DIGITAL STOCK 1996

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TRADITIONAL ELECTROMECHANICAL AND MICROPROCESSOR PROTECTION RELAYS process signals provided by iron core voltage and current transformers (VTs and CTs), requiring a number of protective and control devices, measuring equipment, and extensive wiring. These designs are inflexible if adjustments are needed to accommodate load and power system configuration changes. In addition, complex periodic testing and maintenance procedures are necessary. In spite of best engineering efforts, at times relay misoperation occurs due to the complexity of the protection scheme (e.g., wrong wiring after periodic testing, wrong relay setting), the effects of external magnetic fields, and CT saturation, especially in differential schemes. Even protection systems using multifunction relays are susceptible to these problems. When a protection device becomes inoperative and does not initiate breaker tripping during the fault, backup protection is provided locally by a redundant or breaker failure relay and remotely by upstream protection devices. Traditional schemes employ

This advanced protection system incorporates Rogowskicoil current sensors and multifunction relays that provide primary and backup protection.
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intentional time delays to ensure the primary relay has ample wide measurement range (the same coil can measure time to clear a fault before the backup relay operates. This currents from 1 to over 100,000 A) frequency response linear up to 700 kHz delay in fault removal causes higher equipment stress and a short-circuit withstand is unlimited with the windowpower outage to larger areas, affecting more customers. type design The advanced protection concepts presented in this article galvanically isolated from the primary conductors (simincorporate the latest technology current sensors (new Rogowsilar to current transformers) ki-coil designs) and multifunction relays that provide primary can be encapsulated and located around bushings or protection, as well as fast and conventional backup protection. cables, avoiding the need for high insulation. The protection function is performed both locally and over a The RC output voltage is in the millivolt to several-volt communication network. Fewer relays and current sensors are needed than for conventional designs, response times to faults range and can reliably drive digital devices designed to accept low power signals. Integration of the sigare faster, and adjustments to load and/or nals can be performed in the relay (by power system configuration changes can using analog circuitry or digital signal be easily made. Since Rogowski coils processing techniques) or immediately (RCs) are very accurate and do not satuat the coil. Connections to relays can be rate, protection levels can be set to lower by wires or through fiberoptic cables. thresholds, increasing the sensitivity of I(t) New current and voltage sensors and the scheme without affecting reliability of intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) operation. This reduces the stress on proincorporating the latest information tected equipment during faults. The systechnologies (ITs) make possible hightem is immune to external magnetic level integration of protection, control, fields, is simple and user friendly, requires V(t) and metering systems in substations. less wiring and space, and can provide Technical committees worldwide are metering-class accuracy. actively working on standardizing low Protection is improved by the relays power current and voltage sensor output making decisions faster with new algo- figure 1. Printed circuit board levels as well as interfaces between senrithms and by exchanging information Rogowski coil. sors, relays, and IEDs. For example: (digitized secondary signals) with other Standard for Low Energy Analog Signal Inputs to Prorelays. This technology makes it possible to provide primary tective Relays (IEEE C37.92) standardizes analog interand fast backup protection with a single relay. New protection face links concepts also make it possible to design differential protection Specific Communication Service Mapping: Sampled schemes for unique applications that could not be achieved Analog Values Over Serial Unidirectional Multidrop using conventional CTs. Point to Point Link (IEC 61850-9-1) and Sampled AnaRogowski Coil Design log Values Over ISO 8802-3 (IEC 61850-9-2) standardRC output voltage is proportional to the rate of change of ize communication methods of digitized sampled measured current. To obtain measured current, coil output values over an Ethernet network specified by IEEE voltages must be integrated. Traditional RCs consist of wire 802.3 group of standards. wound on a nonmagnetic core. Strict design criteria must be The goal is to obtain interoperability between IEDs and followed to obtain a coil immune from nearby conductors and sensors of different technologies and suppliers. independent of conductor location inside the coil loop. The most important design criteria is to prevent the influence of nearby conductors, which is achieved by designing the coil with two-wire loops connected in electrically opposite direcB Phase A Phase C Phase tions. This cancels the electromagnetic fields coming from outside the coil loop. The traditional method of designing RCs Ic(t) Ib(t) Ia(t) was to use flexible cores such as coaxial cables or straight rods to obtain higher measurement accuracy. A recently patented RC design consists of two wound coils implemented on a pair of printed circuit boards located next to Multifunction Relay each other (Figure 1). For measurements of residual currents, (50G/51G Functions) the coils were designed in an oval shape, as shown in Figure 2. The RC design has the following characteristics: measurement accuracy reaching 0.1% figure 2. Oval Rogowski coil for neutral current measurements.
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Substation Protection
The traditional substation protection scheme shown in Figure 3 has one in-coming subtransmission line, one power transformer, and four out-going feeders. The scheme includes six protection relays connected to separate CTs and three singlephase VTs (VT1). One single-phase VT (VT2) indicates presence of the supply voltage and is connected to an undervoltage relay (R7) to provide interlocking. Relay R1 provides primary protection for the power transformer and backup protection for relay R2 and any of the feeder relays R3 to R6. Power transformer backup protection has been provided by a sudden pressure relay. Relay R2 provides primary protection for the bus using reverse zone blocking (fast bus trip) scheme and also provides backup feeder protection. The fast bus trip schemes require additional wiring for relay logic signals. Some manufacturers provide an additional control device to handle the logic signals. Relays R3 to R6 provide primary feeder protection. The new substation protection scheme shown in Figure 4 employs five sets of RCs and five relays. Relay R1 provides main protection for the power transformer and the bus, fast backup protection for feeder F1, and standard backup protection for all feeders. Power transformer and bus differential protection are based on signals from RC1 (directly connected to R1) and signals over communication from RC2 to RC5. Relays R2 to R5 provide main and fast backup feeder protection. For example, R2 receives signals from RC2 and RC3 (both directly connected to R2) providing main protection for feeder F1 and fast backup protection for feeder F2 in case R3 becomes inoperative. Relay R2 receives information via peerto-peer communication that relay R3 is inoperative. Similarly, R3 receives direct signals from RC3 and RC4 providing main protection for feeder F2 and backup protection for feeder F3 in case R4 becomes inoperative. The same applies to R4 and R5. The Ethernet switch manages communication traffic. A second communication system can be employed to provide a backup for the first system. The new protection scheme provides primary, fast backup, and conventional backup protection. Protection functions are performed locally and over a communication network. The self-diagnostic algorithm continuously monitors the RC condition and performs a contingency operation in case of an RC or secondary lead failure. Providing fast backup protection for another relay is a unique concept. Relays receive direct signals from two RCs, providing the main protection for one feeder and fast backup protection for another feeder. Relays receive information via peer-to-peer communication that other relays are inoperative. In all cases when the primary relay becomes inoperative, the backup relay will operate fast, without impacting the fault-clearing time and protection-zone area.

