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NUCLEAR WASTE MANAGEMENT

Nuclear power is characterised by the very large amount of energy available

from a very small amount of fuel. The amount of waste is also relatively small. However, much of the waste is radioactive and therefore must be carefully managed as hazardous waste.

Since the radioactive wastes are essentially created in a nuclear power reactor, it is accepted that they are the responsibility of the country which uses uranium to generate power. There is no moral or legal basis for the responsibility to be elsewhere.

Radioactive wastes comprise a variety of materials requiring different types of management to protect people and the environment. They are normally amount and types of radioactivity in them. classified as low-level, medium-level or high-level wastes, according to the

Another factor in managing wastes is the time that they are likely to remain hazardous. This depends on the kinds of radioactive isotopes in them, and life is the time it takes for a given radioactive isotope to lose half of its original and after eight half lives 1/256th, and so on.) particularly the half-lives characteristic of each of those isotopes. (The halfradioactivity. After four half lives the level of radioactivity is 1/16th of the

The various radioactive isotopes have half-lives ranging from fractions of a second to minutes, hours or days, through to billions of years. Radioactivity decreases with time as these isotopes decay into stable, non-radioactive ones. The rate of decay of an isotope is inversely proportional to its half-life; a short half life means that it decays rapidly. Hence, for each kind of radiation, the higher the intensity of radioactivity in a given amount of material, the shorter

the half lives involved.Three general principles are employed in the management of radioactive wastes:

concentrate-and-contain dilute-and-disperse delay-and-decay.


The first two are also used in the management of non-radioactive wastes. The waste is either concentrated and then isolated, or it is diluted to acceptable levels and then discharged to the environment. Delay-and-decay however is its radioactivity is allowed to decrease naturally through decay of the radioisotopes in it.

unique to radioactive waste management; it means that the waste is stored and

Types of radioactive waste (radwaste)


Low-level Waste is generated from hospitals, laboratories and industry, as well as the nuclear fuel cycle. It comprises paper, rags, tools, clothing, filters etc. which contain small amounts of mostly short-lived radioactivity. It is not dangerous to handle, but must be disposed of more carefully than normal often compacted or incinerated (in a closed container) before disposal. all radwaste.

garbage. Usually it is buried in shallow landfill sites. To reduce its volume, it is Worldwide it comprises 90% of the volume but only 1% of the radioactivity of

Intermediate-level Waste contains higher amounts of radioactivity and may reactor components, as well as contaminated materials from reactor

require special shielding. It typically comprises resins, chemical sludges and decommissioning. Worldwide it makes up 7% of the volume and has 4% of the radioactivity of all radwaste. It may be solidified in concrete or bitumen for disposal. Generally short-lived waste (mainly from reactors) is buried, but long-lived waste (from reprocessing nuclear fuel) is disposed of deep underground.

High-level Waste may be the used fuel itself, or the principal waste separated from reprocessing this. While only 3% of the volume of all radwaste, it holds 95% of the radioactivity. It contains the highly-radioactive fission products and some heavy elements with long-lived radioactivity. It generates a

considerable amount of heat and requires cooling, as well as special shielding during handling and transport. If the used fuel is reprocessed, the separated waste is vitrified by incorporating it into borosilicate (Pyrex) glass which is

sealed inside stainless steel canisters for eventual disposal deep underground. On the other hand, if used reactor fuel is not reprocessed, all the highly-

radioactive isotopes remain in it, and so the whole fuel assemblies are treated as high-level waste. This used fuel takes up about nine times the volume of fuel treated as waste must be encapsulated ready for disposal. equivalent vitrified high-level waste which is separated in reprocessing. Used

Both high-level waste and used fuel are very radioactive and people handling them must be shielded from their radiation. Such materials are shipped in rupture in an accident. special containers which prevent the radiation leaking out and which will not

Whether used fuel is reprocessed or not, the volume of high-level waste is used fuel for a typical large nuclear reactor. The relatively small amount involved allows it to be effectively and economically isolated.

modest, - about 3 cubic metres per year of vitrified waste, or 25-30 tonnes of

Radioactive materials in the natural environment


Naturally-occurring radioactive materials are widespread throughout the environment, although concentrations are very low and they are not normally harmful. However, human activity may concentrate these so that they need careful handling- eg in coal ash and gas well residues.

