Sustainability: A Comprehensive Foundation

Collection Editor: Tom Theis and Jonathan Tomkin, Editors

Sustainability: A Comprehensive Foundation

Collection Editor: Tom Theis and Jonathan Tomkin, Editors Authors: Said Al-Hallaj Steve Altaner Amy Ando Jeffrey Brawn Julie Cidell George Crabtree John Cuttica Serap Erdal David Grimley Martin Jaffe Angela Kent Amid Khodadoust Riza Kizilel Cindy Klein-Banai Andrew Leakey Sohail Murad Krishna Reddy John Regalbuto Dennis Ruez Eric Snodgrass Tom Theis Jonathan Tomkin Michael Ward Gillen Wood

Online: < http://cnx.org/content/col11325/1.36/ >

CONNEXIONS
Rice University, Houston, Texas

This selection and arrangement of content as a collection is copyrighted by U of I Open Source Textbook Initiative. It is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Collection structure revised: February 29, 2012 PDF generated: March 24, 2012 For copyright and attribution information for the modules contained in this collection, see p. 578.

Table of Contents
Preface 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7

FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF I en sntrodution to ustinilityX rumnity nd the invironment F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F Q ht is ustinilityc F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F Q he se iqution F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F T rumn gonsumption tterns nd the eound i'et F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F U ghllenges for ustinility F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F W ghpter eview uestions F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F F IP he ivolution of invironmentl oliy in the nited ttes ! ghpter sntroduE tion F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IQ he emerin gonservtion wovement F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IR invironmentl isk wngement F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PS ustinility nd uli oliy F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F QQ uli relth nd ustinility F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F QU glimte nd qlol ghnge ! ghpter sntrodution F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RU glimte roessesY ixternl nd snternl gontrols F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RV wilnkovith gyles nd the glimte of the uternry F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F TI wodern glimte ghnge F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F F UR glimte rojetions F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F WT fiosphere ! ghpter sntrodution F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IIS fiogeohemil gyles nd the plow of inergy in the irth ystem F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IIU fiodiversityD peies vossD nd iosystem puntion F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IPR oil nd ustinility F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F IQQ hysil esouresX terD ollutionD nd winerls E ghpter sntrodution F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IRU ter gyle nd presh ter upply F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F IRW gse tudyX he erl e E qoingD qoingD qone F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IUU ter ollution F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IVP gse tudyX he vove gnl hisster F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PHU winerl esouresX pormtionD winingD invironmentl smpt F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PIH gse tudyX qoldX orth its eightc F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PPS

1 Introduction to Sustainability: Humanity and the Environment

2 The Evolution of Environmental Policy in the United States

3 Climate and Global Change

4 Biosphere

5 Physical Resources: Water, Pollution, and Minerals

6 Environmental and Resource Economics 6.1 invironmentl nd esoure ionomis E ghpter sntrodution F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F PQI 6.2 rgedy of the gommons F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PQP 6.3 gse tudyX wrine pisheries F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F PRI 6.4 invironmentl lution F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PRR 6.5 ivluting rojets nd oliies F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PSP 6.6 olutionsX roperty ightsD egultionsD nd snentive oliies F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PSW 7 Modern Environmental Management 7.1 7.2 7.3

wodern invironmentl wngement ! ghpter sntrodution F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F PTS ystems of ste wngement F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PTT gse tudyX iletroni ste nd ixtended roduer esponsiility F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PUU

iv
7.4 7.5

qovernment nd vws on the invironment F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PUW isk essessment wethodology for gonventionl nd elterntive ustinility yptions F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F PVV ustinle inergy ystems E ghpter sntrodution F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F QHI invironmentl ghllenges in inergyD gron hioxideD eirD ter nd vnd se F F F F F F F F F F F F QHT gse tudyX qreenhouse qses nd glimte ghnge F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F QQH inergy oures nd grriers F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F QQS inergy ses F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F QWU epplitions of hse ghnge wterils for ustinle inergy F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F RIH rolemEolvingD wetrisD nd ools for ustinility E ghpter sntrodution F F F F F F F F F F F F F RPI vife gyle essessment F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RPP herivtive vife gyle gonepts F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RQT ustinility nd fusiness F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RVP

8 Sustainable Energy Systems 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 10.1 10.2

9 Problem-Solving, Metrics, and Tools for Sustainability

10 Sustainability: Ethics, Culture, and History

he rumn himensions of ustinilityX ristoryD gultureD ithis F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RVV st9s xot isy feing qreenX entiEinvironmentl hisourseD fehviorD nd sdeE ology F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RWH 10.3 he sndustriliztion of xtureX e wodern ristory @ISHH to the presentA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RWR 10.4 ustinility tudiesX e ystems vitery epproh F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F SHI 10.5 he ulnerility of sndustrilized esoure ystemsX wo gse tudies F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F SHS 10.6 gse tudyX egriulture nd the qlol fee golony gollpse F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F SHV 10.7 gse tudyX inergy nd the f yil hisster F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F SII 10.8 ustinility ithis F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F SIQ
11 Sustainable Infrastructure 11.1 ustinle rnsporttionX eessiilityD woilityD nd herived hemnd F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F SPI 11.2 ustinle tormwter wngement F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F SQI Glossary F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F SRR Index F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F SUI Attributions F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FSUV

Preface

his text is designed to introdue the reder to the essentil onepts of sustinilityF his sujet is of vitl importne ! seeking s it does to unover the priniples of the longEterm welfre of ll the peoples of the plnet ! ut is only peripherlly served y existing ollege textooksF he ontent is intended to e useful for oth rodEsed introdutory lss on sustinility nd s useful supplement to speilist ourses whih wish to review the sustinility dimensions of their res of studyF fy overing wide rnge of topis with uniformity of styleD nd y inluding glossriesD review questionsD se studiesD nd links to further resouresD the text hs su0ient rnge to perform s the ore resoure for semester ourseF tudents who over the mteril in the ook will e onversnt in the lnguge nd onepts of sustinilityD nd will e equipped for further study in sustinle plnningD poliyD eonomisD limteD eologyD infrstrutureD nd moreF purthermoreD the modulr design llows individul hpters nd setions to e esily pproprited ! without the purhse of whole new textF his llows edutors to esily ring sustinility oneptsD referenesD nd se studies into their re of studyF his pproprition works prtiulrly well s the text is free ! downlodle to nyone who wishes to use itF purthermoreD reders re enourged to work with the textF rovided there is ttriution to the soureD users n dptD dd toD revise nd repulish the text to meet their own needsF feuse sustinility is rossEdisiplinry (eld of studyD produing this text hs required the ringing together over twenty experts from vriety of (eldsF his enles us to over ll of the foundtionl ompoE nents of sustinilityX understnding our motivtions requires the humnitiesD mesuring the hllenges of sustinility requires knowledge of the sienes @oth nturl nd soilAD nd uilding solutions requires tehnil insight into systems @suh s provided y engineeringD plnningD nd mngementAF eders ustomed to textooks tht present mteril in unitry voie might e surprised to (nd in this one sttements tht do not lwys greeF rereD for exmpleD utious lims out limte hnge stnd eside sweeping pronounements prediting future soil uphevl engendered y wrming worldF end hpter tht inludes mrketEsed solutions to environmentl prolems oexists with others tht ll for inresed government ontrolF uh diversity of thought hrterizes mny of the (elds of inquiry represented in the ookY y inluding itD we invite users to engge in the sort of ritil thinking serious study of sustinility requiresF st is our sinerest hope tht this work is shred freely nd widelyD s we ll struggle to understnd nd solve the enormous environmentl hllenges of our timeF

1 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITTQGIFQGbF

Chapter 1
Introduction to Sustainability: Humanity and the Environment

1.1

An

Introduction
1

to

Sustainability:

Humanity

and

the

Environment

1.1.1 Learning Objectives

efter reding this hpterD students should e le to

lern the mening of sustinility in its modern ontext quire si fility for using the se eqution lern out ptterns of humn onsumption understnd the mjor ftors tht ontriute to unsustinle impts
2

1.2 What is Sustainability?

sn IWVQ the nited xtions qenerl essemly pssed resolution QVGITI entitled roess of reprtion of the invironmentl erspetive to the er PHHH nd feyond3 D estlishing speil ommission whose hrge wsX @A o propose longEterm environmentl strtegies for hieving sustinle development to the yer PHHH nd eyondY @A o reommend wys in whih onern for the environment my e trnslted into greter oEopertion mong developing ountries nd etween ountries t di'erent stges of eonomi nd soil developE ment nd led to the hievement of ommon nd mutully supportive ojetives whih tke ount of the interreltionships etween peopleD resouresD environment nd developmentY @A o onsider wys nd mens y whih the interntionl ommunity n del more e'etively with environmentl onernsD in the light of the other reommendtions in its reportY @dA o help to de(ne shred pereptions of longEterm environmentl issues nd of the pproprite e'orts needed to del suessfully with the prolems of proteting nd enhning the environmentD longEterm gend for tion during the oming dedesD nd spirtionl gols for the world ommunityD tking into ount the relevnt resolutions of the session of speil hrter of the qoverning gounil in IWVPF
1 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIIVUGIFSGbF 2 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIIVVGIFTGbF 3 httpXGGwwwFunForgGdoumentsGgGresGQVGQVrITIFhtm

CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION TO SUSTAINABILITY: HUMANITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

he ommission lter dopted the forml nme orld gommission on invironment nd hevelopment @gihA ut eme widely known y the nme of its hir qro rrlem frundtlnd4 D medil dotor nd puli helth dvote who hd served s xorwy9s winister for invironmentl e'irs nd susequently held the post of rime winister during three periodsF he ommission hd twentyEone memers5 drwn from ross the gloeD hlf representing developing ntionsF sn ddition to its ftE(nding tivities on the stte of the glol environmentD the ommission held (fteen meetings in vrious ities round the world seeking (rsthnd experienes on the how humns intert with the environmentF he frundtlnd gommission issued its (nl report yur gommon puture6  in IWVUF elthough the frundtlnd eport did not tehnilly invent the term sustinilityD it ws the (rst redile nd widelyEdisseminted study tht proed its mening in the ontext of the glol impts of humns on the environmentF sts min nd often quoted de(nition refers to sustainable development s  . . .development tht meets the needs of the present without ompromising the ility of future genertions to meet their own needsF he report uses the terms sustinle developmentD sustinleD nd susE tinility interhngelyD emphsizing the onnetions mong soil equityD eonomi produtivityD nd environmentl qulityF he pthwys for integrtion of these my di'er ntion y ntionY still these pthE wys must shre ertin ommon tritsX the essentil needs of the world9s poorD to whih overriding priority should e givenD nd the ide of limittions imposed y the stte of tehnology nd soil orgniztion on the environment9s ility to meet present nd future needsF hus there re three dimensions tht sustinility seeks to integrteX eonomiD environmentlD nd soil @inluding soiopolitilAF ionomi interests de(ne the frmework for mking deisionsD the )ow of (nnil pitlD nd the filittion of ommereD inluding the knowledgeD skillsD ompetenes nd other ttriutes emodied in individuls tht re relevnt to eonomi tivityF invironmentl spets reognize the diversity nd interdependene within living systemsD the goods nd servies produed y the world9s eosystemsD nd the impts of humn wstesF oioEpolitil refers to intertions etween institutionsG(rms nd peopleD funtions expressive of humn vluesD spirtions nd wellEeingD ethil issuesD nd deisionE mking tht depends upon olletive tionF he report sees these three elements s prt of highly integrted nd ohesively intertingD if perhps poorly understoodD systemF he frundtlnd eport mkes it ler tht while sustinle development is enled y tehnologil dvnes nd eonomi viilityD it is (rst nd foremost soil onstrut tht seeks to improve the qulity of life for the world9s peoplesX physillyD through the equitle supply of humn nd eologil goods nd serviesY spirtionllyD through mking ville the widespred mens for dvnement through ess to edutionD systems of justieD nd helthreY nd strtegillyD through sfegurding the interests of genertions to omeF sn this sense sustinility sits mong series of humn soil movements tht hve ourred throughout historyX humn rightsD ril equlityD gender equityD lor reltionsD nd onservtionD to nme fewF
4 httpXGGwwwFunForgGxewsGdhGhlpnelGrundtlndEioFhtm 5 httpXGGenFwikisoureForgGwikiGfrundtlndeport 6 httpXGGwwwFunEdoumentsFnetGwedEofFhtm

Figure 1.1: Overlapping Themes of the Sustainability Paradigm A depiction of the sustainability
paradigm in terms of its three main components, showing various intersections among them. International Union for the Conservation of Nature

Source:

he intersetion of soil nd eonomi elements n form the sis of soil equityF sn the sense of enlightened mngementD 4viility4 is formed through onsidertion of eonomi nd environmentl interestsF fetween environment nd soil elements lies erilityD the reognition tht the funtioning of soieties is dependent on environmentl resoures nd serviesF et the intersetion of ll three of these lies sustinilityF he invironmentl rotetion egeny8 @ ieA tkes the extr step of drwing distintion etween sustinility nd sustinle developmentD the former enompssing idesD spirtions nd vlues tht inspire puli nd privte orgniztions to eome etter stewrds of the environment nd tht promote positive eonomi growth nd soil ojetivesD the ltter implying tht environmentl protetion does not prelude eonomi development nd tht eonomi development must e eologilly vile now nd in the long runF he ghpter The Evolution of Environmental Policy in the United States @etion PFIA presents informtion on how the three omponents tht omprise sustinility hve in)uened the evolution of environmentl puli poliyF he ghpter Sustainability: Ethics, Culture, and History @etion IHFIA
7 httpXGGmsdtFiunForgGdownlodsGiunfutureofsustnilityFpdf 8 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGsustinilityGsiinfoFhtm5sustinility

CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION TO SUSTAINABILITY: HUMANITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

explores in greter detil the ethil sis for sustinility nd its ulturl nd historil signi(neF

1.3 The IPAT Equation

es ttrtive s the onept of sustinility my e s mens of frming our thoughts nd golsD its de(nition is rther rod nd di0ult to work with when onfronted with hoies mong spei( ourses of tionF he ghpter Problem-Solving, Metrics, and Tools for Sustainability @etion WFIA is devoted to vrious wys of mesuring progress towrd hieving sustinle golsD ut here we introdue one generl wy to egin to pply sustinility oneptsX the se equtionF es is the se for ny equtionD se expresses lne mong interting ftorsF st n e stted s

I =P AT

@IFIA

where I represents the impts of given ourse of tion on the environmentD P is the relevnt humn popultion for the prolem t hndD A is the level of onsumption per personD nd T is impt per unit of onsumptionF smpt per unit of onsumption is generl term for tehnologyD interpreted in its rodest sense s ny humnEreted inventionD systemD or orgniztion tht serves to either worsen or unouple onsumption from imptF he eqution is not ment to e mthemtilly rigorousY rther it provides wy of orgnizing informtion for (rstEorder nlysisF uppose we wish to projet future needs for mintining glol environmentl qulity t present dy levels for the midEtwentyE(rst enturyF por this we need to hve some projetion of humn popultion @P A nd n ide of rtes of growth in onsumption @AAF

Figure 1.2: World Population Growth

December 2010 Update

10

Source:

U.S. Census Bureau, International Data Base,

pigure World Population Growth @pigure IFPA suggests tht glol popultion in PHSH will grow from the urrent TFV illion to out WFP illionD n inrese of QS7F qlol qh @qross homesti rodutD one mesure of onsumptionA vries from yer to yer utD using pigure Worldwide Growth of Gross Domestic Product @pigure IFQA s guideD n nnul growth rte of out QFS7 seems historilly urte @growth t QFS7D when ompounded for forty yersD mens tht the glol eonomy will e four times s lrge t midEentury s todyAF
9 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIIWHGIFSGbF 10 httpXGGwwwFensusFgovGpopultionGinterntionlGdtGidGworldpopgrphFphp

Figure 1.3: Worldwide Growth of Gross Domestic Product Source:

from IndexMundi

11

CIA World Factbook, Graph

hus if we wish to mintin environmentl impts @sA t their urrent levels @iFeF s2050 a s2010 AD then

P2010 A2010 T2010 = P2050 A2050 T2050

or

@IFPA

T2050 1 1 P2010 A2010 1 = = = T2010 P2050 A2050 1FQS 4 5F4

@IFQA

his mens tht just to mintin urrent environmentl qulity in the fe of growing popultion nd levels of 1ueneD our tehnologil deoupling will need to redue impts y out ftor of (veF oD for instneD mny reently dopted limte tion plns for lol regions nd muniiplitiesD suh s the ghigo glimte etion ln12 D typilly ll for redution in greenhouse gs emissions @dmittedly just one impt mesureA of eighty perent y midEenturyF he mens to hieve suh redutionsD or even whether or not they re neessryD re mtters of intense deteY where one group sees expensive remedies with little demonstrle returnD nother sees opportunities for investment in new tehnologiesD usinessesD nd employment setorsD with ollterl improvements in glol nd ntionl wellEeingF

1.4 Human Consumption Patterns and the Rebound Eect

13

sn IVTS illim tevons14 @IVQSEIVVPAD fritish eonomistD wrote ook entitled he gol uestion15 D in whih he presented dt on the depletion of ol reserves yetD seemingly prdoxillyD n inrese in the onsumption of ol in inglnd throughout most of the IWth enturyF re theorized tht signi(nt improvements in the e0ieny of the stem engine hd inresed the utility of energy from ol ndD in e'etD lowered the prie of energyD therey inresing onsumptionF his is known s the Jevons paradoxD
11 httpXGGwwwFindexmundiFomGgGgFspxcaxx8vaTT 12 httpXGGwwwFhigolimtetionForgGpgesGintrodutionGIHFphp 13 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIIWIGIFTGbF 14 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGillimtnleytevons 15 httpXGGwwwFeonliForgGlirryGhfooksGtevonsGjvngFhtml

CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION TO SUSTAINABILITY: HUMANITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

the priniple tht s tehnologil progress inreses the e0ieny of resoure utiliztionD onsumption of tht resoure will inreseF snresed onsumption tht negtes prt of the e0ieny gins is referred to s reoundD while overconsumption is lled k(reF uh ounterEintuitive theory hs not een met with universl eptneD even mong eonomists @seeD for exmpleD he i0ieny hilemm16 AF wny environmentlistsD who see improvements in e0ieny s ornerstone of sustinilityD openly question the vlidity of this theoryF efter llD is it sensile to suggest tht we not improve tehnologil e0ienyc hether or not the prdox is orretD the ft tht it hs een postulted gives us puse to exmine in somewht greter depth onsumption ptterns of soietyF sf we let Q e the quntity of goods nd servies delivered @within given time periodA to peopleD nd R e the quntity of resoures onsumed in order to deliver those goods nd serviesD then the se eqution n e rewritten in slightly di'erent wy sX

I=P

Q R I qh P qh Q R
I R

@IFRA

R where Q represents the resoure intensityD nd errnging this version of the eqution givesX

is the impt reted per unit of resoures onsumedF

R=Q

R Q

@IFSA

whih sys simply tht resoures onsumed re equl to the quntity of goods nd servies delivered times the resoure intensityF he inverse of resoure intensity Q is lled the resoure use e0ienyD lso known R s resoure produtivity or  eco-eciencyD n pproh tht seeks to minimize environmentl impts y mximizing mteril nd energy e0ienies of produtionF hus we n syX

R=Q

1 io e0ieny

@IFTA

tht isD resoures onsumed re equl to goods nd servies delivered divided y eoEe0ienyF hether or not gins in eoEe0ieny yield genuine svings in resoures nd lower environmentl impts depends on how muhD over timeD soiety onsumes of given produt or servie @iFeF the reltive e0ieny ginD e A e must outpe the quntity of goods nd servies delivered Q F sn the terms of tevons prdoxD if Q e Q Q e then the system is experiening k(reF rt of the prolem in nlyzing dt pertining to whether or not suh overonsumption is hppening depends on the spei( good or servie in questionD the degree to whih the dt truly represent tht good or servieD nd the level of detil tht the dt mesureF le Historical Eciency and Consumption Trends in the United States @le IFIA summrizes some reent (ndings from the literture on the omprtive e0ieny nd onsumption for severl tivities over extended periods of oservtionF ken olletively these tivities pture severl si enling spets of modern soietyX mjor mterilsD trnsE porttionD energy genertionD nd food produtionF sn ll ses the dt show tht over the long termD onsumption outpes gins in e0ieny y wide mrginsD @iFeFD Q e AF st should lso e noted tht Q e in ll sesD the inreses in onsumption re signi(ntly greter thn inreses in popultionF he dt of le Historical Eciency and Consumption Trends in the United States @le IFIA do not verify tevons prdoxY we would need to know something out the pries of these goods nd servies over timeD nd exmine the degree to whih sustitution might hve ourred @for instne luminum for ironD ir trvel for utomoile trvelAF o see if suh lrge inreses in onsumption hve trnslted into omprle dereses in environmentl qulityD or delines in soil equityD other informtion must e exminedF hespite thisD the informtion presented does show series of ptterns tht rodly re)et humn onsumption of goods nd servies tht we onsider essentil for modern living nd for whih e0ieny gins hve not kept peY in world of (nite resoures suh onsumption ptterns nnot ontinue inde(nitelyF
16 httpXGGwwwFnewyorkerFomGreportingGPHIHGIPGPHGIHIPPHfftowen

W
Activity Time Period Avg Annual Eciency Improvement (%) Avg Annual Increase in Consumption (%) Ratio: Consumption/Eciency

ig sron eluminum pertilizer iletriityEgol iletriityEyil iletriityExt qs preight il rvel eir rvel wotor rvel ssenger ehile

IVHHEIWWH IWHHEPHHS IWPHEPHHH IWPHEPHHU IWPHEPHHU IWPHEPHHU IWTHEPHHT IWTHEPHHU IWRHEPHHT

IFR IFP IFH IFQ IFS IFV PFH IFQ HFQ

RFI WFV VFV SFU TFP WFT PFS TFQ QFV

QFH UFW VFW RFS RFP SFS IFP RFW IIFH

Table 1.1X

Historical Eciency and Consumption Trends in the United States Source: Dahmus
and Gutowski, 2011 (p. 9)

yur onsumption of goods nd servies retes vile eonomyD nd lso re)ets our soil needsF por exmpleD most of us onsider it soil good tht we n trvel lrge distnes rther quiklyD sfelyD nd more or less whenever we feel the needF imilrlyD we relize soil vlue in hving luminum @lightweightD strongD nd dutileA villeD in spite of its energy ostsD euse it mkes so mny onvenienesD from ir trvel to everge nsD possileF his is t the enter of the sustinility prdigmX humn ehvior is soil nd ethil phenomenonD not tehnologil oneF hether or not we must overonsume to relize soil ene(ts is t the ore of sustinle solutions to prolemsF
1.4.1 Resources

por more informtion out eoEe0ienyD see the orld fusiness gounil for ustinle hevelopment report titled 4ioEi0ienyX greting more vlue with less impt17 4
1.4.2 References

hhmusD tF fFD nd F qF qutowski @PHIIA gn i0ieny smprovements edue esoure gonsumptionc e ristoril enlysis of en etivities tournl of sndustril iology @epted for pulitionAF

1.5 Challenges for Sustainability

18

he onept of sustinility hs engendered rod support from lmost ll qurtersF sn reltively suint wy it expresses the sis upon whih humn existene nd the qulity of humn life dependX responsile ehvior direted towrd the wise nd e0ient use of nturl nd humn resouresF uh rod onept invites omplex set of menings tht n e used to support divergent ourses of tionF iven within the frundtlnd eport dihotomy existsX lrm over environmentl degrdtion tht typilly results from eonomi growthD yet seeing eonomi growth s the min pthwy for lleviting welth dispritiesF

17 httpXGGwwwFwsdForgGpluginsGdoserhGdetilsFspctxthoitleae0ieny8hoypesdaPS8ghrlvistaPSY8yjetsdawjS8vfka 18 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIIWPGIFSGbF

IH

CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION TO SUSTAINABILITY: HUMANITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

he three min elements of the sustinility prdigm re usully thought of s eqully importntD nd within whih trdeo's re possile s ourses of tion re hrtedF por exmpleD in some instnes it my e deemed neessry to degrde prtiulr eosystem in order to filitte ommereD or food produtionD or housingF sn relityD howeverD the extent to whih trdeo's n e mde efore irreversile dmge results is not lwys knownD nd in ny se there re de(nite limits on how muh sustitution mong the three elements is wise @to dteD humns hve treted eonomi development s the dominnt one of the threeAF his hs led to the notion of strong sustainabilityD where trdeo's mong nturlD humnD nd soil pitl re not llowed or re very restritedD nd weak sustainabilityD where trdeo's re unrestrited or hve few limitsF hether or not one follows the strong or wek form of sustinilityD it is importnt to understnd tht while eonomi nd soil systems re humn retionsD the environment is notF therD funtioning environment underpins oth soiety nd the eonomyF his inevitly leds to the prolem of metrisX wht should e mesured nd how should the vlues otined e interpretedD in light of the rod gols of the sustinility prdigmc he ghpter ProblemSolving, Metrics, and Tools for Sustainability @etion WFIA ddresses this in detilD ut presented here is rief summry of the (ndings of the willennium iosystem essessment19 @wieAD projet undertken y over thousnd interntionlly reognized expertsD from PHHIEPHHSD who ssessed the stte of the world9s mjor eosystems nd the onsequenes for humns s result of humnEindued hngesF sn its simplest formD system20 is olletion of prts tht funtion togetherF he wie presents (ndings s ssessments of ecosystems nd ecosystem servicesX provisioning servies suh s food nd wterY regulting servies suh s )ood ontrolD droughtD nd diseseY supporting servies suh s soil formtion nd nutrient ylingY nd ulturl servies suh s reretionlD spiritulD religious nd other nonmteril ene(tsF wie presents three overrhing onlusionsX
Approximately 60% (15 out of 24) of the ecosystem services examined are being degraded or used unsustainably, including fresh water, capture sheries, air and water purication, and the regulation of regional and local climate, natural hazards, and pests. The full costs of the loss and degradation of these ecosystem services are dicult to measure, but the available evidence demonstrates that they are substantial and growing. Many ecosystem services have been degraded as a consequence of actions taken to increase the supply of other services, such as food. These trade-os often shift the costs of degradation from one group of people to another or defer costs to future generations.

There is established but incomplete evidence that changes being made are increasing the likelihood of nonlinear changes in ecosystems (including accelerating, abrupt, and potentially irreversible changes) that have important consequences for human well-being. Examples of such changes include disease emergence, abrupt alterations in water quality, the creation of dead zones in coastal waters, the collapse of sheries, and shifts in regional climate.

The harmful eects of the degradation of ecosystem services are being borne disproportionately by the poor, are contributing to growing inequities and disparities across groups of people, and are sometimes the principal factor causing poverty and social conict. This is not to say that ecosystem changes such as increased food production have not also helped to lift many people out of poverty or hunger, but these changes have harmed other individuals and communities, and their plight has been largely overlooked. In all regions, and particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, the condition and management of ecosystem services is a dominant factor inuencing prospects for reducing poverty.

19 httpXGGwwwFmweForgGenGindexFspx 20 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGystem

II yrgniztions suh s the orld gommission on invironment nd hevelopmentD the willennium iosysE tem essessmentD nd severl others inluding the sntergovernmentl nel on glimte ghnge21 D the yrE gniztion for ionomi goopertion nd hevelopmentD22 nd the xtionl edemy eport to gongress23 hve ll issued reports on vrious spets of the stte of soiety nd the environmentF he memers of these groups re mong the est experts ville to ssess the omplex prolems fing humn soiety in the PIst enturyD nd ll hve rehed similr onlusionX sent the entment of new poliies nd prties tht onfront the glol issues of eonomi dispritiesD environmentl degrdtionD nd soil inequlityD the future needs of humnity nd the ttinment of our spirtions nd gols re not ssuredF

21 httpXGGwwwFipFhG 22 httpXGGwwwFoedForgGhomeG 23 httpXGGwwwFntionldemiesForgGnnulreportG

IP

CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION TO SUSTAINABILITY: HUMANITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

1.6 Chapter Review Questions

Question 1.6.1 Question 1.6.2 Question 1.6.3 Question 1.6.4

24

ht re the essentil spets of sustinility s de(ned in the frundtlnd eportc he(ne strong nd wek sustinility nd give exmples of ehF tteD in your own wordsD the mening of the se equtionc ht is the reound e'et nd how is it relted to humn ptterns of onsumptionc

24 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIIWQGIFSGbF

Chapter 2
The Evolution of Environmental Policy in the United States

2.1 The Evolution of Environmental Policy in the United States  Chapter Introduction
2.1.1 Introduction
1

st is not unommon to think of the sustinility prdigm s eing reent interprettion of environmentl poliyD one tht ws given redene y the nited xtions report 4yur gommon puture4 @the frundtlnd eport2 A when it ws (rst presented in IWVUF gertinly the period during the (nl dede of the twentieth entury ws witness to signi(nt growth in our understnding of the omplexity nd glol reh of mny environmentl prolems nd issuesD nd s disussed in ghpter An Introduction to Sustainability: Humanity and the Environment @etion IFIAD the frundtlnd report gve ler voie to these onerns through its nlysis of humn dependeny nd qulity of life on eologil systemsD soil networksD nd eonomi viility"systems tht re losely intertwined nd tht require more integrted pprohes to solving the mny prolems tht onfront humnity t this timeF st is lso true tht it ws mong the (rst widely disseminted writings to de(ne nd use the modern mening of the term 4sustinle4 through the oftenEquoted onept of 4sustinle developmentF4 roweverD it would e mistke to onlude tht sustinility s mentl onstrut nd poliy frmework for envisioning the reltionship of humns nd nture me into eing suddenly nd t single moment in timeF wost environmentl historins who hve studied FF poliy hve diserned t lest three distint periods during whih new onepts nd idesD sienti( understndingsD tehnologil dvnesD politil institutionsD nd lws nd regultions me or were rought into eing in order to understnd nd mnge humn impts on the environmentF hese were @IA the emerin onservtion movementD @PA the rise of environmentl risk mngement s sis for poliyD nd @QA the integrtion of soil nd eonomi ftors to rete wht we now refer to s the sustinility prdigmF sn this hpter we will explore the roots of modern sustinility @wodule The American Conservation Movement @etion PFPAAD see how our thinking out the environment hs shifted @wodule Environmental Risk Management @etion PFQAAD nd exmine the wys tht our environmentl puli poliies hve hnged through time @wodule Sustainability and Public Policy @etion PFRAAF elong the wy it is importnt to understnd tht this hs een n evolutionry proess nd tht these environmentl 4ersD4 while re)eting the normsD ttitudesD nd needs of the dyD re still very muh emodied within the modern onept of sustinilityF
1 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRPIIVGIFRGbF 2 httpXGGwwwFunEdoumentsFnetGwedEofFhtm

IQ

IR

CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

2.2 The American Conservation Movement

2.2.1 Learning Objectives

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

understnd the history of environmentl poliy in the nited ttes nd the role of di'erent groups in shping environmentl poliy
2.2.2 Introduction

o most erly olonists who immigrted to xorth emeriD for whom the onept of wstge hd no spei( meningD the ontinent ws lnd of unimginly vst resoures in whih little e'ort ws mde to tretD minimizeD or otherwise mngeF his is not surprisingD when one stnd of trees ws onsumed for housing or fuelD nother ws neryY when one (eld ws eroded to the point of limited fertilityD expnsion further inlnd ws reltively simpleY when rivers eme silted so tht (sheries were impiredD one moved further upstremY nd when onfronted with endless herds of wild nimlsD it ws inoneivle tht one might overEonsume to the point of extintionF iuropenEsettled emeri ws lrgely grrin soiety ndD prt from the need to keep spes produtive nd ler of derisD there ws little inentive to spend time nd energy mnging dishrges to the ommons4  @see wodule The Tragedy of the Commons @etion TFPAAF hese ttitudes persisted well into the IWth entury nd spets of them re still tive in the present dyF hile suh prties ould hrdly e sid to onstitute n environmentl poliyD they did serve the purpose of onstellting numer of groups into rethinking the wy we went out mnging vrious spets of our livesD in prtiulr our reltionship to the lnd nd the resoures it ontined or providedF es erly s the midEIVth enturyD tred iliot5 @ITVSEIUTQA of gonnetiutD ministerD dotorD nd frmerD wrote series of tretises on the need for etter frming methodsF re summrizedX
When our fore-Fathers settled here, they entered a Land which probably never had been Ploughed since the Creation, the Land being new they depended upon the natural Fertility of the Ground, which served their purpose very well, and when they had worn out one piece they cleared another, without any concern to amend their Land. . .(Carman, Tugwell, & True, 1934, p. 29 (p. 24)).

elthough iliot vidly instruted his fellow frmers on etter methods of (eld husndryD there is little evidene tht his writings hd lsting e'et @he is most known for dvnes in the design of the drill ploughD n erly plnter tht produed even rows of ropsD inresing yieldsAF fy IVSHD the popultion of the nited ttes ws pprohing PS million nd inresing t the rte of three to four perent per yer @for omprison the popultion of inglnd ws out PT millionD of prne QT millionD nd qermny out RH millionAF elthough the westwrd migrtion ross xorth emeri ws well underwyD most people still lived within reltively nrrow strip of lnd long the est ostF fy modern mesures the nited ttes ws not densely popultedD nd yet the pereption of the ountry s ig nd on the interntionl stge ws in ontrst to the mentlity just few dedes efore of new world tht hd roken with the oldD one of endless open spes nd inexhustile resouresF he ountry ws lso eoming more urnized @out IS perent of the popultion lived in itiesD three times the proportion of just (fty yers eforeAD nd inresingly literteF hus y the midEIWth entury the emerin puli ws prepred to listen to the messges of vrious groups who hd eome onerned out the impts of growth on soietyF hree groups in prtiulrD of onsiderly di'erent sympthies nd hrterD me to hve profound in)uenes on the wy we thought of ourselves in reltion to the environmentD on our lnd use poliiesD nd on providing environmentl goods nd servies to the growing popultionX the resoure e0ieny groupD the trnsendentlist movementD nd orgnized industril interestsF
3 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRPIIUGIFQGbF 4 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGheommons 5 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGtrediliot

IS
2.2.3 Resource Eciency

es typi(ed y the onerns of tred iliot nerly entury eforeD there were lwys some who were lrmed t widespred griulturl prties tht were wstefulD ine0ient ndD using the modern terminologyD unE sustinleF fy the erly IVHHs the umultive impts of soil erosion nd infertilityD deresing rop yieldsD nd nturl rriers to expnsion suh s terrin nd poor trnsporttion to mrkets led to n orgnized e'ort to understnd the uses of these prolemsD invent nd experiment with newD more soilEonserving nd less wsteful prtiesD ommunite wht ws eing lerned to the puliD nd egin to uild government institutions to promote etter stewrdship of the lnd nd its resouresF elthough initil onservtion onE erns were ssoited with frmingD the sme pproh soon found its wy into the mngement of forests nd timeringD wstes from mining nd smeltingD nd y the end of the entury the ontrol of humn disese outreks @most ommonly ssoited with holer nd typhoidA nd the impt of hemil exposure on workersF here were mny individuls who ontriuted to understnding the sienti( underpinnings of the environment nd eduting prtitionersX iugene rilgrd6 @griulturl sieneAD tohn esley owell7 @wE ter rightsAD qeorge erkins wrsh8 @eologil sieneAD prnklin rough9 nd qi'ord inhot10 @sustinle forestryAD tF terling worton11 @forestry nd environmentl edutionY oEfounder of eror hy12 AD prederik vw ylmsted13 @lndspe rhitetureAD nd elie rmilton14 @industril hygieneAD to nme fewF hese resoure onservtionists were instrumentl in pplying sienti( methods to solving the prolems of the dyD prolems tht were rooted in our ehvior towrd the environmentD nd tht hd serious onsequenes for the wellEeing of peopleF st ws s result of these e'orts tht the sis for the (elds of environmentl siene nd engineeringD gronomy nd griulturl engineeringD nd puli helth ws estlishedF yver time these (elds hve grown in depth nd redthD nd hve led to the estlishment of new res of inquiryF tust s importntlyD severl federl institutions were reted to oversee the implementtion of reforms nd mnge the government9s lrge lnd holdingsF vegisltion forming the heprtments of the snterior15 @IVRWAD nd egriulture16 @IVTPAD the FF porest ervie17 @IVVIAD the qeologil urvey18 @IVUWAD nd the xtionl rk ervie19 @IWITA were ll ented during this periodF st ws lso the time when severl mjor onservtion soietiesD still tive todyD me into eingX the euduon oiety20 @IVVTAD the ierr glu21 @IVWPAD nd the xtionl ildlife pedertion22 @IWQSAF eror hy ws (rst elerted in IVUPD nd fird hy23 in IVWRF
2.2.4 The Transcendental Movement

st is eyond the sope of this text to nlyze in gret depth the sis of the trnsendentl movement24 in emeriF st rose in the IVQHs in retion to the generl stte of ulture nd soietyD inresing urnismD nd the rigidity of orgnized religions of the timeF st professed wy of thinking in whih the individul9s unique reltionship to their surroundings ws vlued over onformity nd unre)etive hits of livingF fut however
6 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGiugeneFrilgrd 7 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGtohnesleyowell 8 httpXGGwwwFlrkuFeduGdeprtmentsGmrshGoutGindexFfm 9 httpXGGwwwFfsFfedFusGoutusGhistoryGhiefsGhoughFshtml 10 httpXGGwwwFforesthistoryForgGexiGpeopleGinhotGinhotFspx 11 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGtuliusterlingworton 12 httpXGGwwwFrordyForgGrordyGhistoryFfm 13 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGprederikvwylmsted 14 httpXGGwwwFnlmFnihFgovGhngingthefeofmediineGphysiinsGiogrphyIQUFhtml 15 httpXGGwwwFdoiFgovGrhiveGhistoryFhtml 16 httpXGGwwwFusrellnewsFomGPHHVGHTGhistoryEofEtheEuEsEdeprtmentEofEgriultureEusdFhtml 17 httpXGGwwwFfsFfedFusGoutusGhistoryG 18 httpXGGpusFusgsFgovGirGIHSHG 19 httpXGGwwwFnpsFgovGhistoryGhistoryGhisnpsG 20 httpXGGwwwFuduonForgG 21 httpXGGwwwFsierrluForgGhistoryG 22 httpXGGwwwFnwfForgGeoutGristoryEndEreritgeFspx 23 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGfirdhy 24 httpXGGpltoFstnfordFeduGentriesGtrnsendentlismG

IT

CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

philosophil its ims nd etherel its golsD trnsendentlism hd profound onnetion to the nturl environmentY indeedD it is di0ult to understnd without referene to humnEenvironmentl intertions nd reEenvisioning of the soil ontrt of humnity with ntureF uh were onditions t the time tht trnsendentlism resonted with n inresingly literte soietyD nd eme mjor fore in the further development of onservtion s n epted prt of the emerin experieneF he knowledged leder of the trnsendentl movement ws lph ldo imerson25 @IVHQEIVVPAF sn his seminl essy Nature 26 @IVQTAD imerson sets the tone for new wy of envisioning our reltion to the nturl worldX o spek trulyD few dult persons n see ntureF wost persons do not see the sunF et lest they hve very super(il seeingF he sun illumintes only the eye of the mnD ut shines into the eye nd the hert of the hildF he lover of nture is he whose inwrd nd outwrd senses re still truly djusted to eh otherY who hs retined the spirit of infny even into the er of mnhoodF ris interourse with heven nd erthD eomes prt of his dily foodF sn the presene of ntureD wild delight runs through the mnD in spite of rel sorrowsF xture sysD ! he is my retureD nd mugre ll his impertinent griefsD he shll e gld with meF xot the sun or the summer loneD ut every hour nd seson yields its triute of delightY for every hour nd hnge orresponds to nd uthorizes di'erent stte of the mindD from rethless noon to grimmest midnightF xture is setting tht (ts eqully well omi or mourning pieeF sn good helthD the ir is ordil of inredile virtueF grossing re ommonD in snow puddlesD t twilightD under louded skyD without hving in my thoughts ny ourrene of speil good fortuneD s hve enjoyed perfet exhilrtionF s m gld to the rink of ferF sn the woods tooD mn sts o' his yersD s the snke his sloughD nd t wht period so ever of lifeD is lwys hildF sn the woodsD is perpetul youthF ithin these plnttions of qodD deorum nd sntity reignD perennil festivl is dressedD nd the guest sees not how he should tire of them in thousnd yersF sn the woodsD we return to reson nd fithF here s feel tht nothing n efll me in lifeD ! no disgreD no lmityD @leving me my eyesDA whih nture nnot repirF tnding on the re groundD ! my hed thed y the lithe irD nd uplifted into in(nite speD ! ll men egotism vnishesF s eome trnsprent eyeEllY s m nothingY s see llY the urrents of the niversl feing irulte through meY s m prt or prtile of qodF he nme of the nerest friend sounds then foreign nd identlX to e rothersD to e quintnesD ! mster or servntD is then tri)e nd disturneF s m the lover of unontined nd immortl eutyF sn the wildernessD s (nd something more der nd onnte thn in streets or villgesF sn the trnquil lndspeD nd espeilly in the distnt line of the horizonD mn eholds somewht s eutiful s his own ntureF @imersonD IVQT @pF PRAAF rere imerson mkes ler tht his onnetion to the niversl feing is mde possile through ommuE nion with xtureD retion so muh greter thn he tht he sees his physil relity s nothingD ut his true nture @iFeF his soulA eomes visile in the trnquil lndspeD nd the distnt line of the horizonF uh metphoril lnguge ws nd remins powerful reminder tht our existene is dependent on the nturl worldD nd tht we mismnge the environment t our perilF
25 httpXGGpltoFstnfordFeduGentriesGemersonG 26 httpXGGoregonstteFeduGinstrutGphlQHPGtextsGemersonGntureEemersonEFhtml

IU

Figure 2.1: Kindred Spirits.

The painting, dated 1849, depicts the artist, Thomas Cole, and poet,

William Cullen Bryant. Source: Asher Brown Durand via Wikimedia Commons

27

etD it is di0ult to fully ppreite imerson9s vision of humns nd nture through lnguge loneF es
27 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXesherhurnduindredpiritsFjpg

IV

CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

might e expetedD the ounterEretion to the stte of soiety nd its ttitudes towrd the environment found expression in other medi s wellD in prtiulr the rise of dre of emerin lndspe rtistsF he mer hd not yet een perfetedD nd of ourse there ws no eletroni medi to ompete for people9s ttentionD thus rtists9 renditions of vrious senesD espeilly lndspesD were quite populrF pigure Kindred Spirits @pigure PFIAD rendering y eFfF hurnd @IUWTEIVVTA of n rtist nd poet out for hike mid lush forest sene ptures muh of the essene of trnsendentl thoughtD whih hd strongly in)uened hurnd9s styleF he o'set of the humn sujetsD to leftEofEenterD is purposefulX the min sujet is ntureD with humns merely omponentF his theme rried through mny of the lndspes of the periodD nd helped to de(ne wht eme knownD mong othersD s the rudson iver hool28 D whose rtists depited nture s n otherwise inexpressile mnifesttion of qodF his is further expressed in the pintingD In the Heart of the AndesD y prederi ghurh @pigure In the Heart of the Andes @pigure PFPAAF rereD the seemingly sole theme is the lndspe itselfD ut loser inspetion @see detil in red squreA revels smll prty of peopleD perhps engged in worshipD gin o'set nd virtully invisile mid the mjesty of the mountinsF
28 httpXGGwwwFmetmuseumForgGtohGhdGhursGhdhursFhtm

IW

Figure 2.2: In the Heart of the Andes.

via Wikimedia Commons

The painting, dated 1859, depicts a majestic landscape and

closer inspection reveals a small party of people near the bottom left. Source: Frederic Edwin Church

29

yther notle ontriutors to the trnsendentl movement were renry hvid horeu30 @IVIUEIVTPAD olitionist nd uthor of lden nd givil hisoedieneD wrgret puller31 @IVIHEIVSHAD who edited the trnsendentl journl he hil nd wrote omn in the xineteenth genturyD widely onsidered the (rst emerin feminist workD nd lt hitmn32 @IVIWEIVWPA whose volume of poetry veves of qrss elertes oth the humn form nd the humn mind s worthy of priseF st is importnt to reognize tht the trnsendentl rede(nition of our soil ontrt with the environE ment ws holistiF ithin it n e found not only new ppreition of ntureD ut lso the liertion of the humn mind from onvention nd formlismD ttks on slveryD the need for ril equlityD onern
29 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXghurhrertoftheendesFjpg 30 httpXGGpltoFstnfordFeduGentriesGthoreuG 31 httpXGGwwwFdistinguishedwomenFomGiogrphiesGfullerEmFhtml 32 httpXGGwwwFwhitmnrhiveForgG

PH

CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

for universl su'rge nd women9s rightsD nd gender equityF sn mny wys it ws repositioning of the idels of the enlightenment33 tht hd (gured so prominently in the founding douments of the repuliF hese soil onerns re represented tody within the sustinility prdigm in the form of suh issues s environmentl justie34 D onsumer ehviorD nd lor reltionsF rnsendentlism s forml movement diminished during the ltter hlf of the IWth enturyD ut it hd frErehing in)uene on the wy soiety pereived itself reltive to the environmentF erhps no one is more responsile for trnslting its spirtions into environmentl puli poliy thn tohn wuir35 @IVQVEIWIRAD ottishEorn immigrnt who ws hevily in)uened y imerson9s writings @it is sid tht the young wuir rried with him opy of Nature from otlndAF he two (rst met in IVUI during mping trip to the ierr wountins of gliforniF pon lerning of imerson9s plnned deprtureD wuir wrote to him on wy VD IVUI hoping to onvine him to sty longerD s invite you join me in months worship with xture in the high temples of the gret ierr grown eyond our holy osemiteF st will ost you nothing sve the time 8 very little of tht for you will e mostly in iternity @ghouD PHHQ @pF PRAAF wuir ws nturlistD uthorD orgnizer @founder of the ierr gluAD nd s it turns out remrkly e'etive politil tivist nd loyistF ris ssoition with heodore oosevelt36 @IVSVEIWIWD PTth president of the nited ttesAD egn with IWHQ mpign visit y oosevelt to gliforniD where he spei(lly sought out wuirD whose reputtion ws y then well knownD s guide to the osemite re @see pigure Roosevelt and Muir @pigure PFQAAF
33 httpXGGwwwFnewworldenylopediForgGentryGegeofinlightenment 34 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGenvironmentljustieG 35 httpXGGwwwFsierrluForgGjohnmuirexhiitGlifeGmuiriogrphyFspx 36 httpXGGwwwFtheodorerooseveltForgGlifeGonservtionFhtm

PI

Figure 2.3: Roosevelt and Muir

1903.

Theodore Roosevelt and John Muir at Yosemite National Park in

st ws one of wuir9s speil tlents tht he ould ridge ross their rther di'erent views on the enviE ronment @he strit preservtionistD oosevelt prtil outdoorsmnAF fy ll ounts they hd frnk

PP

CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

ut ordil exhngesY for exmpleD upon viewing the gint equoisD wuir remrked37 to ooseveltD qod hs red for these trees. . .ut he nnot sve them from fools ! only nle m n do thtF oosevelt ws so tken with his ompnion tht he insisted they void politil rowds nd mp together overnight in the mountinsF he susequent legy of the oosevelt dministrtion in the nme of onservtionD even y tody9s stndrdsD ws signi(ntF unown s the onservtion presidentD oosevelt ws responsile for PPS million res of lnd dded to the FF porest ervieD nd the retion of SH wildlife refuges nd ISH ntionl forests representingD in totlD II perent of the totl lnd re of the RV ontiguous sttesF
2.2.5 The Role of Industry

ody the ehvior of industry towrd the environment is often portryed s either indi'erent or hostileD whether true or notD nd it ws no di'erent during the formtive period of emerin onservtionF he industries of the dy ! griultureD timerD nd mining ! enled y the mjor trnsporttion setor ! rilrods nd stemots ! hd little inentive to mnge their emissions to the environment responsilyD or to use nturl resoures wiselyF egultions were fewD the siene underpinning environmentl impts ws nsentD the ommons itself ws viewed s essentilly in(niteD nd however misguidedD exploittion of resoures nd the genertion of ertin mount of wste ws seen s neessry yprodut of expnsionD jo retionD nd soil wellEeingF end yetD s humnEreted orgniztions goD industries re extrordinrily sensitive to eonomi onditionsF sf the sustinility prdigm is to e elievedD then eonomi viility is of prmount onern nd the enggement of industril fores must of neessity e prt of its entmentF hese re the engines tht provide employmentD nd tht ontrol lrge quntities of pitl for investmentF purtherD viewed from the life yle perspetive of the )ow of mterils @refer to wodule Life Cycle Assessment @etion WFPAAD produts tht turn rw mterils into mostly wste @de(ned here s quntity of mteril tht no one vluesD s opposed to slle produtsA re simply ine0ient nd redue pro(tilityF
37 httpXGGwwwFsierrluForgGjohnmuirexhiitGwritingsGfvoritequottionsFspx

PQ

Figure 2.4: The Oregon Trail.