collector bus are relatively low as compared to maximum available fault currents for bolted faults (in some cases not much higher than the load currents). Since these low currents may not be sufficient to operate the fuses, damage to network equipment can be extensive. Because arcing fault currents cannot be differentiated from load currents, network protectors do not have overcurrent protection relays and do not open for faults downstream of the protector load side terminals, or for faults in other network protectors. Protective relays on the primary side of network transformers also cannot reliably detect lower level faults; as a result, protective devices have not been applied at the primary side. The fuses will clear only sustained high-current faults in the low-voltage collector bus, in the customer switchgear, or at the interconnection of the collector bus to the customer switchgear. Figure 5 shows a

CB1 CT1 R1 Power Transformer CT2 VT1 Bus CB3 CT4 CB4 CT5 CB5 CT6 CB6 CT7 CT3 CB2 VT2 R2 R7

R3

R4

R5

R6

F1

F2

F3

F4

figure 3. Traditional protection scheme.

CB1 RC1 R1 Power Transformer Bus CB3 RC2 VT1 CB4 RC3 VT2 CB2 CB5 RC4 CB6 RC5

Switch

R2 F1 F2

R3

R4 F3

R5 F4

Spot Network Protection

Spot network systems were developed to supply densely loaded urban areas with a high level of reliability and operating flexibility. In case of a fault, arcing fault currents in the
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figure 4. New protection scheme.

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three-unit spot network and devices that have traditionally been used for protection: heat sensors (CFDs), ultraviolet light sensor or smoke detector, sudden pressure relays (SPRs) in transformers, and case ground bus (CGB) designs. For a bus fault, these devices are significantly slower than current differential protection systems. The application of current differential relay protection in spot network systems has been investigated in the past but not applied, because conventional core-type current transformers saturate under high fault conditions.

Figure 6 shows a single-line diagram of the new spot network differential protection system concept with RCs and multifunction relays. Phase, ground overcurrent sens-

SNU1 PCB NT NP VT2 HS 32 78

SNU2

SNU3

SPR

CT
50 CFD

VT1
F CGB

figure 5. Traditional technique for spot network protection.

