooth and skeletal muscle. Termed
stomach if in muscles of gut. Caused by dehydration and decrease of calcium
b) Convulsionsmultiple spasms (seizure)
c) Crampsstrong, painful spasms, especially in leg and foot
d) Ticseye blinking, head turning , grimacing. Can be voluntarily controlled
e) Strainstretching or tearing of muscle
f) Spraintwisting of joint, causing muscle, ligament, tendon, nerve and blood vessel injury
g) Tendinitisoveruse of muscle and tendon. Becomes swollen and paiful
6) Muscular Diseases
a) Fibromyalgiapain, tenderness, muscular stiffness
b) Myalgiamuscle aches, often due to viral infection or overuse
c) Muscular Dystrophydisorder with muscle degeneration and weakening
d) Myasthenia Gravisfacial muscular weakness, autoimmune disease
e) Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)gradual muscular weakness throughout body

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Module 8; Chapter 13
Nervous System
1) Functions
a) Sensory Input
b) Integration
c) Motor Output
2) Nervous System Divisions
a) Central Nervous System (CNS)
i) Brain and spinal cord
ii) Received sensory information and initiates motor control
iii) Protected by bone and meninges
iv) Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF) between meninges of brain and cord
v) Made up of grey and white matter
vi) Brain is divided into sections that control specific parts of the body
b) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
i) Nerves outside the CNS
ii) 12 cranial and 31 spinal pairs of nerves
iii) Ganglion is collection of nerve cell bodies outside the CNS
iv) Divided into somatic and autonomic
3) Nervous Tissue
a) Neuroglia
i) Specific typed of cells that provide nourishment and support to the neurons
ii) 9 times more neuroglia than neurons
iii) Make up more than half the brain volume
iv) Types found in the CNS include microglia (type of phagocyte), astrocytes and
oligodendrocytes
b) Neurons
i) Act as nerve impulse transmitters
ii) Types
(1) Sensory
(a) Sends messages from sensory receptor to CNS
(2) Interneuron
(a) Found in CNS. Receives message from sensory neurons and other interneurons
(3) Motor
(a) Carries nerve impulses from CNS to effectors (muscle, gland)
iii) Neuron Structure
(1) Cell Bodycontains nucleus and organelles. May receive signal from other neurons
(2) Dendritesmay short extensions; receives signals from sensory receptors or other
neurons
(3) Axonvary in length; sends nerve impulses

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4) Axon Myelin Shealth

a) Found on long axons
b) Myelin is a lipid substance, produced by Schwann cell (PSN) and oligondendrocytes (CNS)
c) Appears as nodes; purpose is to increase nerve impulse conduction and regenerates nerves in
PNS (no regeneration in CNS)
d) Appears as white matter in CNS
5) Nerve Impulse
a) Resting Potential
i) Resting nerve shows more positive charge on inside than outside
ii) More Na+ outside, more K+ inside (sodium-potassium pump)
b) Action Potential
i) Depolarization
(1) Rapid change in charge (polarity) during nerve impulse
(2) Sodium gates open, Na+ moves into axon
(3) Charge inside axon becomes positive
ii) Repolarization
(1) Inside becomes more negative again
(2) Potassium gates open and K+ leaves axon
(3) Sodium gates closed again
(4) Sodium-potassium pump restores resting conditions
iii) Refractory Period
(1) Sodium gates cant open immediately after impulse passes (for 0.2 ms)
(2) This insures that the impulse can only go in one direction (ie. Down the axon)
6) Saltatory Conduction
a) If myelinated, the impulse is carried faster as it jumps from node to node vs. travelling length of
axon
7) Synapse
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a) Ends of axon (terminal); has many endings

b) Lies close to dendrite or cell body of neuron
c) Small gap between called synaptic cleft
8) Transmission at the Synaptic Cleft
a) When impulse reaches synaptic end of axon, Ca2+ enter the synapse
b) Synaptic vesicles inside the axon move to the end of the terminal
c) Vesicles release neurotransmitter molecules that diffuse across the synaptic cleft to the
receiving dendrite or cell body of another neuron
d) If neurotransmitter is excitatory, sodium gates open in receiving cell to start action potential
e) If neurotransmitter is inhibitory, potassium gates would open instead of sodium
f) Neurotransmitter reabsorbed or removed from cleft
9) Reflex Arc
a) 1000s of arcs in spinal cord
b) Nonvoluntary automatic response
c) Some reflex arcs also in brain stem (medulla oblongata) to control breathing, heartbeat and
blood pressure, vomiting, hiccups, swallowing and sneezing)