The painting, dated 1869, depicts the westward migration of settlers

via wagon trains, on horseback, and by foot. Source: Albert Bierstadt via Wikimedia Commons

38

es noted in esoure i0ieny @etion PFPFQX esoure i0ienyA oveD industril tivities during this time were responsile for signi(nt environmentl degrdtionF oliy reformers of the dyD suh s grl hurz39 @s seretry of the snteriorA turned their ttention in prtiulr to lnd reformsD whih impted the expnsion of rilrodsD nd forest preservtionF end yetD industry plyed n unquestionle role s enlers of soietl shifts ourring in emeri y mking goods nd servies villeD inresing the welth of the emerging middle lssD nd in prtiulr providing reltively rpid ess to previously inessile lotions ! in mny ses the sme lotions tht preservtionists were trying to set sideF edingD hering stories outD nd looking t pitures of lndspes of remote euty nd open spes ws lluring nd stirred the imgintionD ut eing le to tully visit these ples (rsthnd ws n edutionl experiene tht hd trnsformtive powersF elfred fierstdt9s The Oregon Trail @pigure The Oregon Trail @pigure PFRAAD pinted in IVTVD depits the westwrd migrtion of settlers vi wgon trinsD on horsekD nd simply wlking ! journeyD not without perilD tht took out six monthsF he next yer sw the ompletion of the trnsontinentl rilrod40 D nd within few yers it eme possile to omplete the sme journey in s little s six dys in omprtive omfort nd sfetyF he movement to designte ertin res s ntionl prks is n illustrtive exmple of the role of inE dustry in promoting lnd onservtionD therey setting in motion susequent lrge onservtion setEsides tht rehed their zenith during the oosevelt dministrtionF st egnD in IVTRD with the e'orts of severl gliforni itizens to hve the FF gongress ept most of osemite41 D whih hd een under the proE tetion of the tte of gliforni s ntionl preserveF he petition ited its vlue for puli useD resortD

38 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXelertfierstdtyregonrilFjpg 39 httpXGGooksFgoogleFomGookscidahVVsnPWwg8pgaePRI8lpgaePRI8dqagrlChurzCtimerCreform8soureal8otsayqqUim 40 httpXGGwwwFsfmuseumForgGhistIGrilFhtml 41 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGristoryoftheosemitere

PR

CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

nd reretionD resoning tht lredy re)eted the omined interests of the resoure e0ieny groupD preservtionistsD nd usiness opportunistsF prederik vw ylmsted @IVPPEIWHQAD the lndspe rhitet most well known for the design of xew ork9s gentrl rkD nd n rdent eliever in the ility of open spes to improve humn produtivityD oversw the initil e'orts to mnge the osemite reF elthough the e'ort ws infused with renewed vigor fter tohn wuir9s rrivl in the lte IVTHsD it wsn9t until IWHT tht the prk ws o0illy designtedF sn the mentimeD similr interests hd grown to nme ellowstone42 s ntionl prkD with the sme si justi(tion s for osemiteF ine there were no sttes s yet formed in the region the pthwy ws more strightforwrdD nd ws mde onsiderly esier y the lk of interest y timer nd mining ompnies to exploit @the re ws thought to hve limited resoure vlueAD nd the rilrods whoD seeing potentil for signi(nt pssenger tr0D loied on its ehlfF hus the (rst ntionl prk ws o0illy designted in IVUPD only three yers fter the ompletion of the trnsontinentl rilrodF sndeedD in reltively rpid suession the nion i( ilrod got ehind the osemite e'ortsD nd the xorthern i( ilrod loied hevily for the retion of prks t wount inier43 @IVWWA nd qlier44 @IWIHAF fy IWITD when the xtionl rk ervie ws formedD sixteen ntionl prks hd een retedF ttes too egn to see vlue in reting ndD to degreeD preserving open spesD s evidened y xew ork9s edirondk rk45 @IVWRAD still the lrgest single setion of lnd in the fortyEeight ontiguous sttes dedited to e forever wildF
2.2.6 Results of the American Conservation Movement

ith the dvent of the pirst orld rD nd susequent politilD soilD nd eonomi unrest tht lsted for nother thirty yersD tions motivted y the onservtion movement delinedF he olition etween the resoure e0ieny group nd those wishing to preserve ntureD lwys unomfortleD ws further eroded when it eme ler tht the min reson gongress ws setting side vrious res ws minly to etter mnge ommeril exploittionF end yetD the period from IVSH to IWPH left remrkle legy of enviE ronmentl reformD nd lid the foundtion for future dvnes in environmentl poliyF sn summryD the onservtion movement omplished the followingX

ede(ned the soil ontrt etween humns nd the environmentD estlishing legy of onservE tion s prt of the emerin hrterD nd ntionl model for the preservtion of nturl eutyF snvented the onept of ntionl prks nd forestsD wildlife refugesD nd other sites for ommeril nd reretionl uses y soietyF heveloped the (rst sienti( understnding of how the environment funtionedD integrting the sienti( pproh to resoure mngement into government poliyF ioneered tehnologil prties to improve resoure mngementF istlished the mjor federl institutions with responsiility for lnd nd resoure onservtionF gommunited the impt of pollution on humn helth nd welfreF hrough pulitions nd trvelD exposed mny to the euty of the nturl environment nd the onsequenes of humn tivitiesF pinllyD lthough sustinility s wy of envisioning ourselves in reltion to the environment ws still mny yers wyD lredy its three prinipl elementsD imperfetly integrted t the timeD re seen lerly to e t workF

2.2.7 References

grmnD rFtFD ugwellD FqFD 8 rueD FrF @idsFAF @IWQRAF Essays upon eld husbandry and other papers, 1748-1762, by Jared EliotF xew orkX golumi niversity ressF
42 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGellowstonextionlrk 43 httpXGGwwwFnpsFgovGhistoryGhistoryGonlineooksGmorGdhiGdhiPFhtm 44 httpXGGwwwFnpsFgovGrhiveGglGhistoryGoverviewFhtm 45 httpXGGwwwFpFstteFnyFusGoutprkGhistoryFhtm

in New England,

PS ghouD FF @idFAF @PHHQAF imerson 8 tohn wuirF WisdomPortalF etrieved heemer IID PHII from httpXGGwwwFwisdomportlFomGimersonGimersonEtohnwuirFhtml46 F

2.3 Environmental Risk Management

2.3.1 Learning Objectives

47

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

tre the si elements of the sustinility prdigm through the evolution of FF environmentl poliyD inluding the xtionl invironmentl oliy et of IWUH understnd the role of risk mngement s modern environmentl poliy hs een implemented

2.3.2 General Denitions

por most peopleD the onept of risk is intuitive ndD oftenD experientilY for instne most people re wre of the onsiderly greter likelihood of su'ering n injury in n utomoile ident @IITGIHH million vehile milesA versus su'ering n injury in ommeril irplne ident @HFQHRGIHH million irplne milesAF invironmentl risk n e de(ned s the hne of hrmful e'ets to humn helth or to eologil systems resulting from exposure to ny physilD hemilD or iologil entity in the environment tht n indue n dverse response @see wodule Risk Assessment Methodology for Conventional and Alternative Sustainability Options @etion UFSA for more detil on the siene of risk ssessmentAF invironmentl risk ssessment48 is quntittive wy of rriving t sttistil proility of n dverse tion ourringF st hs four min stepsX IF sdenti(tion of the nture nd end point of the risk @eFgF deth or disility from hzrdous hemilsD loss of eologil diversity from hitt enrohmentD impirment of eosystem serviesD etFA PF hevelopment of quntittive methods of nlysis @perturtionEe'etD doseEresponseA QF hetermintion of the extent of exposure @iFeF fteD trnsportD nd trnsformtion of ontminnts to n exposed popultionAD nd RF glultion of the riskD usully expressed s sttistil likelihoodF isk mngement49 is distint from risk ssessmentD nd involves the integrtion of risk ssessment with other onsidertionsD suh s eonomiD soilD or legl onernsD to reh deisions regrding the need for nd prtiility of implementing vrious risk redution tivitiesF pinllyD risk ommunition50 onsists of the forml nd informl proesses of ommunition mong vrious prties who re potentilly t risk from or re otherwise interested in the thretening gentGtionF st mtters gret del how given risk is ommunited nd pereivedX do we hve mesure of ontrolD or re we sujet to powerful unengged or ritrry foresc
2.3.3 The Beginnings of Modern Risk Management

he eginnings of environmentl risk mngement n e tred to the (elds of puli helth51 D industril hygiene52 D nd snitry engineering53 D whih me into prominene in the ltter dedes of the IWth
46 httpXGGwwwFwisdomportlFomGimersonGimersonEtohnwuirFhtml 47 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRPIISGIFRGbF 48 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGetpgesGenviriskssessmentFhtml 49 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGnrmrlGsiinfoFhtml 50 httpXGGodphpFosophsFdhhsFgovGpusGprevrptGrhivesGWSfmIFhtm 51 httpXGGwwwFwhtispulihelthForgGwhtGindexFhtml 52 httpXGGwwwFihForgGoutihGgesGhtssnsrFspx 53 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGnitryengineering

PT

CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

entury nd eginning of the PHth F he spred of disese ws prtiulrly troulesome prolem s the ountry ontinued to urnizeF por instne if you lived your life inD syD ghigo during the period IVSHE IWHH54 @ typil lifespn of the dyAD you hd out I in IHH hne of dying of holer55 @nd I in PHHH hne of dying of typhoidAD of whih there were periodi epidemis spred y ontminted drinking wterF ghigo9s solution ws to ese polluting its drinking wter soure @vke wihignA y reversing the )ow of its wterourses so tht they drined into the djent sin @the wississippiAF he widespred hlorintion56 of muniipl wter fter IWHV essentilly eliminted wterorne outreks of disese in ll mjor ities @with some notle exeptions"the outrek of hlorineEresistnt gryptosporidium prvum in wilwukee9s drinking wter57 in IWWQ resulted in the infetion of RHQDHHH people with IHR dethsAF rllel work on the e'ets of hemil exposure on workers @nd poor working onditions in generlA were pioneered y elie rmilton @IVTWEIWUHAD who pulished the (rst tretise on toxi hemil exposure 4sndustril oisons in the nited ttes4 in IWPSF rmilton is onsidered the founder of the (eld of oE uptionl helth58 F sn IVWU she ws ppointed professor of pthology t the omen9s wedil hool of xorthwestern niversityD nd in IWHP she epted the position of teriologist t the wemoril snstitute for snfetious hiseses in ghigoF hrF rmilton joined tne eddms9s rull rouse59 D in ghigoD where she interted with progressive thinkers who often grvitted thereD nd to the needs of the poor for whom rull rouse provided serviesF
2.3.4 Environmental Contamination and Risk

ivents during the period IWPHEIWSH took n unfortunte turnF qlol on)its nd eonomi unertinty diverted ttention from environmentl issuesD nd muh of wht hd een lerned during the previous hundred yersD for exmple out soil onservtion nd sustinle forestryD esed to in)uene poliyD with resultnt mismngement on wide sle @see pigures Texas Dust Storm @pigure PFSA nd Clear Cutting, Louisiana, 1930 @pigure PFTAAF

Figure 2.5: Texas Dust Storm.

Photograph shows a dust storm approaching Stratford, TX in 1935.

Source: NOAA via Wikimedia Commons

60

54 httpXGGwwwFenylopediFhigohistoryForgGpgesGRQPFhtml 55 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGgholer 56 httpXGGwwwFdohFwFgovGehpGdwGpulitionsGQQIEPSQFpdf 57 httpXGGwwwFdFgovGnidodGeidGvolWnoRGHPEHRIUFhtm 58 httpXGGwwwFniehsFnihFgovGhelthGtopisGpopultionGouptionlGindexFfm 59 httpXGGwwwFhullhouseForgGoutusGhistoryFhtml 60 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXhustEstormEexsEIWQSFpng

PU

Figure 2.6: Clear Cutting, Louisiana, 1930.

National Forest. Durham, N.C.

Typical cut-over longleaf pine area, on Kisatchie Circa 1930s. Source:

Areas of this type were the rst to be planted on this forest.

Wait, J.M. for U.S. Forest Service. U.S. Forest Service photo courtesy of the Forest History Society

61

sn the ftermth of the orld r ssD eonomi nd industril tivity in the nited ttes elertedD nd onsumerEstrved popule sought nd demnded lrge quntities of diverse goods nd serviesF wjor industril setorsD primry metlsD utomotiveD hemilD timerD nd energy expnded onsiderlyY however there were still few lws or regultions on wste mngementD nd the ones tht ould nd often were invoked @eFgF the ivers nd rrors et of IVWW62 A were devised in erlier times for prolems of di'erent ntureF he wodule Systems of Waste Management @etion UFPA provides more detiled ounting of the urrent frmework for mnging wsteF rere we reount the irumstnes tht eventully resulted in the promulgtion of environmentl risk s sis for puli poliyD with susequent pssge of mjor environmentl legisltionF

61 httpXGGforesthistoryForgGdtwEwpdGexeGdtwpuFdllcegaqiigyh8gaGdtwEwpdGexeGdtwpuFdll8fahttp7Qe7Pp7Ppfores wpd7Pptextse7PpeueryFhtm8xaprphoto8xaeyIRIWI8iaQHV8xaT8waIH8aH8aIHHH8iaH8gaI8a8p VVSWEI8yirasyEVVSWEI 62 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGiversndrrorsetofIVWW

PV

CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

Figure 2.7: Zinc Smelter.

Photograph shows a local smelter in a small valley town in Pennsylvania

with, essentially, uncontrolled emissions. Source: The Wire Mill, Donora, PA, taken by Bruce Dresbach in 1910. Retrieved from the Library of Congress

63

sf there were ny douts mong emerin soiety tht the pity of the nturl environment to sor humnEused ontmintion with eptly low risk ws indeed in(niteD these were dispelled y series of wellEpuliized inidents tht ourred during the period IWRVEIWUVF pigure Zinc Smelter @pigure PFUA shows lol smelter in smll vlley town in ennsylvni withD essentillyD unontrolled emissionsF huring periods of tmospheri stility @n inversionAD ontminnts eme trppedD umultedD nd used respirtory distress so extrordinry tht (fty deths were reordedF pigure Noon in Donora @pigure PFVA illustrtes the drmtilly poor ir qulityD in the form of redued visiilityD during this episodeF uh inidents were not unommonD nor were they limited to smll emerin townsF e wellEdoumented similr episode ourred in vondonD inglnd in IWSP64 with t lest RHHH dethsD nd IHHDHHH illnesses resultingF
63 httpXGGwwwFloFgovGpituresGitemGPHHPUIQHUSG 64 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGqretmog

PW

Figure 2.8: Noon in Donora.

Photograph, dated October 29, 1948, illustrates the extremely poor

air quality in the Pennsylvania town at the time. Source: NOAA

65

he generlly poor stte of ir qulity in the nited ttes ws initilly tolerted s neessry ondition of n industrilized soietyF elthough the risks of ouptionl exposure to hemils ws eoming more well knownD the siene of risk ssessment s pplied to the nturl environment ws in its infnyD nd the notion tht polluted environment ould tully use hrm ws slow to e reognizedD nd even if true it ws not ler wht might e done out itF xeverthelessD people in the most ontminted res ould sense the e'ets of poor ir qulityX inresed inidene of respirtory diseseD wtery eyesD odorsD inility to enjoy eing outside for more thn few minutesD nd diminished visiilityF
65 httpXGGoenservieFnoFgovGedutionGkitsGpollutionGmediGsupppolHPFhtml

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CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

Figure 2.9: Cuyahoga River Fire, 1969.

Photograph illustrates a 1969 re on the Cuyahoga River,

one of many res during the time period. Source: NOAA

66

invironmentl degrdtion of the er ws not limited to ir qulityF imissions of ontminnts to wterwys nd uril underground were simple nd ommon wys to dispose of wstesF emong the most infmous episodes in pollution history were the periodi (res tht )oted through downtown glevelndD yhio on the guyhog iver67 D using onsiderle dmge @pigure Cuyahoga River Fire 1969 @pigure PFWAAD nd the disovery of uried hzrdous solvent drums in neighorhood of xigr pllsD x in IWUVD former wste disposl lotion for hemil ompny @pigure Love Canal @pigure PFIHAAF
66 httpXGGoenservieFnoFgovGedutionGkitsGpollutionGmediGsupppolHPdFhtml 67 httpXGGwwwFohiohistoryentrlForgGentryFphpcreaITRP

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Figure 2.10: Love Canal.

The Love Canal region of Niagara Falls, NY, 1978 showing the local grade Source: New York State Department of Health (1981, April). Love

school and neighboring houses.

Canal: A special report to the Governor and Legislature, p. 5.

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CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

2.3.5 Risk Management as a Basis for Environmental Policy

invironmentl sientists of the dy were lso lrmed y the extent nd degree of dmge tht they were doumentingF he pulition of Silent Spring 68 in IWTP y hel grson69 @IWHUEIWTRAD out the impt of the widespred nd indisriminte use of pestiidesD ws wtershed momentD ringing environmentl onerns efore lrge portion of the emerinD nd glolD puliF grsonD mrine iologist nd onE servtionist who initilly worked for the FF fureu of pisheriesD eme full time nture writer in the IWSHsF he olleted sienti(lly doumented evidene on the e'ets of pestiidesD prtiulrly hh70 D hepE thlor71 D nd dieldrin72 D on humns nd mmmlsD nd the systemi disruption they used to eosystemsF 73 in the nited ttesD nd setting in Silent Spring is redited with ringing out n on the use of hh motion hin of events tht would ultimtely result in the trnsformtion of environmentl puli poliy from one sed on the prolems nd ttitudes tht rought out nineteenth entury onservtionD to one sed on the mngement of risks from hemil toxinsF he FF invironmentl rotetion egeny74 ws estlished in IWUHD just eight yers fter the pulition of Silent SpringF he sme yer irth hy75 ws retedF es notedD the modules in the ghpter Modern Environmental Management @etion UFIA ontin omprehensive tretment of the mjor lws nd regultions tht underpin the risk mngement pproh to environmentl poliyF rowever it is worth onsidering one lw in prtiulr t this pointD the xtionl invironmentl oliy et76 of IWUH @xieAD euse it provides legl sis for FF environmentl poliyD nd lys out its terms lerly nd unmiguouslyF xie estlished ntionl gol to rete nd mintin 4onditions under whih humns nd nture n exist in produtive hrmonyD and fulll the social, economic and other requirements of present and future generations of Americans emphsis dded4 @xieD IWUH @pF QQAAF purtherD xie sw the need for long term plnningD to 4ful(ll the responsiilities of eh genertion s trustee of the environment for sueeding genertionsD4 for equity 4to ssure for ll emerins sfeD helthfulD produtiveD nd esthetilly nd ulturlly plesing surroundingsD4 nd for eonomi prosperity s we 4hieve lne etween popultion nd resoure use tht will permit high stndrds of living nd wide shring of life9s menities4 @xieD IWUH @pF QQAAF elthough the ext word 4sustinle4 does not pperD xie is in ll mjor respets ongruent with the gols of the frundtlnd eport @written IU yers lterD see ghpter Introduction to Sustainability: Humanity and the Environment @etion IFIAAD retins the hrter of emerin onservtionD nd ntiiptes the need to integrte environmentl qulity with soil nd eonomi needsF ivery four to six yers the FF ie releses its eport on the invironment77 D olletion of dt nd nlysis of trends on environmentl qulityF st is quite omprehensiveY reporting on n rry of mesures tht hrt progressD or lk thereofD on humn impts on the environment ndD in turnD the e'ets of our tions on humn helthF st is di0ult to summrize ll the informtion ville in onise wyD however most mesures of humn exposure to toxi hemilsD dting in mny ses k to the lte IWVHsD show ler downwrd trendsD in some ses drmtilly so @for exmple hh in humn tissuesD led in lood serumD exposure to hzrdous wstes from improper disposlD exposure to toxi ompounds emitted to the irAF sn dditionD mny of other inditors of environmentl qulity suh s visiilityD drinking wter qulityD nd the iodiversity of stremsD show improvementF hese re suess stories of the risk mngement pproh to environmentl qulityF yn the other hndD other mesuresD suh s hypoxi in ostl wtersD quntities of hzrdous wstes genertedD nd greenhouse gses relesed re either not improving or re getting worseF
68 httpXGGwwwFnrdForgGhelthGpestiidesGhrsonFsp 69 httpXGGwwwFrhelrsonForgG 70 httpXGGwwwFpnEukForgGpestnewsGetivesGddtFhtm 71 httpXGGwwwFtsdrFdFgovGtoxfqsGtfFspcidaURR8tidaIQS 72 httpXGGwwwFtsdrFdFgovGtoxfqsGtfFspcidaQIT8tidaST 73 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGoutepGhistoryGtopisGddtG 74 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGoutepGhistoryG 75 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGerthdyGhistoryFhtm 76 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGomplineGsisGnepFhtml 77 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGroeG

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2.3.6 References

xtionl invironmentl oliy et of IWUHD httpXGGwwwFepFgovGomplineGsisGnepFhtml78

RP

FFgFD

RQPID

et

seqF

@IWUHAF

2.4 Sustainability and Public Policy

2.4.1 Learning Objectives

79

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

understnd the prolemEdriven nture of poliy developmentD from reltively lol griulturl proE lems to regionl prolems often driven y industril development to glol prolems ssoited with popultionEdriven humn onsumption

2.4.2 Complex Environmental Problems

xieD oth in tone nd purposeD ws in shrp ontrst to the mny environmentl lws tht followed in the IWUHs nd IWVHs tht de(ned inresingly prosriptive methods for ontrolling risks from hemil exposure @this is sometimes termed the 4ommndEndEontrol80 4 pproh to environmentl mngementAF sn mny wys these lws nd regultions re illEsuited to the types of environmentl prolems tht hve emerged in the pst twenty yersF heres the fous of our environmentl poliy hs een on mitigting risk from lol prolems tht re hemil ! nd medi ! @lndD wterD or irA spei(D the need hs risen to ddress prolems tht re fr more omplexD multiEmediD nd re of lrge geogrphiD sometimes glolD extentF en erly exmple of this type of shift in the omplexity of environmentl prolems is illustrted y the phenomenon of idi rinfll81 D regionl prolem tht ours in mny res ross the gloeF elthough the hemil use of id rin is idi gses @suh s sulfur dioxide82 nd nitrogen oxides83 A relesed into the tmosphere from omustion proesses @suh s ol urningAD the prolem ws mde onsiderly worse euse of the pproh to prolem solving typil of the dy for episodes suh s the honor disster @see pigures Zinc Smelter @pigure PFUA nd Noon in Donora @pigure PFVAAF
78 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGomplineGsisGnepFhtml 79 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRPIITGIFRGbF 80 httpXGGwwwFenviroliteryForgGrtileFphpGIQPWFhtml 81 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGneGeoGidrinGhistoryFhtml 82 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGoqpsHHIGsulfurdioxideG 83 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGoqpsHHIGnitrogenoxidesG

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CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

Figure 2.11: Hydrogen Ion Concentrations as pH for 1996.

rainfall pH in the United States for the year 1996. Source: gram/National Trends Network via National Park Service

Figure shows the distribution in

84

National Atmospheric Deposition Pro-

sn order to prevent the lol umultion of ontminntsD emission stks were mde muh tllerD e'etively relying on the diluting power of the tmosphere to disperse o'ending pollutntsF he result ws signi(nt inrese in the idity of rinfll downwind of mjor souresD with ssoited impts on quti nd forest resouresF pigure Hydrogen Ion Concentrations as pH for 1996 @pigure PFIIA shows this pttern for the estern nited ttes in IWWTF e more omprehensive solution to this prolem @short of repling ol s fuel soureAD hs involved integrted tivity on mny frontsX siene to understnd the impts of id rinD tehnology to ontrol the relese of idi gsesD politis in the form of mendments to the glen eir et85 D soil equity tht de(ned the role of regionl responsiilities in the fe of suh lrge geogrphi dispritiesD nd eonomis to understnd the totl osts of id rin nd design mrkets86 to spred the osts of ontrolF elthough idi rinfll is still n issue of onernD its impts hve een mitigted to signi(nt degreeF
84 httpXGGwwwFntureFnpsFgovGirGeduGlessonsG(gureQFfm 85 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGirGG 86 httpXGGwwwFedfForgGpgeFfmctgshaIHVS

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2.4.3 Sustainability as a Driver of Environmental Policy

he level of omplexity illustrted y the id rin prolem n e found in gret mny other environmentl prolems todyD mong themX

rypoxi87 onditions in ostl regions of the world used y exessive relese of nutrientsD priniplly dissolved nitrogen nd phosphorous from rti(il fertilizer pplied to rops @in ddition to the qulf of wexio88 nd ghespeke fy89 in the nited ttesD there re over RHH suh res worldwide90 AD trtospheri ozone depletion91 used y the relese of ertin lsses of hloro)uororon92 omE pounds used s propellnts nd refrigernts @with inreses in the inident of skin ners nd trtsAD rniztion93 nd sprwl94 D wherey the popultion density in urn resD with its ttendnt prolems @degrdtion of ir nd wter qulityD stormwter mngement95 D hitt destrutionD inE frstruture renewlD helth re needsD tr0 ongestionD loss of leisure timeD issues of soil equlityAD ontinues to grow @for exmple eighty perent of the popultion of the nited ttesD out (fty perent of glolD now lives in urn regionsAD qlol limte hnge96 D nd its resultnt impts @inreses in temperture nd storm nd )ooding frequenyD oen idi(tion97 D displement of humn popultionsD loss of iodiversityD seElevel riseAD used y the humnEindued emission of greenhouse gses98 F
rolems suh s theseD whih require highly integrted solutions tht inlude input from mny disiplines nd stkeholdersD hve een termed 4wiked4 @ftieD PHHV @pF QTAY ureuterD heosD rowzeD 8 fldwinD PHHR @pF QTAAF iked prolems hve ertin key hrteristisX here is not universl greement on wht the prolem is ! di'erent stkeholders de(ne it di'erentlyF here is no de(ned end solutionD the end will e ssessed s 4etter4 or 4worseF4 he prolem my hnge over timeF here is no ler stopping rule ! stkeholdersD politil fores nd resoure vilility will mke tht determintion on the sis of 4judgmentsF4 he prolem is ssoited with high unertinty of oth omponents nd outomesF lues nd soietl gols re not neessrily shred y those de(ning the prolem or those ttempting to mke the prolem etterF

iked prolems re not on(ned to environmentl issuesD for exmple the sme hrteristis rise for prolems suh s food sfetyD helth re dispritiesD nd terrorismD ut in the ontext of environmentl poliy they rete the need to ressess poliy pprohes nd golsD lws nd regultionsD s well s methods nd models for integrted reserhF le The Evolution of U.S. Environmental Policy @le PFIA summrizes the mjor ttriutes of FF environmentl poliy s it hs evolved over the pst two enturiesF o most oservers it would seem to e true tht dvnes in puli poliyD in ny relmD re driven y prolemsD rel nd pereivedD tht require systemi solutionsF invironmentl poliy is no exeptionF irly onservtionists were lrmed t the ine0ienies of humn resoure mngement nd the enrohment of humns on unspoiled lndsF huring the PHth entury mny groupsX sientistsD eonomistsD politiinsD nd ordinry itizensD eme
87 httpXGGoenservieFnoFgovGoutrehGpdfsGostlhypoxiFpdf 88 httpXGGtoxisFusgsFgovGhypoxiGhypoxizoneFhtml 89 httpXGGwwwFpewlimteForgGdoplodsGegionlEsmptsEghespekeFpdf 90 httpXGGwwwFwriForgGmpGworldEhypoxiEndEeutrophiEostlEres 91 httpXGGwwwFnsFnsFgovGeoutGidutionGyzoneG 92 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGozoneGsieneGodsGlssoneFhtml 93 httpXGGwwwFwriForgGpulitionGontentGVVRH 94 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGrnsprwl 95 httpXGGextensionFusuFeduGwterqulityGhtmGurnstormwterG 96 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGlimtehngeGindexFhtml 97 httpXGGwwwFnrdForgGoensGidi(tionG 98 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGlimtehngeGemissionsGindexFhtml

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CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

lrmed nd ferful of the onsequenes of toxi pollutnt lods to the environment tht inluded lolized e'ets on humn helth nd wellEeingF end nowD s we proeed into the PIst enturyD n rry of omplex prolems tht hve the potentil to lter sustntilly the struture nd wellEeing of lrge segments of humn soietiesD lls for renewl nd ressessment of our pproh to environmentl poliyF his hsD thus frD proven to e di0ult trnsitionF wny of these omplex prolems hve multiple uses nd imptsD 'et some groups of people more thn othersD re eonomilly demndingD nd re often not s visily pprent to sul oservers s previous imptsD nor re the ene(ts pereived to e ommensurte with ostsF hevising regultory strtegy for suh prolems requires n dptive nd )exile pproh tht urrent lws do not fosterF
1850-1920 Focus Outcome 1960-1990 1990-present

gonservtionGsnittion vnd preservE tionGe0ienyGontrol of disese esoure mngement reformGsimple ontmiE nnt ontrols ro(t mximizE tionGpuli helth vow ixpnsion vsF preservE tion hisiplinry nd insulr

wediGsiteGprolem spei( wnge nthropoentriE nd eologil risk gomplineG remeE ditionGtehnologil emphsis on prolem solving gost minimiztion

gomplex regionlG glol prolems qlol sustinle deE velopment sntegrtion of soilD eonomiD nd tehnoE logil informtion for holisti prolem solving trtegi investmentsGlongEterm soietl wellEeing edptive nd plexile ystemsGlife yle pE proh snterdisiplinryGsntegrtive

Principal Activity

Economic Focus

Regulatory Activity Conceptual Model Disciplinary proach Ap-

revy gommndEndEontrol wultidisiplinry

Table 2.1X

The Evolution of U.S. Environmental Policy le summrizes the mjor ttriutes of FF environmentl poliy s it hs evolved over the pst two enturiesF Source: T. Theis adapted from
Fiksel, Graedel, Hecht, Rejeski, Saylor, Senge, et al. (2009) (p. 36).

2.4.4 References

ftieD F F @PHHVD heemerAF iked prolems nd pplied eonomisF American Journal of Agricultural EconomicsD 90D IIUTEIIWI doiX IHFIIIIGjFIRTUEVPUTFPHHVFHIPHPFx pikselD tFD qredelD FD rehtD eF hFD ejeskiD hFD ylorD qF FD engeD F wFD wkhmerD hF vFD 8 heisD F vF @PHHWAF ie t RHX fringing environmentl protetion into the PIst enturyF Environmental Science and Technology, 43D VUITEVUPHF doiX IHFIHPIGesWHITSQf ureuterD wF FD heosD gFD rowzeD iF rFD 8 fldwinD qF F @PHHRD eugustAF nderstnding wiked prolemsX e key to dvning environmentl helth promotionF Health, Education and BehaviorD 31D RRIESRF doiX IHFIIUUGIHWHIWVIHRPTSSWU

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2.5 Public Health and Sustainability

2.5.1 Learning Objectives

99

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

understnd wht puli helth is reognize puli helth impts of nonEsustinle development identify key puli helth impts of limte hnge

2.5.2 Introduction

wuh disussion out sustinility trets the eonomyD livelihoodsD environmentl onditionsD our ities nd infrstrutureD nd soil reltions s if they were ends in themselvesY s if they re the reson we seek sustinilityF et their prime vlue is s the foundtions upon whih our longerEterm helth nd survivl dependF @wwihelD PHHT @pF RSAA iologil sustinility is more thn just ontinuing the resoure )ows of the nturl world to sustin the eonomi mhineD while mintining diversity of speies nd eosystemsF st is lso out sustining the vst support systems for helth nd life whih ould e onsidered the rel ottom line of sustinilityF fefore exmining the puli helth e'ets of nonEsustinle developmentD we should de(ne puli helthF

he wesite for sg9s hool of uli relth100 sys we re pssionte out improving the helth nd wellEeing of the people of ghigoD the stte of sllinoisD the ntion nd the worldF he sllinois heprtment of uli relth101 is responsile for proteting the stte9s IPFR million resiE dentsD s well s ountless visitorsD through the prevention nd ontrol of disese nd injuryF he xew elnd winistry of relth102 de(nes it s the siene nd rt of promoting helthD preventing disese nd prolonging life through orgnized e'orts of soietyF he xtionl esoures hefense gounil103 n xqy devoted to environmentl tionD sttes tht puli helth is the helth or physil wellEeing of whole ommunityF

2.5.3 Impacts of Non-Sustainable Development

e hve uilt our ommunities in wys tht re unsustinle from mny spetsF xot only does development rete urn sprwlD impt lnd useD nd fuel onsumptionD we n identify negtive helth onsequenes relted to these development trendsF
2.5.3.1 Obesity

sf our ommunities re not wlkle or ikeleD we need to drive to shoolsD shopsD prksD entertinmentD ply dtesD etF hus we eome more sedentryF e sedentry lifestyle inreses the risk of overll mortlity @P to QEfoldAD rdiovsulr disese @Q to SEfoldAD nd some types of nerD inluding olon nd rest nerF he e'et of low physil (tness is omprle to tht of hypertensionD high holesterolD dietesD nd even smoking @ei et lFD IWWW @pF RTAY flir et lFD IWWT @pF RSAAF
99 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRQQPIGIFPGbF 100 httpXGGwwwFuiFeduGsphG 101 httpXGGwwwFidphFstteFilFusGoutGouthomeFhtm 102 httpXGGwwwFhelthFgovtFnzG 103 httpXGGwwwFnrdForgGrefereneGglossryGpFsp8usgaeprqizfgszeeeymfqermihpTtew

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CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

2.5.3.2 Economic Segregation

lkle nd sfe ommunities provide sidewlksD ike pthsD proximityD nd onnetions to ommunity servies suh s groery storesD shoolsD helth reD prksD nd entertinmentF gommunity design tht retes segregted housing environment with only expensive housing nd no 'ordle housing segregtes people y soioEeonomi level @iFeF poor from nonEpoorA nd this generlly leds to segregtion y reF vk of physil tivity will our in neighorhoods with no good green nd sfe reretionl sitesF sf we hve poor puli trnsit systems prtly due to lk of density @only more expensiveD lowEdensity housingA nd our love of the utomoileD then we hve inresed emissions tht ontriute to glol wrmingF
2.5.3.3 The Olympics as an Example

e nturl experiment during the IWWT ummer ylympi qmes in etlnt shows the impt of r use on helthF huring the gmesD pek morning tr0 deresed PQ7 nd pek ozone levels deresed PV7F esthmErelted emergeny room visits y hildren deresed RP7 while hildren9s emergeny visits for nonE sthm uses did not hnge during sme period @priedmnD owellD rutwgnerD qrhmD 8 egueD PHHI @pF RSAAF e lso sw tht with the feijing ylympis in PHHV where driving dys were rtionedD more thn QHHDHHH hevyEemitting vehiles @out IH7 of totlA were rred from the ity9s dministrtive re in order to derese pollution for thletes nd visitors his redued the numer of vehiles y out IFW million or TH7 of the totl )eet during the ylympi qmesF imissions of lk ronD ron monoxide nd ultr(ne prtiles were redued y QQ7D RU7D nd UV7 respetively ompred to the yer efore the ylympisF prequeny of respirtory illnesses during the PHHV gmes were found to e signi(ntly less in ertin popultions ompred to previous yers nd this ws hypothesized to e relted to the redution of vehiles on the rod @ng et lFD PHHW @pF RSAY tentes et lFD PHIH @pF RSAAF

Figure 2.12: Minutes Americans Walk per Day Source:

USDOT

104

National Household Travel Survey, 2001,

pigure Minutes Americans Walk per Day @pigure PFIPA shows the verge time emerins spend wlking dyF eople who wlk to nd from puli trnsit get n fir mount of physil tivity relted
104 httpXGGnhtsFornlFgovGindexFshtml

QW to using trnsitD thus the nme given to modes of trnsit tht do not involve drivingX tive trnsitF hose people who did not own r or were not primry driver hd higher wlking times @fesser 8 hnnenergD PHHS @pF RSAAF
2.5.3.4 Water Quality

snresing numers of rods nd prking lots re needed to support n utomoile trnsporttion systemD whih led to inresed nonEpoint soure wter pollution nd ontmintion of wter supplies @rod runo' of oilGgsD metlsD nutrientsD orgni wsteD to nme fewA with possile impts on humn helthF snresed erosion nd strem silttion uses environmentl dmge nd my 'et wter tretment plnts nd thus 'et wter qulityF
2.5.3.5 Social Capital

yn the soil sustinility sideD we n look t soil pitl otherwise de(ned s the onnetedness of group uilt through ehviors suh s soil networking nd ivi enggementD long with ttitudes suh s trust nd reiproityF qreter soil pitl hs een ssoited with helthier ehviorsD etter selfErted helthD nd less negtive results suh s hert diseseF roweverD soil pitl hs een diminishing over timeF roposed uses inlude long ommute timesD oserved in sprwling metropolitn resF st reserh suggests tht long ommute times re ssoited with less ivi prtiiptionY oert utnm suggests tht every ten dditionl minutes of ommuting predits IH7 deline in soil pitl @fesserD wrusD 8 prumkinD PHHV @pF RSAAF Urban sprawl is onsidered the reson for most long ommutesF es of PHIID ording to n rtile in the ghigo riune105 D ghigo ommuting times re some of the worst ! with ghigons spending UH hours per yer more on the rod thn they would if there ws no ongestion ! up from IV hours in IWVPF hey hve n verge ommute time of QR minutes eh wyF hese drivers lso use SP more gllons per yer per ommuterD inresing their osts nd pollutionF esidents of sprwling ounties were likely to wlk less during leisure timeD weigh moreD nd hve greter prevlene of hypertension thn residents of ompt ounties @iwingD hmidD uillingsworthD lotD 8 uE denush @pF RSAD PHHQ @pF RSAAF hile more ompt development is found to hve negtive impt on weightD we lso (nd tht individuls with low fws re more likely to selet lotions with dense developmentF his suggests tht e'orts to ur sprwlD nd therey mke ommunities more exeriseEfriendlyD my simply ttrt those individuls who re predisposed to physil tivity @lnting 8 @pF RSAfernellD PHHU @pF RSAAF
2.5.4 Impacts of Climate Change

uli helth studies hve een onduted with regrd to mny of the predited environmentl e'ets of limte hngeF husD it is somewht esier to exmine the puli helth implitions of this outome of unsustinle ehviorF pigure How Climate Change Aects Population @pigure PFIQA desries the pthwys y whih limte hnge 'ets puli helthF o the left we see the nturl nd nthropogeniD or humnEused tivities tht 'et limte hngeD whih result in limti onditions nd vriilityY if we n mitigte those events we n redue limte hngeF hese tivities (rst result in environmentl impts suh s severe wether eventsD distured eosystemsD seElevel riseD nd overll environmentl degrdtionF hose impts n then result in rod rnge of helth e'ets tht we n dpt toD to ertin extentF hese impts re generlly tegorized into three resX het indued moridity nd mortlityD infetious disesesD nd impts due to the e'et of extreme wether suh s )ooding nd drought on the soil welfre of the popultionF
shrnkEurnEmoilityEreport
105 httpXGGrtilesFhigotriuneFomGPHIIEHIEPHGnewsGtEmetEtr0EongestionEHIPHEPHIIHIIWIongestionEdvidE

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CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

Figure 2.13: How Climate Change Aects Population Diagram summarizing the main pathways
by which climate change aects population health. McMichael et al., 2006 (p. 45) Source:Created by Cindy Klein-Banai, based on

wesurement of helth e'ets from limte hnge n only e very pproximteF yne mjor studyD y the orld relth yrgniztion @ryAD ws quntittive ssessment of some of the possile helth impts tht looked t the e'ets of the limte hnges sine the midEIWUHs nd determined tht this my hve resulted in over ISHDHHH deths in PHHHF he study onluded tht the e'ets will proly grow in the future @orld relth yrgniztionD PHHW @pF RTAAF
2.5.4.1 Extreme Weather

glimte hnge n in)uene hetErelted morbidity nd mortalityD generlly result of the di'erene etween temperture extremes nd men limte in given reF righer tempertures in the summer inrese mortlityF tudies on the e'ets of het wves in iurope indite tht hlf of the exess het during the iuropen het wve of PHHQ ws due to glol wrming ndD y infereneD out hlf of the exess deths during tht het wve ould e ttriuted to humnEgenerted greenhouse gs emissions @see rinesD uovtsD gmpellEvendrumD 8 gorvlnD PHHT @pF RSAY rellmnnD veshtD 8 xdelho'erD PHHU @pF RSAY wwihelD PHHT @pF RSAAF rn enters re more suseptile due to the urn het islnd e'et tht produes higher tempertures in urn res s ompred to the nerEy suurs nd rurl resF vk of vegettion or evportionD nd lrge res of pvementD in ities result in n rn ret sslndD where urn res re

RI wrmer thn the neighoring suurn nd rurl res @ee pigure Sketch of an Urban Heat-Island Prole @pigure PFIRAAF edpttion n help redue mortlity through greter prevention wreness nd y providing more irEonditioning nd ooling entersF

Figure 2.14: Sketch of an Urban Heat-Island Prole.

Source: Heat Island Group

106

he redution of extreme old due to glol wrmingD ould redue the numer of deths due to low temperturesF nlike for hetD those deths re usully not diretly relted to the old temperture itself ut rther to in)uenzF elsoD deths relted to old spells would inrese to lesser extent y @IFT7AD while het wves inrese them y SFU7F ine volatile organic compounds re preursors of ozoneD nd yg emissions inrese with temperE tureD this ould led to n inrese in ozone onentrtionsF por (fteen ities in the estern nited ttesD the verge numer of dys exeeding the helthEsed eightEhour ozone stndrd is projeted to inrese y TH perent @from twelve to lmost twenty dys eh summerA y the PHSHs euse of wrmer tempertures @vshofD 8 tzD PHHR @pF RSAAF ollen levels my inrese with inresed gy2 levels sine tht promotes growth nd reprodution in plntsF his will inrese the inidene of llergi retionsF imilrlyD poison ivy will grow more nd e more toxiF snfetious diseses re in)uened y limte s pthogen survivl rtes re strongly 'eted y temE perture hngeF hiseses rried y irdsD nimlsD nd insets @vetorEornA ! suh s mlriD dengue feverD nd dengue hemorrhgi fever ! my e in)uened y temperture s mosquitoes re sensitive to limte onditions suh s temperture humidityD solr rditionD nd rinfllF por exmpleD there hs een strengthening of the reltionship etween the il xino glol wether yle nd holer outreks in fngldeshF snreses in mlri in the highlnds of estern efri my e ssoited with lol wrming trendsF emperture lso 'ets the rte of foodEorn infetious diseseF sn generlD howeverD it is hrd to isolte the e'ets of limte hnge tht 'et the trnsmission rte nd geogrphi oundries of infetious disese from other soilD eonomiD ehviorlD nd environmentl ftors @see wwihel et lFD PHHT @pF RSAAF snresed preipittion from extreme rinfll events n use )ooding whihD espeilly in ities with omined sewer nd stormwter systems n e ontminted y sewge linesF his n hppen when the deep tunnels tht rry stormwter in ghigo reh pity nd untreted sewge then must e relesed
106 httpXGGhetislndFllFgovG

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CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

into vke wihignF iF goli levels in the lke then inreseD foring ehes to lose to prevent the spred of infetionF hiseses re reEemerging nd emerging infetious due to intensi(ed food prodution in ftory frmsF ixmples inlude md ow disese @IWVHs in fritinAY the enrohment on rin forest y pig frmers exposed pigs nd frmers to the xiph virus rried y rinforest ts tht were seeking food from orhrds round the pig frms ! driven y deforesttion nd the drought of il xinoF his used infetion of pigs whih led to humn illness nd more thn one hundred dethsF oultry frming @vin in)uenz virusesA E rowded ftory frming9 my inrese the likelihood of virl virulene when there is no seletive dvntge in keeping the host ird liveF yther food relted issues re disussed in the next setionF
2.5.4.2 Food Production

glimte hnge n in)uene regionl fmines euse droughts nd other extreme limte onditions hve diret in)uene on food rops nd lso y hnging the eology of plnt pthogens @tz et lFD PHHS @pF RSAAF here re likely to e mjor e'ets of limte hnge on griulturl prodution nd (sheriesF his n e oth positive nd negtive depending on the diret e'ets of tempertureD preipittionD gy2 D extreme limte vritionsD nd seElevel riseF sndiret e'ets would hve to do with hnges in soil qulityD inidene of plnt diseses nd weed nd inset popultionsF pood spoilge will inrese with more het nd humidityF ersistent drought hs lredy redued food prodution in efriF here ould e redution in nutritionl qulity due to redution in the mount of nitrogen rops inorporte when gy2 levels inreseF wlnutrition will e inresed due to droughtD prtiulrly poorer ountriesF snresing fuel osts lso inrese the ost of foodD s we re lredy seeing in PHIIF eginD this inrementl ost rise 'ets those who lredy spend lrge portion of their inome on food nd n ontriute to mlnutritionF eout oneEthirdD or IFU illionD of ll people live in wterEstressed ountries nd this is ntiipted to inrese to (ve illion y PHPSF prequeny of dirrhe nd other diseses like onjuntivitis tht re ssoited with poor hygiene nd rekdown in snittion my inreseF

RQ

Figure 2.15: Projection for Future EHW-like Summers in Chicago.