SNU1 RC11 PCB1

SNU2 RC21 PCB2

SNU3 RC31 PCB3

T1 NP1 VT1 R1 RC12 VT2 NP2

T2 NP3

T3

R2 RC22

R3 RC32

RC13 F

RC23

RC33

ing, and protection functions of directional (32) and out-ofstep (78) relays can be incorporated in the relay schemes. SPR has the same function as in traditional protection schemes. The first set of RCs is installed on the network transformer primary side (RC11, RC21, and RC31), the second set on network protectors load terminals (RC12, RC22, and RC32), and the third set at the load terminals (RC13, RC23, and RC33). This concept provides five independent differential protection zones. Three zones enclose each spot network unit (SNU), protecting all equipment between the first set of RCs and the second set of RCs. One zone protects the collector bus and conductors or cables, which are located between the second and the third set of RCs. The remaining zone covers the entire spot network. For a fault in one of the SNU zones, relays will detect the fault and trip the circuit breaker and network protector of the faulted zone, allowing the spot network to continue operating with two units. For example, for a fault in the network transformer T1, relay R1 will detect an overcurrent depending on the fault location and detect reverse power through SNU1 based on signals from voltage transformers VT1 and VT2 and coil RC12 and trip PCB1 and NP1. Relays R2 and R3 will have information via peer-to-peer communication that R1 has sensed reverse power and will delay tripping of PCB2, PCB3, NP2, and NP3 to allow R1 to operate and trip PCB1 and NP1. If they do not receive information that PCB1 and NP1 have been opened, they will trip PCB2, PCB3, NP2, and NP3 in the backup mode, providing protection for the spot network. For faults in the collector bus zone, relays will detect the sudden increase of currents based on signals from RC11, RC21, RC31, RC12, RC22, and RC32, while the secondary currents measured by RC13, RC23, and RC33 may not change significantly, depending on the fault resistance. Relays will have information via peer-to-peer communication that all relays have sensed the same change of current and positively conclude that the fault is in the collector bus zone, tripping PCB1, PCB2, and PCB3. For faults on the network transformer primary side and primary cables, the primary circuit breaker (PCB) and network protector (NP) will trip only in the faulty SNU, allowing the spot network to continue operation with two units. In some designs, PCBs are not installed on the primary side of each SNU to clear the fault. In this case, there are two possible solutions for fault clearing. The first method is the use of fast grounding switches that will close in for a low-current fault to increase the fault current and force the circuit breaker at the substation to operate. The second method to operate the circuit breaker at the substation is through a transfer tripping communication system.

Arc Furnace Transformer Protection

figure 6. New spot network protection scheme.
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IEEE power & energy magazine

In steel facilities that use electric arc furnaces to manufacture steel from scrap, the furnace transformer is one of the most critical pieces of electric power equipment in the plant. Failures in
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the furnace transformer or in the vault external to the trans- bined transformer with secondary leads. For zone 2 sensing former interrupt production and require costly and time-con- faults in the secondary leads, there is no need for transformer suming repairs. Classical overcurrent protection is applied in tap position information, which simplifies the protection algomost steel facilities at the circuit breaker that supplies the cable rithm and allows the relay to be set more sensitively. serving the furnace transformer vault. Overcurrent protection is This concept also provides redundancy of protection. If normally set to reach into the furnace transformer primary RC1 fails, zones 1 and 3 will be affected, but zone 2 will stay winding for faults in the winding but is not normally set with operational. If RC2 fails, zones 1 and 2 will be affected, but sufficient sensitivity to reach through the transformer into the zone 3 will stay operational. If RC3 fails, zones 2 and 3 will secondary winding or into the secondary leads. Faults that occur be affected, but zone 1 will stay operational. in the secondary bus work, water cooled leads, or in the conducting arms above the furnace are not detected by the upstream Trends in Protection System Design overcurrent protection and are normally interrupted after per- Next-generation protection systems can use data from sensors sonnel manually open the circuit breaker. The damage due to installed anywhere in the substation over a large communicathe extended fault duration can result in a long outage during tion network. This concept has been investigated in the past but could not be economically implemented since software, repair or costly replacement of parts damaged by the fault. The most common form of protective relaying for larger semiconductor-based technologies, and global standardization substation transformers is differential relaying. These schemes were not sufficiently developed. Today, technology advancerequire current transformers on both the primary and second- ments make these implementations possible. Microprocessor ary sides of the transformer to provide input signals to the relay. However, these schemes have not been applied on arc-furnace transformers due EAF Transformer Vault to the lack of commercially available current Arc Furnace RC3 transformers for the secondary leads and CT satRC1 Transformer RC2 I2 I1P P uration problems due to the high current magnitudes. Tap I1S Now, RCs and multifunction relays can proPosition I2S vide reliable main and backup protection. Figure Water-Cooled 7 shows a single-line diagram of the differential Leads scheme employing three sets of RCs and one multifunction relay. Designed as split-core style, EAF Algorithms for Three Independent coils can be installed without the need to disconProtection Zones nect a primary or secondary conductor, making it easy to install on the arc-furnace transformer, Multifunction Relay connecting bus work, and/or cable. An external signal can be supplied to the relay (a) to indicate the operating tap of the transformer. With suitable delays, the relay can be programmed to ride through an on-load tap change Oval Rogowski Coils Round when the current mismatch will change with Rogowski fixed ratio sensors. The ability of the scheme to Coil adjust to actual transformer operating conditions reduces the main sources of error that force higher percentage differential settings in conventional schemes. The tap position can be supplied to the relay in a variety of formats, such as analog or digital. The concept shown in Figure 7 provides three Primary Conductor protection zones. Zone 1 covers all electrical Secondary equipment between RC1 and RC2, zone 2 covers Leads all electrical equipment between RC2 and RC3, Relay and zone 3 covers all electrical equipment (b) between RC1 and RC3. The multifunction relay employs three different algorithms, one for each zone, providing independent protection of the arc- figure 7. Protection of arc furnace transformers and secondary leads: furnace transformer, secondary leads, and com- (a) protection scheme, (b) PCB coil designs.
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Compared with conventional systems, fewer relays and current sensors are needed, response times to faults are faster, and adjustments to configuration changes are easier.