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Module 9: Chapter 15 & 16

Reproductive and Endocrine Systems
1) Reproductive Systems
a) Unlike other systems
i) It differs for males and females
ii) Functions fully only after puberty
b) Gonads
i) Males are testes
ii) Females are ovaries
2) Male Reproductive System

a) Seminal Fluid Production

i) Prostate Gland
ii) Seminal Vesicles
iii) Bulbourethral Gland
iv) Consistency
(1) Fructose (sugar) for sperm energy
(2) Alkaline pH (7.5) for sperm viability vs. female acid genital tract
(3) Prostaglandins to contract uterus
b) Sperm Production
i) Produces by testes, located in the scrotum
ii) Seminiferous tubules in testes undergo spermatogenesis (sperm production) via meiosis
iii) 74 days for sperm to fully develop
iv) Live for 48 hours in female genital tract
3) Male Sex Hormones
a) Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) (negative feedback)
i) Produced by the hypothalamus
ii) Stimulate pituitary to secrete gonadotropic hormones when testosterone level is low
b) Gonadotropic Hormones
i) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)promotes sperm production
ii) Luteinizing hormone (LH)controls testosterone production
c) Testosterone
i) Considered male sex hormone

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ii) For normal development and function of sex organs and secondary sex characteristics
(muscle mass, body hair, bone mass)
4) Female Reproductive System

a) Ova Production (Oogenesis)

i) Females born with up to 2 million ovarian follicles that hold an immature egg (oocyte)
ii) Less than 400 000 at puberty
iii) Approximately 400 mature in adult life (1 egg per month)
iv) Ova undergoes meiosis in ovaries
v) Corpis luteum forms in ovary from follicle
vi) Corpus luteum produces progesterone
vii) Ovulation is when mature ova is released from ovaries
viii) Ova swept into oviduct (fallopian tube) (fimbriae and cilia help out oviduct direct ova)
ix) Ova moves slowly to uterus (womb)
x) Unfertilized ova lasts 6-24 hours
b) Pregnancy
i) Ova combines with sperm in oviduct
(1) Fertilized ova (zygote) reaches uterus in several days
(2) Zygote becomes implanted (embedded) into uterus wall
(3) Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG) maintains corpus luteum in ovary to stop further
ova maturation
ii) Uterus
(1) Thick walled, muscular, pear shaped
(2) Above urinary bladder
(3) Lining called endometrium
(4) Forms placenta (made up of maternal & fetal tissue)
c) Non-Pregnant Uterine Cycle
i) Controlled by estrogen
ii) Cycle usually 28 days
iii) Days 1-5
(1) Endometrium disintegrates (menstration)
iv) Days 6-13
(1) Endometrium thickens and becomes vascular and glandular again (Proliferative Phase)
v) Day 14
(1) Ovulation
vi) Days 14-28
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(1) Endometrium continues to thicken and uterine glands (corpus luteum) mature
(Secretory Phase). If no fertilization, endometrium starts to disintegrate
5) Female Sex Hormones
a) Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GRH)produced by the hypothalamus. Stimulates pituitary
to release FSH and LH
b) EstrogenProduced by ovarian follicle for uterus cycle and female secondary sexual
characteristics
c) ProgesteroneSecreted by corpus luteum; same function as estrogen (turns off new oca
maturation if fertilized ova implanted)
d) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)secreted by pituitary, matures follicles
e) Luteinizing Hormone (LH)secreted by pituitary for corpis luteum development
f) HCG maintains corpus luteum and stimulates progesterone production
6) Sexually Transmitted Infections
a) ViralHIV, Herpes, Genital Warts, Hepatitis
b) BacterialChlamydia, Gonorrhoea, Syphilis, Bacterial Vaginosis
c) FungalCandidiasis (caused by yeast)
d) ParasiticTrichomonas