The average number of

summers per decade with mortality rates projected to equal those of the Chicago analog to the European Heat Wave of 2003. Values shown are the average of three climate models for higher (orange) and lower (yellow) emission scenarios for each decade from 1980 to 2090 Source: Hellmann et al., 2007 (p. 45).

rious studies suggest tht inreses in popultion t risk from mlnutrition will inrese from RHEQHH million people over the urrent TRH million y PHTH @osenzweigD rryD pisher 8 prohergD IWWQ @pF RSAAF e more reent study sid tht tody QR7 of the popultion is t risk nd y PHSH this vlue would grow to TREUP7F glimte hnge is ssoited with deresed pr @idi(tionA of oens due to higher gy2 levelsF yver the pst PHH yers oen pr hs een redued y HFI units nd the sgg predits drop of HFIR to HFQS units y PIHHF his my 'et shellEforming orgnisms nd the speies tht depend on themF here ould e redution in plnkton due to the xorth etlnti qulf trem @uly 8 elderD PHHS @pF RSAAF ith lredy overexploited (sh popultionsD it will e hrder for them to reoverF xturl dissters like )oodsD droughtsD wild(resD tsunmisD nd extreme storms hve resulted in millions of deths over the pst PS yers nd negtively 'eted the lives of mny moreF urvivors my experiene inresed rtes of mentl helth disorders suh s post-traumatic stress disorderF ild(res redue ir

RR

CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

qulityD inresing prtiulte mtter tht provokes rdi nd respirtory prolemsF e level rise will inrese )ooding nd ostl erosionF sndiret e'ets of rising se levels inlude the in(ltrtion of slt wter nd ould interfere with stormwter dringe nd sewge disposlF his ould fore ostl ommunities to migrte nd rete refugees with helth urdens suh s overrowdingD homelessnessD nd ompetition for resouresF eir pollution is likely to e worse with limte hngeF st n lso led to moiliztion of dngerous hemils from storge or remoilize hemils tht re lredy in the environmentF pei( regionl e'ets hve my e more severeF ulnerle regions inlude temperte zones predited to experiene disproportionte wrmingD res round the i( nd sndin yens tht re urrently sujet to vriility in rinfllD nd lrge ities where they experiene the urn het islnd e'et @tz et lFD PHHS @pF RSAAF he ghigo re is one urn re where nlysis hs een performed to determine the spei( helth e'ets tht re projeted due to limte hnge @see pigure Projection for Future EHW-like Summers in Chicago @pigure PFISAAF hose e'ets re similr to the ones desried oveF en evlution of the redutions in dverse helth e'ets tht ould e hieved y PHPH in four mjor ities with totl popultion of RS million found tht qrq mitigtion would redue prtiulte mtter nd ozone mient onentrtions y out IH7 nd void some TRDHHH premture dethsD TSDHHH personEhroni ronhitis seD nd QU million dys of restrited tivities @gifuentesD forjEeurtoD qouveiD hurston 8 hvisD PHHI @pF RSAAF he ities9 ozone levels re estimted to inrese under predited future limti onditionsD nd this e'et will e more extreme in ities tht lredy su'er from high pollutionF he estimtes of elevted ozone levels ould men HFII7 to HFPU7 inrese in dily totl mortlity @fell et lFD PHHU @pF RSAAF hereforeD redution of qrq emissionsD long with tions to mitigte the e'ets of limte hnge re likely to redue the puli helth outomes ssoited with limte hngeF
2.5.5 Conclusions

he implitions of limte hnge on puli helth re rod nd vstF he interonnetedness of ll of erth9s systems nd humn helth is n re tht is hllenge to studyY the limte hnge senrios re vrileF uli helth is diretly tied to the humn eosystem tht we rete through our unsustinle tivitiesF he deteriortion of puli helth on this plnet is perhps the most importnt onsequene of our own unsustinle hoiesF ithout good puli helth outomesD humn life on this plnet is thretened nd ultimtely our tions ould use signi(nt hnges in humn helthD wellEeing nd longevityF st is not the erth tht is t stke E it is humnityF
2.5.6 Review Questions
Question 2.5.1

hink out the mjor soures of energyX olD nuler nd petroleumF xme some helth e'ets tht re ssoited with ehD s portryed in reent world eventsF pind one populr nd one sienti( soure to support thisF
Question 2.5.2 Question 2.5.3

hesrie three helth impts of limte hngeF

wodern frming prties re ment to inrese produtivity nd feed the world solving the proE lems of mlnutrition nd strvtionF row would you rgue for or ginst thisc
Question 2.5.4

ht re some outomes tht ould e mesured to determine if ommunity is helthyc

RS
2.5.7 Resources

relth smpts of glimte ghnge ! oiety httpXGGwwwFyoutueFomGwthcvavfhwTUU107

2.5.8 References

of

yuptionl

nd

invironmentl

relth

fellD wF vFD qoldergD FD rogrefeD gFD uinneyD F vFD unowltonD uFD vynnD fFD F F F tzD tF eF @PHHUAF glimte hngeD mient ozoneD nd helth in SH itiesF Climatic Change, 82D TIEUTF fesser vF wFD 8 hnnenerg eF vF @PHHSD xovemerAF lking to puli trnsit steps to help meet physil tivity reommendtionsF American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 29 @RAD PUQEPVHF fesserD vF wFD wrusD wFD 8 prumkinD rF @PHHVD wrhAF gommute time nd soil pitl in the FF American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 34 @QAD PHUEPIIF flir F xFD umpertD tF fFD uohl sssD rF FD frlowD gF iFD werD gF eFD 'enrgerD trD F FD 8 qionsD vF F @IWWTAF sn)uenes of rdiorespirtory (tness nd other preursors on rdiovsulr disese nd llEuse mortlity in men nd womenF Journal of American Medical Association, 276 @QAD PHSEPIHF gifuentesD vFD forjEeurtoD F rFD qouveiD xFD hurstonD qFD 8 hvisD hF vF @PHHIAF ridden helth ene(ts of greenhouse gs mitigtionF Science, 293 @SSQQAD IPSUEIPSWF iwingD FD hmidD FD uillingsworthD FD lotD eFD 8 udenushD F @PHHQD eptemerGytoerAF eltionship etween urn sprwl nd physil tivityD oesityD nd moridityF American Journal of Health Promotion, 18 @IAD RWESUF priedmnD wF FD owellD uF iFD rutwgnerD vFD qrhmD vF wFD 8 egueD F qF @PHHIAF smpt of hnges in trnsporttion nd ommuting ehviors during the IWWT ummer ylympi qmes in etlnt on ir qulity nd hildhood sthmF JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 285 @UAD VWU!WHSF rinesD eFD uovtsD F FD gmpellEvendrumD hFD 8 gorvlnD gF @PHHTAF glimte hnge nd humn helthX smptsD vulnerility nd puli helthF Journal of the Royal Institute of Public Health. 120D SVSESWTF rellmnnD tFD veshtD fFD 8 xdelho'erD uF @PHHUAF ghpter pour ! relthF sn Climate Change and Chicago: Projections and Potential Impacts. etrieved from httpXGGwwwFhigolimtetionForgG(leinGpdfGreportGghigolimteimptsreportghpterpourrelthFpdf108 tentesD iF FD hvisD F wFD whonldD FD nymnD F tFD xelsonD rFD urryD hFD F F F 8 wrnoD xF @PHIHAF relth risks nd trvel preprtion mong foreign visitors nd exptrites during the PHHV feijing ylympi nd rlympi qmesF American Journal of Tropical Medical Hygene, 82D RTT!RUPF vshofD hF eFD 8 tzD tF @PHHRAF ret dvisoryX row glol wrming uses more d ir dysF etrieved from httpXGGwwwFnrdForgGglolwrmingGhetdvisoryGhetdvisoryFpdf109 F wwihelD eF tF @PHHTA opultion helth s the ottomEline9 of sustinilityX e ontemporry hlE lenge for puli helth reserhersF European Journal of Public Health, 16 @TAD SUW!SVPF wwihelD eF tFD oodru'D F iFD 8 rlesD F @PHHTAF glimte hnge nd humn helthX resent nd future risksF Lancet, 367D VSWEVTWF tzD tF eFD gmpellEvendrumD hFD rollowyD FD 8 poleyD tF eF @PHHSAF smpt of regionl limte hnge on humn helthF Nature, 438D QIHEQIUF ulyD hFD 8 elderD tF @PHHSAF wrine pisheries ystemsF sn F rssnD F holesD 8 xF esh @edsFAD Ecosystems and Human Well - being: Current State and Trends F @olF IAF shingtonD hFgFD sslnd ressF lntingD eF tFD 8 fernellD F @PHHUAF he ssoition etween urn sprwl nd oesityX ss it twoEwy streetcD Journal of Regional Science, 47 @SAD VSUEVUWF osenzweigD gFD rryD wF vFD pisherD qFD 8 prohergD uF @IWWQAF glimte hnge nd world food supplyF eserh eport xoF QF yxfordD FuF X yxford niversityD invironmentl ghnge nitF
107 httpXGGwwwFyoutueFomGwthcvavfhwTUU 108 httpXGGwwwFhigolimtetionForgG(leinGpdfGreportGghigolimteimptsreportghpterpourrelthFpdf 109 httpXGGwwwFnrdForgGglolwrmingGhetdvisoryGhetdvisoryFpdf

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CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

ngD FD esterdhlD hFD ghenD vFD uD FD roD tFD nD FD quoD FD 8 hngD uF wF @PHHWAF ivluting the ir qulity impts of the PHHV feijing ylympi qmesX ynErod emission ftors nd lk ron pro(lesF Atmospheric Environment, 43D RSQS!RSRQF eiD wFD umpertD tF fF D frlowD gF iF D xihmnD wF F D qionsD vF FD 'enrgerD trFD F FD 8 flirD F xF @IWWWAF eltionship etween low rdiorespirtory (tness nd mortlity in normlEweightD overweightD nd oese menF Journal of the American Medical Association, 282 @ITAD ISRUEISSQF orld relth yrgniztionF @PHHWAF glimte hnge nd humn helthF pt sheetD tuly PHHSF etrieved from httpXGGwwwFwhoFintGglolhngeGnewsGfslimndhelthGenGindexFhtml110 F

110 httpXGGwwwFwhoFintGglolhngeGnewsGfslimndhelthGenGindexFhtml

Chapter 3
Climate and Global Change

3.1 Climate and Global Change  Chapter Introduction

Module by: Jonathan Tomkin

he irth9s limte is hngingF he sienti( onsensus is tht y ltering the omposition of the tmosphere humns re inresing the verge temperture of the irth9s surfeF his proess hs lredy egun ! the plnet is mesurly wrmer thn it ws t the strt of the lst entury ! ut sientists predit the hnge tht will our over the PIst entury will e even greterF his inrese will hve unpreditle impts on wether ptterns round the gloeF e re ll experiening limte hngeF yur desendnts will likely experiene fr moreF his hpter fouses on the siene of limte hngeF e reognize tht limte hnge n e ontroversil sujetD nd tht presriptions for solutions quikly tke on politil hrterD whih n rise suspiions of isF ome rgue tht the limte is too omplited to preditD nd others suggest tht nturl vritions n explin the oserved hnges in the limteF hese ojetions hve some meritF st should e no surprise tht the irth9s limte is omplited sujetF pirstD the tmosphere is vstX it extends over THH km @QUH milesA ove the groundD nd it weighs over (ve qudrillion tons @tht9s (ve followed y IS zerosAF eondD the tmosphere is dynmi systemD reting lizzrdsD hurrinesD thunderstormsD nd ll the other wether we experieneF end it is true tht this dynmi system is lrgely ontrolled y nturl proesses ! the irth9s limte hs een hnging ontinully sine the tmosphere ws produedF end yet sientists n still on(dently sy tht humns re responsile for the urrent wrmingF e n do this euse this omplited system oeys underlying priniplesF sn the modules Climate Processes; External and Internal Controls @etion QFPA nd Milankovitch Cycles and the Climate of the Quaternary @etion QFQAD we will desrie how these priniples workD nd how they hve een oserved y sientistsF e n then use these priniples to understnd howD y produing greenhouse gsesD humns re ltering the physil properties of the tmosphere in suh wy s to inrese its ility to retin hetF sn the module Modern Climate Change @etion QFRA we show how this theoretil predition of wrming world is orne out y ever stronger evideneF empertures hve een mesuredD nd re shown to e inresingF hese inreses in tempertures re signi(nt nd hve oservle e'ets on the worldX gliers re shrinkingD se ie is retretingD se levels re rising ! even herry lossoms re looming erlier in the yerF sn the module Climate Projections @etion QFSAD we desrie how we n ttempt to predit the limte of the futureF his is douly di0ult prolemD s it involves not only physisD utD hrder yetD peopleF ht will tody9s soieties do with the foreknowledge of the onsequenes of our tionsc he limte hs eome yet nother nturl system whose immedite fte is onneted to our ownF he reder my (nd it either ressuring or frightening tht we hold the limte9s future in our hndsF
1 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITTRGIFQGbF

RU

RV

CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

3.2 Climate Processes; External and Internal Controls

3.2.1 Learning Objectives

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

de(ne oth 4limte4 nd 4wether4 nd explin how the two re relted use the gelsius temperture sle to desrie limte nd wether disuss the role nd mehnisms of the mjor ontrols on irth9s limte using the onepts of insoE ltionD ledo nd greenhouse gses identify nd desrie the mehnisms y whih mjor externl nd internl hnges to the limte @inluding solr output vritionD volnoesD iologil proessesD hnges in glil overgeD nd meteorite imptsA operte know tht the irth9s limte hs hnged gretly over its history s result of hnges in insoltionD ledoD nd tmospheri omposition desrie the proesses tht n led to 4nowll irth4 using the 4positive feedk4 oneptD nd e le to ontrst the limte ftors tht in)uened this period of irth9s history with othersD inluding the dominnt ftors tht operted during the greteous stte the mjor wys in whih ron dioxide is oth dded to nd removed from the tmosphereD nd e le to desrie why levels of ron dioxide nd other greenhouse gses n e kept in lne

3.2.2 Introduction

he irth9s limte is ontinully hngingF sf we re to understnd the urrent limte nd predit the limte of the futureD we need to e le to ount for the proesses tht ontrol the limteF yne hundred million yers goD muh of xorth emeri ws rid nd hotD with gint snd dunes ommon ross the ontinent9s interiorF ixtyE(ve million yers go it ppers tht the sme lnd mss"long with the rest of the gloe"ws overed in lyer of snow nd ieF ht drives these enormous hnges through irth9s historyc sf we understnd these fundmentl proesses we n explin why the limte of tody my lso hngeF sn disussing limte in this hpterD we will e using degrees gelsius @o gA s the unit of temperture mesurementF
2 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVRVPGIFISGbF

RW

Figure 3.1: A Thermometer This thermometer shows how the two scales compare for typical atmospheric temperatures. A change of one degree Celsius (1 fths degrees Fahrenheit (1.8

C) is equivalent to a change of one and four

F). Source: Michiel1972 at nl.wikipedia.

he gelsius sle is the stndrd interntionl unit for temperture tht sientists use when disussing the limteF sn the gelsius sleD wter freezes t H o g nd oils t IHH o gF e omfortle room might e heted to PH o g @whih is equivlent to TV o pAF empertures n e onverted from the gelsius sle to the phrenheit sle with the following equtionX

9 C + QP @QFIA 5 Weather desries the short term stte of the tmosphereF his inludes suh onditions s windD ir pressureD preipittionD humidity nd tempertureF Climate desries the typilD or vergeD tmospheri

F =

3 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXhermometerFjpg

SH

CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

onditionsF ether nd limte re di'erent s the short term stte is lwys hnging ut the longEterm verge is notF yn he Ist of tnuryD PHIID ghigo reorded high temperture of T o gY this is mesure of the wetherF wesurements of limte inlude the verges of the dilyD monthlyD nd yerly wether ptternsD the sesonsD nd even desription of how often extrordinry eventsD suh s hurrinesD ourF o if we onsider the verge ghigo high temperture for the Ist of tnury @ older HFS o gA or the verge high temperture for the entire yer @ wrmer IRFS o gA we re ompring the ity9s wether with its limteF he climate is the verge of the wetherF
3.2.3 Insolation, Albedo and Greenhouse Gases

ht ontrols the limtec he verge temperture of the irth is out IS o g @whih is the yerly verge temperture for the ity of n prnisoAD so most of the irth9s wter is in liquid stteF he verge temperture of wrs is out ESS o g @out the sme s the verge winter temperture of the outh oleAD so ll of the wter on the wrtin surfe is frozenF his is ig di'erene3 yne reson irth is so muh hotter thn wrs is tht irth is loser to the unF wrs reeives less thn hlf s muh energy from the un per unit re s irth doesF his di'erene in insolationD whih is the mesure of the mount of solr rdition flling on surfeD is very importnt ftor in determining the limte of the irthF yn irthD we notie the e'ets of vrying insoltion on our limteF unlight flls most diretly on the equtorD nd only oliquely @t n ngleA on the polesF his mens tht the sunlight is more onentrted t the equtorF es shown in pigure Insolation Angle @pigure QFPAD the sme mount of sunlight overs twie s muh re when it strikes surfe t n ngle of QHo ompred to when it strikes surfe diretlyX the sme energy is spred more thinlyD wekening its ility to wrm the irthF

Figure 3.2: Insolation Angle Insolation is the eect of incidence angle on sunlight intensity.
angle. Source: Wikipedia

Note that

the same amount of sunlight is spread out over twice the area when it strikes the surface at a 30-degree

4 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXesonsFtooFpng

SI es onsequeneD the tropis reeive out twie the insoltion s the re inside the erti girle ! see pigure Insolation Comparison @pigure QFQAF his di'erene in energy explins why the equtor hs hot limte nd the poles hve old limteF hi'erenes in insoltion lso explin the existene of sesonsF he irth9s xis is tilted t PQo ompred to its oritD nd so over the ourse of the yer eh hemisphere lterntes etween diretly fing the un nd oliquely fing the unF hen the xorthern hemisphere is most diretly fing the un @the months of wyD tune nd tulyA insoltion is thus higherD nd the limte is wrmerF his vrition in insoltion explins why summer nd winter our @we get less energy from the un in winter then we do in summerAD nd why the timing of the sesons is opposite in the outhern nd xorthern hemispheresF

Figure 3.3: Insolation Comparison

A cartoon of how latitude is important in determining the

amount of insolation. The same amount of sunlight (yellow bars) is spread out over twice the planet's surface area when the rays strike the Earth at an angle (compare the length of the dark lines at the equator and at the poles). Source: Jonathan H. Tomkin.

pigure Insolation @pigure QFRA shows oth the equtoril nd sesonl impts of insoltionF righ levels of insoltion re shown in wrm olors @red nd pinkA nd low levels of insoltion re shown in old olors @lueAF xotie tht in tnury @top mpA the mximum levels of insoltion re in the outhern remisphereD s this is when the outhern remisphere is most diretly fing the sunF he erti reeives very little insoltion t this time of yerD s it experienes its long polr nightF he reverse is true in epril @ottom mpAF
5 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGtomkin

SP

CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

Figure 3.4: Insolation

Average insolation over ten years for the months of January (top) and April

(bottom). Source: Roberta DiPasquale, Surface Meteorology and Solar Energy Project, NASA Langley Research Center, and the ISCCP Project. Courtesy of NASA's Earth Observatory.

he equtor lwys reeives plenty of sunlightD howeverD nd hs muh higher verge temperture s onsequeneY ompre the verge temperture of the equtor with tht of the poles in pigure Annual Mean Temperature @pigure QFSA
6 httpXGGerthoservtoryFnsFgovGsyhGviewFphpcidaIQSS

SQ

Figure 3.5: Annual Mean Temperature

A. Rohde for Global Warming Art.

The Earth's average annual temperature. Source: Robert

he level of insoltion 'eting irth depends on the mount of light @or solar radiationA emitted y the unF yver the urrent geologi periodD this is very slowly hnging"solr rdition is inresing t rte of round IH7 every illion yersF his hnge is muh too slow to e notiele to humnsF he sun lso goes through n IIEyer solr yleD in whih the mount of solr rdition inreses nd deresesF et the solr yle pekD the totl solr rdition is out HFI7 higher thn it is t the troughF he irth9s orit is not perfetly irulrD so sometimes the irth is loser to or further from the un thn it is on vergeF his lso hnges the mount of insoltionD s the loser the irth is to the un the more onentrted the solr rditionF es we shll see in the next setionD these oritl vritions hve mde ig di'erene in onditions on the irth during the period in whih humns hve inhited itF sn ddition to onsidering how muh energy enters the irth system vi insoltionD we lso need to onsider how muh energy levesF he limte of the irth is ontrolled y the irth9s energy lneD whih is the movement of energy into nd out of the irth systemF inergy )ows into the irth from the un nd )ows out when it is rdited into speF he irth9s energy lne is determined y the mount of sunlight tht shines on the irth @the insoltionA nd the hrteristis of the irth9s surfe nd tmosphere tht t to re)etD irulte nd reErdite this energyF he more energy in the system the higher the tempertureD so either inresing the mount of energy rriving or deresing the rte t whih it leves would mke the limte hotterF yne wy to hnge how quikly energy exits the irth system is to hnge the re)etivity of the surE feF gompre the di'erene in drk surfe of tilled soil @pigure Reectivity of Earth's Surface (a) @pigure QFT@AAA with the linding rightness of snowEovered ie @pigure Reectivity of Earth's Surface (b) @pigure QFT@AAAF
7 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXennulevergeemperturewpFjpg

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CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

@A

@A

Figure 3.6: Reectivity of Earth's Surface

(a) Tilled soil. Source: Tim Hallam.

surface at Dome C Station, Antarctica Source: Stephen Hudson

(b) The snow

he drk soil is soring the sun9s rys nd in so doing is heting the irth surfeD while the rillint snow is re)eting the sunlight k into speF Albedo is mesure of how re)etive surfe isF he higher the ledo the more re)etive the mterilX perfetly lk surfe hs zero ledoD while perfetly white surfe hs n ledo of I E it re)ets IHH7 of the inident lightF sf plnet hs high ledoD muh of the rdition from the un is re)eted k into speD lowering the verge tempertureF odyD irth hs n verge ledo of just over QH7D ut this vlue depends on how muh loud over there is nd wht overs the surfeF govering soil with grss inreses the mount of light re)eted from IU7 to PS7D while dding lyer of fresh snow n inrese the mount re)eted to over VH7F pigure Surface of Earth with Cloud Cover Removed @pigure QFUA is omposite photogrph of the irth with the loud over removedF es you n seeD forests nd oens re drk @low ledoA while snow nd deserts re right @high ledoAF
8 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXilledsoillookingtowrdsedmirltyointEgeogrphForgFukEQPTSTVFjpg 9 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXentrtihomegnowFjpg

SS

Figure 3.7: Surface of Earth with Cloud Cover Removed

The surface of the Earth with cloud

cover removed. The poles and deserts are much brighter than the oceans and forests. Source: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Image by Reto Stockli. Courtesy of NASA's Earth Observatory.

10

ghnges in ledo n rete positive feedback tht reinfores hnge in the limteF e positive feedk is proess whih mpli(es the e'et of n initil hngeF sf the limte oolsD @the initil hngeAD snow overs more of the surfe of the lndD nd seEie overs more of the oensF feuse snow hs higher ledo thn re groundD nd ie hs higher ledo thn wterD this initil ooling inreses the mount of sunlight tht is re)eted k into speD ooling the irth further @the mpli(tionD or positive feedkAF gompre the rightness of pigure Surface of Earth with Cloud Cover Removed @pigure QFUA with similr photo montge from perury @pigure Surface of the Earth in February with Cloud Cover Removed @pigure QFVAAX the extr snow hs inresed the irth9s ledoF smgine wht would hppen if the irth produed even more snow nd ie s result of this further oolingF he irth would then re)et more sunlight into speD ooling the plnet further nd produing yet more snowF sf suh loop ontinued for long enoughD this proess ould result in the entire irth eing overed in ie3 uh feedk loop is known s the Snowball Earth hypothesisD nd sientists hve found muh supporting geologil evideneF he most reent period in irth9s history when this ould hve ourred ws round TSH willion yers goF ositive feedks re often desried s 4runwy4 proessesY one they re egun they ontinue without stoppingF
10 httpXGGvisileerthFnsFgovGviewreFphpcidaPRQQ

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CHAPTER 3.

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Figure 3.8: Surface of the Earth in February with Cloud Cover Removed

This image shows Source:

the surface of the Earth in February (the Northern Hemisphere winter) with cloud cover removed. The seasonal snow cover is brighter (and so has a higher albedo) than the land surface it covers. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Image by Reto Stockli. Courtesy of NASA's Earth Observatory

11

eledo does not explin everythingD howeverF he irth nd the woon oth reeive the sme mount of insoltionF elthough the woon is only slightly more re)etive thn the irthD it is muh olderF he verge temperture on irth is IS o gD while the woon9s verge temperture is EPQ o gF hy the di'erenec e plnet9s energy lne is lso regulted y its tmosphereF e thik tmosphere n t to trp the energy from sunlightD preventing it from esping diretly into speF irth hs n tmosphere while the woon does notF sf the irth did not hve n tmosphereD it would hve n verge temperture of EIV o gY slightly wrmer thn the woon sine it hs lower ledoF row does the tmosphere trp the energy from the unc houldn9t the irth9s tmosphere re)et s muh inoming rdition s it trpsc st is true the tmosphere re)ets inoming solr rdition"in ftD only round hlf the insoltion tht strikes the top of the tmosphere rehes the irth9s surfeF he reson n tmosphere generlly ts to wrm plnet is tht the nture of light rdition hnges s it rehes the plnet9s surfeF etmospheres trp more light then they re)etF rumns see the irth9s tmosphere s lrgely trnsprentY tht isD we n see long wy in irF his is euse we see light in the visible spectrumD whih is the light rdition in the rnge of wvelengths the humn eye is le to pereiveD nd visile light is le to trvel long wy through the irth9s tmosphere efore it is soredF vight is lso trnsmitted in wvelengths we n9t seeD suh s in the infrared spectrumD whih is sometimes referred to s infrred lightD hetD or therml rditionF gompred to visile lightD infrred light nnot trvel very fr in the irth9s tmosphere efore it is soredF olr rdition striking the irth is lrgely in the visile prt of the spetrumF he surfe of the irth sors this energy nd reErdites it lrgely in the infrred prt of the spetrumF his mens tht solr rdition enters the irth in the form of visile lightD unhinderedD ut tries to leve in the form of infrred lightD whih is trppedF hiker tmospheres keep this infrred rdition trpped for longerD nd so wrm the irth"just like n extr lnket mkes you wrmer in edF his e'et is shown in pigure Earth Atmosphere Cartoon @pigure QFWAF he visile light rdition enters the tmosphereD nd quikly exits s infrred rdition if there is no tmosphere @top irthAF ith
11 httpXGGvisileerthFnsFgovGviewreFphpcidaUIHI

SU our tmosphere @the middle irthAD visile light enters unhindered ut the infrred light is prtilly re)eted k to the surfeD inresing the mount of energy nd thus the temperture t the irth9s surfeF sf the tmosphere is mde thiker @ottom irthA the infrred rdition is trpped for longerD further wrming the plnet9s surfeF

Figure 3.9: Earth Atmosphere Cartoon

A cartoon of the greenhouse eect.

(Top) Visible light

radiation emitted by the sun (yellow arrows) strikes the Earth and reects as infrared radiation (orange arrow); (middle) an atmosphere reects some of the infrared radiation back toward the planet; (bottom) a thickened atmosphere reects greater amounts of infrared radiation. Source: Jonathan H. Tomkin.

12

he wy the tmosphere ts to trp light rdition is referred to s the greenhouse eectD nd the gses tht prevent the therml rdition from exiting the irth system re desried s greenhouse gasesF he four most importnt greenhouse gses in the irth9s tmosphere re wter vporD ron dioxideD methneD nd ozoneF ell four re found nturlly in the irth9s tmosphereF es we will disuss in etion RFRD howeverD humn tivities re dding to the nturl mount of ron dioxide nd methneD nd even dding new greenhouse gsesD suh s hloro)uororon @gpgAF
3.2.4 Earth's Changing Atmosphere

he omposition of irth9s tmosphere hs hnged over geologi timeF he tmosphere hs lrgely ome from volni venting of gs from irth9s interior @see pigure Volcanic Outgassing @pigure QFIHAAD ut iology hs lso mde importnt hnges y produing oxygen nd removing ron dioxideF qreenhouse gses urrently mke up only smll frtion of the irth9s tmosphere"WW7 of ir onsists of nitrogen nd oxygen moleulesF
12 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGtomkin

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CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

Figure 3.10: Volcanic Outgassing

The Mt.

Bromo volcano in Indonesia emitting gas into the

atmosphere. Source: Jan-Pieter Nap, taken on July 11, 2004.

13

hile volnoes n wrm the irth y dding ron dioxide to the tmosphereD whih produes greenhouse e'etD they n lso ool the irth y injeting sh nd sulfur into the tmosphereF hese dditions rise the ledo of the tmosphereD llowing less sunlight to reh the surfe of the irthF he e'et lsts until the prtiles settle out of the tmosphereD typilly within few yersF olni eruptions hve impted humn soieties throughout historyY the wtF mor eruption in IVIS ooled the irth so muh tht snow fell during tune in xew inglndD nd the more reent wtF intuo eruption in IWWI @see pigure Mt. Pinatubo Explosion @pigure QFIIAA ejeted so muh sulfuri id into the tmosphere tht glol tempertures were lowered y out HFS o g in the following yerF
13 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXwhmeruEvolnoFjpeg

SW

Figure 3.11: Mt. Pinatubo Explosion The 1991 eruption of Mt.

Survey photograph, by Richard P. Hoblitt.

14

Pinatubo. Source: U.S. Geological

ividene from the geologi pst indites tht similr events hve used mss extintions wherein signi(nt frtion of ll speies on irth were wiped out in reltively short mount of timeF ustined outgssing from ontinuous volni eruptions is thought to hve produed so muh sh nd erosols tht light su0ient to support photosynthesis in plnts ws unle to penetrte the tmosphereD using the food hin to ollpseF he sh prtiles produed y extended eruptions would lso hve inresed the irth9s ledoD mking onditions inhospitly ool for plnts nd nimls dpted to wrmer environmentF
14 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXintuoWIeruptionlrkirseFjpg

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CHAPTER 3.

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esteroid impts n lso use the limte to suddenly oolF hen lrge steroids strike the irthD sh is ejeted into the tmosphereD whih inreses ledo in the sme wy s volni eruptionsF iverydy louds @mde up of wter dropletsA oth ool nd wrm the irthF hey n ool the irth y inresing the plnet9s ledoD re)eting sunlight into spe efore it rehes the surfeF glouds n lso wrm the irthD y re)eting infrred rdition emitted y the surfe k towrds the plnetF hi'erent types of loudsD nd di'erent onditionsD determine whih e'et predomintesF yn hot summer9s dyD for exmpleD louds ool us y shielding us from the sun9s rysD ut on winter9s night lyer of loud n t s wrming lnketF he omposition of the irth9s tmosphere is not (xedY greenhouse gses n e dded to nd removed from the tmosphere over timeF por exmpleD ron dioxide is dded y volnoes nd the dey or urning of orgni mtterF st is removed y photosynthesis in plntsD when it is dissolved in the oens nd when ronte sediments @ type of rokA re produedF yver geologi timeD these proesses hve signi(ntly redued the proportion of ron dioxide in the tmosphereF etmospheri ron dioxide levels just prior to the industril revolution re thought to hve een only one twentieth of those of SHH million yers goF xturl proesses lso remove ron dioxide dded y humn tivityD ut only very slowlyF st is estimted tht it would tke the irth round thousnd yers to nturlly remove most of the ron dioxide relesed y the industril onsumption of fossil fuels up to the presentF qreenhouse gses other thn ron dioxide re shorterElivedX methne is removed from the tmosphere in round dedeD nd hloro)uororons rek down within enturyF sndividul wter moleules spend only few dys t time in the tmosphereD ut unlike the other greenhouse gsesD the totl mount of wter vpor in the tmosphere remins onstntF ter evported from the oens reples wter lost y ondenstion nd preipittionF ghnging the omposition of the irth9s tmosphere lso hnges the limteF ho you rememer the nowll irth @pF SSA " how inresing ie over lso inresed the irth9s ledoD eventully overing the entire plnet in ie nd snowc ody9s limte is temperte"so we must hve esped this frozen trpF fut howc he leding hypothesis is tht the omposition of the irth9s tmosphere hngedD with volnoes slowly dding more nd more ron dioxide to itF ithout ess to the oensD plntsD or surfe roksD this ron dioxide ws not removed from the tmosphere nd so ontinued to uild up over millions of yersF iventullyD the dditionl wrming used y the inrese in greenhouse gses overme the ooling used y the snow9s high ledoD nd tempertures rose enough to melt the ieD freeing the irthF por most of irth9s historyD ron dioxide onentrtions hve een higher thn they re todyF es onsequeneD pst limtes hve often een very wrmF huring the lte stge of the dinosur er @the CretaceousD period tht lsted etween TS nd IRS million yers goAD ron dioxide levels were out S times higher thn they re todyD nd the verge glol tempertures were more thn IH o g higher thn tody9sF here were no lrge ie sheetsD nd dinosur fossils from this period hve een found s fr north s elskF hese nimls would not survive the old onditions found in the rti todyF purther southD fossil roodiles from TH million yers go hve een found in xorth hkotF he modern verge winter temperture in xorth hkot is round EIH o g !ut eing oldEloodedD roodiles re most t home when the ir temperture is round QH o g3 he limte ws wrmer in the pst when the mount of ron dioxide ws higherF
3.2.5 Review Questions
Question 3.2.1

he text desries how the high ledo of snow ts s positive feedk"if the irth is mde oolerD the highly re)etive snow n t to further ool the irthF odyD prt of the irth is overed with snow nd ieF gn you desrie mehnism y whih wrmer tempertures would lso produe positive feedk"this time heting the irth further"through similr ledo mehnismc
Question 3.2.2

wrs is older thn the irthF enusD on the other hndD is muh hotterD with verge surfe

TI tempertures of round RSH o gF enus is loser to the un thn the irth isD nd so reeives out twie s muh solr rditionF enus9s tmosphere is lso di'erent thn irth9sD s it is muh thiker nd minly onsists of ron dioxideF sing the terms insolation nd greenhouse gasesD n you suggest resons why enus is so hotc
Question 3.2.3

yxygen mkes up over PH7 of irth9s tmosphereD while ron dioxide mkes up less thn HFHR7F yxygen is lrgely trnsprent to oth visile nd infrred lightF ixplin why ron dioxide is more importnt greenhouse gs in the irth9s tmosphere thn oxygenD even though there is muh more oxygen thn ron dioxideF
Question 3.2.4 Figure snsoltion

@pigure QFRA shows the insoltion t the surfe of the irthF he irth is spherilD so we would expet the vlues to e the sme for ples of the sme ltitudeF fut notie tht this is not true ! ompreD for exmpleD entrl efri with the etlnti yen t the sme ltitudeF ht feture of the tmosphere might explin this vritionD nd whyc

3.2.6 Resources

he xtionl eeronutil nd pe edministrtion @xeeA irth yservtory wesite hs n rry of limte resouresF por more inEdepth disussion of irth9s energy udgetD go to httpXGGerthoservtoryFnsFgovGpeturesGinergyflneG15 ere you interested in (nding more out the ontroversil nowll irth hypothesisc he xtionl iene foundtion nd rrvrd niversity hve set up wesite with more out the hypothesis nd the evideneF qo to httpXGGwwwFsnowllerthForgG16

3.3 Milankovitch Cycles and the Climate of the Quaternary

3.3.1 Learning Objectives

17

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

desrie the hnging limte of the uternry explin why wilnkovith yles explin the vritions of limte over the uternryD in terms of the similr periods of oritl vritions nd glil yles explin how the glierGlimte system is linked vi ledo feedks desrie how sediment nd ie ores provide informtion out pst limtes use the mehnisms tht use stle isotope frtiontion to predit the impt of hnging limte on stle isotope reords

3.3.2 Introduction

sn wodule Climate Processes; External and Internal Controls @etion QFPA we sw the mjor drivers of the limte"the energy tht omes from the un @insoltionA nd the properties of the plnet tht determine how long tht energy stys in the irth system @ledoD greenhouse gsesAF sn this setionD we will look t the reent nturl hnges in irth9s limteD nd we will use these drivers to understnd why the limte hs hngedF
15 httpXGGerthoservtoryFnsFgovGpeturesGinergyflneG 16 httpXGGwwwFsnowllerthForgG 17 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVSUPGIFIHGbF

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CHAPTER 3.

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he most reent period of irth9s geologi history"spnning the lst PFT million yers"is known s the his is n importnt period for us euse it enompsses the entire period over whih humns hve existed"our speies evolved out PHHDHHH yers goF e will exmine how the limte hs hnged over this period in detilF fy understnding reent nturl proesses of limte hngeD we will e le to etter understnd why sientists ttriute the urrently oserved hnges in glol limte s eing the result of humn tivityF
Quaternary periodF

3.3.3 Quaternary Climate  Information From Ice Cores

row do we know out the uternry limtec efter llD most of the period predtes humn existeneD nd we hve only een reording the onditions of limte for few enturiesF ientists re le to mke informed judgments out the limtes of the deep pst y using proxy data. roxy dt is informtion out the limte tht umultes through nturl phenomenF sn the previous moduleD for exmpleD we disussed how THEmillionEyerEold roodile fossils hve een found in xorth hkotF his gives us indiret informtion out the limte of the period"tht the limte of the region ws wrmer thn it is todyF elthough not s preise s limte dt reorded y instruments @suh s thermometersAD proxy dt hs een reovered from diverse rry of nturl souresD nd provides surprisingly preise piture of limte hnge through deep timeF yne highly detiled reord of pst limte onditions hs een reovered from the gret ice sheets of qreenlnd nd entrtiF hese ie sheets re uilt y snow flling on the ie surfe nd eing overed y susequent snowfllsF he ompressed snow is trnsformed into ieF st is so old in these polr lotions tht the ie doesn9t melt even in the summersD so the ie is le to uild up over hundreds of thousnds of yersF feuse the ie t lower depths ws produed y progressively erlier snowfllsD the ge of the ie inreses with depthD nd the youngest ie is t the surfeF he entrti ie sheet is up to three miles thikF st tkes long time to uild up this muh ieD nd the oldest ie found t the ottom of the entrti ie sheet is round VHHDHHH yers oldF ientists drill into these ie sheets to extrt ice coresD whih reord informtion out pst limtesF pigure Ice Cores @pigure QFIPA shows wht these ores look like when they re ut openF vike tree ringsD ie ores indite yers of growthF xote how the middle ore @whih required over mile of drilling to extrt3A hs distint lyers"this is euse the sesons leve n imprint in the lyers of snowF ientists n use this imprint to help lulte the ge of the ie t di'erent depthsD lthough the tsk eomes more di0ult the deeper the ore smpleD sine the ie lyers eome more ompressedF he ie reords severl di'erent types of limte informtionX the temperture of the oreD the properties of the wter tht mke up the ieD trpped dustD nd tiny entomed ules of nient tmosphereF

TQ

Figure 3.12: Ice Cores

Three dierent sections of an ice core. The seasonal layers are most clear in Source:

the middle section (note the dark and light bands). The deepest section (bottom core) is taken from almost two miles down and is colored brown by rocky debris from the ground under the ice. National Ice Core Laboratory

18

he wter moleules tht mke up the ie reord informtion out the temperture of the tmosphereF ih wter moleule is mde up of two hydrogen toms nd one oxygen tom @nd so hs the hemil nme r2 yAF xot ll oxygen toms re the sme howeverY some re 4light4 nd some re 4hevy4F hese di'erent types of oxygen re lled isotopesD whih re toms tht hve sme numer of protons ut di'erent numers of neutronsF he hevy isotope of oxygen @oxygenEIVD or 18 yA is more thn IH7 hevier thn the light isotope @oxygenEIT or 16 yAF his mens tht some wter moleules weigh more thn othersF his is importnt euse lighter wter moleules re more esily evported from the oenD nd one in the tmosphereD hevier wter moleules re more likely to ondense nd fll s preipittionF es we n see from pigure Oxygen Schematic @pigure QFIQAD the wter in the ie sheets is lighter @hs higher proportion of 16 y reltive to 18 yA thn the wter in the oensF he proess of di'erentition etween hevy nd light wter moleules is temperture dependentF sf the tmosphere is wrmD there is more energy ville to evporte nd hold the hevier 18 y wter in the tmosphereD so the snow tht flls on the polr ie sheets is reltively higher in 18 yF hen the tmosphere is oldD the mount of energy is lessD nd so less 18 y mkes it to the poles to e turned into glil ieF e n ompre the mount of 18 y in di'erent prts of the ie ore to see how the tmosphere9s temperture"the limte"hs hngedF
18 httpXGGnilFusgsFgovG

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CHAPTER 3.

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Figure 3.13: Oxygen Schematic

Water becomes lighter as it travels toward the poles. The heavy

(18O) water drops out of the atmosphere (as rain or snow) before reaching the ice sheet. This means that the snow that forms the glacial ice is lighter than the ocean water (has more 16O than 18O, compared to ocean water). Source: Robert Simmon, NASA GSFC, NASA Earth Observatory

19

pigure Ice Age Temperature @pigure QFIRA shows wht this reord looks like over the lst RHHDHHH yersF he lue nd green lines depit two di'erent entrti ie ores @tken from ie out QSH miles prtA nd the vritions in oxygen isotopes re onverted into temperture hngesF he yExis shows temperture hngeY tody9s limte is t zero"the dshed lineF xotie tht the irth9s limte hs not een stle3 ometimes the temperture is higher thn it is tody"the lue nd green lines re higher thn the dshed out IPHDHHH yers goD for exmpleF wost of the time the limte is muh older thn tody9sD howeverX the most ommon vlue is round ET o g @EIQ o pAF yn vergeD the erth9s temperture etween PSDHHH nd IHHDHHH yers go ws out T o g lower thn it is todyF hese hnges n e douleEheked y mesuring the temperture of the ie in the ores diretlyF se tht is QHDHHH yers old is indeed older thn the ie mde todyD just s the isotope dt preditsF
19 httpXGGerthoservtoryFnsFgovGpeturesGleolimtologyyxygenflneGoxygenlneFphp

TS

Figure 3.14: Ice Age Temperature

temperature changes.

The blue and green lines depict two dierent Antarctic ice The y-axis shows temperature change;

cores (taken from ice about 350 miles apart) and the variations in oxygen isotopes are converted into The red line depicts global ice volume. today's climate is at zero  the dashed line. Source: Robert A. Rohde

20

20 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGserXhrgons)ight

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CHAPTER 3.

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Figure 3.15: Five Myr Climate Change

A comparison of the age of sediment (x-axis) and the

change in temperature over time (left y-axis) as derived from oxygen isotope ratios (right y-axis). The dashed line shows today's climate. Note that the climate is cooling over the last few million years, but it is highly variable. In the last one million years the climate alternates between warm and cool conditions on a 100,000-year time scale ("100 kyr cycle"), before this it alternated on a 41,000 year cycle. Both these period lengths are the same as Milankovitch cycles. These cores suggest that today's temperature is higher than almost all of that of the Quaternary (the last 2.6 Million years). Source: Jo Weber

21

he hnges in limte reorded in ie sheets re thought to e worldwideF he sme limte hnges oserved in entrti re lso found in ores tken from qreenlndD whih is on the other side of the irthF ssotope dt n lso e tken from sediment ored from the oen )oor"ll over the plnet"nd these ores lso show the sme hnges in limteD lternting etween old nd wrmF feuse oen sediment is deposited over millions of yersD the sediment n give n indition of the limte ross the whole of the uternry nd eyondF pigure Five Myr Climate Change @pigure QFISA shows how temperture hs hnged over time @lue lineAD ompred with tody @dshed lineAF he temperture hsD on vergeD gotten older over the uternryD ut it lso ppers to osillte etween wrm nd old periodsF e9ll investigte these periodi hnges in the next setion of this hpterF es flling snow umultes on the groundD tiny ules of ir eome trpped in itF hese ules re retined s the snow trnsforms to ieD nd onstitute tiny smples of the nient tmosphere tht n e nlyzed to (nd out if the hnges in temperture @s reorded in the oxygen isotopesA re relted to hnges in the tmosphereF he temperture reorded y the isotopes in the ie is diretly relted to the mount of ron dioxide in the trpped ir @pigure Vostok Petit Data @pigure QFITAAX the times with higher ron dioxide re lso times of high tempertureF plling snow lso ptures nd entoms tmospheri dustD whih is topsoil orn loft y the windD nd whih is espeilly prevlent during droughtsF he ft tht more dust ours in the ie umulted during old periods suggests tht the glil limte ws dryD s well s oldF
21 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXpivewyrglimteghngeFsvg

TU

Figure 3.16: Vostok Petit Data

These graphs depict how changes in temperatureinferred from

changes in isotope ratios (blue line)correspond to changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide (green line) and dust (red line) over the last 400,000 years as recorded in an ice core extracted from Antarctica. Carbon dioxide varies directly with temperature  the warmer the climate the higher the carbon dioxide level. Atmospheric dust is highest during the coolest periods (such as 25,000 and 150,000 years ago). Source: William M. Connolley produced gure using data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Paleoclimatology branch, Vostok Ice Core Data.

22

22 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXostokEieEoreEpetitFpng

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CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

3.3.4 Quaternary Climate  Cycling Between Glacials and Interglacials

Figure 3.17: Ice Age Earth

by ice-sheets. Source: Ittiz

An artist's impression of the Earth during an ice age.

Note that the

Northern parts of North America and Europe (including Canada and Scandinavia) are entirely covered

23

huring the uternryD the irth hs yled etween glacial periods @sometimes referred to s 4ie ges4A nd interglacial periodsF he ie ws t its most reent extreme round PHDHHH yers go in period known s the Last Glacial MaximumD or vqwF es we n see from the ie ore reordD the uternry limte is usully old @see pigure Ice Age Temperature @pigure QFIRAAD with long periods of old puntuted with shorter @IHDHHH yer longD or soA periods of wrmer onditionsD like those we experiene todyF sn mny wysD our urrent limte is exeptionl"for most of humn existeneD the irth hs een muh older pleF ht ws the irth like during these glil periodsc elmost ll the world ws oldY verge tempertures were round T o g @EIQ o pA older thn todyF uh onditions llow ie sheets to grow"muh of xorth emeriD esi nd iurope were overed under mileEthik ie @see pigure Ice Age Earth @pigure QFIUAAF feuse this ie ws mde of wter tht ws one in the oensD se levels were muh lowerF et the vqwD se level ws out IPH meters @or out RHH feetA lower thn it is todyF es the ses retretedD the ontinents grew lrgerD reting lnd ridges tht joined esi with xorth emeriD fritin with iuropeD nd eustrli with pu xew quineF
23 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXseegeirthFjpg

TW huring glil periods the limte ws lso muh drierD s evidened y the inrese in tmospheri dust @pigure Vostok Petit Data @pigure QFITAAF he lnds t nd ner the poles were overed with ieD nd dry grsslnds oupied res where temperte forests our todyF heserts were muh lrger thn they re nowD nd tropil rinforestsD hving less wter nd less wrmthD were smllF he nimls nd plnts of glil periods were di'erent in their distriution thn they re todyD s they were dpted to these di'erent onditionsF possils of wstodons @pigure Knight Mastodon @pigure QFIVAA hve een found from ll ross wht is now the nited ttesD inluding from ploridD whih urrently enjoys sutropil limteF

Figure 3.18: Knight Mastodon An artist's impression of a Mastodon, an elephant-like mammal with
a thick wooly coat. Mastodon fossils dating from past glacial periods have been found across North Americafrom Florida to Alaska. Source: Charles R. Knight

24

huring glil periods humns would hve een unle to oupy the gloe s they do tody euse ll lndmsses experiened di'erent limti onditionsF ome ountries of the present ould not existD s they would e lmost ompletely overed y ieF es exmplesD look for gndD selnd nd he nited uingdom in pigure 800pn Northern Icesheet @pigure QFPHAF
3.3.5 Milankovitch Cycles

hy hs the irth yled through hot nd old limtes throughout the uternryc es we lerned in the previous moduleD the irth9s limte is ontrolled y severl di'erent ftors"insoltionD greenhouse gsesD nd ledo re ll importntF ientists elieve tht hnges in insoltion re responsile for these limte swingsD nd the insoltion vries s result of woles in the irth9s oritF he irth9s orit is not (xed ! it hnges regulrly over timeF hese periodi hnges in irth9s orit nmed re referred to s Milankovitch CyclesD nd re illustrted in pigure Milankovitch Cycles @pigure QFIWAF ghnges in the irth9s orit lter the pttern of insoltion tht the irth reeivesF here re three priniple wys in whih the irth9s orit vriesX
24 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXunightwstodonFjpg

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CHAPTER 3.

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IF Eccentricity @or Orbital shape AF he irth9s orit is not perfetly irulrD ut insted follows n ellipseF his mens tht the irth isD through the ourse of the yerD sometimes loser nd sometimes further wy from the unF gurrentlyD the irth is losest to the un in erly tnuryD nd furthest from the un in irly tulyF his hnges the mount of insoltion y few perentD so xorthern remisphere sesons re slightly milder thn they would e if the oritl ws irulr @ooler summers nd wrmer wintersAF he oritl shpe hnges over timeX the irth moves etween eing nerly irulr nd eing mildly elliptilF here re two min periods over whih this hnge oursD one tkes round IHHDHHH yers @this is the time over whih the orit goes from eing irulrD to elliptiD nd k to irulrAD nother tkes round RHHDHHH yersF PF Axial Tilt @or ObliquityAF he irth xis spins t n ngle to its orit round the un ! urrently this ngle is PQFS degrees @this ngle is known s the axial tiltAF his di'erene in orit retes the sesons @s eh hemisphere tkes turns eing tilted towrds nd wy from the un over the ourse of the yerAF sf the xis of spin lined up with the diretion of the irth9s orit @so tht the tilt ngle ws zeroA there would e no sesons3 his xil tilt lso hnges over timeD vrying etween PPFI nd PRFS degreesF he lrger the ngleD the lrger the temperture di'erene etween summer nd winterF st tkes out RIDHHH yer for the xil tilt to hnge from one extreme to the otherD nd k ginF gurrentlyD the xil tilt is midwy etween the two extremes nd is deresing"whih will mke the sesons weker @ooler summers nd wrmer wintersA over the next PHDHHH yersF QF Axial Precession. he diretion of irth9s xis of rottion lso hnges over time reltive to the strsF gurrentlyD the xorth ole points towrds the str olrisD ut the xis of rottion yles etween pointing to tht str nd the str egF his impts the irth9s limte s it determines when the sesons our in irth9s oritF hen the xis is pointing t egD the xorthern remisphere9s pek summer is in tnuryD not tulyF sf this were true todyD it would men tht the xorthern remisphere would experiene more extreme sesonsD euse tnury is when the irth is losest to the un @s disussed ove in eentriityAF his yle tkes round PHDHHH yers to ompleteF

UI

Figure 3.19: Milankovitch Cycles Illustration of the three variables in Earth's orbit, with periods of
variation marked. Source: COMET Department of Commerce. Reserved. pursuant to a Cooperative Agreements with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S.