capabilities are high and, in many cases, exceed application requirements. For example, a consumer-oriented microprocessor now contains 220 million transistors, making it possible to implement any conceivable protection algorithm. Object-oriented programming and code reuse are widely accepted in the industry. Graphical programming languages are sufficiently developed to allow protection engineers to efficiently customize protection schemes. Modern communication technologies are evolving towards: low cost global accessibility virtually infinite bandwidth. Standardization is becoming internationally unified. The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) has led the U.S. effort in developing the utility communication architecture (UCA) specifications, starting from well-established communication technologies (TCP/IP, IEEE 802.3). This work is being continued by IEC working groups to develop a global communication standard for substation automation, IEC 61850. We believe new protection architectures will include: advanced, nonconventional, low energy sensors multifunction relays executing multiple protection schemes in parallel in the same relay, providing both primary and fast backup protection fast backup protection performed locally using conventional protection schemes such as overcurrent and distance primary protection based on communications, providing response augmentation (differential, fast transfer tripping, and automated system reconfiguration) continuous monitoring of remotely communicated data, providing graceful degradation in case of communication system failure using preprogrammed actions for multiple power system and/or communication system contingencies protection schemes with programmable logic capabilities, easily customizable by protection engineers remote protection system management, offering easy access to individual devices from the engineers desk.

L.A. Kojovic, Rogowski coils suit relay protection and measurement, IEEE Comput. Appl. Power, vol. 10, pp. 47-52, July 1997. Introduction to UCA Version 2.0. Palo Alto, CA: Electric Power Research Institute, Mar. 1997.

Biographies
Ljubomir A. Kojovic is a chief power systems engineer for Cooper Power Systems at the Thomas A. Edison Technical Center. He has a Ph.D. in power systems with specialties that include protective relaying, distributed generation, testing, digital modeling, and systems analysis. He is an adjunct assistant professor at Michigan Technological University. He is included on the roster of experts for the United Nations Development Organization (UNIDO) and is a registered professional engineer in Wisconsin. He is an IEEE Senior Member, a member of the System Protection subcommittee, and a member of several working groups of the IEEE PES Power System Relay Committee. He holds four U.S. patents and authored more than 100 technical papers. Martin T. Bishop is supervisor of the Reliability Improvement Studies section in the Systems Engineering Group of Cooper Power Systems, Franksville, Wisconsin. The section is responsible for projects related to power systems reliability, including overcurrent protection system applications and the impact on power quality and reliability. The section is also responsible for applications of the V-PRO II program and the Distrely program for distribution reliability analysis. He is an instructor in the Cooper Power Systems Overcurrent Protection Workshop, the Fundamentals of Power Distribution Workshop, the Distribution System Reliability Workshop, and the Transformer Application and Protection Workshop. He received B.S. and M.S. degrees in electric power engineering from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, and an MBA from The Keller School of Management. Veselin Skendzic is a staff engineer for Cooper Power Systems at the Thomas A. Edison Technical Center. He obtained his Ph.D. degree from Texas A&M University. His expertise includes: RF, analog, and digital circuit design; power system analysis and simulation; power system protection; power system failure analysis; networking; and electromagnetic compatibility. He was instrumental in developing the line of Cooper relays. He is an active member of the IEEE PES Power System Relaying Committee and has contributed to multiple IEEE standards projects. He holds two U.S. patents and authored more than 20 technical papers. p&e
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For Further Reading

L.A. Kojovic, PCB Rogowski coils benefit relay protection, IEEE Comput. Appl. Power, vol. 15, pp. 50-53, July 2002. L.A. Kojovic, V. Skendzic, and S.E. Williams, High precision Rogowski coil, U.S. Patent: 6,313,623; 6 Nov. 2001.
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