1) Endocrine System
a) Endocrine system is composed of glands that secrete hormones
b) Hormones most often (sometimes local) travel in the bloodstream to target organs/cells.
Exocrine glands dont use bloodstream (saliva and sweat)
c) A few hormones act locally and do not travel in the bloodstream. They just affect neighbouring
cells. Examples include prostaglandins (promote pain and inflammation after local tissue
damage), and growth factors (promote mitosis locally)
d) Pheromones are similar, but are released to affect behaviours of other individuals.
2) Endocrine System vs. Nervous System *
a) Nervous system also regulates other cells/organs The nervous system is generally organized for
a quick, but short (in duration) response to an internal or external environmental changes

b) In contrast, endocrine system is organized for slow but prolonged response

c) Both rely on negative feedback (high blood sugar , pancreas releases insulin to lower blood
sugar)
3) Organs of the Endocrine System
a) Endocrine system consists of:
i) Hypothalamus, pineal gland and pituitary gland in head region
ii) The thyroid and parathyroid glands which lie in the neck
iii) Thymus gland which lies in the upper chest
iv) Adrenal glands which lie atop each kidney
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5)

6)

7)

8)

9)

10)

11)

v) Pancreas
vi) Ovaries in women or testes in men
Action of Hormones
a) Most hormones are carried in the blood. When hormones reach correct target cell, they bind to
hormone specific receptors (carbohydrates on the cell membrane outer surface)
b) Hormone activity is specific because only cells with the right type of receptor can bind to a given
hormone
Action of Hormones, Target Cells and Specificity
a) Hormones are released from capillaries into tissues. When they encounter the correct receptor,
they bind to it and initiate a response.
b) Note: non-target cells cannot bind to the yellow hormone because they lack the correct
receptor
Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
a) Hypothalamus and pituitary gland are connected by a stalk-like structured
b) The role of the hypothalamus in the endocrine system is to make certain hormones and to
regulate hormone secretions of the pituitary gland
Posterior Pituitary and AGH
a) Hypothalamus secretes Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
b) ADH travels to posterior pituitary and is stored in axon endings there
c) The hypothalamus also acts as a sensor in the urinary system for water-salt concentration in the
blood. When the blood is too concentrated (ie. Doesnt contain enough water) then the
hypothalamus causes the release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from the posterior pituitary.
ADH causes more water to be absorbed into blood
d) When there is enough water in the blood, then there is negative feedback and ADH is no longer
released
Posterior Pituitary and Oxytocin
a) The hormone Oxytocin is also made in the hypothalamus, and is stored in the posterior
pituitary. When required, oxytocin is released.
b) Oxytocin causes uterine contractions during labour, and milk release or letdown during nursing
c) Increased uterine contractions causes increased oxytocin release, and as does increased baby
sucking. This is an example of positive feedback. Eventually, a change (passage of baby from
uterus or end of baby sucking) causes end of positive feedback, and oxytocin is no longer
released
Anterior Pituitary
a) The hypothalamus is connected to the anterior pituitary by a capillary bed, followed by venules,
followed by another capillary bed. This is called a portal system.
b) Hypothalamus produces hypothalamic-releasing (eg. Thyroid-releasing hormone or TRH) and
hypothalamic-inhibiting hormones (eg. Thyroid-inhibiting hormone or TIH)
c) With TRH, there is a cascade of three hormones. Negative feedback eventually inhibits the
release of hormone 1 (eg. TRH) and hormone 2 (eg. TSH)
Other Hormones Produced by Anterior Pituitary
a) Prolactin (PRL) which causes production of breast milk
b) Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) that causes melanocytes to produce melanin
(pigmentation)
c) Growth hormone (GH) which promotes muscle and skeletal growth
d) Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH) which controls some secretions from adrenal glands
Thyroid
a) Thyroid gland is located in the neck. It is attached to trachea, just below the larynx
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b) The vantage point here is the front of the neck (ie. Youre facing the front of someone elses
neck)
c) Thyroid produces thyroid hormones. The two principle thyroid hormones are triiodothyronine
(abbreviated T3) and thyroxine (abbreviated T4)
d) If iodine is lacking in our diet, the thyroid increases in size, resulting in a condition known as
goiter
e) T3 and T4 increase the metabolic rate of the body
f) Target of T3 and T4 is not a specific organ, but rather all cells in the body. They cause more
glucose (reactant for cellular respiration) to be broken down, and more energy to be produced
and subsequently used
g) Calcium ions, Ca2+, (and their specific levels) are critical for proper functioning of nervous system
and for muscle contractions
h) The thyroid gland plays a role in controlling the Ca2+ level of the blood. When the Ca2+ is too
high, the thyroid secretes the hormone calcitonin
i) Calcitonin causes excess Ca2+ to be deposited in bones. It does so by temporarily reducing the
activity and number of osteoclasts (bone absorbing cells) When osteoclasts absorb bone cells,
they break down the bone matrix, causing a release of Ca2+
j) When blood Ca2+ level lowers back to normal then the release of calcitonin by the thyroid is
inhibited. This is a negative feedback mechanism
12) Parathyroid
a) Parathyroid glands (there are four) are embedded in the posterior (inside) surface of the thyroid
gland
b) The parathyroid gland is also involved in regulating Ca2+ levels
c) When Ca2+ level in blood is too low, then the parathyroid secretes parathyroid hormone, or PTH
d) PTH increases blood Ca2+ levels through several means:
i) Promotes activity of osteoclasts
(1) Osteoclasts are cells that break down bone matric thereby causing release of Ca2+
ii) Supresses loss of Ca2+ in urine
(1) PTH causes increased tubular reabsorption of Ca2+ from kidney. Reabsorbed Ca2+ ends
up back in blood
iii) Enhances Ca2+ absorption from small intestine
(1) When Ca2+ reabsorbed in blood (see above), vitamin D is activated at the same time.
Activated vitamin D (also called calcitriol) stimulates absorption of Ca2+ from the small
intestine and eventually this Ca2+ is delivered to blood
e) When blood Ca2+ level is increased back to normal, PTH is no longer secreted by the parathyroid
i) This is also an example of a negative feedback mechanism
13) Pancreas
a) The pancreas has a role in digestion. It makes the pancreatic juice that is sent through ducts to
the small intestine
b) Pancreatic juice has digestive enzymes. This is the exocrine function of the pancreas.
c) The endocrine function of the pancreas involves the production of hormones
d) Endocrine Function of the Pancreas
i) Pancreas makes the hormones insulin and glucagon and secretes them directly into the
blood
ii) Insulin is secreted when blood glucose levels are high
iii) Insulin stimulates the uptake of glucose by cells, especially liver cells, muscle cells, and
adipose tissue cells