25

at the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR)

1997-2009 University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. All Rights

he three yles desried ove hve di'erent periodsD ll of whih re long y humn stndrdsX PHDHHHD RHDHHHD IHHDHHH nd RHHDHHH yersF sf we look t the temperture dt from ie nd sediment oresD we see tht these periods re re)eted in irth9s limteF sn the lst million or so yersD the IHHDHHHEyer eentriity in the orit hs determined the timing of glitionsD nd efore tht the RHDHHHEyer xil tilt ws dominnt @pigure Five Myr Climate Change @pigure QFISAAF hese yles hve een importnt for long timeY geologists hve even found evidene of these periods in roks tht re hundreds of millions of yers oldF fut how do the wilnkovith gyles hnge our limtec hese oritl yles do not hve muh impt on the total insoltion the irth reeivesX they hnge only the timing of tht insoltionF ine the totl insoltion does not hngeD these oritl vritions hve the power to mke the irth9s sesons stronger or wekerD ut the verge nnul temperture should sty the smeF he est explntion for long term hnges in verge nnul temperture is tht the wilnkovith yles initite positive feedk tht mpli(es the smll hnge in insoltionF
25 httpXGGmetedFurFeduG

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CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

3.3.6 Insolation and the Albedo Feedback

odyD the irth9s orit is not very eentri @it is lmost irulrAD ut t the eginning of eh of the reent ie ge periodsD the orit ws muh more elliptilF his ment tht the irth ws further wy from the sun during the northern hemisphere summersD reduing the totl insoltionF vower insoltion ment tht the summer months were milder thn they would otherwise eD with ooler temperturesF ummer tempertures were lso lower when the irth9s xil tilt ws smllerD so the two di'erent oritl prmeters ould reinfore one nother9s e'etsD in this se produing espeilly mild summersF st is thought tht these mild northern summers produed n ledo feedk tht mde the whole plnet slip into n ie geF he northern hemisphere hs ontinents ner the poles"iuropeD esiD nd xorth emeriF odyD these ontinents hve lrgely temperte limtesF huring the winterD snow flls ross muh of the lnd @see pigure Surface of the Earth in February with Cloud Cover Removed @pigure QFVA in the previous moduleA only to melt during the summer monthsF sf the summers re not hot enough to melt ll the snow nd ieD gliers n dvneD overing more of the lndF feuse ie hs high ledoD more sunlight is re)eted thn eforeD nd the irth is mde oolerF his retes positive feedkD s the ooler onditions llow the ie to dvne further"whihD in turnD inreses the ledo nd ools the irth3 iventullyD lrge proportion of the northern ontinents eme overed in ie @pigure 800pn Northern Icesheet @pigure QFPHAAF

Figure 3.20: 800pn Northern Icesheet

during the ice ages. Source: Hannes Grobe

26

Glacial coverage (light blue) of the northern hemisphere

UQ his positive feedk proess works in the other diretionD s wellF he interglil periods re ushered in when the oritl prmeters rete summers tht re unusully wrmD whih melts some of the ieF hen the ie sheets shrinkD the irth9s ledo deresesD whih further wrms the systemF he gint northern ie sheets shriveled up in few thousnd yers s wrm summers nd deresing ledo worked togetherF hese yles of lternting ooling nd wrming re lso relted to hnges in the mount of greenhouse gses in the tmosphereF es we oserved in pigure Vostok Petit Data @pigure QFITAD the limte ontins higher levels of ron dioxide during interglil periodsF elthough this ppers to mke sense"ron dioxide is greenhouse gsD nd so should produe wrmer limtes"it is lso puzzleD euse it is not ler how hnges in wilnkovith yles led to higher levels of ron dioxide in the tmosphereF st is ler tht these hnges in ron dioxide re importnt in mking the hnge in temperture etween interglil nd glil periods so extremeF everl di'erent hypotheses hve een proposed to explin why glil periods produe lower levels of ron dioxide @it my e relted to how the physil hnges in)uene the irth9s eosystems ility to sor ron dioxideX perhps lower se levels inrese the nutrient supply in the oenD or the drop in se level destroys orl reefsD or ironErih dust from new deserts fertilizes the oensA ut further work on this question remins to e doneF st is onern for ll of us tht there re gps in our understnding of how the feedks etween insoltionD ledo nd greenhouse gses operteD s it mkes it hrd to predit wht the onsequenes of ny hnges in the limte system might led toF he urrent level of tmospheri ron dioxide is unpreedented in humn experieneY it is t the highest level ever reorded in the uternryF ill the urrent inrese in greenhouse gses led to positive feedkD wrming the irth even morec
3.3.7 Review Questions
Question 3.3.1

sn the textD we disuss how polr ie hs smller 18 y to 16 y rtio @tht isD it hs proportionlly less hevy isotope wterA thn oen wter doesF rydrogen lso hs isotopesD the two most ommon eing hydrogenEI @1 rA nd hydrogenEP @2 rD lso known s deuteriumAF ter is mde up of oth hydrogen nd oxygenD nd sientists nlyze oth elements when exmining ie oresF ho you predit tht polr ie sheets would hve higher rtio or lower rtio of 1 r to 2 r thn oen wterc ill older glol tempertures inrese or derese the mount of 2 r in polr iec
Question 3.3.2

sn the textD we disuss how polr ie hs smller 18 y to 16 y rtio @tht isD it hs proportionlly less hevyEisotope wterA when the limte is oolerF e lso disuss how hnges in the rtio of 18 y to 16 y rtio in sediment ores n lso e used to determine the limte9s verge tempertureF sn oen sedimentsD the rtio of 18 y to 16 y inreses when the limte is ooler @tht isD it hs proportionlly more hevy isotope wterAF ixplin why isotope rtios in oen sediment hve the opposite retion to those in polr ieF
Question 3.3.3

here re three di'erent wys in whih the irth9s orit hnges through timeF ht omintion of oritl prmeters would e most likely to strt n ie gec @rintX se ges require ool northern summersFA

3.3.8 Resources

ho you wnt to know more out how ie ores re extrted nd nlyzedc xee9s irth yservtory hs detils out the prtil issues of drilling ie ores @deep ie needs to 4relx4 for s long s yer t the surfe efore eing ut open ! or it n shtter3A nd how hemil dt is interpretedF qo to
26 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXxortherniesheethgFpng

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CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

httpXGGerthoservtoryFnsFgovGpeturesGleolimtologysegoresG27 for n inEdepth rtile with gret linksF

3.4 Modern Climate Change

3.4.1 Learning Objectives

28

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

ssess longEterm glol temperture reords nd ple reent limte hnge into the ontext of hisE toril temperture oservtions explin how hnges in the un9s energy output hve impted the lst IQHH yers of glol temperture reords nlyze the humn impt on the plnetry ledo nd relte these hnges to reent limte hnge predit the response of the glol verge temperture when lrge volni eruptions our explin the enhned greenhouse e'et disuss how reent oservtions of hnge mesured within regionl eosystems re relted to glol limte hnge

3.4.2 Introduction

sn previous modulesD n exmintion of the geologi reord of the erth9s limte in the uternry eriod reveled the primry drivers of limte hngeF he most importnt onlusions to e drwn from the wodules Climate Processes; External and Internal Controls @etion QFPA nd Milankovitch Cycles and the Climate of the Quaternary @etion QFQA re the followingX IF sn the pstD irth hs een signi(ntly wrmer @nd mostly ie freeA nd signi(ntly older @espeilly during the soElled nowll irth ersA thn it is todyF PF glimte hnge ours when there re hnges in insoltionD ledoD nd omposition of the tmosphereF QF glimte is the verge of wetherD nd hnges to the erth9s limte our on long time slesF eent limte hngeD whih hs ourred during the modern instrument erD is the fous of this moduleF st is through the lens of longEterm limte hnge @ourring on thousnds to millions of yersA tht we will view erth9s urrent limte nd reent limte hngeF he gol is to investigte how the priniples listed ove re shping urrent limte eventsF
3.4.3 Mechanisms
3.4.3.1 Temperature Records

pigure Northern Hemisphere Surface Air @pigure QFPIA lerly shows tht the urrent glol verge temperture re)ets n interglil wrm periodF sf we fous in on the end of this reord we n oserve some of the (ne sle hnges in the glol temperture reordsF pigure Northern Hemisphere Surface Air @pigure QFPIA omines proxy dt @iFeFD informtion from ie ores nd tree ringsA with the modern instrument reord to rete grph showing the lst IQHH yers of xorthern remisphere @herefterD xrA temperturesF ih line on the top two pnels represents di'erent temperture dt set olleted in the xr nd the ottom pnel olor odes the perentge of overlp mong these dt setsF
27 httpXGGerthoservtoryFnsFgovGpeturesGleolimtologysegoresG 28 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRISUWGIFTGbF

US

Figure 3.21: Northern Hemisphere Surface Air

Panel (a)  Northern Hemisphere surface air

temperature data from the modern instrument era from various sources. Panel (b)  Northern Hemisphere surface air temperature reconstruction dating back 1300 years from various sources. Panel (c) - Percent of overlap between the various sources of Panel (b). Source: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis: Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press

29

UT

CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

wjor fetures in these dt inlude the Medieval Warm Period pproximtely IDHHH yers go nd the Little Ice Age pproximtely RHH yers goF iven with these eventsD the ottom pnel shows tht most of the vriility in the xr temperture (ts within HFS g temperture rngeF rely hs the temperture exeeded the IWTIEIWWH vergeD whih is the dividing line on this grphF he only mjor )utution outside of this rnge is during the modern instrument er of the lst QHH yersD where on(dene etween the dt sets is highF feginning in the IVHHsD the solid lk line in eh pnel tres out pproximtely I g inrese in glol temperturesF st is this inrese tht is the entrl fous in reent limte hnge sieneF ememer from the previous hpter tht I g hnge in the erth9s temperture is lrge hngeY redue the glol verge y R g to T g nd muh of the xr will e overed with ie s it ws PHDHHH yers goF here hs een muh dete over reent limte hngeD espeilly in the news medi nd mong politil prties round the worldF his dete is entered on the use of the reent I g inrese!is it prt of the nturl vriility in the limte system or hve anthropogenicD whih simply mens humn usedD in)uenes plyed mjor rolec sn reent survey given to more thn QDHHH ollege students t the niversity of sllinois t rnEghmpignD it ws found the pproximtely two thirds of those surveyed greed tht reent limte hnge ws due to resons eyond nturl vriility in the limte systemF @see pigure Recent Climate Change Student Responses @pigure QFPPAA epproximtely PH7 reported tht the limte hnge is due to nturl hnges nd the reminder ws undeidedF vet9s investigte oth sides of this rgument3

Figure 3.22: Recent Climate Change Student Responses

natural variability. Source: Snodgrass, E.

Survey results from 3,000+ college

students at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign when asked if climate was changing beyond

30

ell from the wodule wilnkovith gyles nd the glimte of the uternry @etion QFQA tht glol limte will hnge s response to hnges in insoltionD ledo nd the omposition of the tmosphereF st ws shown tht the mount of energy entering the erthEtmosphere system from the sun vries less thn HFI7 during the IIEyer solr yle in sunspot tivityF yutside of this yleD the mount of energy from the sun hs inresed HFIP Watts per square meter @Gm2 A sine IUSHF ss this enough exess energy to
29 httpXGGwwwFipFhGpulitionsnddtGrRGwgIGenG(gureETEIHFhtml 30 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGsnodgrss

UU produe the I g inrese in glol tempertures tht hs een oserved sine the IVHHsc es it turns outD the limte system needs nerly V times tht mount of energy to wrm y I gF his essentilly elimintes )ututions in solr output s the ulprit for reent limte hngeF rs the erth9s ledo hnged sine the IVHHsc es we know from the wodule Climate Processes; External and Internal Controls @etion QFPAD inreses in the irth9s ledo led to glol ooling nd dereses led to wrmingF he net e'et of humn existene on irth is to righten the surfe nd inrese the glol ledoF his hnge is primrily omplished through intensive griulture where forestD mrshlndD nd open pririe re ut down nd rops like soyensD ornD whetD ottonD nd rie re grown in their pleF edd this to the urrent high rtes of deforesttion in outh emeri nd efri nd the evidene is ler tht mnkind hs inresed the irth9s ledoD whih should hve led to glol oolingF @see pigure Deforestation in the Amazon (2010) @pigure QFPQA

Figure 3.23: Deforestation in the Amazon (2010) Satellite image shows the extent of deforestation
in the Amazon as of 2010. Source: NASA Earth Observatory

31

yutside of humn in)ueneD plnetry ledo n lso e hnged y mjor volni eruptionsF hen volnoes eruptD they spew enormous mounts of sootD shD dustD sulfurD nd other erosols into the tmoE sphereF huring mjor eruptionsD like tht of wtF intuo in IWWID some prtiles of this deris (nd their wy into the strtosphereD where they reside for few yersF @see pigure Mt. Pinatubo Erupting in 1991 @pigure QFPRAA he presene of these prtiles high in the erth9s tmosphere ts like shield tht prevents sunlight from penetrting through the lower tmosphere to wrm the erth9s surfeF snstedD the energy is either sored y the prtiles or re)eted nd sttered wyF he net e'et is tht lrge volni
31 httpXGGerthoservtoryFnsFgovGpeturesGorldyfghngeGdeforesttionFphp

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CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

eruptions n ool the plnet for few yers y hnging the erth9s ledoF

Figure 3.24: Mt. Pinatubo Erupting in 1991

Photograph of Mt.

Philippines in 1991. Source: USGS/Cascades Volcano Observatory

32

Pinatubo erupting in the

3.4.3.2 Observations of Solar Output and Volcanic Eruptions

et (rst glne the pigure Radiative Forcings & Simulated Temperatures @pigure QFPSA looks quite omplitedD ut let9s rek this grph down to understnd how hnges in the sun9s output nd volni eruptions hve ontriuted to reent limte hngeF sn the top pnel @AD hnges in the mount of energyD mesured in Gm2 D re grphed ginst time to show how volni eruptions hve impted the mount of energy the erth reeives from the sunF xotie tht round the yer IVISD when wtF mor eruptedD there is lrge downwrd spike in the plotF xowD exmine the ottom pnelD whih shows the xr temperturesD just s pigure Northern Hemisphere Surface Air @pigure QFPIA displyedD nd see how the tempertures in the yers following IVIS took shrp downwrd turnF his is diret onsequene of the hnges in ledo used y lrge volni eruptionsF xextD look t the time period etween IHHH nd IQHH eFhFD the soElled wedievl rm eriodF sn pnel @AD hnges in solr output re grphed ginst timeY notie tht during the wedievl rm eriodD the mount of insoltion ws high ompred to the vergeF he opposite ourred during the vittle se ege whih peked round RHH yers goF
32 httpXGGvulnFwrFusgsFgovGsmgsGtpgGintuoGsmgesGintuoWIeruptionplumeHTEIPEWIFjpg

UW

Figure 3.25: Radiative Forcings & Simulated Temperatures

Plot (a) - Radiative forcing due

to volcanic eruptions over the last 1,300 years. Plot (b) - Radiative forcing due to uctuations in solar irradiance over the last 1,300 years. Plot (c) - Radiative forcing due to all other forcing over the last 1,300 years. Plot (d)  Northern Hemisphere temperature reconstruction with overlap (shading) over the last 1,300 years. Source: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis: Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press

33

VH

CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

3.4.3.3 Alterations to the Natural Greenhouse Eect

e hve ruled out the (rst two mehnisms @iFeFD hnges in ledo nd insoltionA s resons for the reent inrese in glol temperturesF fut when we look t pnel @A in pigure Radiative Forcings & Simulated Temperatures @pigure QFPSAD we notie tht the ll other foring urves point to rpid inrese in the mount of energy retined y the erthEtmosphere system over the lst PHH yersF ht is responsile for the inresing til on this grphc rve humns ltered the omposition of the irth9s tmosphere to mke it more e0ient t soring the infrred rdition tht would hve otherwise een lost to spec ss there proof of humn enhnement to the nturl greenhouse e'etc gn we explin the reent wrming on n nthropogeni djustment to the greenhouse gses like ron dioxide @gy2 Ac ss n enhned greenhouse e'et to lme for the ft tht the top ten wrmest yers sine the modern er of instrument mesurements hve ourred sine IWWSD s seen in pigure Annual Global Temperature Anomalies @pigure QFPTAF

Figure 3.26: Annual Global Temperature Anomalies

1880 to 2007. Source: National Climate Data Center

34

Global average surface temperature from

vong efore the term glol wrming eme ommon household phrseD nineteenthEentury srish physiist tohn yndll sidD emove for single summerEnight the queous vpor from the ir whih overspreds this ountryD nd you would ssuredly destroy every plnt ple of eing destroyed y freezing tempertureF his now fmous quote revels the importne of greenhouse gsesD like wter vporD in mintining lne etween the inident solr rdition nd the emitted terrestril rditionF yndll understood tht without greenhouse gsesD wter vpor eing the most undntD the erth9s temperture would e mrkedly oolerF he glol verge surfe temperture is pproximtely IS g @SW pA ut if the greenhouse gses were removedD the verge glol temperture would plummet to EIV g @H pAF ememer tht these gses mke up smll frtion of the omposition of the tmosphere3 hereforeD djustments to their onentrtion will produe drmti e'etsF o understnd why these gses re so e0ient t keeping the plnet wrmD let9s exmine pigure Atmospheric Transmission @pigure QFPUAF he top pnel of this (gure shows the normlized intensity of
33 httpXGGwwwFipFhGpulitionsnddtGrRGwgIGenGhTsTETEQFhtml 34 httpXGGwwwFndFnoFgovGimgGlimteGreserhGPHHUGnnGglolEjnEdeEerrorErEpgFgif

VI the rdition emitted y oth the sun nd erth s funtion of wvelengthF he middle pnel shows the totl tmospheri sorption spetrum nd the ottom pnel shows the individul gs sorption spetrum @exluding xitrogen nd ergonAF xotie from the top pnel tht the sun9s pek energy emission flls within the visile portion of the spetrum nd su'ers very little tmospheri sorption @middle pnelAF he pek emission wvelength for the erth is in the therml infrred @sAD nd it is e'etively sored y wter vpor @r2 HAD ron dioxide @gy2 AD methne @gr4 A nd nitrous oxide @xH2 AF he primry purpose of this (gure is to show tht the gses in the erth9s tmosphere re trnsprent to the sun9s pek energy emission @visile lightA ut not the erth9s pek emission @therml sAF st is through the sorption of the erth9s outgoing therml infrred rdition tht the glol verge temperture wrms pproximtely TH p over wht it would e without greenhouse gsesF

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CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

Figure 3.27: Atmospheric Transmission Top graph  normalized spectral intensity (radiant energy)
emitted by the earth and sun as a function of wavelength. Middle graph  total atmospheric absorption as a function of wavelength. Bottom graph  individual gas absorption as a function of wavelength. Source: R.A. Rohde for Global Warming Art Project

35

ere humns ltering the nturl greenhouse e'etc fsed upon our ssessment so frD this is the (nl mehnism y whih the glol limte n e hngedF vet9s look into the ltertion of the hemistry nd omposition of the erth9s tmosphereF pirst re humns inresing the mount of wter vporD the most undnt ut lso wekest greenhouse gs in the tmospherec es the ir temperture inresesD the mount of wter vpor the tmosphere n hold lso inresesF roweverD loser investigtion of the
35 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXetmospherirnsmissionFpng

VQ wter yle is needed to understnd wht will hppen to this inrese in wter vporF sn this yleD the mount of evportion must equl the mount of ondenstion nd thus preipittion on glol sleF his equilirium must e hieved or else wter would end up entirely in its liquid form or in its vpor formF elso due to the speed t whih the hydrological cycle opertesD lrge inrese in wter vpor would e quikly preipitted out of the tmosphereF yther greenhouse gses progress through their respetive yles muh more slowly thn wterF here re vst mounts of ron nd ron dioxide in the erthEtmosphere systemF wost ron is loked up in roksD where it my remin for millions of yersF he ron dioxide tht is moileD howeverD is mostly found in other plesX the oenD soilsD vegettionD fossil fuels like olD oilD nd nturl gsD nd lso in smll onentrtions in the tmosphereF hese reservoirs of gy2 n exhnge mss like oens nd louds do in the wter yleD ut with one extremely importnt di'erene!the exhnge rte is muh slowerF ht mens the system n get out of lne nd remin out of lne for long timeD hundreds or thousnds of yersF here re two primry mehnisms for sequestering ron dioxide tht is relesed into the tmosphereX it n e ptured y the respirtion of plntsD or dissolved in the oenF roweverD the rte t whih plnts nd oens n tke gy2 out of the tmosphere is (xedF hereforeD if surplus of gy2 is dded to the tmosphereD it will sty there for long timeF his hs mjor implitionsD given the ft tht gy2 is powerful greenhouse gsF he question then to sk eomesD is this exhnge rte out of lnec he urrent verge onentrtion of gy2 in the tmosphere is out QWH prts per million @wAD whih mens there re QWH prts of gy2 per million prts of irF ht does not seem like very muhD ut if tht smll mount of ron dioxide were removed from the irD the glol verge temperture would plummetF rs this onentrtion een hngingc o nswer the questionD we will turn to the (ndings of ihrd ueelingD whose life9s work ws the oservtion of gy2 onentrtions t the wun vo yservtory in rwiiF feginning in the erly IWSHsD oservtions of gy2 D well-mixed gas in our tmosphereD hve shown remrkle lim in onentrtionF @see pigure CO2 Concentrations at the Mauna Loa Observatory @pigure QFPVAA he ueeling gurveD s it is sometimes lledD lerly shows tht sine the IWSHs gy2 onentrtions hve inresed stedily from QIS ppm to QWH ppmF he zigzg nture of this grph is due to life yle of plnts in the xrF he xr hs muh more lnd re tht the rD so when spring nd summer rrive in the xrD the undne of new plnt life redues the gy2 onentrtions in the tmosphereF hen the plnts die or eome dormnt in the fll nd winterD gy2 onentrtions spike ginF

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CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

Figure 3.28: CO2 Concentrations at the Mauna Loa Observatory The Keeling Curve

of CO2

concentrations measured in Mauna Loa, Hawaii, since the 1950s. Source: NASA Earth Observatory

36

ht is troulesome out this (gure is tht the ron yle is out of its norml rhythm nd surplus of gy2 D known greenhouse gsD is uilding in the erth9s tmosphereF here is this surplus oming fromc o nswer this questionD let9s look t two historil reords of gy2 onentrtions tken from ie ore depositsF he top pnel in pigure Changes in Greenhouse Gases from Ice Core and Modern Data @pigure QFPWA shows the pst IHDHHH yers of tmospheri gy2 onentrtionsF fefore IUSHD the mount of gy2 in the tmosphere ws reltively stedy t PVH ppmF ine IUSH there hs een drmti inrese in gy2 onentrtionsF
36 httpXGGerthoservtoryFnsFgovGimgesGimgereordsGSHHHGSTPHGmunloPHHRFgif

VS

Figure 3.29: Changes in Greenhouse Gases from Ice Core and Modern Data Top panel shoes
CO2 concentrations (ppm) over the last 10,000 years. Source: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis:

37

Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental

Panel on Climate Change

38

VT

CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

sf we look even further k in timeD over the lst hlf million yersD we see similr storyF @see pigure @pigure QFQHAA he urrent onentrtion of gy2 in the erth9s tmosphere is higher thn t ny time in the pst hlf million yersF here is this undne of gy2 oming fromc hih reservoirs re eing depleted of their gy2 while the tmosphere tkes on morec he nswer lies in the urning of fossil fuels nd in the deforesttion of signi(nt hunks of the erth9s forest iomesF xotie the spike in gy2 onentrtions eginning round IUSHF his time period mrks the eginning of the industril revolutionD when fossil fuels overtook wood s the primry energy soure on our plnetF yver the susequent two nd hlf enturiesD oilD olD nd nturl gs hve een extrted from their underground reservoirs nd urned to generte eletriity nd power modern forms of trnsporttionF he exhust from this proess is urrently dding QH illions of tonsD or gigtons @qtAD of ron dioxide to the tmosphere eh yerF gomine this ddition of gy2 D known greenhouse gsD to the sutrtion of one of the sinks of gy2 through deforesttion nd the imlne grows even furtherF
Evidence of Climate Change

Figure 3.30: Evidence of Climate Change CO2 concentrations over the last 400,000+ years.
NASA/NOAA

39

Source:

ht is the end resultc fy exmining the erth9s limteD oth urrent nd pst nd y investigting the three wys in whih limte n hngeD we hve rrived t the onlusion tht the urrent wrming is eing used y n imlne in the ron yle tht hs een indued y humn tivityD nmely the urning of fossil fuelsF he reord wrmth over the lst IDQHH yers is very likely to hve een used y humn deisions tht hve led to hnge in the hemistry of the tmosphereD nd whih hs ltered the nturl limte vriility towrd wrmer glol temperturesF e re essentilly hnging the limte fster nd in di'erent diretion thn nturl proesses hve intendedF
37 httpXGGwwwFipFhGpulitionsnddtGrRGwgIGenG(gureEspmEIFhtml 38 httpXGGwwwFipFhGpulitionsnddtGrRGwgIGenG(gureEspmEIFhtml 39 httpXGGlimteFnsFgovGevideneG

VU
3.4.4 Observed Eects of Climate Change
3.4.4.1 Cherry Blossoms

sn tpn eh spring millions of people elerte the lossoming of the herry trees to mrk the rrivl of wrmer wetherF hese elertions hve long nd storied historyD nd reords of the herry lossom festivls dte k more thn thousnd yersF sn ftD the reord of the timing of the herry lossoms in tpn is the oldest for ny )owering plnt3 wo sientists nd historinsF ihrd rimk nd riroyoshi riguhi reently nlyzed this reord nd found tht eginning in the erly IVHHs the men ir temperture in wrh hs slowly risenD similr to the inrese shown in pigure Northern Hemisphere Surface Air @pigure QFPIAF huring this sme time periodD the )owering dte hs slowly rept erlier in the sesonD nd the trees re now )owering severl dys efore they trditionlly )oweredF elthough urniztion of tpn hs led to n inrese in tempertureD reent limte hnge is lmed for the erlier )owering of the tpnese herry lossom treeF rimk nd riguhi show how uyoto hs wrmed n verge of QFR g over the lst IUH yersF glimte hnge hs ontriuted IV7 to this totl wrming in tpn nd rimk nd riguhi demonstrte the orreltion of this wrming with the industril revolutionF

Figure 3.31: Cherry Blossoms

Commons

40

Photograph of cherry blossoms. Source: Uberlemur via Wikimedia

40 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXoshinokuridlfsinhgFjpg

VV
3.4.4.2 Birds, Mosquitoes, and Fire Ants

CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

e reent rtile41 in the journl Nature disussed the response of plnts nd nimls to urrent limte hngeF henologistsD sientists who study how the periodi life yle events of nimls nd plnts re 'eted y vritions in limte over the ourse of sesons nd yersD re (nding tht mny speies of irds re reeding nd singing erlier in the yerF wigrnt irds re rriving erlierD utter)ies re ppering erlier nd some mphiins re spwning weeks hed of their historil sheduleF sn dditionD mountin tree linesD whih re ontrolled y ir tempertureD hve een dvning to higher ltitudes in iuropeD nd erti shrus re now found in regions tht were one too old for their existene in elskF hile eologil hnges suh s these my not e thretening from humn perspetiveD others reF por exmpleD mlriErrying mosquitoes in efri re now eing found t ltitudes tht were one too old for themD nd outreks of mlri re showing up in towns nd villges one thought to e out of their rehF sn prts of gliforni nd eustrliD (re nts re migrting to regions tht historilly hve een too old to support themF
41 httpXGGwwwFntureFomGntureGjournlGvRITGnTVUWGfullGRITQVWFhtml

VW

Figure 3.32: Fire Ants

Photograph of re ants on a piece of wood.

Source:

Scott Bauer of the

Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture via Wikimedia Commons

42

42 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXpirentsHPFjpg

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CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

Figure 3.33: Mosquitos Photograph of a mosquito on skin.

Prevention

43

Source: Centers for Disease Control and

3.4.4.3 Impacts of Change in the Arctic and the Antarctic

he erti nd entrti re the regions experiening the most rpid hnges due to the reent wrming of the erth9s tmosphereF hese two regions on irth re prt of the ryosphereD whih is de(ned s the prt of the irth tht is oupied y se ieD lke ieD ie ps nd permafrostF @por omprehensive overview of the urrent stte of the ryosphere nd n exellent rhive of dtD plese hek out he gryosphere ody44 A es explined in the wodule Milankovitch Cycles and the Climate of the Quaternary @etion QFQAD these regions re most vulnerle due to the powerful ieEledo e'etF yne mzing depition of polr wrming n e found in the drunken forests of ieriF vrh nd sprue trees there re often seen tilted over on their sides nd growing t strnge nglesF hyc feuse the one ontinully frozen soilD or permfrostD in whih they re rooted hs een melting in reent yersF es the soil thws it eomes more mllele nd the trees egin to slnt s the soil eneth them sinksF prther northD erti se ie hs een deresing oth in extent nd onentrtionF sn PHHUD the smllest extent of se ie ws mesured sine the IWUHsD nd the Northwest Passage opened for ommere nd explortionF es the se ie extent nd onentrtion deresesD so does the hitt of polr ersF he se ie is vitl prt of their hunting groundsD nd reent dereses of this ie hve gretly redued their ess to ertin preyF sn ddition to se ie redutionsD surfe melt of the ie sheet on qreenlnd hs inresed in reent yersD espeilly long its edgesF his melt hs led to lrge pools nd strems forming on top of this mileEthik sheet of ieF yn the other side of the worldD the vrsen f ie shelf in entrti reently ollpsedD sending lrge setion
43 httpXGGwwwFdFgovGmlriGimgesGmosquitoesGfreeorniwithlogoFjpg 44 httpXGGrtiFtmosFuiuFeduGryosphereG

WI of ie into the seF his setion of the entrti ie p ws roughly s lrge s the stte of hode sslnd nd it hd een stly tthed to the ie shelf for the pst IPDHHH yersF ientists re losely wthing the entrti ie s nerly twoEthirds of the world9s fresh wter resides thereF pinllyD lpine glier retret hs een oserved on every ontinentF ith few exeptionsD these gliers hve een retrting hevily sine the IWTHsD nd over tht time period xee reports glol loss of VDHHH ui kilometers of ieD whih represents wht perentge redutionc

Figure 3.34: Drunken Forests of Siberia Source:

NASA Science blog

45

45 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXPHHUHVHIforestFjpg

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CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

Figure 3.35: 2007 Sea Ice Extent in the Arctic Source:

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

46

3.4.4.4 The Oceans' Response

purther drmti hnges rought on y reent wrming hve een oserved y sientists onerned with the world9s oensF yservtions of the world9s orl reefs hve reveled n lrming rte of orl lehing @whih is not used y hlorineAF es the oens ttempt to uptke the undne of gy2 nd sor nerly VH7 of the het dded to the erthEtmosphere system from the enhned greenhouse e'etD the wters will inevitly wrmF es these wters hve wrmed over the pst RH yersD the delite eologil lne within some of the world9s orl reefs hs een upset leding to orl lehingF nder wrmer wters the rte t whih the lgeD whih is n importnt prt of the orl eosystemD undergoes photosynthesis is too muh for the orl to mngeF es resultD the orl rids itself of the lgeD whih leds to n exposure of the white skeleton of the orlF enother onsequene of wrming oens is n inrese in se levelF ine IVVHD se level hs risen PH m @V inhesAF he rise in se level is ssoited oth with n inrese in glil melt wter nd in the therml expnsion of the sewterF en interesting onsequene of this rise in se level hs een the dispperne of the longEdisputed xew woore sslnd etween fngldesh nd sndiF foth ountries lid lim to the shllowD uninhited islnd due to the speultion tht oil reserves my lie eneth itD ut in PHIHD the se swllowed itF ientists t the hool of yenogrphi tudies t tdvpur niversityD uolktt47 D sndi suggest glol wrming plyed n importnt prtF
46 httpXGGwwwFnsFgovGentersGgoddrdGimgesGontentGIWHSSSminstillsesePHHUHWIRFHUQHFjpg 47 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGuolktt

WQ

Figure 3.36: Coral Bleaching A part of coral that has experienced coral bleaching.

Source: NOAA

48

pinllyD s the plnet hs djusted to wrmer tempertures the prolifertion of drought onditions in some regions hs drmtilly 'eted humn popultionsF he helD for exmpleD is order region etween the hr hesert in the north of efri nd the tropil rinforests tht oupy the entrl prt of the ontinentF @see pigure The Sahel in Africa @pigure QFQUAA his region is experiening deserti(tion s the hr stedily expnds southwrdF ine the IWUHsD the mount of preipittion in this region hs een stedily elow normlF he omintion of over irrigtion nd reent limte hnge hs mde the region uninhitle nd fored millions to reloteF
48 httpXGGwwwFnoFgovGfeturesGlimteGimgesG(gPlehfullsizeFjpg

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CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

Figure 3.37: The Sahel in Africa Source:

NASA Earth Observatory

49

49 httpXGGerthoservtoryFnsFgovGpeturesGheserti(tionGsmgesGfrindviPHHSIIFjpg

WS

Figure 3.38: The Sahel Rainfall Index Source:

NASA Earth Observatory

50

3.4.5 Review Questions

@pigure QFPIA the dividing line on the grph is the IWTIEIWWH verge tempertureF ixplin the relevne of this line to the dt presented in this (gureF
Question 3.4.2

Question 3.4.1 sn pigure Northern Hemisphere Surface Air

ixplin how deforesttion n led to oth wrming e'et nd ooling e'et for glol temperE turesF @pigure QFPUAD whih gs is ontriuting the most to the sorption of ultrEviolet lightc sf this gs were removed from the tmosphereD how might glol tempertures respondc
Question 3.4.4 Question 3.4.3 sn pigure Atmospheric Transmission

sf the surfe of the qreenlnd se heet ontinues to meltD how will this impt the ledo of this region nd wht impt will this hve on the ir temperture therec
Question 3.4.5

hen se ie meltsD wht hppens to glol se levelc

3.4.6 References

ltherD qF FD ostD iFD gonveyD FD wenzelD eFD rmesnD gFD feeeeD F t FgFD et lF @PHHPD wrh PVAF iologil responses to reent limte hngeF NatureD RITD QVWEQWSF doiX IHFIHQVGRITQVW
50 httpXGGerthoservtoryFnsFgovGpeturesGheserti(tionGsmgesGshelrinflltimeseriesFgif

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CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

3.5 Climate Projections

3.5.1 Learning Objectives

51

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

ssess glol gy2 emissions nd determine whih ountries nd regions re responsile for the gretest emissions urrently nd historilly explin the reltionship etween fossil fuel usge nd gy2 emissions link vriles suh s welthD popultionD fuel importsD nd deforesttion to gy2 emissions use sgg future limte projetions to ssess future glol temperture senrios distinguish etween wether events nd limte hngeD nd disuss the di'erenes etween wether foresting nd limte projetions nlyze the nthropogeni impt on limte y exmining limte hnge without people ssess the regionl nd glol impts of limte hnge on ir temperture nd preipittion

3.5.2 Introduction

sn the wodule Modern Climate Change @etion QFRA we disovered tht the glol wrming of pproxiE mtely I g over the pst PHH yers ws humn indued through n enhnement of the nturl greenhouse e'etF e lerned tht the urning of fossil fuels hs upset the nturl ron yleD whih hs stedily inresed the mount of ron dioxide @gy2 A in the tmosphere sine the IUSHsF pinlly we looked t nillry evidene of this wrming to see the immedite impt of these hngesF sn this module we will investigte the (ndings of the sntergovernmentl nel on glimte ghnge @sggA nd look t future limte projetionsF e will inspet these (ndings nd nlyze their impts on glol sleF
3.5.3 Who is Responsible? Factors to Consider

sn PHHUD the sgg ws wrded shre of the xoel rize for its work in the re of glol limte hngeF he sgg is orgnized through the nited xtions nd is omposed of over QDHHH sientists from round the world who re working together to understnd urrent limte hnge nd projet future limte senriosF es of PHIID the sgg hs relesed four omprehensive reportsD nd it hs onludedD wost of the oserved inrese in glol verge temperture sine the midEtwentieth entury is very likely due to the oserved inrese in nthropogeni greenhouse gs onentrtionsF his widely known sttement essentilly mens tht the proility of ourrene is greter thn WH7 tht the urrent glol wrming is used y humns urning fossil fuelsF sn response to these (ndingsD the nited xtions prmework gonvention on glimte ghnge hs lled for numerous interntionl meetings in ities inluding uyotoD fliD gopenhgenD nd others where the leders of world hve gthered to disuss strtegies to mitigte this looming dissterF et these meetingsD sientistsD politiins nd world leders review the urrent stte of knowledge out the prolem nd strtegize for the futureF his hpter will tke lrgeEsle view of the glol hllenges of limte hngeF yver the pst few yersD ghin hs surpssed the nited ttes to eome the ntion tht emits more greenhouse gsses thn ny other @see pigure CO2 Emissions for the United States and China @pigE ure QFQWAAF gurrentlyD ghin is responsile for just over PS7 of glol gy2 emissionsD whih re pproximtely QH qt per yerD with the nited ttes in lose seond pleF st is importnt to onsider popultion when reviewing these numers euse there re over four times s mny people living in ghin thn in the nited ttesF hen you ompre these two ountries on per pit sisD the verge FF itizen emits pproximtely IW metri tons of gy2 per yer while the verge ghinese itizen emits pproximtely (ve metri tonsF sn PHHWD the nited ttes onsumed more thn doule the mount oil thn the seond lrgest onsumerD ghinD ording to the FF inergy snformtion edministrtionF opping the list in per pit
51 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRISVHGIFTGbF

WU gy2 emissions is the oil rih ntion of trF his smll ountry loted on the ersin qulf hs the lrgest per pit prodution of oil nd nturl gsF st lso hs the world9s highest gross domesti produt @qhA per pitF en verge itizen in this ountry emits nerly TH metri tons of gy2 into the tmosphere eh yerF

Figure 3.39: CO2 Emissions for the United States and China CO2 emissions in millions of metric
tons graphed against time for the United States and China. Source: Snodgrass, E. data from the U.S. Energy Information Association

52

53

created graphs using

ther thn point the (nger t individul ountriesD let9s exmine the igger prolemF he mps in pigure Global Inuence Maps @pigure QFRHA distort the size of eh ountry sed on ertin vrileD like gy2 emissionsD with respet to the rest of the worldF sn the upper left pnelD the mp is sed on popultionD whih is why ghin nd sndi pper so lrgeF he upper right mp distorts the size of the ountry sed upon fuel importsF xotie tht the nited ttesD muh of iuropeD nd tpn re expnded the mostD while efriD the widdle istD nd muh of outh emeri re rely visileF gompre these two mps with solute welth nd ron emissions nd the story is quite lerF he industrilized nd welthy ntions re responsile for the lrgest quntities of ron emissions nd fuel importsF hese soieties re uilt on the foundtion of energy prodution through the onsumption of fossil fuelsF
52 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGsnodgrss 53 httpXGGwwwFeiFgovG

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CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

he ottom two pnels tell nother spet of this storyF pous (rst on the grph in the lower rightD whih shows forest loss y ountryF he world9s forest iomes re lrge prt of the gy2 yle nd with deforesttionD lrge sink for tmospheri gy2 is tken wyF xotie tht deforesttion is most prevlent in efriD outh emeriD nd sndonesi while the nited ttes is rely visile on this mpF sn the nited ttesD reforesttion is prtiedD ut in the rinforests of the worldD whih re those res in outh emeriD efriD nd sndonesi tht re llooned on this mpD deforesttion is ommonpleF

Figure 3.40: Global Inuence Maps

The variables labeled on each map are used to distort the

size of each country to show their global inuence. Source: WorldMapper (University of Sheeld) and Mark Newman (University of Michigan).

54

Copyright SASI Group

he lst grph in pigure Global Inuence Maps @pigure QFRHA distorts eh ountry9s size ording to povertyF wuh of esi nd efri re distorted the mostD nd it is in these regions tht we need to py lose ttention over the upoming yersF wny of the ntions found within these ountries re wht eonomists nd politiins ll emerging eonomiesF elthough muh of the urrent undne of gy2 in the tmosphere is from developed ountries suh s the nited ttesD gy2 emissions from these ountries re not inresing with time ording to PHHV report from the inergy snformtion edministrtionF sn pigure Global CO2 Emissions from Coal Combustion @pigure QFRIAD the world9s gy2 emissions from ol omustion in illions of metri tons re plotted ginst timeF xotie tht ountries of the yrgniztion
54 httpXGGwwwFworldmpperForgGindexFhtml

WW for ionomi goEopertion nd hevelopment @yighAD whih omprises lrge group of developed nd industrilized ntionsD hve not inresed their gy2 emissions from ol omustion sine IWWHD nd future projetions lso revel )t line in gy2 emissionsF gompre this to the nonEyigh ountriesD mny of whih re emerging eonomies like ghin nd sndiD nd you see tht gy2 emissions re set to triple in the next PS yersF here is muh dete over informtion like this now tht reent limte hnge hs een linked so losely to nthropogeni emission of gy2 F his dete revolves round the ft tht developed ntions used olD oilD nd nturl gs during time when the impts of gy2 nd limte hnge were not well reserhedF his ment tht during the time these ountriesD inluding the nited ttesD industrilized there were no regultions on the emissions of gy2 F xow tht gy2 emissions hve een shown to use glol wrmingD pressure is eing pplied to these emerging eonomies to regulte nd ontrol their gy2 emissionsF his is sujet of muh of the dete t the interntionl limte summits t uyotoD fliD nd gopenhgenF ht is importnt to rememer when disussing developed ountries vsF emerging eonomies is tht the per pit emissions of gy2 in emerging eonomies re pproximtely one third of those for developed ountriesF

IHH

CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

Figure 3.41: Global CO2 Emissions from Coal Combustion

countries. Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration

The world's CO2 emissions from

coal combustion in billions of metric tons are plotted against time for OECD countries and non-OECD

55

(Oct 2008)

3.5.4 Climate Projections

yne of the gretest ostles limte sientists fe in eduting the puli on issues of limte hnge is timeF wost people tke wether nd limte to e one rnh of sienti( studyF sn relityD this ould not e further from the truthF ether nd limte re two seprte (elds of study tht re joined only y one de(nition"limte is the verge of wetherF st is importnt to understnd this sttement euse people"news reportersD rodst meteorologistsD politiinsD nd even sientists"often mke the mistke of ttriuting wether eventsD suh s rurrine utrin @PHHSAD to glol limte hngeF utrin ws wether event ndD s suhD it nnot e sid to hve een caused y glol limte hngeF ere the ingredients for stronger hurrines present in greter frequeny now thn they hve een in the pstc ht9s
55 httpXGGwwwFeiFdoeFgovGoifGieoGemissionsFhtml

IHI the type of question limte sientists seek to nswerD nd they do so y nlyzing dedes worth of dtF hirty yers is the lowest vlue used in the denomintor of limte lultionsF sn other wordsD QH yers is the shortest time period over whih wether n e verged to extrt limte informtionF hereforeD it is impossile to lme single wether event on limte hnge"this rnh of siene does not work tht wyF o etter understnd the di'erenes etween wether nd limteD tke look t pigure High Temperature vs. Low Temperature, Champaign, IL @pigure QFRPA whih shows in red the tul high tempertures for eh dy in PHHS in ghmpignD sllinoisD ompred to the verge high temperture in lk over period eginning in IVWW nd ending in PHHWF st is ompletely norml for the temperture to vry PH p round this vergeF sn PHHS there were only hndful of dys where the tul high ws the sme s the verge highF his grph shows the highly vrile nd hoti ehvior of wetherF futD when dt from long spn of time is vergedD the limtologil men emergesF

Figure 3.42: High Temperature vs. Low Temperature, Champaign, IL

graphed in red. Source: E. Snodgrass

The average high

temperature for Champaign-Urbana Illinois in black (1899-2009). The 2005 actual high temperature are

56

using data from the National Climate Data Center

57

o think of it nother wyD imgine you re in lrge leture hll with over QHH ollege studentsF sf the professor were to ll out one student nd try to predit the ourse of her life over the next UH yers it
56 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGsnodgrss 57 httpXGGwwwFndFnoFgovGoGndFhtml

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CHAPTER 3.

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would e nerly impossile3 st would even e di0ult to predit when tht person would et her next melF roweverD the professor ould projet with gret on(dene tht on vergeD most of the people in the room will et dinner t TXQHw on given nightF feyond this melD most of them will grdute from ollege y the time they re PP yers oldF wny will e mrried y PU yers old nd hve their (rst hildren t QHF wost will hve jo y the time they re PR nd most will hve jo they like y QRF wost will hve totl of PFI hildren y the time they re QTD nd y the time they re SH most will hve gone to the dotor to hve their (rst routine proedureF wost will retire t TUD nd sine they re ollege grds in the nited ttesD there is sfe et tht they will retire with over million dollrs in ssetsF yn vergeD the men in the room will die t VS yers old nd most of the women will die efore their ninetieth irthdyF xowD if the professor were to single out one individulD the hnes tht her life would follow this pth extly re smllD ut when n entire lss of QHH is vergedD this is the resultF ether is like the individul lifeF glimte is like the verge of QHH livesF ether nd glimte re two seprte rnhes of study in tmospheri sieneF sn ddition to keeping in mind the di'erene etween wether nd limteD rememer tht the fous of this hpter is global limte hngeF st is tempting to forget the glol nture of this prolem euse it is hppening very slowly on lrge sle nd it is verged over long time periodsF ell the di'erenes etween wether nd limte nd rememer tht in onjuntion with glol wrming there n still e wether events tht tke tempertures fr elow normlF he tempttion during these events is to disount the siene ehind glol limte hngeF por exmpleD during the winter of PHHWEPHIHD the wether ptterns were suh tht the est ost of the nited ttes experiened repeted reordEsetting snowstorms nd old ir outreksF wny television news reportsD wether rodstsD nd newspper hedlines so'ed t the ide of glol wrming during this winter nd prolimed tht it ws not hppening or tht it ws hoxF he shortsightedness of suh responses is evidened y the ft tht globallyD PHHW nd PHIH were mong the wrmest yers during the instrument reordX PHHW rnked seventhD nd PHIH tied for (rstF hese were likely two of the wrmest yers of the lst IDQHHF
3.5.5 Climate Modeling and Future Climate Predictions

ometimes people disount limte preditions sed on their understnding of wether preditionsF hey will sy something likeD weteorologists n9t even give me relile forest of the wether over the next three dysD how m s supposed to trust them to give me the forest for the next IHH yersF ou9re not3 glimte sientists do not use wether forest models to forest limte onditions IHH yers in dvneF he omputer models tht re used to predit the wether over the next few dys re entirely di'erent from those used to predit the limteF snsted of prediting the highly hoti nture of tempertureD preipittionD nd other ommon wether vriles t very high sptil nd temporl resolutionD limte models forest hnges in the )ux of energy etween erth nd its tmosphere nd speF hese two omputerEmodeling tehniques di'er sustntilly in their omputtionl expense s wellF elthough wether forest models re run on extremely fst omputer systems t the xtionl genter for invironmentl reditionD the fstest omputers in the worldD like the irth imultor in tpn nd flue ters t the niversity of sllinois t rnEghmpign re hrged with limte simultions @see pigure Petascale Computing Facility @pigure QFRQAAF

IHQ

Figure 3.43: Petascale Computing Facility The petascale computing facility Blue Waters

located

at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Source: HorsePunchKid via Wikimedia Commons

58

ht re these limte models prediting will hppen y the yer PIHHc pirstD we will look t the glol verge surfe temperture projetionsF pigure Climate Simulation Scenarios @pigure QFRRA plots glol surfe wrming ginst time with the present dy in the middle of this hrtF ell tht over the lst PHH yersD there hs een I g inrese in glol temperturesD nd tht the rte of hnge hs een extremely fst ompred to nturl hnges in the erth9s limteF he grphs in pigure Climate Simulation Scenarios @pigure QFRRA show the rnge of model projetions from di'erent limte simultion senrios sed upon vrious greenhouse gs emission senrios @left grphAF pous on the top nd ottom urves in the right pnelD whih show the most drmti wrming nd the most onservtive wrmingF he worstEse senrioD found in the top lineD shows the usiness s usul projetionsF sf nothing is done to mitigte the emission of greenhouse gses into the tmosphereD these limte models re prediting R g to T g inrese in glol verge temperture y PIHHF he estEse senrioD from limte hnge perspetiveD would e for esstion of gy2 emissions or for the urrent emission rtes to not inreseF sn this seD there would still e wrming of HFS to P g y PIHH s indited y the ottom urvesF
58 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXxgefluetersFjpg

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CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

Figure 3.44: Climate Simulation Scenarios Left  multiple climate model projections (or scenarios)
of greenhouse gas emissions (including CO2, CH4 and N2O) emissions in Gt-CO2-equivalent through 2100. Right  multiple climate model projections of globally averaged surface air temperature through 2100. Source: Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and 3.2, pages 44 and 46.

59

, IPCC, gures 3.1

sn ddition to prediting wrming of the tmosphereD limte models lso suggest tht se level will ontinue to riseF ine IVVHD se level hs risen PH m @pproximtely V inhesA s seen in pigure Sea Levels since 1880 @pigure QFRSAF his rise hs een primrily the result of the wter thermlly expnding s it wrms long with the tmosphereF olr ie p melt from lndEsed ie sheets nd gliers hs lso dded to inrese in se levelF he urrent projetion is tht se level will rise t the rte of t lest P mm per yer over the next enturyD with n overll inrese rnging from IS to TH inhes mF
59 httpXGGwwwFipFhGpulitionsnddtGrRGsyrGenG(gureEspmESFhtml

IHS

Figure 3.45: Sea Levels since 1880 Measured sea level rise since 1880.
60
Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, gure 5.13, page 410

The dierent colors represent

dierent data sets used to make this graph. Source: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis: Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on

61

row muh on(dene n we ple in preditions out temperture nd se level y limte sientistsc vet9s tke little detour efore we ddress this importnt question diretlyF smgine you re ontemplting signing up with psyhi so you n etter pln for the future"why sve for retirement if money is tight nd you9re not sure how long you9ll livec fut you re unertin out whether she n relly see wht lies hedF ou ould py her 6PH week for her preditionsD nd disover over time whether they ome true or notF he troule isD during this tril period you wouldn9t know whether to spend your money s fst s you mke it or put some sideF fut you ome up with etter plnF ou9ll py the psyhi 6PH one timeD ut insted of sking her to predit your futureD you9ll sk her to tell wht hs hppened to you in the pst weekF sf she gets tht rightD she gets your usinessF elong similr linesD limte sientists ssess the trustworthiness of their models y heking how well they predit the pstF sn pigure Model Simulations @pigure QFRTAD SV di'erent limte model simultions were tsked with prediting the pst limte from IWHH to PHHSF fy ompring the model simultions to the oserved temperture reord the sientists with the sgg tested the ury of their modelsF sn pigure Model Simulations @pigure QFRTAD the yellow lines in the top pnel tre out the individul model simultionsD the red line shows the model ensemle menD nd the lk line represents the tul oserved men tempertureF he models performed exeedingly wellD s evidened y the very smll vriility
60 httpXGGwwwFipFhGpulitionsnddtGrRGwgIGenG(gureESEIQFhtml 61 httpXGGwwwFipFhGpulitionsnddtGrRGwgIGenG(gureESEIQFhtml

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CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

round the oserved tempertureF he suess of this test demonstrtes the highEqulity onstrution of these models nd shows they re ple of urtely projeting the erth9s future limteF

IHU

Figure 3.46: Model Simulations

Top panel - Climate model simulations of the global mean surface

temperature compared to the observed global mean surface temperature in black. Each yellow line is one of 58 climate model simulations of which the red line is the ensemble mean. Bottom panel  19 climate model simulations in blue with the ensemble mean in dark blue. These simulations were run without anthropogenic inuences. The thick black line is the observed global mean surface temperature. For a description of each scenario, please click here

62

. Source: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science

Basis: Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, gure 9.5, page 684

63

IHV

CHAPTER 3.