Soil naturally contains a variety of radioactive materials - uranium, thorium, radium and the radioactive gas radon which is continually escaping to the atmosphere. Many parts of the Earth's crust are more radioactive than the

low-level waste described above. Radiation is not something which arises just uranium and some other ores brings these radioactive materials into closer up their release to the atmosphere.

from using uranium to produce electricity, although the mining and milling of contact with people, and in the case of radon and its daughter products, speeds

Wastes from the nuclear fuel cycle


Radioactive wastes occur at all stages of the nuclear fuel cycle - the process of producing electricity from nuclear materials. The fuel cycle comprises the mining and milling of the uranium ore, its processing and fabrication into the reactor after use and finally, disposal of the wastes.

nuclear fuel, its use in the reactor, the treatment of the used fuel taken from

The fuel cycle is often considered as two parts - the "front end" which stretches from mining through to the use of uranium in the reactor - and the "back end" which covers the removal of used fuel from the reactor and its subsequent treatment and disposal. This is where radioactive wastes are a major issue.

Low-Level and Intermediate-Level Radioactive Waste


In Canada, low-level radioactive waste (LLRW) contains material with radionuclide content that is above established clearance levels and exemption quantities but generally has limited amounts of long-lived activity. LLRW storage. Shielding refers to a barrier between stored waste and nuclear generally does not require significant shielding during handling and interim workers, such as a concrete wall or protective clothing.Intermediate-level

radioactive waste (ILRW) typically shows levels of penetrating radiation

sufficient enough to require shielding during handling and interim storage. Canada does not have, at present, a long-term management facility to accept all low and intermediate-level waste. The owners of low- and intermediatelevel waste (L&ILRW) are responsible for managing the waste they produce. This usually takes place on site within its own facility.

How is low-level and intermediate-level radioactive waste managed?


The owners of low- and intermediate-level radioactive waste (L&ILRW) are responsible for managing the waste they produce. This usually takes place on site within its own facility. Currently, Canada does not have a long-term management facility for low- and intermediate-level waste to accept all lowand intermediate-level radioactive waste. All L&ILRW in Canada is currently held on site in interim storage facilities, which are safe, secure and environmentally sound.

Certain types of radioactive waste, such as that from hospitals, universities and industry, contain only small amounts of radioactive materials with short halflives. This means that radioactivity decays away in hours or days. After safely holding the waste until the radioactivity has decayed to levels authorized by the CNSC, it can then be disposed of by conventional means (in local landfill or sewer systems). With the notable exception L&ILRW originating from nuclear power plants, low- and intermediate-level radioactive waste that requires long-term management may be returned to the manufacturer or may be transferred to an operated by AECL at its Chalk River Laboratories on a fee-for-service basis.

authorized waste management operator such as the waste management facility

3) High-level radioactive waste


High-level radioactive waste is used (irradiated) nuclear fuel and/or waste that generates significant heat. Canadas nuclear power program has produced over two million used fuel bundles over the past half century. If these bundles were stacked end-to-end, they would fit into a space the size of six hockey rinks stacked to the top of the boards. At present, there are currently no longterm management facilities for high-level nuclear fuel waste anywhere in the world. All used nuclear fuel in Canada is currently held on site in interim storage facilities, which are safe, secure and environmentally sound. Finding solutions for the long-term management of used nuclear fuel is the responsibility of the NWMO.

How is high-level radioactive waste managed?


All used nuclear fuel in Canada is currently held on site in interim storage facilities, which are safe, secure and environmentally sound. Interim storage of used nuclear fuel at a nuclear facility typically consists of two phases known as wet storage and dry storage.

Initially, used nuclear fuel bundles are stored under water in bays or pools facilities enable the fuel to cool off in a shielded and secure facility.

after they have been removed from the reactors. These reinforced, leak-proof

After 6 to 10 years in wet storage, the used nuclear fuel can be safely transferred to dry storage in concrete canisters, containers or silos.

At present, there are currently no operating long-term management facilities for used nuclear fuel anywhere in the world, although some are under

development. Finding solutions for the long-term management of used nuclear fuel is the responsibility of theNWMO.