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iv) Glucose can then be stored as glycogen until needed. When needed, glycogen is broken
down to glucose, and the glucose is used for ATP production
v) Glucagon is secreted from the pancreas when blood-sugar level is low
vi) Glucagon stimulates the liver to break down glycogen to glucose, and stimulates the liver to
use fat and protein as energy sources over glycogen
vii) Glucagon also stimulates adipose tissue to break down fat into glycerol and fatty acids
(substrates for glucose formation in the liver)
viii) Glucagon primarily raises blood-sugar levels through the metabolism of fats and proteins,
not sugars (glycogen) directly
14) Adrenal Glands
a) Located on top of kidneys
b) Divided into inner (medulla) and outer (cortex)
c) Cortex secretions controlled by the hypothalamus (CRHcorticotropin releasing hormone) and
the pituitary (ACTHadrenocorticotropic hormone)
d) Cortex secretions provide long-term response to stress ie. Glucocorticoid regulates nutrient
metabolism and suppresses inflammatory response
e) Cortex also secretes mineralcorticoids ie. Aldosterone
f) Medulla secretions include epinephrine and norepinephrine
g) Provides rapid, short-term response to stress
15) Thymus
a) Most active in childhood
b) T-lymph are treated by hormone thymosin to fight viruses
16) Pineal Gland
a) Produces melatonin especially at night
b) Controls our sleep-wake cycle (circadian rhythm)

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