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he ottom of pigure Model Simulations @pigure QFRTA nd pigure Global Surface Temperature @pigure QFRUA presents the most ompelling rgument tht urrent limte hnge is used in lrge prt y humnsF he ottom pnel of pigure Model Simulations @pigure QFRTA shows IW limte model simultions etween IWHH nd PHHH with humn in)uenes left out of the simultionsF he thik lk line represents the oserved glol men surfe temperture over this timeF gompre this (gure with tht of pigure Global Surface Temperature Comparisons @pigure QFRUAD whih depits series of grphs tht plot temperture nomlies ginst time from the erly IWHHs to PHHHF he lue olor shding on these grphs shows the omputer model projetions without nthropogeni e'etsD while the pink shding inludes themF he lk line represents the tul mesured ir tempertures in eh of the lotions over whih the inlid grphs re positionedF xotie tht without humns the lue shding stys level or dereses with timeF gompred with the pink shding nd the lk lineD whih oth inrese with timeD nd we (nd tht these limte simultions nnot urtely represent the pst limte without nthropogeni e'etsF imply putD these models re unle to represent our urrent limte without greenhouse ontriutions from humnsF igorous testing like this proves these models re roust nd wellEdesigned to simulte future limte onditionsF
Comparisons
62 httpXGGwwwFipFhGpdfGspeilEreportsGspmGsresEenFpdf 63 httpXGGwwwFipFhGpulitionsnddtGrRGwgIGenG(gureEWESFhtml

IHW

Figure 3.47: Global Surface Temperature Comparisons Comparison of regional and global scale
surface temperature 1900-2000. Pink shading indicates the model predicted surface temperature using only natural forcings. The blue indicates model predicted surface temperature using natural and anthropogenic forcings. The black lines represent the actual observations. Source: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis: Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, FAQ 9.2, gure 1, page 121

64

he sgg egn its work in the erly IWWH9s nd they hve relesed four reports on limte nd limte hngeF sn eh report they hve inluded evidene s shown in the setions oveF ine few dedes hve pssed sine their initil reportsD we n ompre the tul hnges sine IWWH to the sgg forestsF pigure Observed Temperatures vs. Projected Temperatures @pigure QFRVA ompres the oserved glol verge surfe temperture to eh of the (rst three reports @the fourth ws relesed in PHHUAF his (gure revels tht oth the seond @eA nd third @eA reports hve een onservtive in the projetion of glolly verged tempertureF st lso shows tht the oserved wrming hs fllen into the rnge of expeted wrming y the sggF hue to their suess in urtely prediting hnges in erth9s limte over
64 httpXGGwwwFipFhGpulitionsnddtGrRGwgIGenG(gureEspmERFhtml

IIH

CHAPTER 3.

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this time periodD the entire ody of sientists shred prt of the PHHU xoel rizeF

Figure 3.48: Observed Temperatures vs. Projected Temperatures

Observed global average

surface temperatures (black line) overlaid on the temperature projections of the rst IPCC report (FAR), second report (SAR) and third report (TAR). Source: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis: Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, gure 1.1, page 98

65

3.5.6 Global Impacts of Climate Change

qlollyD n inrese of etween P g nd T g in men surfe temperture is expeted y the yer PIHHF egionllyD these vlues my di'er sustntillyD nd some lotions my tully ool over the next enturyF he hrdest hit lotions will e the in the high northerly ltitudes of the ertiF pigure Projected Temperature Increases @pigure QFRWA depits the vrition in expeted inreses in surfe ir temperture
65 httpXGGwwwFipFhGpdfGssessmentEreportGrRGwgIGrREwgIEhpterIFpdf

III for the time period of PHPHEPHPW nd PHWHEPHWW with olor shdingF xotie tht in ll of these imgesD the gretest hnges re expeted to our t high northerly ltitudesF sf these projetions hold trueD ie nd snow over will ontinue to retret nd enhne the ieEledo e'et disussed in wodule Climate Processes; External and Internal Controls @etion QFPAF ine the IWVHsD xr snowEovered re hs shrunk y Q million squre kilometersD nd mny northerly lkes re spending less time eh yer overed in ieF

Figure 3.49: Projected Temperature Increases IPCC projected temperature increases for the years
2020-2029 and 2090-2099. Source: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis: Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, gure SPM.6, page 15

66

eside from ir tempertureD glol preipittion ptterns nd mounts re expeted to hngeF es the tmosphere wrmsD its ility to hold wter vpor inresesD whih leds to more evportion from wter on the erth9s surfeF es this wter ondenses in the erth9s tmosphere to form louds nd preipittionD the distriution of the preipittion will vry gretlyF gurrent projetions forest n inrese in preipittion in the tropis nd polr ltitudesD with drier onditions over the midEltitudesF iven though there will e more wter vpor in the tmosphereD the distriution of preipittion my e suh tht lrge regions formerly unused to drought my e sujeted to prolonged dry periodsF pous on the middle pnels of pigure Winter and Summer Precipitation Anomalies @pigure QFSHAD whih shows the winter @topA nd summer @ottomA preipittion nomliesF xotie tht the tropis nd polr regions re expeted to hve ove norml preipittionD while the midEltitudes hve elow norml preipittionF elthough more res re expeted to experiene prolonged droughtD these projetions suggest tht when it does rinD rinfll will rrive in muh greter mounts over shorter time periodsF his will led to inresed )sh )oodingD the dedliest wether phenomenon in the nited ttesF
66 httpXGGwwwFipFhGpdfGssessmentEreportGrRGwgIGrREwgIEspmFpdf

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CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

Figure 3.50: Winter and Summer Precipitation Anomalies Global temperature and precipitation
projections for 2080-2099 using the A1B scenario. Top panels are temperature (left), precipitation (middle) and sea level pressure (right) for December-January-February. Bottom panels show the same variables for June-July-August. Source: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis: Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, gure 10.9, page 767

67

he gol of limte siene is not to rft puli poliy on glol wrmingF st is to provide the puli nd poliymkers like with resonle projetions out future limte onditionsF his informtion should e used to show the potentil impts of our presene on the limte system so s to form the est possile mitigtion plnsF gurrent projetions show tht if we re le to slow greenhouse gs emissionsD the limte system will respond with the lest mount of wrmingF hey lso suggest tht if we ontinue with 4usiness s usul4 the hnge in the glol limte will e gret in mgnitude nd our very quikly"oth eyond pst 4nturl4 hngeF
3.5.7 Review Questions
Question 3.5.1

row muh gy2 does the verge world itizen relese eh yer into the tmospherec essume popultion of U illion peopleF gompre this numer to the nited ttesD ghin nd trF
Question 3.5.2

ixplin why the epril PHII torndo outrekD whih set the reord for the most torndoes in singe PREhour periodD nnot e lmed on limte hngeF
Question 3.5.3

sn sllinoisD during the summer of PHHW only two dys topped WH pF sn totl it ws the seventh oolest summer on reordF hoes this disprove limte hngec sn wht ontext should we view this old summer in sllinoisc
Question 3.5.4

hy will there still e glol wrming if there is omplete esstion of gy2 emissionsc

67 httpXGGwwwFipFhGpulitionsnddtGrRGwgIGenG(gureEIHEWFhtml

IIQ
Question 3.5.5

gron p nd trde is one of mny solutions proposed to redue gyP emissionsF wke list of pros nd ons to federlly mndted p nd trde systemF fe sure to onsider wht will hppen to onsumersD usinesses nd the federl governmentF

3.5.8 Resources
Science, The SolutionsD

por further reding on glol limte hngeD red A Rough Guide to Climate Change: The Symptoms, The y oert renson @enguinD PHIID sfxEIQX WUVEIVRQSQUIIQA por more informtion out theX FF qlol ghnge eserh rogrmD visit httpXGGwwwFglolhngeFgovGpulitionsGreportsGsienti(E ssessmentsGusEimpts68 qlol tempertures in the yer PHIHD visit httpXGGwwwFylelimtemediforumForgGPHIIGHPGglolE tempertureEinEPHIHEhottestEyerG69

68 httpXGGwwwFglolhngeFgovGpulitionsGreportsGsienti(EssessmentsGusEimpts 69 httpXGGwwwFylelimtemediforumForgGPHIIGHPGglolEtempertureEinEPHIHEhottestEyerG

IIR

CHAPTER 3.

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL CHANGE

Chapter 4
Biosphere

4.1 Biosphere  Chapter Introduction

4.1.1 Introduction

rumnity nd the nturl world re inextrily linkedF e growing ppreition for the importne of this ft led to the formtion nd pulition of the willennium iosystem essessment y the nited xtions in PHHSF st de(nes key onepts neessry for understnding how sustinle development n e hievedF sn the terms of the essessmentD n ecosystem is dynmi omplex of plntD nimlD nd miroorgnism ommunities nd the nonliving environment interting s funtionl unitD while ecosystem services re the ene(ts people otin from eosystemsF iosystem servies re ritil to humn wellEeing nd su0iently diverse nd numerous to justify lssi(tion into four mjor tegories @see pigure Ecosystem Services @pF IISAAF Provisioning ecosystem services re tively hrvested y us from the nturl world to meet our resoure needsD eFgF foodD wterD timerD nd (erF Regulating ecosystem services re proesses in the irth system tht ontrol key physil nd iologil elements of our environmentD eFgF limte regultionD )ood regultionD disese regultionD wter puri(tionF Cultural ecosystem services re)et the estheti nd spiritul vlues we ple on ntureD s well s the edutionl nd reretionl tivities dependent on eosystemsF pinllyD supporting ecosystem services re the iogeohemil ylesD s well s iologil nd physil proesses tht drive eosystem funtionD eFgF soil formtionD nutrient ylingD nd photosynthesisF
1 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITIUGIFSGbF

IIS

IIT

CHAPTER 4.

BIOSPHERE

Figure 4.1: Ecosystem Services.

2

Figure shows the linkages between ecosystem services and hu-

man well-being. Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis . Island Press, Washington, DC.

e ene(t from the servies ssoited with oth pristineD nturl eosystemsD suh s tropil rin forests or rti tundrD nd highly mnged eosystemsD suh s rop (elds or urn lndspesF sn ll sesD eosystems ontriute to humn wellEeing y in)uening the ttinility of si mteril needs @eFgF food nd shelterAD helth @eFgF len ir nd wterAD good soil reltions nd seurity @iFeF su0ient resoures to void on)itD tolerte nturl nd mnEmde disstersD provide for hildrenD nd mintin soil ohesionAD s well s freedom of hoie nd tion @n inherent omponent of the other elements of wellEeing is the right to live s one hoosesAF vinkges etween some eosystem servies nd humn wellEeing vry in strength depending on soioEeonomi sttus @see pigure Ecosystem Services @pF IISAAF por exmpleD mny people in developed ountries n lwys 'ord to uy imported food without dependene on the yields of lolly grown ropsD therey voiding shortges when yields re low euse of d wetherF roweverD in other ses our ility to ontrol the impt of losing n eosystem servie on humn wellEeing is limitedF por exmpleD despite mjor engineering e'orts )ooding still uses onsiderle humn nd eonomi dmge in developed ountriesF he hllenge of sustinle development stems from the need to ene(t from nd mnge eosystem servies without using dmge to the eosystems nd irth system tht will redue their vlue in the longer termF eople hve long reognized tht some wys of using nturl resoures re unsustinleD espeilly
2 httpXGGwwwFmweForgGenGynthesisFspx

IIU where eosystems re rpidly exploited to the mximum extent possile nd further ess to the eosystem servies n e hieved only y moving on to previously unexploited resD s in the se of slsh nd urn griultureF ynly more reently hve we ome to ppreite tht humn tivity is ltering glolEsle phenomenD suh s limte regultionD nd this understnding rises host of di0ult questionsF ht is euse the ene(t of n eosystem servie my e relized y people in one loleD while the osts @in the form of negtive environmentl onsequenesA re imposed on people who live elsewhereD nd who my e less equipped to withstnd themF he following setions disussX @IA the nturl iogeohemil yling of ronD wter nd nitrogenD the eosystem servies we derive from these iogeohemil yles nd humn tivities tht re disturing themY @PA speies extintions nd eosystem hnges eing used y humn tivityY nd @QA soilD how it is formedD its vlue to soietyD nd prties tht diminish or degrde itF

4.2 Biogeochemical Cycles and the Flow of Energy in the Earth System
3

4.2.1 Learning Objectives

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

explin the onept of iogeohemil yleD inorporting the terms 4pool4 nd 4)ux4 desrie the nturl yles of ronD wterD nd nitrogen nme some of the importnt wys humn tivity disrupts those yles

4.2.2 Introduction

sf people re to live sustinlyD they will need to understnd the proesses tht ontrol the vilility nd stility of the eosystem servies on whih their wellEeing dependsF ghief mong these proesses re the biogeochemical cycles tht desriehow hemil elements @eFgF nitrogenD ronA or moleules @eFgF wterA re trnsformed nd stored y oth physil nd iologil omponents of the irth systemF torge ours in poolsD whih re mounts of mteril tht shre some ommon hrteristi nd re reltively uniform in ntureD eFgF the pool of ron found s ron dioxide @gy2 A in the tmosphereF rnsformtions or )ows of mterils from one pool to nother in the yle re desried s uxesY for exmpleD the movement of wter from the soil to the tmosphere resulting from evportion is )uxF Physical components of the earth system re nonliving ftors suh s roksD minerlsD wterD limteD irD nd energyF Biological components of the earth system inlude ll living orgnismsD eFgF plntsD nimls nd miroesF foth the physil nd iologil omponents of the erth system hve vried over geologil timeF ome lndmrk hnges inlude the oloniztion of the lnd y plnts @RHH million yers goAD the evolution of mmmls @PHH million yers goAD the evolution of modern humns @PHH thousnd yers goA nd the end of the lst ie ge @IH thousnd yers goAF he erth system nd its iogeohemil yles were reltively stle from the end of the lst ie ge until the sndustril evolution of the eighteenth nd nineteenth enturies initited signi(nt nd ongoing rise in humn popultion nd tivityF odyD nthropogeni @humnA tivities re ltering ll mjor eosystems nd the iogeohemil yles they driveF wny hemil elements nd moleules re ritil to life on erthD ut the iogeohemil yling of ronD wterD nd nitrogen re most ritil to humn wellEeing nd the nturl worldF
4.2.3 The Natural Carbon Cycle

wost of the ron on irth is stored in sedimentry roks nd does not ply signi(nt role in the ron yle on the timesle of dedes to enturiesF he tmospheri pool of gy2 is smller ontining
3 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITIVGIFSGbF

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CHAPTER 4.

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VHH qtg @gigtonnes of ronA a VHHDHHHDHHHDHHH tonnes ut is very importnt euse it is greenhouse gsF he sun emits shortEwve rdition tht psses through the tmosphereD is sored y the irthD nd reEemitted s longEwve rditionF Greenhouse gases in the tmosphere sor this longEwve rdition using themD nd the tmosphereD to wrmF he retention of het in the tmosphere inreses nd stilizes the verge tempertureD mking irth hitle for lifeF wore thn qurter of the tmospheri gy2 pool is sored eh yer through the proess of photosynthesis y omintion of plnts on lnd @IPH qtgA nd t se @WH qtgAF Photosynthesis is the proess in whih plnts use energy from sunlight to omine gy2 from the tmosphere with wter to mke sugrsD nd in turn uild iomssF elmost s muh ron is stored in terrestril plnt iomss @SSH qtgA s in the tmospheri gy2 poolF yn lndD iomss tht hs een inorported into soil forms reltively lrge pool @PQHH qtgAF et seD the phytoplnkton tht perform photosynthesis sink fter they dieD trnsporting orgni ron to deeper lyers tht then either re preserved in oen sediments or deomposed into very lrge dissolved inorgni ron pool @QUDHHH qtgAF lnts re lled primary producers euse they re the primry entry point of ron into the iosphereF sn other wordsD lmost ll nimls nd miroes depend either diretly or indiretly on plnts s soure of ron for energy nd growthF ell orgnismsD inluding plntsD relese gy2 to the tmosphere s yEprodut of generting energy nd synthesizing iomss through the proess of respirationF he nturl ron yle is lned on oth lnd nd t seD with plnt respirtion nd miroil respirtion @muh of it ssoited with deompositionD or rotting of ded orgnismsA relesing the sme mount of gy2 s is removed from the tmosphere through photosynthesisF

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Figure 4.2: The Carbon Cycle.

Figure illustrates the carbon cycle on, above, and below the Earth's

surface. Source: U.S. Department of Energy Genomic Science Program .

4.2.3.1 Human Interactions with The Carbon Cycle

he glol ron yle ontriutes sustntilly to the provisioning eosystem servies upon whih humns dependF e hrvest pproximtely PS7 of the totl plnt iomss tht is produed eh yer on the lnd surfe to supply foodD fuel wood nd (er from roplndsD pstures nd forestsF sn dditionD the glol ron yle plys key role in regulting eosystem servies euse it signi(ntly in)uenes limte vi its e'ets on tmospheri gy2 onentrtionsF etmospheri gy2 onentrtion inresed from PVH prts per million @ppmA to QWH ppm etween the strt of industril revolution in the lte eighteenth entury nd PHIHF his re)eted new )ux in the glol ron yle "anthropogenic CO2 emissions where humns relese gy2 into the tmosphere y urning fossil fuels nd hnging lnd useF possil fuel urning tkes ron from olD gsD nd oil reservesD where it would e otherwise stored on very long time slesD nd introdues it into the tive ron yleF Land use change releses ron from soil nd plnt iomss
4 httpXGGgenomisieneFenergyFgovGronyleGindexFshtml5pgeanews

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CHAPTER 4.

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pools into the tmosphereD prtiulrly through the proess of deforesttion for wood extrtion or onversion of lnd to griultureF sn PHHWD the dditionl )ux of ron into the tmosphere from nthropogeni soures ws estimted to e W qtg" signi(nt disturne to the nturl ron yle tht hd een in lne for severl thousnd yers previouslyF lightly more thn hlf of this nthropogeni gy2 is urrently eing sored y greter photosynthesis y plnts on lnd nd t se @S qtgAF roweverD tht mens R qtg is eing dded to the tmospheri pool eh yer ndD while totl emissions re inresingD the proportion sored y photosynthesis nd stored on lnd nd in the oens is delining @ve uere et lFD PHHW @pF IPRAAF ising tmospheri gy2 onentrtions in the twentieth entury used inreses in temperture nd strted to lter other spets of the glol environmentF qlol environmentl hnge hs lredy used mesurle derese in the glol hrvest of ertin ropsF he sle nd rnge of impts from glol environmentl hnge of nturl nd griulturl eosystems is projeted to inrese over the twentyE(rst enturyD nd will pose mjor hllenge to humn wellEeingF
4.2.4 The Natural Water Cycle

he vst mjority of wter on irth is sline @sltyA nd stored in the oensF wenwhileD most of the world9s fresh wter is in the form of ieD snowD nd groundwterF his mens signi(nt frtion of the wter pool is lrgely isolted from the wter yleF he mjor longEterm stores of fresh wter inlude ie sheets in entrti nd qreenlndD s well s groundwter pools tht were (lled during wetter periods of pst geologil historyF sn ontrstD the wter stored in riversD lkesD nd oen surfe is reltively rpidly yled s it evportes into the tmosphere nd then flls k to the surfe s preipittionF he tmospheri pool of wter turns over most rpidly euse it is smll ompred to the other pools @eFgF <IS7 of the freshwter lke poolAF Evaporation is the proess wherey wter is onverted from liquid into vpor s result of soring energy @usully from solr rditionAF ivportion from vegetted lnd is referred to s evapotranspiration euse it inludes wter trnspired y plntsD iFeF wter tken up from the soil y rootsD trnsported to leves nd evported from lef surfes into the tmosphere vi stomtl poresF Precipitation is the onversion of tmospheri wter from vpor into liquid @rinA or solid forms @snowD hilA tht then fll to irth9s surfeF ome wter from preipittion moves over the lnd surfe y surface runo nd streamowD while other wter from preipittion inltrates the soil nd moves elow the surfe s groundwater dischargeF ter vpor in the tmosphere is ommonly moved wy from the soure of evportion y wind nd the movement of ir mssesF gonsequentlyD most wter flling s preipittion omes from soure of evportion tht is loted upwindF xonethelessD lol soures of evportion n ontriute s muh s PSEQQ7 of wter in preipittionF

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Figure 4.3: The Water Cycle.

Figure illustrates the water cycle on, above, and below the Earth's

surface. Source: U.S. Department of the Interior and U.S. Geological Survey, The Water Cycle .

4.2.4.1 Human Interactions with The Water Cycle

preshwter supply is one of the most importnt provisioning eosystem servies on whih humn wellEeing dependsF fy PHHHD the rte of our wter extrtion from rivers nd quifers hd risen to lmost RHHH squre kilometers per yerF he gretest use of this wter is for irrigtion in griultureD ut signi(nt quntities of wter re lso extrted for puli nd muniipl useD s well s industril pplitions nd power genertionF yther mjor humn interventions in the wter yle involve hnges in lnd over nd infrstruture development of river networksF es we hve deforested res for wood supply nd griulturl development we hve redued the mount of vegettionD whih nturlly ts to trp preipittion s it flls nd slow the rte of in(ltrtion into the groundF es onsequeneD surfe runo' hs inresedF hisD in turnD mens )ood peks re greter nd erosion is inresedF irosion lowers soil qulity nd deposits sediment in river hnnelsD where it n lok nvigtion nd hrm quti plnts nd nimlsF here griulturl lnd is lso drined these e'ets n e mgni(edF rniztion lso elertes strem)ow y preventing preipittion from (ltering into the soil nd shunting it into dringe systemsF edditionl physil infrstruture hs een dded to river networks with the im of ltering the volumeD timingD nd diretion of wter )ows for humn ene(tF his is hieved with reservoirsD weirsD nd diversion hnnelsF por exmpleD so muh wter is removed or redireted from the golordo iver in the western nited ttes thtD despite its onsiderle sizeD in some yers it is dry efore rehing the se in wexioF e lso exploit
5 httpXGGgFwterFusgsFgovGeduGwteryleFhtml

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CHAPTER 4.

BIOSPHERE

wterwys through their use for nvigtionD reretionD hydroeletriity genertion nd wste disposlF hese tivitiesD espeilly wste disposlD do not neessrily involve removl of wterD ut do hve impts on wter qulity nd wter )ow tht hve negtive onsequenes for the physil nd iologil properties of quti eosystemsF he wter yle is key to the eosystem servie of limte regultion s well s eing n essentil supportE ing servie tht impts the funtion of ll eosystemsF gonsider the widespred impts on diverse nturl nd humn systems when mjor droughts or )oods ourF gonsequentlyD humn disruptions of the nturl wter yle hve mny undesirle e'ets nd hllenge sustinle developmentF here re two mjor onernsF pirstD the need to lne rising humn demnd with the need to mke our wter use sustinE le y reversing eosystem dmge from exess removl nd pollution of wterF rditionllyD onsiderle emphsis hs een on (nding nd essing more supplyD ut the negtive environmentl impts of this pproh re now ppreitedD nd improving the e0ieny of wter use is now mjor golF eondD there is need for sfe wter supply in mny prts of the worldD whih depends on reduing wter pollution nd improving wter tretment filitiesF
4.2.5 The Natural Nitrogen Cycle

he vst mjority of nitrogen on irth is held in roks nd plys minor role in the nitrogen yleF he seond lrgest pool of nitrogen is in the tmosphereF wost tmospheri nitrogen is in the form of x2 gsD nd most orgnisms re unle to ess itF his is signi(nt euse nitrogen is n essentil omponent of ll ells"for instneD in proteinD xeD nd hxe"nd nitrogen vilility frequently limits the produtivity of rops nd nturl vegettionF etmospheri nitrogen is mde ville to plnts in two wysF gertin miroes re ple of biological nitrogen xationD wherey x2 is onverted into mmoniumD form of nitrogen tht plnts n essF wny of these miroes hve formed symioti reltionships with plnts" they live within the plnt tissue nd use ron supplied y the plnt s n energy soureD nd in return they shre mmoni produed y nitrogen (xtionF ellEknown exmples of plnts tht do this re pes nd ensF ome miroes tht live in the soil re lso ple of nitrogen (xtionD ut mny re found in zone very lose to rootsD where signi(nt ron soures re relesed from the plntF ogether these iologil nitrogen (xing proesses on lndD oupled with others tht tke ple t seD generte n nnul )ux out of the tmosphere of pproximtely PHH wtx @megtonnnes of nitrogen or PHHDHHHDHHH tonnes of nitrogenAF vightning uses nitrogen nd oxygen in the tmosphere to ret nd produe nitrous oxides tht fll or re wshed out of the tmosphere y rin nd into the soilD ut the is )ux is muh smller @QH wtx per yer t mostA thn iologil nitrogen (xtionF hile the inputs of nitrogen from the tmosphere to the iosphere re importntD the mjority @WH7A of nitrogen used y plnts for growth eh yer omes from mmoni(tion of orgni mterilF yrgni mteril is mtter tht omes from oneEliving orgnismsF Ammonication @or minerliztionA is the relese of mmoni y decomposers @teri nd fungiA when they rek down the omplex nitrogen ompounds in orgni mterilF lnts re le to sor @assimilateA this mmoniD s well s nitrtesD whih re mde ville y teril nitricationF he yle of nitrogen inorportion in growing plnt tissues nd nitrogen relese y teri from deomposing plnt tissues is the dominnt feture of the nitrogen yle nd ours very e0ientlyF xitrogen n e lost from the system in three min wysF pirstD denitrifying bacteria onvert nitrtes to nitrous oxide or x2 gses tht re relesed k to the tmosphereF henitri(tion ours when the teri grow under oxygenEdepleted onditionsD nd is therefore fvored y wet nd wterlogged soilsF henitri(tion rtes lmost mth iologil nitrogen (xtion rtesD with wetlnds mking the gretest ontriutionF eondD nitrtes re wshed out of soil in dringe wter @leachingA nd into rivers nd the oenF hirdD nitrogen is lso yled k into the tmosphere when orgni mteril urnsF

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Figure 4.4: The Nitrogen Cycle.

Figure illustrates the nitrogen cycle on, above, and below the

Earth's surface. Source: Physical Geography Fundamentals eBook .

4.2.5.1 Human Interactions With The Nitrogen Cycle

rumns re primrily dependent on the nitrogen yle s supporting eosystem servie for rop nd forest produtivityF xitrogen fertilizers re dded to enhne the growth of mny rops nd plnttionsF he enhned use of fertilizers in griulture ws key feture of the green revolution tht oosted glol rop yields in the IWUHsF he industril prodution of nitrogenErih fertilizers hs inresed sustntilly over time nd now mthes more thn hlf of the input to the lnd from iologil nitrogen (xtion @WH wtx eh yerAF sf the nitrogen (xtion from leguminous rops @eFgF ensD lflfA is inludedD then the nthropogeni )ux of nitrogen from the tmosphere to the lnd exeeds nturl )uxes to the lndF es desried oveD most eosystems nturlly retin nd reyle lmost ll of their nitrogenF he reltively little nitrogen tht is eing gined or lost y )uxes to the tmosphere nd wter yle is lso nerly eing lnedF hen humns mke lrge dditions of nitrogen to eosystems lekge often resultsD with negtive environmentl onsequenesF hen the mount of nitrte in the soil exeeds plnt uptkeD the exess nitrte is either lehed in dringe wter to stremsD riversD nd the oen or denitri(ed y teri nd lost to the tmosphereF yne of the min gses produed y denitrifying teri @nitrous oxideA is n importnt greenhouse gs tht is ontriuting to humnEindued glol wrmingF yther gses relesed to the tmosphere y denitrifying teriD s well s mmoni relesed from livestok nd sewge sludgeD re lter deposited from the tmosphere onto eosystemsF he dditionl nitrogen from this depositionD
6 httpXGGwwwFphysilgeogrphyFnetGfundmentlsGWsFhtml

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CHAPTER 4.

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long with the nitrogen lehing into wterwysD uses eutrophitionF Eutrophication ours when plnt growth nd then dey is elerted y n unusully high supply of nitrogenD nd it hs knokEon e'etsD inluding the followingX ertin plnt speies outEompeting other speiesD leding to iodiversity loss nd ltered eosystem funtionY lgl looms tht lok light nd therefore kill quti plnts in riversD lkesD nd sesY exhustion of oxygen supplies in wter used y rpid miroil deomposition t the end of lgl loomsD whih kills mny quti orgnismsF ixess nitrtes in wter supplies hve lso een linked to humn helth prolemsF i'orts to redue nitrogen pollution fous on inresing the e0ieny of syntheti fertilizer useD ltering feeding of nimls to redue nitrogen ontent in their exretD nd etter proessing of livestok wste nd sewge sludge to redue mmoni releseF et the sme timeD inresing demnd for food prodution from growing glol popultion with greter ppetite for met is driving greter totl fertilizer useD so there is no gurntee tht etter prties will led to redution in the overll mount of nitrogen pollutionF
4.2.6 Review Questions
Question 4.2.1

here is pproximtely PDHHH ui kilometers of wter stored in rivers round the worldF sing the terms water cycleD ux nd poolD desrie under wht onditions removing IHHH ui kilometers per yer from rivers for humn use ould e sustinleF
Question 4.2.2

ih yerD round qurter of the ron dioxide found in the tmosphere is turned into plnt mtter vi photosynthesisF hoes this men thtD in the sene of humn tivityD ll ron dioxide would e removed from the tmosphere in round four yersc ixplin your nswerF
Question 4.2.3

he wterD ronD nd nitrogen yles re ll in)uened y humn tivityF gn you desrie humn tivity tht impts ll three ylesc sn your exmpleD whih of the yles is most signi(ntly lteredc

4.2.7 References

ve uereD gFD uphD wF FD gndellD tF qFD wrlndD qFD foppD vFD giisD FD et lF @PHHWD heemerAF rends in the soures nd sinks of ron dioxideF Nature Geoscience, 2D VQIEVQTF doiX IHFIHQVGngeoTVW willennium iosystem essessment @PHHSAF iosystems nd rumn ellEfeingX ynthesisF shington hgF etrieved from httpXGGwwwFmweForgGenGeportsFspx7

4.3 Biodiversity, Species Loss, and Ecosystem Function

4.3.1 Learning Objectives

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

de(ne iodiversity rtiulte urrent trends in iodiversity loss with referene to speies nd eosystems explin some of the wys humn tivity 'ets iodiversity explin how iodiversity loss onerns people

7 httpXGGwwwFmweForgGenGeportsFspx 8 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITIWGIFTGbF

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4.3.2 What is Biodiversity?

ou9re proly fmilir with the wordD biodiversityD whether or not you n give n ext de(nition of itF st9s ommon on the signs t zoosD prksD nd nture entersD nd it9s often used without explntion or de(nitionF wost people understnd iodiversity in generl terms s the numer nd mix of plnt nd niml speies tht ours in given pleF ientists re more preise nd inlude more in their de(nitionF he snterntionl nion for the gonservtion of xture @sgxA9 D whih oordintes e'orts to tlogue nd preserve iodiversity worldwideD de(nes iodiversity s 4the vriility mong living orgnisms from ll soures inluding terrestrilD mrine nd other quti eosystemsD nd the eologil omplexes of whih they re prtY this inludes diversity within speiesD etween speiesD nd of eosystemsF4 ther thn just speiesD iodiversity therefore inludes vrition from the level of genes nd genomes to tht of eosystems to iomesF iven within single eosystemD the numers of speies n e impressiveF por exmpleD there is lrge region of dry forest nd svnn in frzil known s the gerrdo @see pigure Cerrado Forest @pigure RFSAAF his eosystem lone hosts over IHDHHH speies of plntsD lmost PHH speies of mmmlsD over THH speies of irdsD nd out VHH speies of (shF

Figure 4.5: Cerrado Forest.

Commons

10

Photograph of the Cerrado Forest.

Source:

C2rik via Wikimedia

9 httpXGGwwwFiunForgG

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CHAPTER 4.

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qenerllyD iodiversity is gretest in tropil res!espeilly 4rinforests4"ut there re terrestril iodiversity 4hotspots4 on ll the mjor ontinentsF @iew n intertive mp of hotspots11 FA
4.3.3 Current Trends: Species Loss and Decline

yne wy sientists guge trends in iodiversity is y monitoring the fte of individul speies of nimls nd plntsF por more thn RH yersD the sgx hs ompiled informtion in the 4ed vist of hretened peiesD4 whih 4provides snpshot of wht is hppening to speies round the worldF4 pdtes to the ed vist re relesed every four yersF rere is how the uthors of the most reent oneD relesed in PHHVD hrterize the news it holdsX 4he overwhelming messge4 from the PHHV ed vistD they writeD 4is tht the world is losing speies nd tht the rte of loss ppers to e elerting in mny txonomi groups4 @ieD riltonEylorD 8 turtD PHHVD pF QV @pF IQPAAF
10 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXgerrdoFjpg 11 httpXGGwwwFiodiversityhotspotsForgGxpGhotspotsGgesGdefultFspx

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Figure 4.6: Summary of Threatened Species.

Wildlife in a Changing World 2008

Table lists the numbers and proportions of species

assessed as threatened on the 2008 IUCN Red List by major taxonomic group. Source: IUCN Red List,

12

, p. 17. Please see IUCN Terms of Use

13

for copyright restrictions.

4.3.3.1 Vertebrates

ientists know muh more out the stte of vertertes"espeilly mmmlsD irdsD nd mphiins" thn they do out other forms of niml lifeF ivery one of the SDRVV speies of mmmls tht hve een
12 httpXGGiunForgGoutGworkGprogrmmesGspeiesGredlistGreviewG 13 httpXGGwwwFiunredlistForgGinfoGtermsEofEuse

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CHAPTER 4.

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desriedD for exmpleD hs een evluted for purposes of the ed vistF yf themD UT speies hve eome extinct sine ISHHD nd twoD ere hvid9s deerD whih is ntive to ghinD nd the simitr oryx from efri survive only in mnged filitiesF enother PW of the mmml speies listed s ritilly endngered re lso tgged s 4possily extintY4 they re very likely goneD ut the sort of exhustive surveys required to on(rm tht ft hve not een ondutedF yverllD pproximtely PP7 of mmml speies worldwide re known to e thretened or extintF @sn the terms of the ed vistD the rod designtion 4thretened4 inludes three levels of risk for extintion in the wildX ulnerle highD indngered higherD nd gritilly indngered highestFA he ed vist tegorizes smller proportion of the world9s WDWWH desried ird speies"IR7"s thretened or extintF fut the rw numer of speies lost sine ISHH is t lest IQRD nd four more speies persist only in zoosF enother IS speies of irds re onsidered possily extintF he ft tht VT7 of ird speies re tegorized s 4not thretened4 is good news in the ontext of the ed vistF

Figure 4.7: Passenger Pigeons.

Commons

North American passenger pigeons lived in enormous ocks and

were once the most numerous birds on earth. Market hunting on a massive scale and habitat destruction combined to extinguish them as a species in the early twentieth century. Source: Ltshears via Wikimedia

14

emong the wellEstudied vertertesD mphiins re fring espeilly poorlyF yf the more thn TDHHH known speies of mphiinsD QV hve eome extint worldwide sine ISHHD nd nother oneD the yoming todD survives only in ptivityF enother IPH speies re onsidered possily extintF yverllD PDHQHD or
14 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXssengerigeonHTSFjpg

IPW oneEthird of the world9s mphiin speies re known to e thretened or extintF wore trouling stillD mny mphiin speies"RPFS7"re reported to e deliningD nd tht numer is proly lowD sine trend informtion is unville for QHFR7 of speiesF

Figure 4.8: Monteverde Golden Toad.

The golden toad of Monteverde, Costa Rica, is one of 11

species of amphibians to become extinct since 1980. Habitat loss and chytrid fungus. Source: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service via Wikimedia Commons

15

ynly smll proportions of the world9s speies of reptiles nd (sh hve een evluted for purposes of the ed vistF emong thoseD the numers of speies tht fll into the thretened tegory re very highX IDPUS of the QDRVI evluted speiesD or QU7D for (shY nd RPQ of IDQVS evluted speiesD or QI7D for reptilesF st should e notedD howeverD tht these perentges re likely overestimtesD sine speies of onern re more likely to e seleted for evlution thn othersF
4.3.3.2 Invertebrates

he tegory 4invertertes4 lumps together the vst mjority of multiEellulr nimlsD n estimted WU7 of ll speiesF st inludes everything from insets nd rhnidsD to mollusksD rustensD orlsD nd moreF pew of these groups hve een ssessed in omprehensive wyD nd so s with (sh nd reptilesD the ed vist perentges of thretened speies re skewed highF fut ssessments within some groups ll ttention to disturingD lrgeEsle trendsF por exmpleD PU7 of the world9s reefEuilding orls re lredy onsidered thretenedD nd mny more of them re experiening rtes of deline tht move them towrd thretened
15 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXfufoperiglenesPFjpg

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CHAPTER 4.

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sttusF he demise of reefEuilding orls hs mgni(ed eologil imptsD sine so muh other mrine life depends on themF

Figure 4.9: Pink Soft Coral with Reef Fish.

Photograph shows some pink, soft coral with reef sh

nearby. Source: Linda Wade via National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

16

st should e understood tht informtion out fmilir retures suh s mphiinsD mmmlsD nd irds is just eginningD nd tht even with the inlusion of some invertertes the ed vist does not provide omprehensive piture of life on irthF ientists hve desried fewer thn P million of the VEW million speies of orgnisms thought to existD most of whih re insetsF end of those P millionD the sttus of only RRDVQV hs een ssessed y sgxF
16 httpXGGwwwFphotoliFnoFgovGhtmlsGreefHRVRFhtm

IQI sn dditionD it should e understood tht mong the speies tht hve een ssessed so frD there is strong is towrd terrestril vertertes nd plntsD espeilly the ones tht our where iologists hve visited frequentlyF ed vist ssessments lso tend to fous on speies tht re likely to e thretenedD sine the e'ort lso hs the im of enling people to onserve speiesF heres extintion is the glol loss of speiesD the elimintion of speies t lol level!known s extirpation ! lso poses threts to the integrity nd sustinility of eosystemsF idespred extirption oviously leds to thretened or endngered sttusD ut sene of speiesD even t lol sleD n 'et ecosystem functionF por exmpleD y the midEIWPHs wolves hd een extirpted from ellowstone xtionl rkD lthough they ontinued to thrive elsewhereF hen wolves were reintrodued to the prk in the midE IWWHsD numers of elk @ min prey itemA deresed signi(ntlyF hisD in turnD redued rowsing pressure nd hd signi(nt e'et on the vegettion nd plnt ommunitiesF ht mttered for eosystem funtion in ellowstone ws whether wolves were present thereD not just whether the speies survived somewhereF he humn tivities tht ount for extintion nd extirption vry onsiderly from one speies to notherD ut they fll into few rod tegoriesX hitt destrution nd frgmenttionY intentionl nd unintentionl movement of speies tht eome invsive @inluding diseseEusing orgnismsAY overE exploittion @unsustinle huntingD loggingD etFAY hittGeosystem degrdtion @eFgF pollutionD limte hngeAF
4.3.4 Current Trends: Ecosystem Loss and Alteration

enother wy of guging iodiversity involves ssessment on the sle of eosystemsF he uses of wholesle losses of eosystems re muh the sme s those driving extintion or endngerment of speiesD with hitt loss nd frgmenttion eing the primry gentF orldwideD for exmpleD the onversion of lnd to griulture nd ultivtion hve led to signi(nt losses in grsslnd eosystemsF sn xorth emeriD nerly UH7 of the tllgrss pririe eosystem @whih one overed IRP million resA hs een onverted to griultureD nd losses from other usesD suh s urn developmentD hve rought the totl to out WH7F gurrent estimtes indite tht griulturl tivity nd ultivtion systems now over nerly PS7 of the irth9s surfeF ropil rinforestsD whih re the hitts for nerly hlf of the world9s plnt nd niml speiesD overed out R illion res in pst enturiesD ut only PFS illion res remin nd nerly I7 is eing lost nnullyF vosses hve een espeilly severe in the 4pleo4 or old world tropis tht inlude efri nd outhest esiF he tegory 4wetlnds4 inludes mny types of eosystemsD ut urrent estimtes indite tht out SH7 of the world9s wetlnd hitt hs een lostF he former extent of wetlnd hitts worldwide @freshD rkish nd sltA is di0ult to determine ut ertinly exeeded illion resF
4.3.5 Species and Ecosystem Loss in Perspective

o understnd why iologists tlk out ongoing losses of speies nd eosystems s the 4iodiversity risisD4 it is useful to put urrent nd projeted rtes of speies loss into historil perspetiveF yver the history of life on irth" spn of QFS billion yers"nerly ll speies tht existed eventully eme extintF hisD of ourseD is oupled with the proesses of speition nd iologil diversi(tionF tes of extintion nd diversi(tion hve )ututed signi(ntly over geologi timeF por extintionD pleontologists hve deteted (ve episodes of mss extintion over the lst SRH million yersF hese periods ontrst with the reltively onstnt 4kground rte4 of extintion oserved over the geologi reordD nd inlude the reltively wellE known event TS million yers go when most of the extnt dinosurs went extintF fy de(nitionD these episodes re hrterized y the omprtively rpid loss of t lest threeEfourths of the speies thought to exist t the onset of the eventF eentlyD the question hs een posed whether presentEdy rtes of speies loss onstitute sixth episode of mss extintion @frnoskyD et lFD PHII @pF IQPAAF iven with vets out unertinty in how mny speies there re tody @only frtion of the estimted totl hve een desriedD espeilly for plntsD invertertesD nd miroesA nd out omprisons of the fossil reord with modern dtD it ppers tht estimted rtes of loss in the ner future ould rivl those of pst mss extintionsF ome estimtes indite

IQP

CHAPTER 4.

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tht we will see QH7 loss of speies within dedesF ut nother wyD forested rtes of speies loss ould e s muh s IHHH to IHDHHH times higher thn kground rtesF
4.3.6 How Does Loss of Biodiversity Concern People?

es we lern more out iodiversityD it is eoming ler tht there is often positive ssoition etween iodiversity nd the integrity of iologil systemsF his is not to sy more diverse systems re 4etterY4 rtherD this mens tht systems with reltively pristine omplement of iologil nd ioti or physil omponents tend to e more resilient nd roustF heres this is rther neulousD there is little dout tht the integrity of eosystems is of fundmentl importne to nerly ll phses of humn life nd ultureF yften lled ecological servicesD the produts nd proesses ssoited with iologil systems re of immense vlue to the well eing of peopleF en inomplete list of these servies nd produts inludes the formtion of soil nd yling of nutrientsY provisioning of foodD fresh wterD fuelD (erD nd reretion opportunitiesY the regultion of limteD )oodingD nd diseseF he vlue of these servies is often overlooked or simply tken for grntedD ut one glol estimte puts it somewhere etween 6ITETR trillion nnullyF prom glol food seurityD to soure of mediinesD to even the oxygen in our irD we re dependent on iodiversity nd the sustined integrity of eologil systemsF xture is lso the sis for signi(nt prt of estheti nd spiritul vlues held y mny ulturesF qiven this dependeneD it is stounding tht mny re unwre or"even worse"ptheti out wht is ourring nd wht will likely hppen in the ner future to our iologil resouresF e do not ontend tht ny loss of speies will 'et produtivity or funtion t the eosystem levelF he funtion of one speies n e redundnt with others nd its loss my not led to signi(nt hnge t the eosystem levelF heres redundny n ontriute to the resilieny of nturl systemsD tht should not e soure of omfortF wuh eologil theory posits thresholds of speies loss eyond whih the integrity of eosystems is thretenedY unexpeted nd possily permnent new 4sttes4 my resultF yne ommunity or eosystem rehes n lterntive stteD there my e little tht n e done to restore or remedite the systemF hereforeD even under optimisti senrios for rtes of speies loss @from the lol to glol sleA we re fing n unertin environmentF
4.3.7 Review Questions
Question 4.3.1 Question 4.3.2 Question 4.3.3 Question 4.3.4

ht is the di'erene etween extintion nd extirptionc ht re some humn tivities tht impt speies diversity nd eosystem funtionc hoes the loss of one speies led to loss of eosystem funtionc hy or why notc row does iodiversity promote sustinilityc

4.3.8 References

frnoskyD eFhFD wtzkeD xFD omiyD FD ognD qFyFFD wrtzD fFD uentlD FfFD et lF @PHIID wrhAF rs the irth9s sixth mss extintion lredy rrivedc NatureD 471D SIESUF doiXIHFIHQVGntureHWTUV ieD tEgD riltonEylorD gF 8 turt FxF @idsFAF @PHHWAF Wildlife in a Changing World: An Analysis of the 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species F qlndD witzerlndX sgxF etrieved from httpXGGdtFiunForgGdtwEwpdGedosGvEPHHWEHHIFpdf17 F
17 httpXGGdtFiunForgGdtwEwpdGedosGvEPHHWEHHIFpdf

IQQ

4.4 Soil and Sustainability

4.4.1 Learning Objectives

18

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

de(ne soil nd omment on its importne to soiety desrie how soil pro(les form explin the importne of soil onstituents for plnt growth nd nutrient uptke understnd the importne of soil to griulturl sustinility nd eologil proesses

4.4.2 Soil Proles and Processes

4.4.2.1 What Is Soil?

he word 4soil4 hs een de(ned di'erently y di'erent sienti( disiplinesF sn griulture nd hortiultureD soil generlly refers to the medium for plnt growthD typilly mteril within the upper meter or two @see pigure Soil Prole @pigure RFIHAAF
18 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITPHGIFTGbF

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CHAPTER 4.

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Figure 4.10: Soil Prole.

Source: University of Idaho

Photograph shows a soil prole from South Dakota with A, E, and Bt and modied by D. Grimley.

horizons. The yellow arrows symbolize translocation of ne clays to the Bt horizon. The scale is in feet.

19

IQS e will use this de(nition in this hpterF sn ommon usgeD the term soil is sometimes restrited to only the drk topsoil in whih we plnt our seeds or vegetlesF sn more rod de(nitionD ivil engineers use the term soil for ny unonsolidted @soft when wetA mteril tht is not onsidered edrokF nder this de(nitionD soil n e s muh s severl hundred feet thik3 enient soilsD sometimes uried nd preserved in the susurfeD re referred to s pleosols @see pigure Modern versus Buried Soil Proles @pigure RFIIAA nd re)et pst limti nd environmentl onditionsF
19 httpXGGsoilsFlsFuidhoFeduGsoilordersGiGwollHPFjpg

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CHAPTER 4.

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Figure 4.11: Modern versus Buried Soil Proles.

occurs near the land surface. Source: D. Grimley.