4) Uranium mine and mill waste Uranium mine waste rock and mill tailings are specific types of radioactive waste generated during the mining and milling of uranium ore and production of uranium concentrate. In addition to tailings, mining activities produce large quantities of mineralized and unmineralized waste rock, excavated in order to access the uranium ore body. The tailings and

mineralized waste rock contain significant concentrations of long-lived significantly decrease over a long period of time. How are uranium mines and mills managed?

radioactive elements, primarily thorium-230 and radium-226, which will not

In general, long-term management in near-surface facilities adjacent to the mines and mills is the only practical option for these wastes, given the large monitored and managed in facilities, such as engineered tailing ponds or Inc. manage the only operating uranium mines and mills in Canada. volumes of waste generated in mining and milling operations. The tailings are placed back in mined-out open pits.Cameco Corporation and Areva Resources

Image: Engineered tailing pond (Source: AREVA) Regarding inactive facilities, such as the mining and tailings facilities around

Elliot Lake, in Ontario, the facilities have been decommissioned and the former

operators continue to carry out monitoring and maintenance activities. There are also former uranium mining and milling sites located in Saskatchewan, for the long-term by their former owners or the federal or provincial government. Ontario and the Northwest Territories. These inactive sites are being managed

There is an initiative to remediate inactive legacy uranium mine and mill sites in Northern Saskatchewan that were decommissioned during the end of the Cold War era and do not meet todays environmental standards. Through regular facility visits and inspections, harmonized with the Saskatchewan departments of Environment and Resource facilities to protect workers, the public and the environment. Management, and Labour, CNSC staff monitor these waste management

Commission Blasts Outdated Nuclear Waste Management Policy

Vanessa Kurzweil | 02/28/12

Current U.S. policy for the management of used nuclear reactor fuel and radioactive waste is damaging and costly, according to a Future (BRC) to the Department of Energy(DOE). recent reportissued by the Blue Ribbon Commission on Americas Nuclear

The BRC report attributes the dearth of waste management options to decades of ineffective nuclear policy. As a result, the U.S. currently lacks a long-term disposal site for radioactive waste. The majority of used fuel in the U.S. is instead stored at local reactor sites.

The failure to establish a long-term disposal site actually wastes taxpayer money, according to the report. Since 1998, DOE has been contractual obligated to transport nuclear waste from over 100 reactors to a long-term

disposal site. In the absence of such a facility, lawsuits against the DOE for its breach of these obligations have already cost taxpayers nearly $2.2 billion in

litigation costs, settlements, and legal judgments. The agency estimates such payments will total $20 billion by 2020.

To address these problems, the Blue Ribbon Commission recommends

amending the Nuclear Waste Policy Act (NWPA) to permit short-term sites to be used for disposal. Passed in 1987, an amendment to the NWPA effectively designated Nevadas Yucca Mountain region the countrys only long-term operational.

nuclear waste disposal site and banned the use of other sites until the project is However, after years of legal challenges from local Nevadans, funding

shortfalls, and political pressure, the DOEwithdrew its application to begin waste management options are now severely limited.

construction on the Yucca Mountain site in 2010. As a result, the countrys The Commissions report posits that both the congressional mandate and the

DOEs failure to meet its waste disposal obligations have further eroded the trust of a public that is already deeply suspicious of nuclear power.

waste disposal sites to make it more transparent and consensual in order to avoid the complications that surrounded the Yucca Mountain project.

The Commission recommends that Congress overhaul the process of selecting

The Commission also recommends the creation of a new organization to take over nuclear waste management from the DOE. According the Commission, the DOEs multiple regulatory priorities, variable annual budget, and poor public image demand such a change. Safety of Radioactive Waste and Spent Fuel Management

The objective of the IAEA programme on Radioactive Waste and Spent Fuel

Management is to provide support to the IAEA Member States in establishing a

proper safety framework for the management of radioactive waste and spent

fuel. Activities under this programme include the development of IAEA safety standards for predisposal management and disposal of radioactive waste and spent fuel, the assistance to the Member States on the use and application of these Safety Standards, the coordination of the Waste Safety Standards

Committee, and providing the Secretariat for the meetings of the Contracting the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management.

