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Ref. No............................

August 23, 2010 Dated, the.

Spontaneous Emission:
Potential barrier hf EF hf Eg

p-type

n-type

p-type p-n junction n-type

Ohmic contact

Fig.: The p-n junction with forward bias giving spontaneous emission of photons. When an external positive voltage is applied to the p-type region with respect to the n-type, both the depletion region width and the resulting potential barrier are reduced and the diode is said to be forward biased. Electrons from the n-type region and holes from the p-type region can flow more readily across the junction into the opposite type region. This leads to the recombination of carriers across the bandgap. The energy released by the electron-hole recombination is approximately equal to the bandgap energy, Eg, and results radiative emission. hc E g = hf =

1.24 E g (ev) where c is the velocity of light in vacuum in m/s h is the Plancks constant and is the optical wavelength ( m) =

Lec-38, Pg-01

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Ref. No............................

August 23, 2010 Dated, the.

Semiconductor Laser Operation: For lasing operation we need the following conditions fulfilled for semiconductor diode. (I) Population inversion, (II) Stimulated emission, and (III) Optical feedback. (I) Population Inversion:
p-type Eg n-type Filled electron states

EF -------

-----

---

Fig.: The degenerate p-n junction with no applied bias. Population inversion may be obtained at a p-n junction by degenerative doping of both the p- and n-type material. Heavy p-type doping with acceptor impurities causes a lowering of the Fermi level between the filled and empty states into the valence band. Similarly, degenerative n-type doping causes the Fermi level to enter the conduction band of the material. (II) Stimulated Emission
p-type - -- --EFC EFV - -- Active region EFV hf n-type EFC

Fig.: The degenerate p-n junction with strong forward bias. When a forward voltage is applied to the diode, there is a significant increase in the concentration of electrons in the conduction band near the junction on the n-side and the concentration of holes in the valence band near the junction on the p-side. Thus there exists an active region near the depletion layer that contains simultaneously degenerate population of electrons and holes. The conduction band electrons move into empty valence band states and recombine with holes, and energy is given off in the form of photons. The energy of the photon resulting from this recombination is equal to that associated with the energy gap, that is Eg = EFC EFV = hf

Lec-38, Pg-02

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Ref. No............................

August 23, 2010 Dated, the.

(III) Optical Feedback

Optical output

p-type

Cleaved mirror

n-type

Fig.: The layer structure of a junction diode with optical feedback. Another requirement of the junction diode to establish lasing involves the provision of optical feedback to give laser oscillation. It may be achieved by the formation of an optical cavity within the structure by polishing the end faces of the junction diode to act as mirrors. The sides are roughened to prevent any unwanted light emission and hence wasted population inversion. Threshold Condition: Loss in the laser cavity has two primary contributors. (a) Diffraction loss in the active region. (b) Absorption of the laser light by free carriers in the junction region.
Light output (power)

Spontaneous emission region

Stimulated emission region

Threshold current

Current

Fig.: The ideal light output against current characteristic for an injection laser. The semiconductor diode gives little output in the region below the threshold current which corresponds to spontaneous emission. When current through the junction is increased stimulated emission will begin when the optical gain exceeds the losses. After the threshold current density is reached (I) the light output increases substantially for small increases in current through the device, (II) the laser is acting as an amplifier of light, and (III) the emission spectrum narrows dramatically. [Ref.: Optical Fiber Communications: Principles and Practice, John M. Senior]

Lec-38, Pg-03

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Ref. No............................

August 23, 2010 Dated, the.

Applications of Lasers: There are many scientific, military, medical and commercial laser applications which have been developed since the invention of the laser in the 1958. Some of the common uses are (1) Because the laser beam is so narrow, it can read the minute, encoded information on a stereo CD or on the bar-code patterns in a grocery store. (2) One of the leading laser applications is materials processing, in which lasers are used to cut, drill, weld, heattreat, and otherwise alter both metals and nonmetals. (3) One of the more exciting applications of lasers is in the field of telecommunications, in which tiny diode lasers generate the optical signal transmitted through optical fibers. (4) Chemists, biologists, spectroscopists, and other scientists count lasers among the most powerful investigational tools of modern science. (5) In medicine, the lasers narrow beam has proven a powerful tool for therapy. In particular, the carbon dioxide laser has been widely adopted by surgeons as a bloodless scalpel. (6) Laser printers are capable of producing high-quality output at very high speeds. (7) Military uses of lasers include applications such as target designation and ranging, defensive countermeasures, communications and directed energy weapons. [Ref.: Introduction to Laser Technology, B. Hitz, J.J. Ewing and J. Hecht]

Lec-38, Pg-04

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