A buried soil prole, or paleosol (above geologist

's head), represents soil development during the last interglacial period. A modern soil prole (Alsol)

prom somewht philosophil stndpointD soil n e viewed s the interfe etween the tmosphere nd the erth9s rustD nd is sometimes referred to s the skin of the erthF oil lso inorportes spets of the iosphere nd the hydrosphereF prom physil stndpointD soil ontins solidD liquidD nd gseous phsesF he solid portion of the soil onsists predominntly of minerl mtterD ut lso ontins orgni

IQU mtter @humusA nd living orgnismsF he pore spes etween minerl grins re (lled with vrying proportions of wter nd irF
4.4.2.2 Importance of Soil

oil is importnt to our soiety s it provides the foundtion for most of the ritil spets of iviliztionF yur uilding strutures nd homesD foodD griulturl produtsD nd wood produts ll rely on soilF porestsD pririesD nd wetlnds ll hve dependene on soilF yf ourseD soil is lso ritil omponent for terrestril life on erthD inluding most nimlsD plntsD nd mny miroorgnismsF oil plys role in nerly ll nturl yles on the erth9s surfeF qlol yling of key nutrientsD suh s gron @gAD xitrogen @xAD ulfur @AD nd hosphorous @AD ll pss through soilF sn the hydrologi yleD soil helps to medite the )ow of preipittion from the lnd surfe into the groundwter or n ontrol stormwter runo' into lkesD stremsD ysD nd oensF oil miroorgnisms or miro)or n help to modify or destroy environmentl pollutntsF
4.4.2.3 Soil Forming Factors

he fundmentl ftors tht 'et soil genesis n e tegorized into (ve elementsX limteD orgnismsD reliefD prent mterilD nd timeF yne ould sy tht the lndspe reliefD climateD nd organisms ditte the lol soil environmentD nd t together to use wethering nd mixing of the soil parent material over timeF he soil forming ftors re interrelted nd interdependentD ut onsidered independently they provide useful frmework for disussion nd tegoriztionF es soil is formed it often hs distint lyersD whih re formlly desried s 4horizonsF4 pper horizons @leled s the e nd y horizonsA re riher in orgni mteril nd so re importnt in plnt growthD while deeper lyers @suh s the f nd g horizonsA retin more of the originl fetures of the edrok elowF
4.4.2.3.1 Climate

he role of limte in soil development inludes spets of temperture nd preipittionFoils in very old res with permfrost onditions @Gelisols A tend to e shllow nd wekly developed due to the short growing sesonF yrgni rih surfe horizons re ommon in lowElying res due to limited hemil deompositionF sn wrmD tropil soils @Ultisols, Oxisols AD other ftors eing equlD soils tend to e thikerD with extensive lehing nd minerl ltertionF sn suh limtesD orgni mtter deomposition nd hemil wethering our t n elerted rteF
4.4.2.3.2 Organisms

enimlsD plntsD nd miroorgnisms ll hve importnt roles in soil development proessesD in providing supply of orgni mtterD ndGor in nutrient ylingF ormsD nemtodesD termitesD ntsD gophersD molesD ry(shD etF ll use onsiderle mixing of soil nd help to lend soilD erte nd lighten the soil y reting porosityD nd rete hrteristi nturl soil struture over timeF eniml lifeD suh s insets nd mmmlsD n use irregulrities in the soil horizonsF lnt life provides muh orgni mtter to soil nd helps to reyle nutrients with uptke y roots in the susurfeF he type of plnt life tht ours in given reD suh s types of trees or grssesD depends on the limteD long with prent mteril nd soil typeF o there re lerly feedks mong the soil forming ftorsF ith the nnul dropping of leves nd needlesD trees tend to dd orgni mtter to soil surfesD helping to rete thinD orgniErih e or y horizon over timeF qrssesD on the other hndD hve onsiderle root mssD in ddition to sur(il orgni mterilD tht is relesed into the soil eh fll for nnuls nd shortElived perennilsF por this resonD grsslnd soils @Mollisols A hve muh thiker e horizons with higher orgni mtter ontentsD nd re more griulturlly produtive thn forest soilsF qrsses relese orgni mtter to soils tht is more rih in se tionsD wheres lef nd needle litter result in relese of ids into the soilF

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CHAPTER 4.

BIOSPHERE

wiroorgnisms id in the oxidtion of orgni residues nd in prodution of humus mterilF hey lso ply role in iron oxidtionEredution ylesD (neEgrined minerl dissolution @providing nutrients to soil solutionsAD nd minerl neoformtionF xew reserh is ontinully expnding our knowledge of the role of miroorgnisms in plnt growthD nutrient ylingD nd minerl trnsformtionsF
4.4.2.3.3 Relief (Topography and Drainage)

he lol lndspe n hve surprisingly strong e'et on the soils tht form on siteF he lol topogrphy n hve importnt mirolimti e'ets s well s 'eting rtes of soil erosionF sn omprison to )t regionsD res with steep slopes overll hve more soil erosionD more runo' of rinwterD nd less wter in(ltrtionD ll of whih led to more limited soil development in very hilly or mountinous resF sn the northern hemisphereD southEfing slopes re exposed to more diret sunlight ngles nd re thus wrmer nd drier thn northEfing slopesF he oolerD moister northEfing slopes hve more dynmi plnt ommunity due to less evpotrnspirtion ndD onsequentlyD experiene less erosion euse of plnt rooting of soil nd hve thiker soil developmentF oil dringe 'ets iron oxidtionEredution sttesD orgni mtter umultion nd preservtionD nd lol vegettion typesF ellEdrined soilsD generlly on hills or sideslopesD re more rownish or reddish due to onversion of ferrous iron @pe2+ A to minerls with ferri @pe3+ A ironF wore poorly drined soilsD in lowlndD lluvil plins or uplnd depressionsD tend more e more greyishD greenishEgrey @gleyedAD or drk oloredD due to iron redution @to pe2+ A nd umultion nd preservtion of orgni mtter in res tending towrds noxiF eres with poor dringe lso tend to e lowlnds into whih soil mteril my wsh nd umulte from surrounding uplndsD often resulting in overthikened e or y horizonsF sn ontrstD steeply sloping res in highlnds my experiene erosion nd hve thinner surfe horizonsF
4.4.2.3.4 Parent Material

he prent mteril of soil is the mteril into whih the soil hs developedD whether it e river sndsD lke lysD windlown loessD shoreline depositsD glil depositsD or vrious types of edrokF sn youthful soilsD the prent mteril hs ler onnetion to the soil type nd hs signi(nt in)ueneF yver timeD s wethering proesses deepenD mixD nd lter the soilD the prent mteril eomes less reognizle s hemilD physilD nd iologil proesses tke their e'etF he type of prent mteril my lso 'et the rpidity of soil developmentF rent mterils tht re highly wetherle @suh s volni shA will trnsform more quikly into highly developed soilsD wheres prent mterils tht re qurtzErihD for exmpleD will tke longer to developF rent mterils lso provide nutrients to plnts nd n 'et soil internl dringe @eFgF ly is more impermele thn snd nd impedes dringeAF
4.4.2.3.5 Time

sn generlD soil pro(les tend to eome thiker @deeperAD more developedD nd more ltered over timeF roweverD the rte of hnge is greter for soils in youthful stges of developmentF he degree of soil ltertion nd deepening slows with time nd t some pointD fter tens or hundreds of thousnds of yersD my pproh n equilirium ondition where erosion nd deepening @removls nd dditionsA eome lnedF oung soils @< IHDHHH yers oldA re strongly in)uened y prent mteril nd typilly develop horizons nd hrter rpidlyF woderte ge soils @roughly IHDHHH to SHHDHHH yers oldA re slowing in pro(le development nd deepeningD nd my egin to pproh equilirium onditionsF yld soils @>SHHDHHH yers oldA hve generlly rehed their limit s fr s soil horizontion nd physil strutureD ut my ontinue to lter hemilly or minerlogillyF o e sureD soil development is not lwys ontinulF qeologi events n rpidly ury soils @lndslidesD glier dvneD lke trnsgressionAD n use removl or truntion of soils @riversD shorelinesA or n use soil renewl with dditions of slowly deposited sediment tht dd to the soil @wind or )oodplin depositsAF fiologil mixing n sometimes use soil regressionD reversl or ump in the rod for the norml pth of inresing development over timeF

IQW
4.4.3 Ecological and Societal Aspects of Soil

es the medium for ntive plnt growthD griultureD uilding onstrutionD wste disposlD nd pthwy for groundwter in(ltrtionD soil plys n importnt role for mny key tivities of our soietyF oil sientistsD gronomistsD forestersD plnt iologistsD lndEuse plnnersD engineersD rheologistsD nd geologistsD mong othersD ll onsider soil type @ompositionD textureD strutureD densityD etFA in mny spets of their reserh or workF felow re some exmples of the importne of soils in nturl plnt growthD in griultureD nd relted soietl issuesF he longEterm sustinility of soil is vitl to oth humn eologyD even in modern soietyD nd the eology of our nturl surroundingsF
4.4.3.1 Soil-Plant Relations: Natural Processes

oil plys key role in plnt growthF fene(il spets to plnts inlude providing physil supportD hetD wterD nutrientsD nd oxygenF retD lightD nd oxygen re lso otined y the tmosphereD ut the roots of mny plnts lso require oxygenF ilementl nutrientsD dissolved in soil wter solutionD re derived from soil minerls nd orgni mteril @see pigure Soil-Plant Nutrient Cycle @pigure RFIPAAF

Figure 4.12: Soil-Plant Nutrient Cycle.

Figure illustrates the uptake of nutrients by plants in the

forest" soil ecosystem. Source: U.S. Geological Survey

20

IRH

CHAPTER 4.

BIOSPHERE

lnts minly otin nutrients from dissolved soil solutionsF hough mny spets of soil re ene(il to plntsD exessively high levels of tre metls @either nturlly ourring or nthropogenilly ddedA or pplied heriides n e toxi to some plntsF he rtio of solidsGwterGir in soil is lso ritilly importnt to plnts for proper oxygention levels nd wter vililityF oo muh porosity with ir speD suh s in sndy or grvelly soilsD n led to less ville wter to plntsD espeilly during dry sesons when the wter tle is lowF oo muh wterD in poorly drined regionsD n led to noxi onditions in the soilD whih my e toxi to some plntsF rydrophyti vegettion n hndle noxi onditions nd is thus suitle to poorly drined soils in wetlnd resF
4.4.3.1.1 Nutrient Uptake by Plants

everl elements otined from soil re onsidered essentil for plnt growthF wronutrientsD inluding gD rD yD xD D uD gD wgD nd D re needed y plnts in signi(nt quntitiesF gD rD nd y re minly otined from the tmosphere or from rinwterF hese three elements re the min omponents of most orgni ompoundsD suh s proteinsD lipidsD rohydrtesD nd nulei idsF yxygen generlly serves s n eletron eptor nd is required y roots of mny plntsF he other six elements @xD D uD gD wgD nd A re otined y plnt roots from the soil nd re vriously used for protein synthesisD hlorophyll synthesisD energy trnsferD ell divisionD enzyme retionsD nd osmoti or ioni regultionF wironutrients re essentil elements tht re needed only in smll quntitiesD ut n still e limiting to plnt growth sine these nutrients re not so undnt in ntureF wironutrients inlude iron @peAD mngnese @wnAD oron @fAD molydenum @woAD hlorine @glAD zin @nAD nd opper @guAF here re some other elements tht tend to id plnt growth ut re not solutely essentilF wironutrients nd mronutrients re desirle in prtiulr onentrtions nd n e detrimentl to plnt growth when onentrtions in soil solution re either too low @limitingA or too high @toxiityAF ilementl nutrients re useful to plnts only if they re in n extrtle form in soil solutionsD suh s n exhngele tionD rther thn in solid minerl grinF es nutrients re used up in the miroenvironment surrounding plnt9s rootsD the replenishment of nutrients in soil solution is dependent on three spetsX @A the rte of dissolutionGltertion of soil minerls into elementl onstituentsD @A the relese rte of orgnilly ound nutrientsD nd @A the rte of di'usion of nutrients through the soil solution to the re of root uptkeF wny nutrients move through the soil nd into the root system s result of onentrtion grdientsD moving y di'usion from high to low onentrtionsF roweverD some nutrients re seletively dsored y the root memrnesD suh tht elementl onentrtions of solutions within plnts my di'er from tht in soil solutionsF wost nutrients exist s exhngele tions tht re quired y roots from the soil solution" rther thn from minerl or prtile surfesF snorgni hemil proesses nd orgni proessesD suh s the tion of soil miroorgnismsD n help to relese elementl nutrients from minerl grins into the soil environmentF
4.4.3.2 Soil Health and Agricultural Impacts: Soil as a Sustainable Resource 4.4.3.2.1 Soil Health and Sustainability

yverll soil helth n generlly e de(ned s the pity of the soil to funtion in wy tht in(ltrtes wter nd yles nutrients to support plnt growthF vong term helth of ntive soil is in mny ses improved y disturing the soil lessD growing greter diversity of ropsD mintining living roots in the soilD nd keeping the soil overed with residueF tle soil ggregtes re importnt for soil helth s they promote proper in(ltrtion nd thus limit the mount of wter runo' "this hs the dded ene(t of reduing soil erosion nd downstrem )ooding nd sedimenttionF wngement of soil on frms my inlude use of tillgeD fertilizerD pestiidesD nd other tools tht my improve soil helth if used orretlyY howeverD signi(nt dmge to soil my result otherwiseF illge with
20 httpXGGpusFusgsFgovGfsGPHHWGQHUVG

IRI plow or disk is n e physilly disruptive to soil fun nd miroesF he omplex reltions etween soil nd plnt lifeD whih hve evolved into sustinle reltionship in the nturl worldD n e distured hemilly y misuse or overuse of fertilizers or pestiidesF husD to mintin soil helthD one needs to understnd the hemilD iologilD nd physil proesses tht operte in the nturl soil pro(leF o the extent possileD we must work with the omplexity of proesses tht funtion in helthy soil nd limit our disturnes to only those tht re lerD prtil neessityF fiodiversity is nother importnt spet to onsiderD euse inresing the iodiversity of plnts tht re grown in soil n limit disese nd pest prolems nd llow for etter funtioning food weF wore diversity in plnts ove ground leds to more diversity in the susurfe food weF gonsequentlyD inresing the diversity of pproprite rop rottion in griulturl lnds n ultimtely led to etter soil helth nd limit prolems in the long runF
4.4.3.2.2 Agriculture and Food Capacity

oils on rle lnds glolly re resoure to soiety with potentil use for food produtionF rodution is ultimtely limited y soil typeD limteD hydrologyD nd lnd mngementF he ntive soil type is wht hs een provided y the lndD from enturies or millenni of soil developmentD typilly under mostly nturl onditions under ntive plnt vegettionF he e'et of humn popultions my hve een to drin lnd for ultivtion @'eting hydrologyAD to modify the lndspeD uild struturesD nd to remove ntive vegettionF ome modi(tions hve ided with food produtionF ythers hve hd unintended onsequenes of using lnd degrdtionD suh s sliniztionD topsoil erosionD omptionD pollutionD deserti(tionD or depletion of soil nutrientsF ome of these issues re of serious onern in developing ountries where oversight nd regultions proteting the lnd my not e in pleF por instneD overgrzing nd rpid deforesttion of the lndD nd generlly poor lnd mngementD n lower the orgni mtter ontent of surfe soilsD thus lowering fertility nd inresing the likelihood of topsoil erosion due to removl of the protetive vegettive overingF es the world9s popultion ontinues to inreseD we will need to (nd wys to ontinully inrese @or more e'etively utilizeA food prodution pity from n essentilly (xed mount of rle lnd worldwideF es popultion density hs inresedD rop yields nd the numers of res in prodution hve een ontinully inresingD with tehnologil dvnes nd more lnd in griultureF his is not sustinle trendD thoughD sine the lnd re on erth is (niteF sn ftD some prime frmlnd is even eing removed from prodution in developed ountries s urniztion nd lnd development our on the everEexpnding edges of popultion entersF i'orts will need to e mde to preserve enough high yield frmlnd to e sustinle for future genertionsF
4.4.3.2.3 Soil Compaction, Tillage, and Sustainable Practices

sn modern griulturl prtiesD hevy mhinery is used to prepre the seededD for plntingD to ontrol weedsD nd to hrvest the ropF he use of hevy equipment hs mny dvntges in sving time nd lorD ut n use omption of soil nd disruption of the nturl soil iotF wuh omption is reversile nd some is unvoidle with modern prtiesY howeverD serious omption issues n our with exessive pssge of equipment during times when the soil hs high wter ontentF he prolem with soil omption is tht inresed soil density limits root penetrtion depth nd my inhiit proper plnt growthF gurrent prties generlly enourge miniml tillge or no tillge in order to redue the numer of trips ross the (eldF ith proper plnningD this n simultneously limit omptionD protet soil iotD redue osts @if performed orretlyAD promote wter in(ltrtionD nd help to prevent topsoil erosion @see elowAF illge of (elds does help to rek up lods tht were previously omptedD so est prties my vry t sites with di'erent soil textures nd ompositionF grop rottion n lso help to redue ulk density with plnting of rops with di'erent root depth penetrtionF enother spet of soil tillge is tht it my led to more rpid deomposition of orgni mtter due to greter soil ertionF yver lrge res of frmlndD this hs the unintended onsequene of relesing more ron nd nitrous oxides @greenhouse gsesA into the tmosphereD therey ontriuting to glol wrming e'etsF sn noEtill frmingD ron n tully eome

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CHAPTER 4.

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sequestered into the soilF husD noEtill frming my e dvntgeous to sustinility issues on the lol sle nd the glol sleF
4.4.3.2.4 Soil Erosion

eelerted erosion of topsoil due to humn tivities nd poor griulturl lnd mngement is potentilly serious issueF he res most vulnerle to soil erosion inlude lotions with thin orgni @e nd yA horizons nd hilly terrins @see pigure Water Erosion Vulnerability @pigure RFIQAAF

Figure 4.13: Water Erosion Vulnerability.

tional Resource Conservation Service Wikimedia Commons

Figure shows a global map of soil erosion vulnerability Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Na-

and includes a photograph of water and wind erosion.

21

23

, Rodney Burton via Wikimedia Commons

22

, and Jim Bain via

ome mount of soil erosion is nturl proess long sloping res ndGor in res with soft or nonE ohesive mterils suseptile to movement y wterD windD or grvityF por instneD soil mteril n e moilized in strong windstormsD long the nks of riversD in lndslidesD or y wve tion long ostE linesF et most topsoil erosion results from wter in)uened proesses suh s in riversD reeksD rvinesD smll gulliesD nd overlnd )ow or sheetwsh from stormwter runo'F elthough some soil erosion is nturlD nthropogeni @humnEinduedA proesses hve gretly elerted the erosion rte in mny resF gonE strution nd griulture re two of the more signi(nt tivities in our modern soiety tht hve inresed
21 httpXGGsoilsFusdFgovGuseGworldsoilsGmpindexGeroshPoFhtml 22 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXoilerosionDigoroughDomersetEgeogrphForgFukEIQQVQWFjpg 23 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXoilerosionDrownoutEgeogrphForgFukEQTUWISFjpg

IRQ erosion rtesF sn oth sesD the erosion of topsoil n e signi(nt if poor lnd mngement prties re used or if the re is geologilly sensitiveF por instneD in the IWQH9sD drought onditions nd poor lnd mngement methods @lk of over rops nd rottionA omined to result in severe wind erosion nd dust storms in the qret lins of the nited ttesD whih me to e known s the hust fowlF heep plowing of soil nd displement of the originl pririe grsses @tht one held the soil togetherA lso ontriuted to the risisF yne the nturl topsoil is eroded y wind or wterD it is only slowly renewle to its former preEeroded onditionF st my tke nywhere from severl dedes to hundreds of yers to millenniD under replnted ntive vegettionD to restore the soil to reltively nturl @preEdisturedA stte with its originl physilD hemilD nd iologil hrteristisF purthermoreD when soil is erodedD the prtiles eome sedimented downstrem in stremsD riversD lkesD nd reservoirsF sf rpidD this sedimenttion n deteriorte the wter qulity with sediment nd griulturl hemilsF fetter lnd mngement prtiesD suh s more limited tillge or noEtill prtiesD n help to gretly limit soil erosion to rte tht is sustinle over the long termF rties tody re somewht improved overllD ut more improvement in griulturl prties re needed over lrge res of frmlnd in the nited ttes nd other ountries to ring us on pth to longEterm sustinility of griulturl lndsF heforesttion due to loggingD onstrutionD or inresed (re ourrenes n lso use signi(nt inreses in soil erosion in mny res glolly nd my e prtiulr prolem in developing ountriesF emovl of the nturl over of vegettion enhnes erosion sine plnt folige tends to u'er the intensity of rinfll nd roots hold soil together nd prevent rekup nd erosionF purthermoreD deomposing plnt mteril provides protetive over of orgni mteril on the soil surfeF tersheds with lrge res of onstrution or deforesttion n experiene severl times the nturl erosion rteF sn suh wtershedsD strems n eome logged with unwnted sediment tht disturs the nturl eosystem nd in(lls vlule wetlnd resD in ddition to the prolem of vlule topsoil loss from uplnd resF
4.4.3.2.5 Fertilizer Runo, Ecological Eects, and Dead Zones

xutrients in soil nd wter re generlly ene(il when they exist t nturlly ourring levelsF xitrogen fertilizers hve een pplied to frm (elds for dedes in order to mximize prodution of griulturl lndsF roweverD n unintended onsequene is tht the sme nutrients n e detrimentl to quti eosystems when introdued exessively for griulturl or other purposesF xitrogen @xA nd hosphorus @A re inE trodued y fertilizers tht re used intensively in griultureD s well s golf ourses nd some lwns nd grdensF prm niml wste nd sewge lso provide lrge mounts of retive x nd F hosphorus ws formerly used hevily s n dditive in lundry nd dishwter detergentsD ut sine the IWUH9s it hs een phsed out in oth through omintion of stte nd federl regultionsF yverllD our modern soiety hs ltered the glol x nd yles suh tht there is n overundne in mny settingsF elthough tmospheri nitrogen gs is undntD the gs is neither retive nor utilized y most plntsF etive nitrogenD in nitrte nd mmoni fertilizersD is utilized y plnts t some rteF roweverD exessive nutrients @not utilizedA re often wshed into dringe wysD stremsD nd rivers during rinfll nd storm eventsF righ x nd levels in surfe wter runo' hve the e'et of drmtilly inresing lge growth downstrem due to eutrophi onditionsF he lgl looms hve the unwnted e'et of strong dereses in dissolved oxygenD whih is needed for survivl of (sh nd other quti lifeF inhned lge growth n thus disrupt norml funtioning of the eosystem nd use wht re known s 4ded zones4 @see pigure Aquatic Dead Zones @pigure RFIRAAF he wters my lolly eome loudy nd olored shde of greenD rownD or redF iutrophition n our nturllyD ut it hs een gretly enhned due to the use of fertilizersF es result of eutrophitionD mny ostl wters ontin inresingly prolemti ded zones where mjor rivers dishrge nutrientErih griulturl runo' or poorly treted sewge nd wstewter @eFgF qulf of wexioD ghespeke fyD flti eD ist ghin eA @see pigure Aquatic Dead Zones @pigure RFIRAAF his issue is of gret importne euse the ded zones re ner inhited ostlines with ommerilly nd eologilly vitl quti lifeF

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Figure 4.14: Aquatic Dead Zones.

The red circles show the size of many of our planet's dead

(hypoxia) zones, whereas the plain black dots are dead zones of unknown size. Darker blue colors show high concentrations of particulate organic matter, an indication of overly fertile waters (high in N and P). Most dead zones occur in downriver of agricultural areas (with overused fertilizer) or areas of high population density with poorly treated wastewater. Source: NASA Earth Observatory via Wikimedia Commons

24

and Lamiot via Wikimedia Commons

25

yne of the most notorious ded zones @seond to the flti eA is n VDSHH squre mile region in the qulf of wexio @see pigure Aquatic Dead Zones @pigure RFIRAAF he wississippi iver dumps highEnutrient runo' from its dringe sin tht inludes vst griulturl lnds in the emerin widwestF snresed lgl growth produed y these nutrients hs 'eted importnt shrimp (shing grounds in the qulfF he primry soure of the nutrients is the hevily tileEdrined res of frmlnd in the widwest orn nd soyen elt @ winnesotD x sowD xi sllinoisD x sndin nd x yhioAF smproved soil dringe systems over the pst entury or more hve llowed for e'etive trnsport of nitrte ompounds s stormwter runo' into dringe sins @yhio iverD sh iverD sllinois iverD wissouri iverD etFA tht feed into the wississippi iverF sn other wordsD the sme dringe tiles tht llow for the griulturl ene(t of hving rih ottomlndGwetlnd soils in produtionD hve the disdvntge of inresed nd more rpid movements of nitrte solutes to the qulf of wexioF uh lrgeEsle prolemsD ross stte governmentl oundriesD n only e fully ddressed in the future with ntionl system of inentivesD regultionsD or lwsF sn ddition to fertilizersD xitrogen inputs to wtersheds n lso inlude tmospheri depositionD liveE stok wsteD nd sewgeD ut nitrogen fertilizers omprise signi(nt mjority of the input to monitored stremsD prtiulrly in springtime when muh fertilizer is ppliedF ossile solutions to this prolem inlude enourging frmers to pply more limited quntity of fertilizer in the spring @only s muh s neessryAD rther thn in the fllD to llow for onsiderly less time for stormwter or meltwter runo'F yther solutions inlude mintining over ropsD or restoring wetlnds in key lotions to ontin nitrte lossesF en overll strtegy tht limits the exess pity of nutrients n simultneously ene(t frmers @y limiting ostAD the eology of strem wtersheds nd ostl eosystems @lso lolly stressed y oil spills nd other pollutionAF
24 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXequtihedonesFjpg 25 httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITPHGltestG

IRS yver the long termD more e'orts will need to e mde in the wississippi iver fsinD nd glolly in similrly stressed griulturl or urn wtersheds @see pigure Aquatic Dead Zones @pigure RFIRAAD to improve the helth nd sustinility of our soilD lndD nd quti eosystemsF
4.4.4 Review Questions
Question 4.4.1 Question 4.4.2 Question 4.4.3

ht is the importne of soil to our soiety todyc row hs humn tivity hnged the physilD hemilD or iologil hrter of ntive soilc ht prties n e used to improve the longEterm sustinility of soil helthc

4.4.5 Further Reading

rssettD tFtF 8 fnwrtD FvF @IWWPAF Soils and Their EnvironmentF xew terseyX rentieErllF firkelndD FF @IWWWAF Soils and GeomorphologyF vondonX yxford niversity ressF e welth of informtion my e otined from your lol ounty soil report @heA or online26 D inluding detiled intertive soil mpsD long with useful dt onerning soil types nd their physil nd hemil properties @useful for home ownersD in onstrutionD lndEuse plnningD griultureD etFAF

26 httpXGGwesoilsurveyFnrsFusdFgovGppGromegeFhtm

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CHAPTER 4.

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Chapter 5
Physical Resources: Water, Pollution, and Minerals

5.1 Physical Resources: Water, Pollution, and Minerals - Chapter Introduction

1

5.1.1 Introduction

terD irD nd food re the most importnt nturl resoures to peopleF rumns n live only few minutes without oxygenD out week without wterD nd out month without foodF ter lso is essentil for our oxygen nd food supplyF lntsD whih require wter to surviveD provide oxygen through photosynthesis nd form the se of our food supplyF lnts grow in soilD whih forms y wethering retions etween wter nd rokF ter is the most essentil ompound for irth9s life in generlF rumn ies re pproximtely US7 wter nd dults re SH!TH7 wterF yur rin is out VS7 wterD lood nd kidneys re VQ7 wterD musles re UT7 wterD nd even ones re PP7 wterF e onstntly lose wter y perspirtionY in temperte limtes we should drink out P qurts of wter per dy nd people in hot desert limtes should drink up to IH qurts of wter per dyF voss of IS7 of odyEwter usully uses dethF irth is truly the ter lnet @see pigure Planet Earth from Space @pigure SFIAAF he undne of wter on irth distinguishes us from other odies in the solr systemF eout UH7 of irth9s surfe is overed y oens nd pproximtely hlf of irth9s surfe is osured y louds t ny timeF here is very lrge volume of wter on our plnetD out IFR illion ui kilometers @kmQA @QQH million ui milesA or out SQ illion gllons per person on irthF ell of irth9s wter ould over the nited ttes to depth of IRS km @WH miAF prom humn perspetiveD the prolem is tht over WU7 of it is sewterD whih is too slty to drink or use for irrigtionF he most ommonly used wter soures re rivers nd lkesD whih ontin less thn HFHI7 of the world9s wter3
1 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRISPQGIFQGbF

IRU

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CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

Figure 5.1: Planet Earth from Space

Wikimedia Commons

Source:

Created by Marvel, based on a Nasa image via

yne of our most importnt environmentl gols is to provide lenD su0ientD nd sustinle wter supply for the worldF portuntelyD wter is renewle resoureD nd it is di0ult to destroyF ivportion nd preipittion omine to replenish our fresh wter supply onstntly nd quiklyY howeverD wter vilility is omplited y its uneven distriution over the irthF erid limte nd densely populted res hve omined in mny prts of the world to rete wter shortgesD whih re projeted to worsen signi(ntly in the oming yersF rumn tivities suh s wter overuse nd wter pollution hve ompounded the wter risis tht exists todyF rundreds of millions of people lk ess to sfe drinking wterD nd illions
2 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXottingerth@lrgeAFgif

IRW of people lk ess to improved snittion s simple s pit ltrineF es resultD nerly two million people die every yer from dirrhel diseses nd WH7 of those deths our mong hildren under the ge of SF wost of these re esily prevented dethsF elthough few minerls re solutely essentil for humn lifeD the things tht de(ne modern soiety require wide rnge of themX iron ore for steelD phosphte minerls for fertilizerD limestone rok for onE reteD rre erth elements for nightEvision goggles nd phosphors in omputer monitorsD nd lithium minerls for tteries in our lptopsD ell phonesD nd eletri rsF es glol popultion grows nd emerging lrge eonomies expndD we will fe risis in the supply of mny importnt minerls euse they re nonE renewleD whih is to sy we onsume them fr more quikly thn nture retes themF es we onsume minerls from lrger nd lower grde minerl deposits there will e greter environmentl impts from minerl mining nd proessingF he impending minerl risis my e more hllenging to ddress thn the wter risisF his hpter introdues si priniples in wter supplyD wter pollutionD nd minerl resouresF he emphsisD howeverD is on environmentl issues nd sustinle solutions for eh prolemF

5.2 Water Cycle and Fresh Water Supply

5.2.1 Learning Objectives

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

understnd how the wter yle opertes understnd the priniples ontrolling groundwter resoures nd how they lso n 'et surfe wter resoures know the uses nd e'ets of depletion in di'erent wter reservoirs understnd how we n work towrd solving the wter supply risis

5.2.2 Water Reservoirs and Water Cycle

ter is the only sustne tht ours nturlly on erth in three formsX solidD liquid nd gsF st is distriuted in vrious lotionsD lled water reservoirsF he oens re y fr the lrgest of the reservoirs with out WU7 of ll wter ut tht wter is too sline for most humn uses @see pigure Earth's Water Reservoirs @pigure SFPAAF se ps nd gliers re the lrgest reservoirs of fresh wter ut this wter is inonveniently lotedD mostly in entrti nd qreenlndF hllow groundwter is the lrgest reservoir of usle fresh wterF elthough rivers nd lkes re the most hevily used wter resouresD they represent only tiny mount of the world9s wterF sf ll of world9s wter ws shrunk to the size of I gllonD then the totl mount of fresh wter would e out IGQ upD nd the mount of redily usle fresh wter would e P tlespoonsF
3 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIQWUGIFSGbF

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CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

Figure 5.2: Earth's Water Reservoirs Bar chart Distribution of Earth's water including total global
water, fresh water, and surface water and other fresh water and Pie chart Water usable by humans and sources of usable water. Source: United States Geographical Survey Water Resources

Igor Skiklomanov's chapter "World

fresh water resources" in Peter H. Gleick (editor), 1993, Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Fresh

he water cycle shows the movement of wter through di'erent reservoirsD whih inlude oensD tE mosphereD gliersD groundwterD lkesD riversD nd iosphere @see pigure The Water Cycle @pigure SFQAAF olr energy nd grvity drive the motion of wter in the wter yleF imply putD the wter yle involves wter moving from the oen to the tmosphere y evportionD forming loudsF prom loudsD it flls s preipittion @rin nd snowA on oth wter nd lndD where it n move in vriety of wysF he wter on lnd n either return to the oen y surface runo @unhnnelized overlnd )owAD riversD gliersD nd susurfe groundwter )owD or return to the tmosphere y evportion or transpiration @loss of wter y plnts to the tmosphereAF
4 httpXGGgFwterFusgsFgovGeduGerthwherewterFhtml

ISI

Figure 5.3: The Water Cycle Arrows depict movement of water to dierent reservoirs located above,
at, and below Earth's surface. Source: United States Geological Survey

en importnt prt of the wter yle is how wter vries in slinityD whih is the undne of dissolved ions in wterF yen wter is lled slt wter euse it is highly slineD with out QSDHHH mg of dissolved ions per liter of sewterF Evaporation @where wter hnges from liquid to gs t mient temperturesA is distilltion proess tht produes nerly pure wter with lmost no dissolved ionsF es wter vporizesD it leves the dissolved ions in the originl liquid phseF iventullyD condensation @where wter hnges from gs to liquidA forms louds nd sometimes preipittion @rin nd snowAF efter rinwter flls onto lndD it dissolves minerlsD whih inreses its slinityF wost lkesD riversD nd nerEsurfe groundwter hve reltively low slinity nd re lled fresh wterF he next severl setions disuss importnt prts of the wter yle reltive to fresh wter resouresF
5.2.3 Primary Fresh Water Resources: Precipitation

reipittion is mjor ontrol of fresh wter vililityD nd it is unevenly distriuted round the gloe @see pigure World Rainfall Map @pigure SFRAAF wore preipittion flls ner the equtorD nd lndmsses there re hrterized y tropil rinforest limteF vess preipittion tends to fll ner PH!QH north nd south ltitudeD where the world9s lrgest deserts re lotedF hese rinfll nd limte ptterns re relted to glol wind irultion ellsF he intense sunlight t the equtor hets irD using it to rise nd oolD
5 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXteryleFpng

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CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

whih dereses the ility of the ir mss to hold wter vpor nd results in frequent rinstormsF eround QH north nd south ltitudeD desending ir onditions produe wrmer irD whih inreses its ility to hold wter vpor nd results in dry onditionsF foth the dry ir onditions nd the wrm tempertures of these ltitude elts fvor evportionF qlol preipittion nd limte ptterns re lso 'eted y the size of ontinentsD mjor oen urrentsD nd mountinsF

Figure 5.4: World Rainfall Map The false-color map above shows the amount of rain that falls around
the world. Areas of high rainfall include Central and South America, western Africa, and Southeast Asia. Since these areas receive so much rainfall, they are where most of the world's rainforests grow. Areas with very little rainfall usually turn into deserts. western North America, and Central Asia. Houston Museum Natural Science The desert areas include North Africa, the Middle East, Source: United States Geological Survey

Earth Forum,

5.2.4 Surface Water Resources: Rivers, Lakes, Glaciers

plowing wter from rin nd melted snow on lnd enters river hnnels y surfe runo' @see pigure Surface Runo @pigure SFSAA nd groundwter seepge @see pigure Groundwater Seepage @pigure SFTAAF River discharge desries the volume of wter moving through river hnnel over time @see pigure River Discharge @pigure SFUAAF he reltive ontriutions of surfe runo' vsF groundwter seepge to river dishrge depend on preipittion ptternsD vegettionD topogrphyD lnd useD nd soil hrteristisF oon fter hevy rinstormD river dishrge inreses due to surfe runo'F he stedy norml )ow of river wter is minly from groundwter tht dishrges into the riverF qrvity pulls river wter downhill towrd the oenF elong the wy the moving wter of river n erode soil prtiles nd dissolve minerlsD reting
6 httpXGGgFwterFusgsFgovGeduGwterylesummryFhtml

ISQ the river9s lod of moving sediment grins nd dissolved ionsF qroundwter lso ontriutes lrge mount of the dissolved ions in river wterF he geogrphi re drined y river nd its triutries is lled drainage basinF he wississippi iver dringe sin inludes pproximtely RH7 of the FFD mesure tht inludes the smller dringe sins @lso lled wtershedsAD suh s the yhio iver nd wissouri iver tht help to omprise itF ivers re n importnt wter resoure for irrigtion nd mny ities round the worldF ome of the world9s rivers tht hve hd interntionl disputes over wter supply inlude the golordo @wexioD southwest FFAD xile @igyptD ithiopiD udnAD iuphrtes @srqD yriD urkeyAD qnges @fngldeshD sndiAD nd tordn @ssrelD tordnD yriAF

Figure 5.5: Surface Runo

M. Pease

Surface runo, part of overland ow in the water cycle Source: James

at Wikimedia Commons

7 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXuno'Fjpg

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CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

Figure 5.6: Groundwater Seepage Groundwater seepage can be seen in Box Canyon in Idaho, where
approximately 10 cubic meters per second of seepage emanates from its vertical headwall. Source: NASA

8 httpXGGstroiologyFnsFgovGrtilesGerosionEonEerthEndEmrsEmereEseepgeEorEmeg)oodG

ISS

Figure 5.7: River Discharge Colorado River, U.S..

Rivers are part of overland ow in the water cycle

and an important surface water resource. Source: Gonzo fan2007

at Wikimedia Commons

vkes n lso e n exellent soure of fresh wter for humn useF hey usully reeive wter from surfe runo' nd groundwter dishrgeF hey tend to e shortElived on geologil timeEsle euse they re onstntly (lling in with sediment supplied y riversF vkes form in vriety of wys inluding glition @qret vkesD xorth emeriD ee pigure Great Lakes from Space @pigure SFVAAD reent tetoni uplift @vke ngnyikD efriAD nd volni eruptions @grter vkeD yregonAF eople lso rete rti(il lkes @reservoirsA y dmming riversF vrge hnges in limte n result in mjor hnges in lke9s sizeF es irth ws oming out of the lst se ege out (fteen thousnd yers goD the limte in the western FF hnged from ool nd moist to wrm nd ridD whih used more thnIHH lrge lkes to dispperF he qret lt vke in th is remnnt of muh lrger lke lled vke fonnevilleF
9 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXyverlookoverthegolordoFtq

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CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

Figure 5.8: Great Lakes from Space The Great Lakes hold 21% of the world's surface fresh water.
Lakes are an important surface water resource. Source: SeaWiFS Project, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, and ORBIMAGE

10

elthough gliers represent the lrgest reservoir of fresh wterD they generlly re not used s wter soure euse they re loted too fr from most people @see pigure Mountain Glacier in Argentina @pigure SFWAAF welting gliers do provide nturl soure of river wter nd groundwterF huring the lst se ege there ws s muh s SH7 more wter in gliers thn there is todyD whih used se level to e out IHH m lowerF yver the pst enturyD se level hs een rising in prt due to melting gliersF sf irth9s limte ontinues to wrmD the melting gliers will use n dditionl rise in se levelF
10 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXqretvkesfromspeFjpg

ISU

Figure 5.9: Mountain Glacier in Argentina Glaciers are the largest reservoir of fresh water but they
are not used much as a water resource directly by society because of their distance from most people. Source: Luca Galuzzi - www.galuzzi.it

11

5.2.5 Groundwater Resources

elthough most people in the FF nd the world use surfe wterD groundwter is muh lrger reservoir of usle fresh wterD ontining more thn QH times more wter thn rivers nd lkes ominedF qroundwter is prtiulrly importnt resoure in rid limtesD where surfe wter my e sreF sn dditionD groundwter is the primry wter soure for rurl homeownersD providing WV7 of tht wter demnd in the FFF Groundwater is wter loted in smll spesD lled pore spaceD etween minerl grins nd frtures in susurfe erth mterils @rok or sedimentD iFeFD loose grinsAF qroundwter is not loted in underground rivers or lkes exept where there re vesD whih re reltively rreF fetween the lnd surfe nd the depth where there is groundwter is the unsaturated zoneD where pore spes ontin only ir nd wter (lms on minerl grins @see pigure Subsurface Water Terminology @pigure SFIHAAF12 felow the unsturted zone is the saturated zoneD where groundwter ompletely (lls pore spes in erth mterilsF he interfe etween the unsturted zone nd sturted zone is the water tableF wost groundwter origintes from rin or snowmeltD whih in(ltrtes the ground nd moves downwrd until it rehes the
hereforeD groundwter is the underground wter resoure used y soiety ut soil moisture is the prinipl wter supply for most plnts nd is n importnt ftor in griulturl produtivityF
11 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXeritoworenoqliertgoniergentinvuqluzziPHHSFtq 12 qroundwter is the nme for wter in the sturted zone nd soil moisture desries wter in the unsturted zoneF

ISV

CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

sturted zoneF yther soures of groundwter inlude seepge from surfe wter @lkesD riversD reservoirsD nd swmpsAD surfe wter deliertely pumped into the groundD irrigtionD nd underground wstewter tretment systemsD iFeFD septi tnksF Recharge areas re lotions where surfe wter in(ltrtes the ground rther thn running o' into rivers or evportingF etlnds nd )t vegetted res in generl re exellent rehrge resF

Figure 5.10: Subsurface Water Terminology

Groundwater in pore spaces and fractures of earth

materials, saturated zone, unsaturated zone, and water table, which follows land surface but in a more subdued way. Source: United States Geological Survey

13

qroundwter is in onstnt motion due to interonnetion etween pore spesF Porosity is the perentE ge of pore spe in n erth mteril nd it gives mesure of how muh groundwter n erth mteril n holdF Permeability is mesure of the speed tht groundwter n )ow through n erth mterilD nd it depends on the size nd degree of interonnetion mong poresF en erth mteril tht is ple of supplying groundwter from well t useful rte"iFeFD it hs reltively high permeility nd medium to high porosity"is lled n aquiferF ixmples of quifers re erth mterils with undntD lrgeD wellEonneted pore spes suh s sndD grvelD unemented sndstoneD nd ny highly frtured rokF en erth mteril with low hydruli ondutivity is n aquitardF ixmples of quitrds inlude lyD shle @sedimentry rok with undnt lyAD nd igneous nd metmorphi rokD if they ontin few frturesF es disussed oveD groundwter )ows euse most erth mterils ner the surfe hve (nite @nonzeroA porosity nd permeility vluesF enother reson for groundwter movement is tht the surfe of the wter tle ommonly is not ompletely )t ut mimis the topogrphy of the lnd surfeD espeilly in humid limtesF here is 4topogrphy4 to the wter tle euse groundwter moves slowly through rok nd soilD so it uilds up in higher elevtion resF sn ftD when groundwter )ows slowly through
13 httpXGGgFwterFusgsFgovGeduGgwhowto(ndFhtml

ISW quitrds nd deep undergroundD it n tke mny thousnds of yers to move reltively short distnesF en unconned aquifer hs no quitrd ove it ndD thereforeD it is exposed to the tmosphere nd surfe wters through interonneted pores @ee pigure Flowing Groundwater @pigure SFIIAAF sn n unon(ned quiferD groundwter )ows euse of grvity to lower wter tle levelsD where it eventully my discharge or leve the groundwter )ow systemF hishrge res inlude riversD lkesD swmpsD reservoirsD wter wellsD nd springs @see pigure Fatzael Springs in Jordan Valley @pigure SFIPAAF prings re rivers tht emerge from underground due to n rupt intersetion of the lnd surfe nd the wter tle used y jointsD vesD or fults tht ring permele erth mterils to the surfeF e conned aquifer is ounded y quitrds elow nd oveD whih prevents rehrge from the surfe immeditely oveF snstedD the mjor rehrge ours where the on(ned quifer interepts the lnd surfeD whih my e long distne from wter wells nd dishrge res @see pigure Schematic Cross Section of Aquifer Types @pigure SFIQAAF gon(ned quifers re ommonly inlined wy from rehrge resD so groundwter in on(ned quifer is under greterEthnEtmospheri pressure due to the weight of wter in the upslope diretionF imilr to river dishrgeD groundwter dishrge desries the volume of wter moving through n quifer over timeF otl groundwter dishrge depends on the permeility of the erth mterilD the pressure tht drives groundwter )owD nd the size of the quiferF st is importnt to determine groundwter dishrge to evlute whether n quifer n meet the wter needs of n reF

Figure 5.11: Flowing Groundwater

Blue lines show the direction of groundwater in unconned

aquifers, conned aquifers, and conning beds. Deep groundwater moves very slowly especially through low permeability layers.Source: United States Geological Survey

14

14 httpXGGgFwterFusgsFgovGeduGwterylegwdishrgeFhtml

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CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

Figure 5.12: Fatzael Springs in Jordan Valley

Hanay

A spring is a river that emerges from underground

due to an abrupt intersection of the water table with the land surface such as alongside a hill. Source:

15

at Mediawiki Commons

15 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXptzelpringsndwtersystemHIUFtq

ITI

Figure 5.13: Schematic Cross Section of Aquifer Types

This gure shows dierent types of

aquifers and water wells, including unconned aquifer, conned aquifer, water table well, artesian well, and owing artesian well. Point of triangle is water level in each well and water table in other parts of gure. Water level in artesian well is at potentiometric surface and above local water table (dashed blue line) due to extra pressure on groundwater in conned aquifer. above land surface. Source: Colorado Geological Survey Water in owing artesian well moves

16

wost shllow wter wells re drilled into unon(ned quifersF hese re lled water table wells euse the wter level in the well oinides with the wter tle @ee pigure Schematic Cross Section of Aquifer Types @pigure SFIQAAF WH7 of ll quifers for wter supply re unon(ned quifers omposed of snd or grvelF o produe wter from wellD you simply need to drill hole tht rehes the sturted zone nd then pump wter to the surfeF ettempting to pump wter from the unsturted zone is like drinking root eer with strw immersed only in the fom t the topF o (nd lrge quifer for ityD hydrogeologists @geologists who speilize in groundwterA use vriety of informtion inluding knowledge of erth mterils t the surfe nd suEsurfe s well s test wellsF ome people serh for wter y dowsingD where someone holds forked stik or wire @lled divining rodA while wlking over n reF he stik supposedly rottes or de)ets downwrd when the dowser psses over wterF gontrolled tests show tht dowser9s suess is equl to or less thn rndom hneF xeverthelessD in mny res wter wells re still drilled on dowser9s dvie sometimes for onsiderle moneyF here is no sienti( sis to dowsingF ells into on(ned quifers typilly re deeper thn those into unon(ned quifers euse they must penetrte on(ning lyerF he wter level in well drilled into on(ned quiferD whih is n artesian wellD @see pigure Schematic Cross Section of Aquifer Types @pigure SFIQAAD moves ove the lol
16 httpXGGgeosurveyFstteFoFusGppsGwtertlsGhpterPpgePFsp

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CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

wter tle to level lled the potentiometri surfe euse of the greter pressure on the groundwterF ter in )owing well @see pigure A Flowing Well @pigure SFIRAA moves ll of the wy to the lnd surfe without pumpingF

ITQ

Figure 5.14: A Flowing Well Flowing artesian well where water moves above the land surface due to
extra pressure on the groundwater in a conned aquifer. Source: Environment Canada

17

ITR

CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

e on(ned quifer tends to e depleted from groundwter pumping more quikly thn n unon(ned quiferD ssuming similr quifer properties nd preipittion levelsF his is euse on(ned quifers hve smller rehrge resD whih my e fr from the pumping wellF gonverselyD n unon(ned quifer tends to e more suseptile to pollution euse it is hydrologilly onneted to the surfeD whih is the soure of most pollutionF qroundwter nd surfe wter @riversD lkesD swmpsD nd reservoirsA re strongly interrelted euse oth re prt of the sme overll resoureF wjor groundwter removl @from pumping or droughtA n lower the levels of surfe wter nd vie versF e n de(ne two types of stremsX gining @e1uentA strems nd losing @in)uentA strems @see pigure Interaction of Streams and Ground Water @pigure SFISAAF qining strems tend to e perennil @)ow yer roundAD re hrteristi of humid limtesD hve the wter tle sloping towrds the riverD nd therefore gin wter from groundwter dishrgeF vosing strems tend to e ephemerl @)ow only fter signi(nt rinAD re hrteristi of rid limtesD re loted ove the wter tle @whih slopes wy from the riverAD nd therefore lose wter to groundwter rehrgeF ollution tht is dumped into losing strem will tend to move into the ground nd ould lso ontminte lol groundwterF
17 httpXGGtwFgsGRxH

ITS

Figure 5.15: Interaction of Streams and Ground Water

A) Gaining stream where water table

slopes toward river and groundwater discharges into river, B) Losing stream where water table slopes away from river and river water discharges into groundwater, C) Losing stream where water table is separated from and below river. Source: United States Geological Survey

18

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CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

5.2.6 Water Use in the U.S. and World

eople need wter to produe the foodD energyD nd minerl resoures they use"ommonly lrge mounts of itF gonsiderD for exmpleD these pproximte wter requirements for some things people in the developed world use every dyX one tomto a Q gllonsY one kilowttEhour of eletriity @from thermoeletri power plntA a PI gllonsY one lof of red a ISH gllonsY one pound of eef a IDTHH gllonsY nd one ton of steel a TQDHHH gllonsF rumn eings require only out I gllon per dy to surviveD ut typil person in FF household uses pproximtely IHH gllons per dyD whih inludes ookingD wshing dishes nd lothesD )ushing the toiletD nd thingF he wter demnd of n re is funtion of the popultion nd other uses of wterF here re sevE erl generl tegories of wter useD inluding ostream useD whih removes wter from its soureD eFgFD irrigtionD thermoeletri power genertion @ooling eletriityEproduing equipment in fossil fuelD nulerD nd geotherml power plntsAD industryD nd puli supplyY consumptive useD whih is type of o'strem use where wter does not return to the surfe wter or groundwter system immeditely fter useD eFgFD irrigtion wter tht evportes or goes to plnt growthY nd instream useD whih is wter used ut not removed from riverD mostly for hydroeletri power genertionF he reltive size of these three tegories re instrem use o'strem use > onsumptive useF sn PHHSD the FF used pproximtely QDQHH illion gllons per dy for instrem useD RIH illion gllons per dy for o'strem useD nd IHH illion gllons per dy for onsumptive useF he mjor o'strem uses of tht wter were thermoeletri @RW7AD irrigtion @QI7AD puli supply @II7AD nd industry @R7D see pigure Trends in Total Water Withdrawals by Water-use Category, 1950-2005 @pigure SFITAAF eout IS7 of the totl wter withdrwls in the FF in PHHS were sline wterD whih ws used lmost entirely for thermoeletri power genertionF elmost ll of the wter used for thermoeletri power genertion is returned to the riverD lkeD or oen from where it me ut out hlf of irrigtion wter does not return to the originl soure due to evportionD plnt trnspirtionD nd loss during trnsportD eFgFD leking pipesF otl withdrwls of wter in the FF tully deresed slightly from IWVH to PHHSD despite stedily inresing popultionF his is euse the two lrgest tegories of wter use @thermoeletri nd irrigtionA stilized or deresed over tht time period due to etter wter mngement nd onservtionF sn ontrstD puli supply wter demnd inresed stedily from IWSH @when estimtes egnA through PHHSF epproximtely UU7 of the wter for o'strem use in the FF in PHHS me from surfe wter nd the rest ws from groundwter @see pigure Trends in Source of Fresh Water Withdrawals in the U.S. from 1950 to 2005 @pigure SFIUAAF
18 httpXGGpusFusgsFgovGirGirIIVTGhtmlGgwe'etFhtml

ITU

Figure 5.16: Trends in Total Water Withdrawals by Water-use Category, 1950-2005 Trends
in total water withdrawals in the U.S. from 1950 to 2005 by water use category, including bars for thermoelectric power, irrigation, public water supply, and rural domestic and livestock. Thin blue line represents total water withdrawals using vertical scale on right. Source: United States Geological Survey

19

19 httpXGGgFwterFusgsFgovGeduGwteruseEtrendsFhtml

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CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

Figure 5.17: Trends in Source of Fresh Water Withdrawals in the U.S. from 1950 to 2005
Trends in source of fresh water withdrawals in the U.S. from 1950 to 2005, including bars for surface water, groundwater, and total water. Red line gives U.S. population using vertical scale on right. Source: United States Geological Survey

20

sn ontrst to trends in the FFD glol totl wter use is stedily inresing t rte greter thn world popultion growth @see pigure Trends in World Water Use from 1900 to 2000 and Projected to 2025 @pigure SFIVAAF huring the twentieth entury glol popultion tripled nd wter demnd grew y ftor of sixF he inrese in glol wter demnd eyond the rte of popultion growth is due to improved stndrd of living without n o'set y wter onservtionF snresed prodution of goods nd energy entils lrge inrese in wter demndF he mjor glol o'strem wter uses re irrigtion @TV7AD puli supply @PI7AD nd industry @II7AF
20 httpXGGgFwterFusgsFgovGeduGwteruseEtrendsFhtml

ITW

Figure 5.18: Trends in World Water Use from 1900 to 2000 and Projected to 2025 For each
water major use category, including trends for agriculture, domestic use, and industry. Darker colored bar represents total water extracted for that use category and lighter colored bar represents water consumed (i.e., water that is not quickly returned to surface water or groundwater system) for that use category. Source: Igor A. Shiklomanow, State Hydrological Institute (SHI, St. Petersburg) and United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, Paris), 1999

21

5.2.7 Water Supply Problems: Resource Depletion

es groundwter is pumped from wter wellsD there usully is lolized drop in the wter tle round the well lled cone of depression @see pigure Formation of a Cone of Depression around a Pumping Water Well @pigure SFIWAAF hen there re lrge numer of wells tht hve een pumping wter for long timeD the regionl wter tle n drop signi(ntlyF his is lled groundwater miningD whih n fore the drilling of deeperD more expensive wells tht ommonly enounter more sline groundwterF
21 httpXGGmpsFgridFnoGgoGgrphiGtrendsEinEglolEwterEuseEyEsetor

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CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

he ourrene of mining does not men tht groundwter will never e rehrgedD ut in mny ses the rehrge rte is negligile on humn timeEsleF gon(ned quifers re more suseptile to groundwter mining due to their limited rehrge resF rn development usully worsens groundwter mining euse nturl rehrge rtes drop with the prolifertion of impermele pvementD uildingsD nd rodsF ixtensive groundwter pumping round ghigo hs reted gignti one of depression thereF feuse the wter tle dropped up to PSH m @VHH ftA in the re @see pigure Drop in Water Table in a Conned Aquifer in the Area of Chicago, Illinois and Milwaukee, Wisconsin, U.S. from 1864 - 1980 @pigure SFPHAAD mny lol puli wter suppliers hve swithed to vke wihign wterF ghigo is fortunte to hve lrge lternte supply of fresh wterY mny rid lotions don9t hve tht luxuryF yther ples where groundwter mining is serious prolem inlude the righ lins @yglll equiferA nd the hesert outhwest of the FFD wexioD the widdle istD sndiD nd ghinF iversD lkesD nd rti(il lkes @reservoirsA n lso e depleted due to overuseF ome lrge riversD suh s the golordo in the FF nd ellow in ghinD run dry in some yersF he se history of the erl e disussed elow involves depletion of lkeF pinllyD gliers re eing depleted due to elerted melting ssoited with glol wrming over the pst enturyF

Figure 5.19: Formation of a Cone of Depression around a Pumping Water Well

Fayette County Groundwater Conservation District, TX

22

Source:

22 httpXGGwwwFfyetteountygroundwterFomGedutionlinfoFhtm

IUI

Figure 5.20: Drop in Water Table in a Conned Aquifer in the Area of Chicago, Illinois and Milwaukee, Wisconsin, U.S. from 1864 - 1980 Source: United States Geological Survey23

23 httpXGGpusFusgsFgovGirGirIIVTGhtmlGgwstorgeFhtml

IUP

CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

enother wter resoure prolem ssoited with groundwter mining is saltwater intrusionD where overpumping of fresh wter quifers ner oen ostlines uses sltwter to enter fresh wter zonesF ltE wter intrusion is signi(nt prolem in mny ostl res of the FF inluding vong sslndD xew orkY gpe godD wsshusettsY nd southestern nd qulf gostl sttesF he drop of the wter tle round one of depression in n unon(ned quifer n hnge the regionl groundwter )ow diretionD whih ould send nery pollution towrd the pumping well insted of wy from itF pinllyD prolems of susidene @grdul sinking of the lnd surfe over lrge reA nd sinkholes @rpid sinking of the lnd surfe over smll reA n develop due to drop in the wter tleF
5.2.8 The Water Supply Crisis

he water crisis refers to glol sitution where people in mny res lk ess to su0ient wter or len wter or othF his setion desries the glol sitution involving wter shortgesD lso lled wter stressF he next setion overs the wter risis involving wter pollutionF pigure Countries Facing Water Stress in 1995 and Projected in 2025 @pigure SFPIA shows res of the world experiening wter stress s de(ned y high perentge of wter withdrwl ompred to totl ville wterF hue to popultion growth the PHPS projetion for glol wter stress is signi(ntly worse thn wter stress levels in IWWSF sn generlD wter stress is gretest in res with very low preipittion @mjor desertsA or lrge popultion density @eFgFD sndiA or othF puture glol wrming ould worsen the wter risis y shifting preipittion ptterns wy from humid res nd y melting mountin gliers tht rehrge rivers downstremF welting gliers will lso ontriute to rising se levelD whih will worsen sltwter intrusion in quifers ner oen ostlinesF gompounding the wter risis is the issue of soil injustieY poor people generlly get less ess to len wter nd ommonly py more for wter thn welthy peopleF

Figure 5.21: Countries Facing Water Stress in 1995 and Projected in 2025
Source: Philippe Rekacewicz

Water stress is

dened as having a high percentage of water withdrawal compared to total available water in the area.