Parties of the Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on Both the development of the Safety Standards, as well as the activities related to their use and application, are aimed towards securing the best possible benefit to the IAEA Member States. As such the needs of the Members States are identified, inter alia, from:

The outcomes of international conferences, meetings and workshops During meetings of the Safety Standards committees Direct interactions with the Member States

International Projects

International projects and working groups are organized to work towards disposal of radioactive waste, and to provide a forum of exchanges for the Member States.

harmonization of approaches to the safety of predisposal management and

Examples of such international projects include the CRAFT project which deals with the demonstration of safety of predisposal facilities, and thePRISM facilities. In addition, an international Joint Working Group has been for spent nuclear fuel in a holistic manner. project, which deals with the demonstration of safety of near surface disposal established to address the safety of dual purpose transport and storage casks The development and implementation by the Member States of a

comprehensive radioactive waste management strategy for high level waste and spent fuel, including disposal, is an important priority. In this regard, the GEOSAF project focuses on the demonstration of operational and long term

safety of geological disposal facilities and the development of a specific programme on the disposal of high level waste and spent fuel. Services to Member States

Assistance is provided to the Member States, upon their request, through through peer reviews of radioactive waste management programmes.

national, regional and interregional technical cooperation projects, as well as

When the natural uranium is mined from underground and open pit mines, it consists of 99.3 % U-238 and only 0.7% of U-235. The extracted ore goes through the ordinary mineral dressing processes (crushing, grinding, screening, flotation, and gravity separation) to increase the U-235

concentration. It is then chemically processed to form "yellowcake" (U3O8).

Then, uranium hexafluoride gas (UF6) is produced by fluorination of U3O8. As a gas, it undergoes enrichment to increase the U-235 content from 0.7% to reactor fuel elements. about 3.5%. It is then turned into a hard ceramic oxide (UO2) for assembly as

The nuclear fuel consists of cylindrical pellets of compacted UO2 in 3 to 4

meter long and about 0.1 m in diameter zircaloy tubes. Approximately, one 60 fuel rods are bundled to form a fuel assembly.

pellet of UO2 will generate energy equivalent to one ton of coal. About 30 to

The fuel rods in the nuclear reactor generated heat

through nuclear fission. When a neutron is absorbed into a U-235 atom, it becomes an unstable U-236. By electric repulsion, U-236 splits into fission products (ex. Barium, Krypton, and etc.). The binding forces are converted into energy in the form of heat and Gamma radiation. When

this reaction occurs under controlled environment, two free neutrons will be available for continued fission processes.

A 1-MW nuclear power plant typically contains about 100 tons of uranium fuel. Once a year, about one-third of the fuel rods are removed and replaced with fresh fuel. The spent fuel rods are composed of about 94% of U-238, U-235,

radioactive fission products, and other radioisotopes. Although they represent continue to generate heat and release radiation long after the fuel is removed of water at the reactor site, temporarily. The water works as a coolant and radiation shield.

a small proportion of the spent fuel, only 3.5%, they are highly radioactive and from the reactor. Most spent fuel from nuclear power plants is stored in pools

United States policies governing the permanent

disposal of high-level radioactive waste are defined by the Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 as amended. be disposed of underground, in a deep geologic This act specifies that high-level radioactive waste will repository and that Yucca Mountain, Nevada, will be the single candidate site for characterization as a procedure and timetable for the site selection, potential geologic repository. This act provides for a construction, and operation of HLW mined geologic repositories. Uranium Fuel Cycle

Nuclear Organizations
o

The American Nuclear Society (ANS) is a not-for-profit,

international, scientific and educational organization established by a group of individuals who recognized the need to unify the and technology. professional activities within the diverse fields of nuclear science

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) serves as the world's central intergovernmental forum for scientific and inspectorate for the application of nuclear safeguards and technical cooperation in the nuclear field, and as the international verification measures covering civilian nuclear programs.

The Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI) is the policy organization of both the national and global policy-making process.

the nuclear energy and technologies industry and participates in


o

The World Nuclear Association is the global industrial

organization that seeks to promote the peaceful worldwide use of nuclear power as a sustainable energy resource for the coming centuries.

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