24

(Le Monde diplomatique), February 2006

eording to PHHT report y the nited xtions hevelopment rogrmmeD in PHHSD UHH million people
24 httpXGGmpsFgridFnoGgoGgrphiGinresedEglolEwterEstress

IUQ @II7 of the world9s popultionA lived under wter stress with per pit wter supply elow IDUHH m3 Gyer25 @tkinsD PHHT @pF IUUAAF wost of them live in the widdle ist nd xorth efriF fy PHPSD the report projets tht more thn Q illion people @out RH7 of the world9s popultionA will live in wterEstressed res with the lrge inrese oming minly from ghin nd sndiF he wter risis will lso impt food prodution nd our ility to feed the everEgrowing popultionF e n expet future glol tension nd even on)it ssoited with wter shortges nd pollutionF ristori nd future res of wter on)it inlude the widdle ist @iuphrtes nd igris iver on)it mong urkeyD yriD nd srqY tordn iver on)it mong ssrelD venonD tordnD nd the lestinin territoriesAD efri @xile iver on)it mong igyptD ithiopiD nd udnAD gentrl esi @erl e on)it mong uzkhstnD zekistnD urkmenistnD jikistnD nd uyrgyzstnAD nd south esi @qnges iver on)it etween sndi nd kistnAF
5.2.9 Sustainable Solutions to the Water Supply Crisis?

he urrent nd future wter risis desried ove requires multiple pprohes to extending our fresh wter supply nd moving towrds sustinilityF ome of the longstnding trditionl pprohes inlude dams nd aqueductsF eservoirs tht form ehind dms in rivers n ollet wter during wet times nd store it for use during dry spells @see pigure Hoover Dam, Nevada, U.S. @pigure SFPPAAF hey lso n e used for urn wter suppliesF xew ork gity hs lrge numer of reservoirs nd ontrolled lkes up to PHH km wy to meet the wter demnds of its lrge popultionF yther ene(ts of dms nd reservoirs re hydroeletriityD )ood ontrolD nd reretionF ome of the drwks re evportive loss of reservoir wter in rid limtesD downstrem river hnnel erosionD nd impt on the eosystem inluding hnge from river to lke hitt nd interferene with (sh migrtion nd spwningF equeduts n move wter from where it is plentiful to where it is needed @see pigure The California Aqueduct @pigure SFPQAAF outhern gliforni hs lrge nd ontroversil network of queduts tht rings in wter from the ierr xevd wountins in the northD the vlleys in northern nd entrl gliforniD nd the golordo iver to the est @see pigure Map of California Aqueducts @pigure SFPRAAF equeduts n e ontroversil nd politilly di0ult espeilly if the wter trnsfer distnes re lrgeF yne drwk is the wter diversion n use drought in the re from where the wter is drwnF por exmpleD ywens vke nd wono vke in entrl gliforni egn to dispper fter their river in)ow ws diverted to the vos engeles quedutF ywens vke remins lmost ompletely dryD ut wono vke hs reovered more signi(ntly due to legl interventionF
is needed to grow foodD support industryD nd mintin the environment in generlF
25 elthough IDUHH m3 Gyer sounds like lot of wter for every personD it is the minimum mount tht hydrologists onsider

IUR

CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

Figure 5.22: Hoover Dam, Nevada, U.S.

Hoover Dam, Nevada, U.S..

Behind the dam is Lake

Mead, the largest reservoir in U.S.. White band reects the lowered water levels in the reservoir due to drought conditions from 2000 - 2010. Source: Cygnusloop99

26

at Wikimedia Commons

IUS

Figure 5.23: The California Aqueduct

David Jordan

27

California Aqueduct in southern California, U.S. Source:

at en.wikipedia

26 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXrooverhmEPHIHEIPEIHEiewfromridgeFjpg 27 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXupmnglifornigliforniequedutwilePQTFtq

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CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

Figure 5.24: Map of California Aqueducts Map of California aqueducts that bring water to southern
California from central and northern California and from the Colorado River to the east. Source: Central Basin Municipal Water District

28

he golordo iverD proly the most exploited river in the FFD hs mny dmsD some huge reservoirsD nd severl lrge queduts so tht it n provide lrge mounts of fresh wter to U sttes in the rid southwestern FF nd wexioF he primry use for the wter is for few lrge ities @vs egsD hoenixD nd usonA nd irrigtionF ellotion of golordo iver wter is stritly regultedF portuntelyD not ll
28 httpXGGwwwFentrlsinForgGwterupplyystemFhtml

IUU sttes use ll of their wter llotion euse the totl mount of lloted wter is more thn the typil golordo iver dishrgeF golordo iver wter gets so sline due to evportion long its ourse tht the FF ws fored to uild deslintion plnt ner the order with wexio so tht it ould e used for drinking nd irrigtionF he wetlnds of the golordo iver delt nd its ssoited eosystem hve een sdly degrded y the wter overuseY some yersD no river )ow even rehes the oenF yne method tht tully n inrese the mount of fresh wter on irth is desalinationD whih involves removing dissolved slt from sewter or sline groundwterF here re severl wys to deslinte sewter inluding oilingD (ltrtionD eletrodilysisD nd freezingF ell of these proedures re modertely to very expensive nd require onsiderle energy inputD mking the produed wter muh more expensive thn fresh wter from onventionl souresF sn dditionD the proesses rete highly sline wstewterD whih must e disposed ofF heslintion is most ommon in the widdle istD where energy from oil is undnt ut wter is sreF gonservtion mens using less wter nd using it more e0ientlyF eround the homeD onservtion n involve oth engineered feturesD suh s highEe0ieny lothes wshers nd lowE)ow showers nd toiletsD s well s ehviorl deisionsD suh s growing ntive vegettion tht require little irrigtion in desert limtesD turning o' the wter while you rush your teethD nd (xing leky fuetsF Rainwater harvesting involves thing nd storing rinwter for reuse efore it rehes the groundF i0ient irrigtion is extremely importnt euse irrigtion ounts for muh lrger wter demnd thn puli wter supplyF Water conservation strtegies in griulture inlude growing rops in res where the nturl rinfll n support themD more e0ient irrigtion systems suh s drip systems tht minimize losses due to evportionD noEtill frming tht redues evportive losses y overing the soilD nd reusing treted wstewter from sewge tretment plntsF eyled wstewter hs lso een used to rehrge quifersF here re gret mny other spei( wter onservtion strtegiesF ustinle solutions to the wter risis must use vriety of pprohes ut they should hve wter onservtion s high priorityF
5.2.10 Review Questions
Question 5.2.1 Question 5.2.2 Question 5.2.3 Question 5.2.4

ht is the wter yle nd why is it importnt to fresh wter resouresc ht re the reltive merits of using surfe wter vsF groundwter s wter resourec ht should soiety lern from the se history of the erl ec hy is soiety fing risis involving wter supply nd how n we solve itc

5.2.11 References

tkinsD
man

uF @PHHTAF

feyond srityX
2006, United

owerD
Nations

httpXGGhdrFundpForgGenGreportsGglolGhdrPHHTG29

Development

Report

poverty nd the glol wter risisF HuDevelopment ProgrammeF etrieved from

5.3 Case Study: The Aral Sea - Going, Going, Gone

30

he erl e is lke loted est of the gspin e etween zekistn nd uzkhstn in entrl esi @see pigure Map of Aral Sea Area @pigure SFPSAAF his re is prt of the urkestn desertD whih is the fourth lrgest desert in the worldY it is produed from rin shdow e'et y efghnistn9s high mountins
29 httpXGGhdrFundpForgGenGreportsGglolGhdrPHHTG 30 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIRHHGIFRGbF

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CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

to the southF hue to the rid nd sesonlly hot limte there is extensive evportion nd limited surfe wters in generlF ummer tempertures n reh TH g @IRH pA3 he wter supply to the erl e is minly from two riversD the emu hry nd yr hryD whih rry snowmelt from mountinous resF sn the erly IWTHs the thenEoviet nion diverted the emu hry nd yr hry ivers for irrigtion of one of the driest prts of esi to produe rieD melonsD erelsD nd espeilly ottonF he oviets wnted otton or white gold to eome mjor exportF hey were suessful nd tody zekistn is one of the world9s lrgest exporters of ottonF nfortuntely this tion essentilly eliminted ny river in)ow to the erl e nd used it to dispper lmost ompletelyF

Figure 5.25: Map of Aral Sea Area

Map shows lake size in 1960 and political boundaries of 2011.

Countries in yellow are at least partially in Aral Sea drainage basin. Source: Wikimedia Commons

31

sn IWTH erl e ws the fourth lrgest inlnd wter odyY only the gspin eD vke uperiorD nd vke itori were lrgerF ine thenD it hs progressively shrunk due to evportion nd lk of rehrge y rivers @see pigure Shrinking Aral Sea Blue @pigure SFPTAAF fefore IWTS the erl e reeived PH!TH km3 of fresh wter per yer from rivers nd y the erly IWVHs it reeived noneF fy PHHU the erl e shrnk to out IH7 of its originl size nd its slinity inresed from out I7 dissolved slt to out IH7 dissolved sltD whih is Q times more sline thn sewterF hese hnges used n enormous environmentl imptF e one thriving (shing industry is ded s re the PR speies of (sh tht used to live thereY the (sh ould not dpt to the more sline wtersF he urrent shoreline is tens of kilometers from former (shing
31 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXerlmpFpng

IUW towns nd ommeril portsF vrge (shing ots lie in the dried up lkeed of dust nd slt @see pigure An Abandoned Ship @pigure SFPUAAF e frustrting prt of the river diversion projet is tht mny of the irrigtion nls were poorly uiltD llowing undnt wter to lek or evporteF en inresing numer of dust storms low sltD pestiidesD nd heriides into nery towns using vriety of respirtory illnesses inluding tuerulosisF

IVH

CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

Figure 5.26: Shrinking Aral Sea

Blue area gives size of Aral Sea in 1960, 1970, 1980, 1990, 2000,

2004, 2008, and 2009 Source: NordNordWest

32

at Wikimedia Commons

IVI

Figure 5.27: An Abandoned Ship This abandoned ship lies in a dried up lake bed that was the Aral
Sea near Aral, Kazakhstan Source: Staecker

33

at Wikimedia Commons

he wetlnds of the two river delts nd their ssoited eosystems hve dispperedF he regionl limte is drier nd hs greter temperture extremes due to the sene of moisture nd moderting in)uene from the lkeF sn PHHQ some lke restortion work egn on the northern prt of the erl e nd it provided some relief y rising wter levels nd reduing slinity somewhtF he southern prt of the erl e hs seen no relief nd remins nerly ompletely dryF he destrution of the erl e is one of the plnet9s iggest environmentl dissters nd it is used entirely y humnsF vke ghd in efri is nother exmple of mssive lke tht hs nerly disppered for the sme resons s the erl eF erl e nd vke ghd re the most extreme exmples of lrge lkes destroyed y unsustinle diversions of river wterF yther lkes tht hve shrunk signi(ntly due to humn diversions of wter inlude the hed e in the widdle istD vke wnhr in kistnD nd ywens vke nd wono vkeD oth in gliforniF
32 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXerlseeFgif 33 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXerlshipPFjpg

IVP

CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

5.4 Water Pollution

34

5.4.1 Learning Objectives

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

understnd the mjor kinds of wter pollutnts nd how they degrde wter qulity understnd how nd why the lk of sfe drinking wter in some prts of the world is mjor prolem know wht sewge tretment does nd why it is importnt know why it is more di0ult to remedite groundwter pollution thn surfe wter pollution understnd how we n work towrd solving the risis involving wter pollution

5.4.2 The Water Pollution Crisis

he wodule Water Cycle and Fresh Water Supply @etion SFPA desried one spet of the glol wter risisD the wter shortges tht 1it mny rid nd densely populted resF he glol wter risis lso involves wter pollutionD euse to e useful for drinking nd irrigtionD wter must not e polluted eyond ertin thresholdsF eording to the orld relth yrgniztionD in PHHV pproximtely VVH million people in the world @or IQ7 of world popultionA did not hve ess to improved @sfeA drinking wter @orld relth ttistisD PHIH @pF PHUAA @ee pigure Proportion of Population by Country Using Improved Drinking Water Sources in 2008 @pigure SFPVAAF et the sme timeD out PFT illion people @or RH7 of world popultionA lived without improved snittion @see pigure Proportion of Population by Country Using Improved Sanitation Facilities in 2008 @pigure SFPWAAD whih is de(ned s hving ess to puli sewge systemD septi tnkD or even simple pit ltrineF ih yer pproximtely IFU million people die from dirrhel diseses ssoited with unsfe drinking wterD indequte snittionD nd poor hygieneD eFgFD hnd wshing with sopF elmost ll of these deths re in developing ountriesD nd round WH7 of them our mong hildren under the ge of S @see pigure Deaths by Country from Diarrhea Caused
by Unsafe Water, Unimproved Sanitation, and Poor Hygiene in Children Less than 5 Years Old, 2004 @pigure SFQHAAF gompounding the wter risis is the issue of soil justieY poor people more

ommonly lk len wter nd snittion thn welthy people in similr resF qlollyD improving wterD snittionD nd hygiene ould prevent up to W7 of ll disese nd T7 of ll dethsF sn ddition to the glol wterorne disese risisD hemil pollution from griultureD industryD itiesD nd mining thretens glol wter qulityF ome hemil pollutnts hve serious nd wellEknown helth e'etsY howeverD mny others hve poorly known longEterm helth e'etsF sn the FF urrently more thn RHDHHH wter odies (t the de(nition of impired set y ie @ee pigure Percentage of Impaired Water Bodies in a Watershed by State in USA Based on US EPA Data in 2000 @pigure SFQIAAD whih mens they ould neither support helthy eosystem nor meet wter qulity stndrdsF sn qllup puli polls onduted over the pst dede emerins onsistently put wter pollution nd wter supply s the top environmentl onerns over issues suh s ir pollutionD deforesttionD speies extintionD nd glol wrmingF
34 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIRRIGIFUGbF

IVQ

Figure 5.28: Proportion of Population by Country Using Improved Drinking Water Sources in 2008 Improved drinking water sources, e.g., household connections, public standpipes,
boreholes, protected dug wells and springs, and rainwater collections, are dened as those more likely to provide safe water than unimproved water sources, e.g., unprotected wells and springs, vendor-provided water, bottled water (unless water for other uses is available from an improved source), and tanker truck-provided water. Source: World Health Organization

35

35 httpXGGgmpserverFwhoFintGmpvirryGpilesGwpsGphewterHVFpng

IVR

CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

Figure 5.29: Proportion of Population by Country Using Improved Sanitation Facilities in 2008 Improved sanitation facilities, e.g., connection to public sewers or septic systems, pour-ush
latrines, pit latrines, and ventilated improved pit latrines, are dened as those more likely to be sanitary than unimproved facilities, e.g., bucket latrines, public latrines, and open pit latrines. Source: World Health Organization

36

36 httpXGGgmpserverFwhoFintGmpvirryGpilesGwpsGwhqUsnittionHVFpng

IVS

Figure 5.30: Deaths by Country from Diarrhea Caused by Unsafe Water, Unimproved Sanitation, and Poor Hygiene in Children Less than 5 Years Old, 2004 Source: World Health
Organization

37

37 httpXGGgmpserverFwhoFintGmpvirryGpilesGwpsGqlolwshdethunderSPHHRFpng

IVT

CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

Figure 5.31: Percentage of Impaired Water Bodies in a Watershed by State in USA Based on US EPA Data in 2000 Map of watersheds containing impaired water bodies from the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency's 1998 list of impaired waters Source: U.S. Geological Survey

38

5.4.3 Water Chemistry Overview

gompred to other moleules of similr moleulr weightD wter @r2 yA hs unique physil properties inE luding high vlues for melting nd oiling pointD surfe tension @wter9s ohesionD or stikinessAD nd pity to dissolve solule minerlsD iFeFD t s solventF hese properties re relted to its symmetril struture nd polar natureD whih mens it is eletrilly neutrl overll ut it hs net positive hrge on the side with the two hydrogen toms nd net negtive hrge on the oxygen side @see pigure Structure of Water, Polar Charge of Water, and Hydrogen Bonds between Water Molecules @pigure SFQPAAF his seprtion of the eletril hrge within wter moleule results in hydrogen bonds with other wter moleulesD minerl surfes @hydrogen onding produes the wter (lms on minerls in the unsturted zone of the susurfeAD nd dissolved ions @toms with negtive or positive hrgeAF wny minerls nd polluE tnts dissolve redily in wter euse wter forms hydration shells @spheres of loosely oordintedD oriented wter moleulesA round ionsF
38 httpXGGpusFusgsFgovGfsGpEIQHEHIG

IVU

Figure 5.32: Structure of Water, Polar Charge of Water, and Hydrogen Bonds between Water Molecules Source: Michal Maas39 at Wikimedia Commons

eny nturl wter ontins dissolved hemilsY some of these re importnt humn nutrientsD while others n e hrmful to humn helthF he undne of wter pollutnt is ommonly given in very smll onentrtion units suh s prts per million @ppmA or even prts per illion @ppAF en rseni onentrtion of I ppm mens I prt of rseni per million prts of wterF his is equivlent to one drop of rseni in SH liters of wterF o give you di'erent perspetive on ppreiting smll onentrtion unitsD onverting I ppm to length units is I m @HFR inA in IH km @T milesA nd onverting I ppm to time units is QH seonds in yerF Total dissolved solids @hA represent the totl mount of dissolved mteril in wterF everge h @slinityA vlues for rinwterD river wterD nd sewter re out R ppmD IPH ppmD nd QSDHHH ppmF es disussed in wodule Climate Processes; External and Internal Controls @etion QFPAD the
39 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXQhmodelhydrogenondsinwterFjpg

IVV

CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

most importnt proesses tht 'et the slinity of nturl wters re evportionD whih distills nerly pure wter nd leves the dissolved ions in the originl wterD nd hemil wetheringD whih involves minerl dissolution tht dds dissolved ions to wterF presh wter is ommonly de(ned s ontining less thn either IDHHH or SHH ppm hD ut the invironmentl rotetion egeny @ieA reommends tht drinking wter not exeed SHH ppm h or else it will hve n unplesnt slty tsteF
5.4.4 Water Pollution Overview

is the ontmintion of wter y n exess mount of sustne tht n use hrm to humn eings nd the eosystemF he level of wter pollution depends on the undne of the pollutntD the eologil impt of the pollutntD nd the use of the wterF ollutnts re derived from iologilD hemilD or physil proessesF elthough nturl proesses suh s volni eruptions or evportion sometimes n use wter pollutionD most pollution is derived from humnD lndEsed tivities @see pigure Water Pollution @pigure SFQQAAF ter pollutnts n move through di'erent wter reservoirsD s the wter rrying them progresses through stges of the wter yle @see pigure Sources of Water Contamination @pigure SFQRAAF ter residene time @the verge time tht wter moleule spends in wter reservoirA is very importnt to pollution prolems euse it 'ets pollution potentilF ter in rivers hs reltively short residene timeD so pollution usully is there only rie)yF yf ourseD pollution in rivers my simply move to nother reservoirD suh s the oenD where it n use further prolemsF qroundwter is typilly hrterized y slow )ow nd longer residene timeD whih n mke groundwter pollution prtiulrly prolemtiF pinllyD pollution residene time n e muh greter thn the wter residene time euse pollutnt my e tken up for long time within the eosystem or sored onto sedimentF
Water pollution

IVW

Figure 5.33: Water Pollution Obvious water pollution in the form of oating debris; invisible water
pollutants sometimes can be much more harmful than visible ones. Source: Stephen Codrington Wikimedia Commons

40

at

IWH

CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

Figure 5.34: Sources of Water Contamination

Sources of some water pollutants and movement

of pollutants into dierent water reservoirs of the water cycle. Source: U.S. Geological Survey

41

ollutnts enter wter supplies from point sourcesD whih re redily identi(le nd reltively smll lotionsD or nonpoint sourcesD whih re lrge nd more di'use resF oint soures of pollution inlude niml ftory frms tht rise lrge numer nd high density of livestok suh s owsD pigsD nd hikens @see pigure A Commercial Meat Chicken Production House @pigure SFQSAA nd dishrge pipes from ftories or sewge tretment plntsF Combined sewer systems tht hve single set of underground pipes to ollet oth sewge nd storm wter runo' from streets for wstewter tretment n e mjor point soures of pollutntsF huring hevy rinD storm wter runo' my exeed sewer pityD using it to k up nd spilling untreted sewge into surfe wters @see pigure Combined Sewer System @pigure SFQTAAF xonpoint soures of pollution inlude griulturl (eldsD itiesD nd ndoned minesF infll runs over the lnd nd through the groundD piking up pollutnts suh s heriidesD pestiidesD nd fertilizer from griulturl (elds nd lwnsY oilD ntifreezeD r detergentD niml wsteD nd rod slt from urn resY nd id nd toxi elements from ndoned minesF henD this pollution is rried into surfe wter odies nd groundwterF xonpoint soure pollutionD whih is the leding use of wter pollution in the FFD is usully muh more di0ult nd expensive to ontrol thn point soure pollution euse of its low onentrtionD multiple souresD nd muh greter volume of wterF
40 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGctitleapileXyviouswterpollutionFjpeg 41 httpXGGgFwterFusgsFgovGeduGwterqulityFhtml

IWI

Figure 5.35:

A Commercial Meat Chicken Production House

42

This chicken factory farm is a

possible major point source of water pollution. Source: Larry Rana

at Wikimedia Commons

42 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXploridhikenhouseFjpg

IWP

CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

Figure 5.36: Combined Sewer System A combined sewer system is a possible major point source
of water pollution during heavy rain due to overow of untreated sewage. During dry weather (and small storms), all ows are handled by the publicly owned treatment works (POTW). During large storms, the relief structure allows some of the combined stormwater and sewage to be discharged untreated to an adjacent water body. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

43

at Wikimedia Commons

5.4.5 Types of Water Pollutants

is n extremely importnt pollutnt to eosystemsF wost surfe wter in ontt with the tmosphere hs smll mount of dissolved oxygenD whih is needed y quti orgnisms for ellulr respirtionF fteri deompose ded orgni mtter @hemilly represented in simpli(ed wy s gr2 yA nd remove dissolved oxygen @y2 A ording to the following retionX
Oxygen-demanding waste

gr2 O + O2 gy2 + H2 O

@SFIA

oo muh deying orgni mtter in wter is pollutnt euse it removes oxygen from wterD whih n kill (shD shell(shD nd quti insetsF he mount of oxygen used y eroi @in the presene of oxygenA teril deomposition of orgni mtter is lled biochemical oxygen demand @fyhAF he mjor soure of ded orgni mtter in most nturl wters is sewgeY grss nd leves re smller souresF en unpolluted wter ody with respet to oxygen is turulent river tht )ows through nturl forestF urulene ontinully rings wter in ontt with the tmosphere where the y2 ontent is restoredF he dissolved oxygen ontent in suh river rnges from IH to IR ppm y2 D fyh is lowD nd lenEwter (shD eFgFD ssD troutD nd perh dominteF e polluted wter ody with respet to oxygen is stgnnt deep lke in n urn setting with omined sewer systemF his system fvors high input of ded orgni ron from sewge over)ows nd limited hne for wter irultion nd ontt with the tmosphereF sn suh lkeD the dissolved y2 ontent is S ppm y2 D fyh is highD nd low y2 Etolernt (shD eFgFD rp nd t(sh dominteF Excessive plant nutrientsD prtiulrly nitrogen @xA nd phosphorous @AD re pollutnts losely reE lted to oxygenEdemnding wsteF equti plnts require out IS nutrients for growthD most of whih re plentiful in wterF x nd re lled limiting nutrientsD euse they usully re present in wter t low
43 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXgydigrmieFjpg

IWQ onentrtions nd therefore restrit the totl mount of plnt growthF his explins why x nd re mE jor ingredients in most fertilizerF righ onentrtions of x nd from humn soures @mostly griulturl nd urn runo' inluding fertilizerD sewgeD nd Esed detergentA n use cultural eutrophicationD whih involves the rpid growth of quti plntsD prtiulrly lgeD lled n algal bloomF hik mts of )oting nd rooted green or sometimes red lge @see pigure Algal Bloom in River in Sichuan, China @pigure SFQUAA rete wter pollutionD dmge the eosystem y logging (sh gills nd loking sunlightD nd dmge lke esthetis y mking reretion di0ult nd reting n eyesoreF e smll perentge of lgl speies produe toxins tht n kill (shD mmmlsD nd irdsD nd my use humn illnessY explosive growths of these lge re lled harmful algal blooms @see pigure Harmful Algal Bloom @pigure SFQVAAF hen the proli( lgl lyer diesD it eomes oxygenEdemnding wsteD whih n rete very low y2 wter @<P ppm y2 AD lled hypoxia or ded zone euse it uses deth to orgnisms tht re unle to leve tht environmentF en estimted SH7 of lkes in xorth emeriD iuropeD nd esi re negtively impted y ulturl eutrophitionF sn dditionD the size nd numer of mrine hypoxi zones hve grown drmtiE lly over the pst SH yers @see pigure Aquatic Dead Zones @pigure SFQWAAD inluding very lrge ded zone loted o'shore vouisin in the qulf of wexioF gulturl eutrophition nd hypoxi re di0ult to omtD euse they re used primrily y nonpoint soure pollutionD whih is di0ult to regulteD nd x nd D whih re di0ult to remove from wstewterF

IWR

CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

Figure 5.37:

Algal Bloom in River in Sichuan, China

44

Algal blooms can present problems for

ecosystems and human society. Source: Felix Andrews

via Wikimedia Commons

IWS

Figure 5.38: Harmful Algal Bloom

mann

45

Harmful algal bloom with deep red color. Source: Kai Schu-

via National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

44 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXiverlgeihunFjpg 45 httpXGGoenservieFnoFgovGhzrdsGhG

IWT

CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

Figure 5.39: Aquatic Dead Zones

Zones of hypoxia shown as red circles. Black dots show hypoxia

zones of unknown size, brown shading shows population density, and blue shading shows density of particulate organic carbon, an indicator of organic productivity. Source: Robert Simmon & Jesse Allen at NASA Earth Observatory via Wikimedia Commons

46

Pathogens re diseseEusing miroorgnismsD eFgFD virusesD teriD prsiti wormsD nd protozoD whih use vriety of intestinl diseses suh s dysenteryD typhoid feverD heptitisD nd holerF thogens re the mjor use of the wter pollution risis disussed t the eginning of this setionF nfortuntely nerly illion people round the world re exposed to wterorne pthogen pollution dily nd round IFS million hildren minly in underdeveloped ountries die every yer of wterorne diseses from pthogens @see pigure Deaths by Country from Diarrhea Caused by Unsafe Water, Unimproved Sanitation, and Poor Hygiene in Children Less than 5 Years Old, 2004 @pigure SFQHAAF thogens enter wter primrily from humn nd niml fel wste due to indequte sewge tretmentF sn mny underdeveloped ountriesD sewge is dishrged into lol wters either untreted or fter only rudimentry tretmentF sn developed ountries untreted sewge dishrge n our from over)ows of omined sewer systemsD poorly mnged livestok ftory frmsD nd leky or roken sewge olletion systems @see pigure Overowing Sanitary Sewer @pigure SFRHAAF ter with pthogens n e remedited y dding hlorine or ozoneD y oilingD or y treting the sewge in the (rst pleF
46 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXequtihedonesFjpg

IWU

Figure 5.40: Overowing Sanitary Sewer A manhole cover blown o by a June 2006 sanitary sewer
overow in Rhode Island. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

47

via Wikimedia Commons

Oil spills re nother kind of orgni pollutionF yil spills n result from supertnker idents suh s the ixxon ldez in IWVWD whih spilled IH million gllons of oil into the rih eosystem of o'shore south elsk nd killed mssive numers of nimlsF he lrgest mrine oil spill ws the heepwter rorizon dissE terD whih egn with nturl gs explosion @see pigure Deepwater Horizon Explosion @pigure SFRIAA t n oil well TS km o'shore of vouisin nd )owed for Q months in PHIHD relesing n estimted PHH million gllons of oilF he worst oil spill ever ourred during the ersin qulf wr of IWWID when srq deliertely dumped pproximtely PHH million gllons of oil in o'shore uuwit nd set more thn UHH oil well (res tht relesed enormous louds of smoke nd id rin for over nine monthsF huring n oil spill on wterD oil )ots to the surfe euse it is less dense thn wterD nd the lightest hydrorons evporteD deresing the size of the spill ut polluting the irF henD teri egin to deompose the remining oilD in proess tht n tke mny yersF efter severl months only out IS7 of the originl volume my reminD ut it is in thik sphlt lumpsD form tht is prtiulrly hrmful to irdsD (shD nd shell(shF glenup opertions n inlude skimmer ships tht vuum oil from the wter surfe @e'etive only for smll spillsAD ontrolled burning @works only in erly stges efore the lightD ignitle prt evportes ut lso pollutes the irAD dispersants @detergents tht rek up oil to elerte its deompositionD ut some dispersnts my e toxi to the eosystemAD nd bioremediation @dding miroorgnisms tht speilize in quikly deomposing oilD ut this n disrupt the nturl eosystemAF
47 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXewerover)owsieFjpg

IWV

CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

Figure 5.41:

Deepwater Horizon Explosion

48
via Wikimedia Commons

Boats ghting the re from an explosion at the

Deepwater Horizon drilling rig in Gulf of Mexico oshore Louisiana on April 20, 2010. Source: United States Coast Guard

Toxic chemicals involve mny di'erent kinds nd souresD primrily from industry nd miningF qenE erl kinds of toxi hemils inlude hazardous chemicalsD whih re wide vriety of syntheti orgni nd inorgni hemils suh s idsD sesD ynideD nd lss of ompounds lled persistent organic pollutants tht inludes DDT @pestiideAD dioxin @heriide yEprodutAD nd PCBs @polyhlorinted iphenylsD whih were used s liquid insultor in eletri trnsformersAF ersistent orgni pollutnts re longElived in the environmentD umulte through the food hin @ioumultionAD nd n e toxiF enother tegory of toxi hemils inludes radioactive materials suh s esiumD iodineD urniumD nd rdon gsD whih n result in longEterm exposure to rdiotivity if it gets into the odyF e (nl group of toxi hemils is heavy metals suh s ledD meruryD rseniD dmiumD nd hromiumD whih n umulte through the food hinF revy metls re ommonly produed y industry nd t metlli ore minesF erseni nd merury re disussed in more detil elowF he ie regultes VQ ontminnts in drinking wter to ensure sfe puli wter supplyF imilrlyD t the interntionl level the orld relth yrgniztion hs drinking wter stndrds for vriety of ontminntsF Arsenic @esA hs een fmous s n gent of deth for mny enturiesF sn lrge doses rseni uses ner nd n e ftlF ynly reently hve sientists reognized tht helth prolems n e used y drinking smll rseni onentrtions in wter over long timeF st ttks the entrl nervous system
48 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXheepwterrorizono'shoredrillinguniton(rePHIHFjpg

IWW nd n dmge the respirtory systemD ldderD lungsD liverD nd kidneysF st enters the wter supply nturlly from wethering of esErih minerls nd from humn tivities suh s ol urning nd smelting of metlli oresF he worst se of rseni poisoning ourred in the densely populted impoverished ountry of fngldeshD whih hd experiened IHHDHHHs of deths from dirrhe nd holer eh yer from drinking surfe wter ontminted with pthogens due to improper sewge tretmentF sn the IWUHs the nited xtions provided id for millions of shllow wter wellsD whih resulted in drmti drop in pthogeni disesesF nfortuntelyD mny of the wells produed wter nturlly rih in rseniF rgillyD there re n estimted UU million people @out hlf of the popultionA who indvertently my hve een exposed to toxi levels of rseni in fngldesh s resultF he orld relth yrgniztion hs lled it the lrgest mss poisoning of popultion in historyF Mercury @rgA is used in vriety of eletril produtsD suh s dry ell tteriesD )uoresent light ulsD nd swithesD s well s in the mnufture of pintD pperD vinyl hlorideD nd fungiidesF sn the methylmerury form @gr3 rg+ A it is highly toxiY I pp of methylmerury represents wter ontminted with meruryF werury onentrtes in the food hinD espeilly in (shD in proess used iomgni(tion @see ider Biomagnication @fiomgni(tionD pF IWWAAF st ts on the entrl nervous system nd n use loss of sightD feelingD nd hering s well s nervousnessD shkinessD nd dethF vike rseniD merury enters the wter supply nturlly from wethering of rgErih minerls nd from humn tivities suh s ol urning nd metl proessingF e fmous merury poisoning se in winmtD tpn involved methylmeruryErih industril dishrge tht used high rg levels in (shF eople in the lol (shing villges te (sh up to three times per dy for over QH yersD whih resulted in over PDHHH dethsF huring tht time the responsile ompny nd ntionl government did little to mitigteD help lleviteD or even knowledge the prolemF fiomgni(tion represents the proesses in n eosystem tht use greter onenE trtions of hemilD suh s methylmeruryD in orgnisms higher up the food hinF werury nd methylmerury re present in only very smll onentrtions in sewterY howeverD t the se of the food hin lge sor methylmeruryF henD smll (sh et the lgeD lrge (sh nd other orgnisms higher in the food hin et the smll (shD nd so onF pish nd other quti orgnisms sor methylmerury rpidly ut eliminte it slowly from the odyF hereforeD eh step up the food hin inreses the onentrtion from the step elow @see pigure Biomagnication @pigE ure SFRPAAF vrgemouth ss n onentrte methylmerury up to IH million times over the wter onentrtion nd (shEeting irds n onentrte it even higherF yther hemils tht exhiit iomgni(tion re hhD gfsD nd rseniF
Sidebar:

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CHAPTER 5.

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Figure 5.42: Biomagnication

An illustrative example of biomagnication of mercury from water

through the food chain and into a bird's egg. Source: U.S. Geological Survey

49

yther wter pollutnts inlude sediment nd heatF wuddy wter is d for drinking ut even worse for underwter plnts tht need sunlight for photosynthesisF wuh of the sediment in wter odies is derived from the erosion of soilD so it lso represents loss of griulturl produtivityF herml pollution involves the relese of heted wters from power plnts nd industry to surfe wterD using drop in the dissolved y2 ontentD whih n stress (shF Hard water ontins undnt lium nd mgnesiumD whih redues its ility to develop sopsuds nd enhnes scale @lium nd mgnesium ronte minerlsA formtion on hot wter equipmentF ter softeners remove lium nd mgnesiumD whih llows the wter to lther esily nd resist sle formtionF rrd wter develops nturlly from the dissolution of lium nd mgnesium ronte minerls in soilY it does not hve negtive helth e'ets in peopleF qroundwter pollution n our from underground soures nd ll of the pollution soures tht onE tminte surfe wtersF gommon soures of groundwter pollution re leking underground storge tnks for fuelD septi tnksD griulturl tivityD nd lnd(llsF gommon groundwter pollutnts inlude nitrteD pestiidesD voltile orgni ompoundsD nd petroleum produtsF olluted groundwter n e more serious prolem thn polluted surfe wter euse the pollution in groundwter my go undeteted for long time euse usully it moves very slowlyF es resultD the pollution in groundwter my rete contaminant plumeD lrge ody of )owing polluted groundwter @see pigure Contaminant Plume in Groundwater @pF PHIAAD mking lenup very ostlyF fy the time groundwter ontmintion is detetedD the entity
49 httpXGGso(FusgsFgovGsfrsfGroomsGmeruryGhillesheelGuseFhtml

PHI responsile for the pollution my e nkrupt or nonexistentF enother troulesome feture of groundwter pollution is tht smll mounts of ertin pollutntsD eFgFD petroleum produts nd orgni solventsD n onE tminte lrge resF sn henverD golordo VH liters of severl orgni solvents ontminted RFS trillion liters of groundwter nd produed S km long ontminnt plumeF wost groundwter ontmintion ours in shllowD unon(ned quifers loted ner the ontmintion soureF gon(ned quifers re less suseptile to pollution from the surfe euse of protetion y the on(ning lyerF e mjor thret to groundwter qulity is from underground fuel storage tanksF puel tnks ommonly re stored underground t gs sttions to redue explosion hzrdsF fefore IWVV in the FF these storge tnks ould e mde of metlD whih n orrodeD lekD nd quikly ontminte lol groundwterF xowD lek detetors re required nd the metl storge tnks re supposed to e proteted from orrosion or repled with (erglss tnksF gurE rently there re round THHDHHH underground fuel storge tnks in the FF nd over QH7 still do not omply with ie regultions regrding either relese prevention or lek detetionF

Figure 5.43:

Contaminant Plume in Groundwater

Mapping how a contaminant plume will

migrate once it reaches groundwater requires understanding of the pollutant's chemical properties, local soil characteristics, and how permeable the aquifer is. Source: United States Geological Survey

50

5.4.6 Sustainable Solutions to the Water Pollution Crisis?

esolution of the glol wter pollution risis desried t the eginning of this setion requires multiple pprohes to improve the qulity of our fresh wter nd move towrds sustinilityF he most dedly form of wter pollutionD pthogeni miroorgnisms tht use wterorne disesesD kills lmost P million people in underdeveloped ountries every yerF he est strtegy for ddressing this prolem is proper sewge @wstewterA tretmentF ntreted sewge is not only mjor use of pthogeni disesesD ut lso mjor soure of other pollutntsD inluding oxygenEdemnding wsteD plnt nutrients @x nd AD nd toxi
50 httpXGGwwwFlernerForgGoursesGenvsiGvisulGvisulFphpcshortnmeaontminnt)ow

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CHAPTER 5.

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hevy metlsF stewter tretment is done t sewage treatment plant in urn res nd through septic tank system in rurl resF he min purpose of sewge tretment plnt is to remove orgni mtter @oxygenEdemnding wsteA nd kill teriY speil methods lso n e used to remove plnt nutrients nd other pollutntsF he numerE ous proessing steps t onventionl sewge tretment plnt @see pigure Steps at a Sewage Treatment Plant @pigure SFRRAA inlude pretreatment @sreening nd removl of snd nd grvelAD primary treatment @settling or )ottion to remove orgni solidsD ftD nd greseAD secondary treatment @eroi teril deomposition of orgni solidsAD tertiary treatment @teril deomposition of nutrients nd (ltrtionAD disinfection @tretment with hlorineD ozoneD ultrviolet lightD or lehAD nd either discharge to surfe wters @usully lol riverA or reuse for some other purposeD suh s irrigtionD hitt preservtionD nd rti(il groundwter rehrgeF he onentrted orgni solid produed during primry nd seondryE tretment is lled sludgeD whih is treted in vriety of wys inluding lnd(ll disposlD ininertionD use s fertilizerD nd neroi teril deompositionD whih is done in the sene of oxygenF eneroi deomposition of sludge produes methne gsD whih n e used s n energy soureF o redue wter pollution prolemsD seprte sewer systems @where street runo' goes to rivers nd only wstewter goes to wstewter tretment plntA re muh etter thn omined sewer systemsD whih n over)ow nd relese untreted sewge into surfe wters during hevy rinF ome ities suh s ghigoD sllinois hve onstruted lrge underground verns nd lso use ndoned rok qurries to hold storm sewer over)owF efter the rin stopsD the stored wter goes to the sewge tretment plnt for proessingF

PHQ

Figure 5.44:

Steps at a Sewage Treatment Plant

The numerous processing steps at a conven-

tional sewage treatment plant include pretreatment (screening and removal of sand and gravel), primary treatment (settling or oatation to remove organic solids, fat, and grease), secondary treatment (aerobic bacterial decomposition of organic solids), tertiary treatment (bacterial decomposition of nutrients and ltration), disinfection (treatment with chlorine, ozone, ultraviolet light, or bleach), and either discharge to surface waters (usually a local river) or reuse for some other purpose, such as irrigation, habitat preservation, and articial groundwater recharge. Source: Leonard G.

51

via Wikipedia

e septi tnk system is n individul sewge tretment system for homes in rurl nd even some urn settingsF he si omponents of septi tnk system @see pigure Septic System @pigure SFRSAA inlude sewer line from the houseD septic tank @ lrge ontiner where sludge settles to the ottom nd miroorE gnisms deompose the orgni solids neroillyAD nd the drin (eld @network of perforted pipes where the lri(ed wter seeps into the soil nd is further puri(ed y teriAF ter pollution prolems our if the septi tnk mlfuntionsD whih usully ours when system is estlished in the wrong type of soil or mintined poorlyF
51 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXiiwiiEixFjpg

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CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

Figure 5.45:
Geological Survey

52

Septic System

Septic tank system for sewage treatment.

Source:

United States

por mny developing ountriesD (nnil id is neessry to uild dequte sewge tretment filitiesY
52 httpXGGpusFusgsFgovGfsGfsHUPHQG

PHS howeverD the orld relth yrgniztion estimtes n estimted ost svings of etween 6Q nd 6QR for every 6I invested in len wter delivery nd snittion @ter for vifeD PHHS @pF PHUAAF he ost svings re from helth re svingsD gins in work nd shool produtivityD nd deths preventedF imple nd inexpensive tehniques for treting wter t home inlude hlorintionD (ltersD nd solr disinfetionF enother lterntive is to use constructed wetlands tehnology @mrshes uilt to tret ontminted wterAD whih is simpler nd heper thn onventionl sewge tretment plntF Bottled water is not sustinle solution to the wter risisD despite exponentil growth in populrity in the FF nd the worldF fottled wter is not neessrily ny sfer thn the FF puli wter supplyD it osts on verge out UHH times more thn FF tp wterD nd every yer it uses pproximtely PHH illion plsti nd glss ottles tht hve reltively low rte of reylingF gompred to tp wterD it uses muh more energyD minly in ottle mnufturing nd longEdistne trnsporttionF sf you don9t like the tste of your tp wterD then plese use wter (lter insted of ottled wter3

Figure 5.46: Storm Drain Curbside storm drain receiving urban runo.
via Wikimedia Commons

Source: By Robert Lawton

53

edditionl sustinle solutions to the wter pollution risis inlude legisltion to eliminte or gretly redue point soures of wter pollutionF sn the FFD the glen ter et of IWUP nd lter mendments led to mjor improvements in wter qulity @see ider Clean Water Act @glen ter etD pF PHTAAF xonpoint soures of wter pollutionD eFgFD griulturl runo' nd urn runo' @see pigure Storm Drain @pF PHSAAD re muh hrder to regulte euse of their widespredD di'use ntureF here re mny onstrution nd griulturl prties tht redue polluted runo' inluding noEtill frming nd sediment trpsF erti(il ertion or mehnil mixing n remedite lkes with oxygen depletionF pei( things tht we n do
53 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXtormhrinFtq

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CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

to redue urn runo' inlude the followingX keep soilD levesD nd grss lippings o' drivewysD sidewlksD nd streetsY don9t pour used motor oilD ntifreezeD pintsD pestiidesD or ny household hzrdous hemil down the storm sewer or drinY reyle used motor oilY use hzrdous wste disposl progrms o'ered y the ommunityY ompost your orgni wsteY don9t use fertilizers nd heriides on your lwnY nd )ush pet wste down the toiletF
Sidebar: huring the erly IWHHs rpid industriliztion in the FF resulted in widespred wter pollution due to free dishrge of wste into surfe wtersF he guyhog iver in northest yhio ught (re numerous times @see pigure Cuyahoga River on Fire @pigure SFRUAAD inluding fmous (re in IWTW tht ught the ntion9s ttentionF sn IWUP gongress pssed one of the most importnt environmentl lws in FF historyD the pederl ter ollution gontrol etD whih is more ommonly lled the glen ter etF he purpose of the glen ter et nd lter mendments is to mintin nd restore wter qulityD or in simpler terms to mke our wter swimmle nd (shleF st eme illegl to dump pollution into surfe wter unless there ws forml permission nd FF wter qulity improved signi(ntly s resultF wore progress is needed euse urrently the ie onsiders over RHDHHH FF wter odies s impiredD most ommonly due to pthogensD metlsD plnt nutrientsD nd oxygen depletionF enother onern is proteting groundwter qulityD whih is not yet ddressed su0iently y federl lwF

Figure 5.47: Cuyahoga River on Fire Source:

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

54

54 httpXGGoenservieFnoFgovGedutionGkitsGpollutionGmediGsupppolHPdFhtml

PHU ometimes slow )ow through soil n nturlly purify groundwter euse some pollutntsD suh s D pestiidesD nd hevy metlsD hemilly ind with surfes of soil lys nd iron oxidesF yther pollutnts re not retined y soil prtilesX hese inlude xD rod sltD gsoline fuelD the heriide trzineD tetrE hloroethylene @ rinogeni lening solvent used in dry leningAD nd vinyl hlorideF sn other sesD slow groundwter )ow n llow teri to deompose ded orgni mtter nd ertin pestiidesF here re mny other wys to remedite polluted groundwterF ometimes the est solution is to stop the polE lution soure nd llow nturl lenupF pei( tretment methods depend on the geologyD hydrologyD nd pollutnt euse some light ontminnts )ow on top of groundwterD others dissolve nd )ow with groundwterD nd dense ontminnts n sink elow groundwterF e ommon lenup method lled pump nd tret involves pumping out the ontminted groundwter nd treting it y oxidtionD (ltrtionD or iologil methodsF ometimes soil must e exvted nd sent to lnd(llF snEsitu tretment methods inlude dding hemils to immoilize hevy metlsD reting permele retion zone with metlli iron tht n destroy orgni solventsD or using bioremediation y dding oxygen or nutrients to stimulte growth of miroorgnismsF
5.4.7 Review Questions
Question 5.4.1 Question 5.4.2 Question 5.4.3 Question 5.4.4 Question 5.4.5

ht re the mjor kinds of wter pollutnts nd how do they degrde wter qulityc row would you rnk the wter pollution prolems desried in this hpterc hyc hy is untreted sewge suh n importnt wter pollutnt to remeditec ht should soiety lern from the se history of vove gnlc hy re people fing risis involving wter pollution nd how n we solve itc

5.4.8 References

ter for vifeX wking it rppen @PHHSA orld relth yrgniztion nd xsgipF etrieved from httpXGGwwwFwhoFintGwtersnittionhelthGwterforlifeFpdf55 orld relth ttistis @PHIHA orld relth yrgniztionF etrieved from httpXGGwwwFwhoFintGwhosisGwhosttGixrIHpullFpdf56

5.5 Case Study: The Love Canal Disaster

57

yne of the most fmous nd importnt exmples of groundwter pollution in the FF is the vove gnl trgedy in xigr pllsD xew orkF st is importnt euse the pollution disster t vove gnlD long with similr pollution lmities t tht time @imes fehD wissouri nd lley of hrumsD uentukyAD helped to rete SuperfundD federl progrm instituted in IWVH nd designed to identify nd len up the worst of the hzrdous hemil wste sites in the FF vove gnl is neighorhood in xigr plls nmed fter lrge dith @pproximtely IS m wideD Q!IP m deepD nd ITHH m longA tht ws dug in the IVWHs for hydroeletri powerF he dith ws ndoned efore it tully generted ny power nd went mostly unused for dedesD exept for swimming y lol residentsF sn the IWPHs xigr plls egn dumping urn wste into vove gnlD nd in the IWRHs the
55 httpXGGwwwFwhoFintGwtersnittionhelthGwterforlifeFpdf 56 httpXGGwwwFwhoFintGwhosisGwhosttGixrIHpullFpd 57 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIRRRGIFSGbF

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CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

FF ermy dumped wste from orld r ss thereD inluding wste from the frnti e'ort to uild nuler omF rooker ghemil purhsed the lnd in IWRP nd lined it with lyF henD the ompny put into vove gnl n estimted PIDHHH tons of hzrdous hemil wsteD inluding the rinogens enzeneD dioxinD nd gfs in lrge metl rrels nd overed them with more lyF sn IWSQD rooker sold the lnd to the xigr plls shool ord for 6ID nd inluded luse in the sles ontrt tht oth desried the lnd use @(lled with hemil wsteA nd solved them from ny future dmge lims from the uried wsteF he shool ord promptly uilt puli shool on the site nd sold the surrounding lnd for housing projet tht uilt PHH or so homes long the nl nks nd nother IDHHH in the neighorhood @see pigure Love Canal @pigure SFRVAAF huring onstrutionD the nl9s ly p nd wlls were rehedD dmging some of the metl rrelsF

PHW

Figure 5.48: Love Canal

Source: US Environmental Protection Agency

58

iventullyD the hemil wste seeped into people9s sementsD nd the metl rrels worked their wy to the surfeF rees nd grdens egn to dieY iyle tires nd the ruer soles of hildren9s shoes disintegrted in noxious puddlesF prom the IWSHs to the lte IWUHsD residents repetedly omplined of strnge odors nd sustnes tht surfed in their yrdsF gity o0ils investigted the reD ut did not t to solve the prolemF vol residents llegedly experiened mjor helth prolems inluding high rtes of misrrigesD irth defetsD nd hromosome dmgeD ut studies y the xew ork tte relth heprtment disputed thtF pinllyD in IWUV resident grter delred stte of emergeny t vove gnlD mking it the (rst humnE
58 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGregionPGsuperfundGnplGlovenlGimgesFhtml

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CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

used environmentl prolem to e designted tht wyF he vove gnl inident eme symol of improperly stored hemil wsteF glen up of vove gnlD whih ws funded y uperfund nd ompletely (nished in PHHRD involved removing ontminted soilD instlling dringe pipes to pture ontminted groundwter for tretmentD nd overing it with ly nd plstiF sn IWWSD yidentl ghemil @the modern nme for rooker ghemilA pid 6IHP million to uperfund for lenup nd 6PU million to pederl imergeny wngement essoition for the relotion of more thn IDHHH fmiliesF xew ork tte pid 6WV million to ie nd the government pid 6V million for pollution y the ermyF he totl len up ost ws estimted to e 6PUS millionF he only good thing out the vove gnl trgedy is tht it helped to rete uperfundD whih hs nlyzed tens of thousnds of hzrdous wste sites in the FF nd lened up hundreds of the worst onesF xeverthelessD over IDHHH mjor hzrdous wste sites with signi(nt risk to humn helth or the environment re still in the proess of eing lenedF

5.6 Mineral Resources: Formation, Mining, Environmental Impact

5.6.1 Learning Objectives

59

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

know the importne of minerls to soiety know ftors tht ontrol vilility of minerl resoures know why future world minerl supply nd demnd is n importnt issue understnd the environmentl impt of mining nd proessing of minerls understnd how we n work towrd solving the risis involving minerl supply

5.6.2 Importance of Minerals

Mineral resources re essentil to our modern industril soiety nd they re used everywhereF por exmpleD t rekfst you drink some juie in glss @mde from melted qurtz sndAD et from ermi plte @reted from ly minerls heted t high temperturesAD sprinkle slt @hliteA on your eggsD use steel utensils @from iron ore nd other minerlsAD red mgzine @oted with up to SH7 kolinite ly to give the glossy lookAD nd nswer your ellphone @ontining over RH di'erent minerls inluding opperD silverD goldD nd pltinumAF e need minerls to mke rsD omputersD pplinesD onrete rodsD housesD trtorsD fertilizerD eletril trnsmission linesD nd jewelryF ithout minerl resouresD industry would ollpse nd living stndrds would plummetF sn PHIHD the verge person in the FF onsumed more thnITDHHH pounds of minerl resoures60 @see le Per Capita Consumption of Minerals @le SFIX er gpit gonsumption of winerlsAAF ith n verge life expetny of UV yersD tht trnsltes to outIFQ million pounds of minerl resoures over suh person9s lifetimeF rere re few sttistis tht help to explin these lrge vlues of minerl useX n verge emerin house ontins out PSHDHHH pounds of minerls @see pigure Mineral Use in the Kitchen @pF PIHA for exmples of minerl use in the kithenAD one mile of snterstte highwy uses IUH million pounds of erth mterilsD nd the FF hs nerly R million miles of rodsF ell of these minerl resoures re nonrenewleD euse nture usully tkes hundreds of thousnds to millions of yers to produe minerl depositsF irly hominids used roks s simple tools s erly s PFT million yers goF et lest SHHDHHH yers go prehistori people used )int @(neEgrined qurtzA for knives nd rrowhedsF yther importnt erly uses of minerls inlude minerl pigments suh s mngnese oxides nd iron oxides for rtD slt for food preservtionD stone for pyrmidsD nd metls suh s ronze @typilly tin nd opperAD whih is stronger thn pure opper nd iron for steelD whih is stronger thn ronzeF
59 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIRUHGIFRGbF 60 emerins lso onsumed more thn PIDHHH pounds of energy resoures from the irth inluding olD oilD nturl gsD nd

urniumF

PII

Figure 5.49: Mineral Use in the Kitchen Source:

U.S. Geological Survey

61

Per Capita Consumption of Minerals Mineral Per Capita Consumption of Minerals  2010 (Pounds per Person) Per Capita Consumption of Minerals - Lifetime (Pounds Per Person)

fuxite @eluminumA gement glys gopper sron yre ved wngnese hosphte ok otsh

TS RWT ITR IP QSU II S PIU QU

SDHWH QVDVQU IPDVRI WQWFT PUDWSQ VTI QWP ITDWWI PDVWU

continued on next page

61 httpXGGminerlsFusgsFgovGgrntedFhtml

PIP lt ndD qrvelD tone od esh ulfur in yther wetls yther xonmetls
Total

CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

RPI IRDIHV QT VT T PR QQP

16,377

QPDWTR IDIHRDTST PDVIW TDUQR RUH IDVUW PSDWWT

1,282,319

Table 5.1X er pit onsumption of nonenergy relted minerls nd metls in the FF for PHIH nd for
lifetime of UVFQ yers ssuming PHIH minerl onsumption rtes
Sources: US Geological Survey, National Mining Association, and U.S. Census Bureau

5.6.3 Mineral Resource Principles

e geologist de(nes mineral s nturlly ourring inorgni solid with de(ned hemil omposition nd rystl struture @regulr rrngement of tomsAF winerls re the ingredients of rockD whih is solid oherent @iFeFD will not fll prtA piee of plnet irthF here re three lsses of rokD igneousD sedimentryD nd metmorphiF Igneous rocks form y ooling nd solidi(tion of hot molten rok lled lv or mgmF vv solidi(es t the surfe fter it is ejeted y volnoD nd mgm ools undergroundF Sedimentary rocks form y hrdening of lyers of sediment @loose grins suh s snd or mudA deposited t irth9s surfe or y minerl preipittionD iFeFD formtion of minerls in wter from dissolved minerl mtterF Metamorphic rocks form when the shpe or type of minerls in preexisting rok hnges due to intense het nd pressure deep within the irthF Ore is rok with n enrihment of minerls tht n e mined for pro(tF ometimes ore deposits @lotions with undnt oreA n e eutifulD suh s the gint gypsum rystls t the mzing gve of the grystls in wexio @see pigure Giant Gypsum Crystals @pigure SFSHAAF he enrichment factorD whih is the rtio of the metl onentrtion needed for n eonomi ore deposit over the verge undne of tht metl in irth9s rustD is listed for severl importnt metls in the le Enrichment Factor @le SFPX inrihment ptorAF wining of some metlsD suh s luminum nd ironD is pro(tle t reltively smll onentrtion ftorsD wheres for othersD suh s led nd meruryD it is pro(tle only t very lrge onentrtion ftorsF he metl onentrtion in ore @olumn Q in le Enrichment Factor @le SFPX inrihment ptorAA n lso e expressed in terms of the proportion of metl nd wste rok produed fter proessing one metri ton @IDHHH kgA of oreF sron is t one extremeD with up to TWH kg of pe metl nd only QIH kg of wste rok produed from pure iron oreD nd gold is t the other extreme with only one grm @FHQ troy ozA of eu metl nd WWWFWWW kg of wste rok produed from gold oreF

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Figure 5.50: Giant Gypsum Crystals

Mexico. Source: National Geographic via Wikipedia

Giant gypsum crystals in the Cave of Crystals in Naica,

There are crystals up to 11 m long in this cave, which is located about 1 km underground.

62

62 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXgveofrystlsFjpg

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Enrichment Factor

PIS
Metal Average Concentration in Crust (%) Concentration Needed for Economic Mine (%) Approximate Enrichment Factor

eluminum sron gopper qold ved werury

V S HFHHS HFHHHHHHR HFHHIS HFHHHHI

QS PH E TW HFR E HFV R HFI HFHHHI68

R R E IR VH E ITH PSH PDSHH IHDSHH

Table 5.2X epproximte enrihment ftors of seleted metls needed efore pro(tle mining is possileF
Source: US Geological Survey Professional Paper 820, 1973

5.6.4 Formation of Ore Deposits

yre deposits form when minerls re onentrted"sometimes y ftor of mny thousnds"in rokD usully y one of six mjor proessesF hese inlude the followingX @A igneous crystallizationD where molten rok ools to form igneous rokF his proess forms uilding stone suh s grniteD vriety of gemstonesD sulfur oreD nd metlli oresD whih involve dense hromium or pltinum minerls tht sink to the ottom of liquid mgmF himonds form in rre wgErih igneous rok lled kimerlite tht origintes s molten rok t ISH!PHH km depth @where the dimonds formA nd lter moves very quikly to the surfeD where it erupts explosivelyF he ooled mgm forms nrrowD rrotEshped feture lled pipeF himond mines in kimerlite pipes n e reltively nrrow ut deep @see pigure A Diamond Mine @pF PISAAF @A Hydrothermal is the most ommon oreEforming proessF st involves hotD slty wter tht dissolves metlli elements from lrge re nd then preipittes ore minerls in smller reD ommonly long rok frtures nd fultsF wolten rok ommonly provides the het nd the wter is from groundwterD the oenD or the mgm itselfF he ore minerls usully ontin sul(de @2- A onded to metls suh s opperD ledD zinD meruryD nd silverF etively forming hydrotherml ore deposits our t underse mountin rngesD lled oeni ridgesD where new oen rust is produedF rereD minerlErih wters up to QSH g sometimes dishrge from rks in the rust nd preipitte vriety of metlli sul(de minerls tht mke the wter pper lkY they re lled black smokers @see pigure Black Smokers @pigure SFSPAAF @A Metamorphism ours deep in the erth under very high temperture nd pressure nd produes severl uilding stonesD inluding mrle nd slteD s well s some nonmetlli oreD inluding sestosD tlD nd grphiteF @dA Sedimentary processes our in rivers tht onentrte snd nd grvel @used in onstrutionAD s well s dense gold prtiles nd dimonds tht wethered wy from edrokF hese gold nd dimond ore odies re lled placer depositsF yther sedimentry ore deposits inlude the deep oen )oorD whih ontins mngnese nd olt ore deposits nd evported lkes or sewterD whih produe hlite nd vriety of other sltsF @eA Biological processes involve the tion of living orgnisms nd re responsile for the formtion of perls in oystersD s well s phosphorous ore in the fees of irds nd the ones nd teeth of (shF @fA Weathering in tropil rin forest environments involves soil wter tht onentrtes insolule elements suh s luminum @uxiteA y dissolving wy the solule elementsF
69 ionomi onentrtion vlue for gold omes from grigD ughnD kinner @PHIIAF

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Figure 5.51: A Diamond Mine Udachnaya Pipe, an open-pit diamond mine in Russia, is more than
600 meters (1,970 ft) deep, making it the third deepest open-pit mine in the world. Source: Stapanov Alexander via Wikimedia Commons

70

70 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXdhnypipeFtq

PIU

Figure 5.52: Black Smoker

Commons

A billowing discharge of superheated mineral-rich water at an oceanic

ridge, in the Atlantic Ocean. Black smoke is actually from metallic sulde minerals that form modern ore deposits. Source: P. Rona of U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration via Wikimedia

71

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5.6.5 Mining and Processing Ore

here re two kinds of minerl minesD surface mines nd underground minesF he kind of mine used depends on the qulity of the oreD iFeFD onentrtion of minerl nd its distne from the surfeF urfe mines inlude open-pit minesD whih ommonly involve lrge holes tht extrt reltively lowEgrde metlli ore @see pigure Open Pit Mine @pF PIVAAD strip minesD whih extrt horizontl lyers of ore or rokD nd placer minesD where gold or dimonds re extrted from river nd eh sediment y sooping up @dredgingA the sediment nd then seprting the ore y densityF vrgeD openEpit mines n rete huge piles of rok @lled overurdenA tht ws removed to expose the ore s well s huge piles of ore for proessingF nderground minesD whih re used when reltively highEgrde ore is too deep for surfe miningD involve network of tunnels to ess nd extrt the oreF roessing metlli ore @eFgFD goldD silverD ironD opperD zinD nikelD nd ledA n involve numerous steps inluding rushingD grinding with wterD physilly seprting the ore minerls from nonEore minerls often y densityD nd hemilly seprting the metl from the ore minerls using methods suh s smelting @heting the ore minerls with di'erent hemils to extrt the metlA nd leaching @using hemils to dissolve the metl from lrge volume of rushed rokAF he (neEgrined wste produed from proessing ore is lled tailingsF Slag is the glssy unwnted yEprodut of smelting oreF wny of the nonmetlli minerls nd roks do not require hemil seprtion tehniquesF
71 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXflksmokerinetlntiyenFjpg

PIW

Figure 5.53: Open Pit Mine

Wikimedia Commons

Bingham Canyon copper mine in Utah, USA. At 4 km wide and 1.2

km deep, it is the world's deepest open-pit mine. It began operations in 1906. Source: Tim Jarrett via

72

5.6.6 Mineral Resources and Sustainability Issues

yur hevy dependene on minerl resoures presents humnity with some di0ult hllenges relted to sustinilityD inluding how to ope with (nite supplies nd how to mitigte the enormous environmentl impts of mining nd proessing oreF es glol popultion growth ontinues"nd perhps more imporE tntlyD s stndrds of living rise round the world"demnd for produts mde from minerls will inreseF sn prtiulrD the eonomies of ghinD sndiD frzilD nd few other ountries re growing very quiklyD nd their demnd for ritil minerl resoures lso is elertingF ht mens we re depleting our known minerl deposits t n inresing rteD requiring tht new deposits e found nd put into produtionF pigure Demand for Nonfuel Minerals Materials @pigure SFSRA shows the lrge inrese in minerl onE sumption etween IWHH nd PHHTF gonsidering tht minerl resoures re nonrenewleD it is resonle to sk how long they will lstF he le Strategic Minerals @le SFQX trtegi winerlsA gives gretly pproximted nswer to tht question for vriety of importnt nd strategic minerals sed on the urrent prodution nd the estimted mineral reservesF fsed on this simpli(ed nlysisD the estimted life of these importnt minerl reserves vries from more thn VHH to PH yersF st is importnt to relize tht
72 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXfinghmgnyoneprilPHHSFjpg

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PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

we will not ompletely run out of ny of these minerls ut rther the eonomilly vile minerl deposits will e used upF edditionl omplitions rise if only few ountries produe the minerl nd they deide not to export itF his sitution is looming for rre erth elementsD whih urrently re produed minly y ghinD whih is thretening to limit exports of these strtegi minerlsF

Figure 5.54: Demand for Nonfuel Minerals Materials US mineral consumption from 1900 - 2006,
excluding energy-related minerals Source: U.S. Geological Survey

73

Strategic Minerals Mineral Uses 2010 Production (thousands of metric tons) 2010 Reserves (thousands of metric tons) Estimated Life of Reserves (years)

continued on next page

73 httpXGGminerlsFusgsFgovGgrntedFhtml

PPI re erths tlystsD lloysD eletronisD phosE phorsD mgnets ermisD glssD lithiumEion tterE ies in eletronis nd eletri rs fertilizerD niml feed supplement tlystsD eletronE isD glssD jewelry el nsD irplnesD uildingD eletril white pigmentD metl in irplnes nd humn joint replements irplne enginesD metlsD hemils min ingredient in steel importnt lloy in steelD eletropltE ing importnt lloy in steel eletril wireD eletronisD pipesD ingredient in rss industryD oinsD jewelryD photogrE phy glvnized steelD lloysD rss tteries eletrilD nsD onstrutionD IQH IIHDHHH VRT

vithium

PSFQ

IQDHHH

SIR

hosphte rok ltinum qroup eluminum ore itnium minerls

IUTDHHH HFR PIIDHHH TDQHH

TSDHHHDHHH TT PVDHHHDHHH TWHDHHH

QTW IUV IQQ IIH

golt sron ore xikel

VV PDRHHDHHH IDSSH

UDQHH IVHDHHHDHHH UTDHHH

VQ US RW

wngnese gopper

IQDHHH ITDPHH

TQHDHHH TQHDHHH

RV QW

ilver

PPFP

SIH

PQ

in ved in

IPDHHH RDIHH PTI

PSHDHHH VHDHHH SDPHH

PI PH PH

continued on next page

PPP qold

CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

jewelryD rtsD eleE tronisD dentl

PFS

SI

PH

Table 5.3X sesD world prodution in PHIHD nd estimted projeted lifetime of reserves @ore tht is pro(tle to mine under urrent onditionsA for seleted minerls Source: US Geological Survey Mineral
Commodity Summaries, 2011

e more omplex nlysis of future depletions of our minerl supplies predits tht PH out of PQ minerls studied will likely experiene permnent shortfll in glol supply y PHQH where glol prodution is less thn glol demnd @glugstonD PHIH @pF PPRAAF pei(lly this study onludes the followingX for dmiumD goldD meruryD telluriumD nd tungsten"they hve lredy pssed their glol prodution pekD their future prodution only will delineD nd it is nerly ertin tht there will e permnent glol supply shortfll y PHQHY for oltD ledD molydenumD pltinum group metlsD phosphte rokD silverD titniumD nd zin"they re likely t or ner their glol prodution pek nd there is very high proility tht there will e permnent glol supply shortfll y PHQHY for hromiumD opperD indiumD iron oreD lithiumD mgnesium ompoundsD nikelD nd phosphte rok"they re expeted to reh their glol prodution pek etween PHIH nd PHQH nd there is high proility tht there will e permnent glol supply shortfll y PHQHY nd for uxiteD rre erth minerlsD nd tin"they re not expeted to reh their glol prodution pek efore PHQH nd there is low proility tht there will e permnent glol supply shortfll y PHQHF st is importnt to note tht these kinds of preditions of future minerl shortges re di0ult nd ontroversilF yther sientists disgree with glugston9s preditions of minerl shortges in the ner futureF reditions similr to glugston were mde in the IWUHs nd they were wrongF st is di0ult to know extly the future demnd for minerls nd the size of future minerl reservesF he remining life for spei( minerls will derese if future demnd inresesF yn the other hndD minerl reserves n inrese if new minerl deposits re found @inresing the known mount of oreA or if urrently unpro(tle minerl deposits eome pro(tle ones due to either minerl prie inrese or tehnologil improvements tht mke mining or proessing heperF Mineral resourcesD muh lrger tegory thn minerl reservesD re the totl mount of minerl tht is not neessrily pro(tle to mine tody ut tht hs some sort of eonomi potentilF wining nd proessing ore n hve onsiderle impt on the environmentF urfe mines n rete enormous pits @see pigure Open Pit Mine @pF PIVAA in the ground s well s lrge piles of overurden nd tilings tht need to e reclaimedD iFeFD restored to useful lndspeF ine IWUU surfe mines in FF re required to e relimedD nd ommonly relmtion is reltively well done in this ountryF nfortuntelyD surfe mine relmtion is not done everywhereD espeilly in underdeveloped ountriesD due to lk of regultions or lx enforement of regultionsF nrelimed surfe mines nd tive surfe mines n e mjor soures of wter nd sediment pollutionF wetlli ore minerls @eFgFD opperD ledD zinD meruryD nd silverA ommonly inlude undnt sul(deD nd mny metlli ore deposits ontin undnt pyrite @iron sul(deAF he sul(de in these minerls oxidizes quikly when exposed to ir t the surfe produing sulfuri idD lled acid mine drainageF es result stremsD pondsD nd soil wter ontminted with this dringe n e highly idiD rehing pr vlues of zero or less @see pigure eid wine hringeA3 he idi wter n leh hevy metls suh s nikelD opperD ledD rseniD luminumD nd mngnese from mine tilings nd slgF he idi ontminted wter n e highly toxi to the eosystemF lnts usully will not regrow in suh idi soil wterD nd therefore soil erosion rtes skyroket due to the persistene of reD unvegetted surfesF ith smller mount of tilings nd no overurdenD underground mines usully re muh esier to relimD nd they produe muh less id mine dringeF he mjor environmentl prolem with underground mining is the hzrdous working environment for miners primrily used y veEins nd lung disese due to prolonged inhltion of dust prtilesF nderground veEins lso n dmge the surfe from susideneF melting n e mjor soure of ir pollutionD espeilly y2 gsF he se history elow exmines the environmentl impt of mining nd proessing gold oreF

PPQ

Figure 5.55: Acid Mine Drainage

NASA via Wikimedia Commons

The water in Rio Tinto River, Spain is highly acidic (pH =

2)

and the orange color is from iron in the water. A location along this river has been mined beginning some 5,000 years ago primarily for copper and more recently for silver and gold. Source: Sean Mack of

74

5.6.7 Sustainable Solutions to the Mineral Crisis?

roviding sustinle solutions to the prolem of dwindling supply of nonrenewle resoure suh s minerls seems ontrditoryF xeverthelessD it is extremely importnt to onsider strtegies tht move towrds sustinility even if true sustinility is not possile for most minerlsF he generl pproh towrds minerl sustinility should inlude mineral conservation t the top of the listF e lso need to maximize exploration for new mineral resources while t the sme time we minimize the environmental impact of mineral mining and processingF gonservtion of minerl resoures inludes improved e0ienyD sustitutionD nd the Q s of sustinilityD redueD reuseD nd reyleF smproved e0ieny pplies to ll fetures of minerl use inluding miningD proessingD nd retion of minerl produtsF ustituting rre nonrenewle resoure with either more undnt nonrenewle resoure or renewle resoure n helpF ixmples inlude sustituting glss (er opti les for opper in telephone wires nd wood for luminum in onstrutionF eduing glol demnd for minerl resoures will e hllengeD onsidering projetions of ontinuing popultion growth
74 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXiotintorivergroltokerxeeemeseserhgenterFjpg

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nd the rpid eonomi growth of very lrge ountries suh s ghinD sndiD nd frzilF ristorilly eonomi growth is intimtely tied to inresed minerl onsumptionD nd therefore it will e di0ult for those rpidly developing ountries to derese their future demnd for minerlsF sn theoryD it should e esier for ountries with high minerl onsumption rte suh s the FF to redue their demnd for minerls ut it will tke signi(nt hnge in mindset to omplish thtF ehnology n help some with some venues to reduing minerl onsumptionF por exmpleD digitl mers hve virtully eliminted the photogrphi demnd for silverD whih is used for (lm developmentF sing stronger nd more durle lloys of steel n trnslte to fewer onstrution mterils neededF ixmples of nturl resoure reuse inlude everything t n ntique store nd yrd sleF eyling n extend the lifetime of minerl reservesD espeilly metlsF eyling is esiest for pure metls suh s opper pipes nd luminum nsD ut muh hrder for lloys @mixtures of metlsA nd omplex mnuftured goodsD suh s omputersF wny nonmetls nnot e reyledY exmples inlude rod slt nd fertilizerF eyling is esier for welthy ountry euse there re more (nnil resoures to use for reyling nd more goods to reyleF edditionl signi(nt ene(ts of minerl resoure onservtion re less pollution nd environmentl degrdtion from new minerl mining nd proessing s well s redutions in energy use nd wste produtionF feuse demnd for new minerls will likely inrese in the futureD we must ontinue to serh for new minerlsD even though we proly hve lredy found mny of the esy trgetsD iFeFD highEgrde ore deE posits lose to the surfe nd in onvenient lotionsF o (nd more di0ult ore trgetsD we will need to pply mny tehnologies inluding geophysil methods @seismiD grvityD mgnetiD nd eletril mesureE mentsD s well s remote sensingD whih uses stelliteEsed mesurements of eletromgneti rdition from irth9s surfeAD geohemil methods @looking for hemil enrihments in soilD wterD irD nd plntsAD nd geologil informtion inluding knowledge of plte tetonis theoryF e lso my need to onsider exploring nd mining unonventionl res suh s ontinentl mrgins @sumerged edges of ontinentsAD the oen )oor @where there re lrge deposits of mngnese ore nd other metls in roks lled mngnese nodulesAD nd oeni ridges @underse mountins tht hve opperD zinD nd led ore odiesAF pinllyD we need to explore forD mineD nd proess new minerls while minimizing pollution nd other environmentl imptsF egultions nd good engineering prties re neessry to ensure dequte mine relmtion nd pollution redutionD inluding id mine dringeF he emerging (eld of iotehnology my provide some sustinle solutions to metl extrtionF pei( methods inlude biooxidation @miroil enrihment of metls in solid phseAD bioleaching @miroil dissolution of metlsAD biosorption @tthE ment of metls to ellsAD nd genetic engineering of microbes @reting miroorgnisms speilized in extrting metl from oreAF
5.6.8 Review Questions
Question 5.6.1 Question 5.6.2 Question 5.6.3 Question 5.6.4

xme some importnt wys minerl resoures re usedF hy re they importnt to soietyc ht re the mjor environmentl issues ssoited with minerl resouresc ht should soiety lern from the se history of goldc hy is soiety fing risis involving minerl supply nd how might we work to solve itc

5.6.9 References

glugstonD gF @PHIHA snresing qlol xonrenewle xturl esoure rity E en enlysisD he yil hrumF etrieved from httpXGGwwwFtheoildrumFomGnodeGTQRS75
75 httpXGGwwwFtheoildrumFomGnodeGTQRS

PPS grig tD ughn hD nd kinner f @PHIIA irth esoures nd the invironment @Rth edFAF erson rentie rllD pF WP

5.7 Case Study: Gold: Worth its Weight?

76

qold is symol of welthD prestigeD nd roylty tht hs ttrted nd fsinted people for mny thousnds of yers @see pigure Native Gold @pigure SFSTAAF qold is onsidered y mny to e the most desirle preious metl euse it hs een sought fter for oinsD jewelryD nd other rts sine long efore the eginning of reorded historyF ristorilly its vlue ws used s urreny stndrd @the gold stndrdA lthough not nymoreF qold is very dense ut lso very mlleleY grm of gold n e hmmered into I mP sheet of gold lefF qold is extremely resistnt to orrosion nd hemil ttkD mking it lmost indestrutileF st is lso very rre nd ostly to produeF ody the primry uses of gold re jewelry nd the rtsD eletronisD nd dentistryF he mjor use in eletronis is gold plting of eletril ontts to provide orrosionEresistnt ondutive lyer on opperF wost gold is esily reyled exept for gold plting due to omintions with other ompounds suh s ynideF eout hlf of the world9s gold ever produed hs een produed sine IWTS @see pigure World Gold Production @pigure SFSUAAF et the urrent onsumption rte tody9s gold reserves re expeted to lst only PH more yersF

Figure 5.56: Native Gold A collage of 2 photos, showing 3 pieces of native gold.
Aram Dulyan via Wikimedia Commons

The top piece is from

the Washington mining district, California, and the bottom two are from Victoria, Australia. Source:

77

76 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIRTUGIFRGbF

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Figure 5.57: World Gold Production

World gold production from 1900 to 2009 including annual

(blue line) and cumulative data (gray line) Source: Realterm via Wikimedia Commons

78

here re two types of gold ore depositsX @IA hydrothermalD where mgmEheted groundwter dissolves gold from lrge volume of rok nd deposits it in rok frtures nd @PA placerD where rivers erode gold ore deposit of hydrotherml origin nd deposit the hevy gold grins t the ottom of river hnnelsF elthough gold9s resistne to hemil ttk mkes it extremely durle nd reusleD tht sme property lso mkes gold di0ult to extrt from rokF es resultD some gold mining methods n hve n enormous environmentl imptF he (rst disovered gold ore ws from pler depositsD whih re reltively simple to mineF he method of extrting gold in pler deposit involves density settling of gold grins in moving wterD similr to how pler deposits formF pei( vritions of pler mining inlude hushing @developed y the nient omns where torrent of wter is sent through lndspe vi n quedutAD sluice box @where running wter psses through wooden ox with ri1es on the ottomAD panning @ hndEheld onil metl pn where wter swirls roundA nd hydruli @where high pressure hoses ut into nturl lndspesD see pigure Hydraulic Mining @pigure SFSVAAF Hydraulic miningD developed during the gliforni qold ush in the middle IVHHsD n destroy nturl settingsD elerte soil erosionD nd rete sedimentErih rivers tht lter )ood due to sediment in(lling the hnnelF he lrgest gold ore ody ever disovered is n nientD lithi(ed @iFeFD hrdenedA pler depositF xerly hlf of the world9s gold ever mined hs ome from outh efri9s itwtersrnd depositsD whih lso hve the world9s deepest underground mine t out RDHHH mF o inrese the e0ieny of gold pnningD liquid merury is dded to gold pns euse merury n form n lloy with gold in method lled mercury amalgamationF he meruryEgold mlgm is then olleted
77 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXxtivegoldnuggetsFjpg 78 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXqoldworldprodutionFpng

PPU nd heted to vporize the merury nd onentrte the goldF elthough merury mlgmtion is no longer used ommerillyD it is still used y mteur gold pnnersF nfortuntelyD onsiderle merury hs een relesed to the environment with this methodD whih is prolemti euse merury ioumultes nd it is esily onverted to methylmeruryD whih is highly toxiF

Figure 5.58: Hydraulic Mining

via Wikimedia Commons

79

Gold hydraulic mining in New Zealand, 1880s Source: James Ring

ody most gold mining is done y method lled heap leachingD where ynideErih wter peroltes through (nely ground gold ore nd dissolves the gold over period of monthsY eventully the wter is olleted nd treted to remove the goldF his proess revolutionized gold mining euse it llowed eonomi reovery of gold from very lowEgrde ore @down to I ppmA nd even from gold ore tilings tht previously were onsidered wsteF yn the other hndD hep lehing is ontroversil euse of the toxi nture of ynideF he world9s lrgest ynide spill to dte ourred t fi wre in northern omni @see pigure Baia Mare @pigure SFSWAAF sn tnury PHHH fter period of hevy rin nd snowmeltD dm surrounding gold tilings pond ollpsed nd sent into the dringe sin of the hnue iver IHHDHHH m3 @IHH million litersA of wter with SHH E IDHHH ppm ynide80 D killing more thn thousnd metri tons of (sh @see pigure faia Mare Cyanide Spill @pigure SFTHAAF gonsidering the lrge environmentl impt of gold miningD this my tke some of the glitter from goldF
79 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXqoldsluiingDhillmnownDestgostDIVVE7QpFjpg 80 he FF ie llows no more thn HFP ppm ynide in drinking wterF

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CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

Figure 5.59: Baia Mare

Map of Tisza River drainage basin with pollution hot spots including Baia

Mare, Romania, which is the location of a cyanide spill disaster in 2000 Source: United Nations Environment Program - GRID-Arendal

81

81 httpXGGwwwFgridFnoGpulitionsGetGepQGpgeGPSVWFspx

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Figure 5.60: Baia Mare Cyanide Spill

the location of a in 2000 Source: Toxipedia

82

Dead sh from cyanide spill disaster Baia Mare, Romania,

82 httpXGGtoxipediForgGdisplyGtoxipediGfiCwreCgynideCpillYjsessionidaSpIUQiUWRppihRiWIPhhRQUQIRRTVfPH

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CHAPTER 5.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES: WATER, POLLUTION, AND MINERALS

Chapter 6
Environmental and Resource Economics

6.1 Environmental and Resource Economics - Chapter Introduction

Figure 6.1:

Source: The NEED Project

6.1.1 Introduction

he (eld of environmentl nd nturl resoure eonomis sounds to mny like n oxymoronF wost people think eonomists study moneyD (nneD nd usiness"so wht does tht hve to do with the environmentc ionomis is relly rodly de(ned s the study of the llotion of sre resouresF sn other wordsD eoE nomis is soil siene tht helps people understnd how to mke hrd hoies when there re unvoidle trdeo'sF por exmpleD ompny n mke nd sell more rsD whih rings in revenueD ut doing so lso inreses prodution ostsF yr student n hoose to hve prtEtime jo to redue the size of the lon she needs to py for ollegeD ut tht redues the time she hs for studying nd mkes it hrder for her to get good grdesF ome eonomists do study usinessD helping ompnies nd industries design produtionD mrketingD nd investment strtegies tht mximize their pro(tsF yther eonomists work to understnd nd inform the hoies individuls mke out their investments in edution nd how to divide their time eE tween workD leisureD nd fmily in order to mke themselves nd their fmilies etter o'F invironmentl nd
1 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVSWVGIFUGbF 2 httpXGGwwwFneedForgG

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CHAPTER 6.

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nturl resoure eonomists study the trdeo's ssoited with one of the most importnt sre resoures we hve"ntureF ionomists ontriute to the study of environmentl prolems with two kinds of workF pirstD they do normative studies of how people should mnge resoures nd invest in environmentl qulity to mke themselves ndGor soiety s well o' s possileF eondD they do positive analyses of how humn gents" individulsD (rmsD nd so forth"tully do ehveF xormtive studies give reommendtions nd guidne for people nd poliy mkers to followF ositive studies of humn ehvior help us to understnd wht uses environmentl prolems nd whih poliies re most likely to work well to llevite themF his hpter gives n overview of few of the key ides tht hve een developed in this (eldF pirstD we will lern the eonomi theories tht help us understnd where environmentl prolems ome from nd wht mkes something prolem tht tully needs to e (xedF his setion of the hpter will introdue the onepts of externlitiesD puli goodsD nd open ess resouresD nd explin how in situtions with those fetures we often end up with too muh pollution nd exessive rtes of nturl resoure exploittionF eondD we will lern the tools eonomists hve developed to quntify the vlue of environmentl menitiesF st is very di0ult to identify monetry vlue for things like len ir nd wildlifeD whih re not trded in mrketpleD ut suh vlue estimtes re often helpful inputs for puli disussions out environmentl poliies nd investmentsF hirdD we will disuss set of pprohes eonomists use to evlute environmentl poliies nd projetsF e wnt to design poliies tht re goodD ut wht extly does tht menc pinllyD we will lern out the di'erent poliy tools tht n e used to solve prolems of exess environmentl degrdtion nd resoure exploittionD inluding set of inentive poliies tht were designed y eonomists to work with rther thn ginst the wy tht people relly ehveD nd we will disuss the strengths nd weknesses of those di'erent toolsF

6.2 Tragedy of the Commons

6.2.1 Learning Objectives

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

know how eonomists de(ne environmentl outomes tht mke soiety s well o' s possileF understnd wht externlities reD nd how they n led to outomes with too muh pollution nd resoure exploittionF e le to de(ne puli goods nd ommonEproperty resouresD nd understnd how those things re prone to underEprovision nd overEexploittionD respetivelyF
6.2.2 Introduction

o identify nd solve environmentl prolemsD we need to understnd wht situtions re tully prolems @somehow formlly de(nedA nd wht irumstnes nd ehviors use themF e might think tht it is esy to reognize prolem"pollution is dD sving nturl resoures is goodF roweverD ritil thinking often revels snp judgments to e overly simplistiF ome exmples help to illustrte this pointF

yil is depletle resoureD nd mny people worry tht rpid extrtion nd use of oil might use us to run outF fut would it relly e d thing to use up ll the oil s long s we developed lterntive energy tehnologies to whih we ould turn when the oil ws gonec ss there ny intrinsi vlue to keeping stok of oil unused in the groundc unning out of oil somedy my not e prolemF roweverD susidies for oil extrtion might use us to run out more quikly thn is soilly optimlF yther ine0ienies rise if multiple ompnies own wells tht tp the sme pool of oilD nd eh ends up ring to extrt the oil efore the others n tke it wy"tht kind of re n inrese totl pumping osts nd redue the totl mount of oil tht n e glened from the poolF
Running out!

3 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVTIPGIFTGbF

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Biological pollution! rorror stories ound in the news out the hvo rised y some nonntive niml nd plnt speies in the nited ttesF er mussels log ots nd industril pipesD yellow str thistle is toxi to horses nd redues ntive iodiversity in the emerin estD nd the emerld sh orer kills sh trees s it mrhes ross the lndspeF prom the urrent tone of muh medi nd sienti( disourse out nonntive speiesD one ould onlude tht ll nonntive speies re prolemsF fut does tht men we should forid frmers in the F from growing wtermelonsD whih ome from efric yr should we ship ll the ringEneked phesnts k to iursi whene they originlly meD nd tell xorth hkot to hoose new stte irdc he osts nd ene(ts of nonntive speies vry gretly ! one poliy pproh is not likely to pply well to them llF

his setion (rst explins the wy eonomists think out whether n outome is goodF hen it desries some of the fetures of nturl resoures nd environmentl qulity tht often trigger prolemti humn ehviors relted to the environmentF
6.2.3 Eciency and Deadweight Loss

esk nyone who lived during the entrllyEplnnedD nonmrket eonomy yers of the oviet nion"mrkets re very good t mny thingsF hen produt eomes srer or more ostly to produe we would like to send signls to onsumers tht would use them to uy less of tht thingF sf n input is more vlule when used to produe one good thn notherD we would like to send signls to (rms to mke sure tht input is put to its est useF sf onditions re rightD mrket pries do these useful things nd moreF wrkets distriute inputs e0iently through the prodution side of the eonomyX they ensure tht plnt mngers don9t need to hord inputs nd then drive round rtering with eh other for the things they need to mke their produtsD nd they rrnge for e0ient quntities of goods to e produedF wrkets lso distriute outputs mong onsumers without surplusesD shortgesD or lrge numers of thing suits eing foisted upon onsumers in ieriF ionomists men something very spei( when they use the word ecientF sn generlD n llotion is e0ient if it mximizes soil wellEeingD or welfreF rditionl eonomis de(nes welfare s totl net benets"the di'erene etween the totl ene(ts ll people in soiety get from mrket goods nd servies nd the totl osts of produing those thingsF invironmentl eonomists enhne the de(nition of welfreF he vlues of environmentl goods like wildlife ount on the ene(t side of net ene(ts nd dmges to environmentl qulity from prodution nd onsumptive proesses ount s ostsF nder idel irumstnesD mrket outomes re e0ientF sn perfet mrkets for regulr goodsD goods re produed t the point where the ost to soiety of produing the lst unitD the marginal costD is just equl to the mount onsumer is willing to py for tht lst unitD the marginal benetD whih mens tht the net ene(ts in the mrket re mximizedF egulr goods re supplied y industry suh tht supply is equivlent to the mrginl prodution osts to the (rmsD nd they re demnded y onsumers in suh wy tht we n red the mrginl ene(t to onsumers o' the demnd urveY when the mrket equilirtes t prie tht uses quntity demnded to equl quntity supplied t tht prie @market in pigure Market Equilibrium @pigure TFPAAD it is lso true tht mrginl ene(t equls mrginl ostF

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CHAPTER 6.

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Figure 6.2: Market Equilibrium

Source: Amy Ando

A private market equilibrates at a price such that the quantity

supplied equals the quantity demanded, and thus private marginal cost equals private marginal benet.

iven depletle resoures suh s oil would e used e0iently y wellEfuntioning mrketF st is soilly e0ient to use depletle resoure over time suh tht the prie rises t the sme rte s the rte of interestF snresing srity pushes the prie upD whih stimultes e'orts to use less of the resoure nd to invest in reserh to mke kstop lterntives more ostEe'etiveF iventullyD the ost of the resoure rises to the point where the kstop tehnology is ompetitiveD nd the mrket swithes from the depletle resoure to the kstopF e see this with opperY high pries of depletle opper trigger sustitution to other mterilsD like (er optis for telephone les nd plstis for pipesF e would surely see the sme thing hppen with fossil fuelsY if pries re llowed to rise with srityD (rms hve more inentives to engge in reserh tht lowers the ost of kstop tehnologies like solr nd wind powerD nd we will eventully just swithF nfortuntelyD mny onditions n led to market failure suh tht the mrket outome does not mximize soil welfreF he extent to whih net ene(ts fll short of their potentil is lled deadweight lossF hedweight loss n exist when not enough of good is produedD or too muh of good is produedD or prodution is not done in the most cost-eective @lest expensiveA wy possileD where osts inlude environmentl dmgesF ome types of mrket filures @nd thus dedweight lossA re extremely ommon
4 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGmyndo

PQS in environmentl settingsF

6.2.4 Externalities

sn mrket eonomyD people nd ompnies mke hoies to lne the osts nd ene(ts tht rue to themF ht ehvior n sometimes yield outomes tht mximize totl soil welfre even if individul gents re only seeking to mximize their own personl wellEeingD euse selfEinterested trdes led the mrket to settle where ggregte mrginl ene(ts equl ggregte mrginl osts nd thus totl net ene(ts re mximizedF roweverD people nd ompnies do not lwys er the full osts nd ene(ts ssoited with the tions they tkeF hen this is true eonomists sy there re externlitiesD nd individul tions do not typilly yield e0ient outomesF e negative externality is ost ssoited with n tion tht is not orne y the person who hooses to tke tht tionF por exmpleD if student hets on n exmD tht student might get higher grdeF roweverD if the lss is grded on urveD ll the other students will get lower grdesF end if the professor lerns tht heting hppenedD she might tke steps to prevent heting on the next exm tht mke the testing environment more unplesnt for ll the students @no lultors llowedD no throom reksD id heksD etFAF xegtive externlities re rmpnt in environmentl settingsX

gompnies tht spill oil into the oen do not er the full osts of the resulting hrm to the mrine environmentD whih inlude everything from degrded ommeril (sheries to redued endngered se turtle popultionsAF gommuters generte emissions of ir pollutionD whih lowers the mient qulity of the ir in res they pss through nd uses helth prolems for other peopleF hevelopers who uild houses in uoli exurn settings use hitt frgmenttion nd iodiversity lossD in)iting ost on the puli t lrgeF

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CHAPTER 6.

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Figure 6.3: Negative Externality: Smog A NASA photograph of the atmosphere over upstate New
York, with Lake Eire (top) and Lake Ontario (bottom) featured. Both natural, white clouds and manmade smog (grey clouds below) are visible. The smog is an example of a negative externality, as the cost of the pollution is borne by everyone in the region, not just by the producers. Source: Image Science and Analysis Laboratory, NASA-Johnson Space Center

sn situtions where n tion or good hs negtive externlityD the privte mrginl ost tht shpes the ehvior of n gent is lower thn the mrginl ost to soiety s wholeD whih inludes the privte mrginl ost nd the externl environmentl mrginl ostF he e0ient outome would e where the soil mrginl ost equls the soil mrginl ene(t @leled ecient in pigure Ineciency from Negative Externality @pigure TFRAAF nfortuntelyD the freeEmrket outome @leled market in pigure Ineciency
5 httpXGGerthFjsFnsFgovGsseopGipGprintinfoFplcryyaHWPEUIQEQP

PQU @pigure TFRAA will tend to hve more of the good or tivity thn is soilly optiml euse the gents re not pying ttention to ll the ostsF oo muh oil will e shippedD nd with insu0ient reY people will drive too mny miles on their dily ommutesY developers will uild too mny new homes in sensitive hittsF husD there is dedweight loss @the shded tringle in the (gureAY the mrginl soil ost ssoited with units in exess of the soil optimum is greter thn the mrginl ene(t soiety gets from those unitsF uli poliy tht redues the mount of the hrmful good or tivity ould mke soiety s whole etter o'F
from Negative Externality

Figure 6.4: Ineciency from Negative Externality

When there is a negative externality, the

market equilibrates where the total social marginal cost exceeds the marginal benet of the last unit of a good and society is not as well o as it could be if less were produced. Source: Amy Ando

gonverselyD positive externality is ene(t ssoited with n tion tht is not orne y the person who hooses to tke tht tionF tudents who get )u shots in ytoerD for exmpleD gin privte ene(t euse they re less likely to get the )u during the winter monthsF roweverD their lssmtesD roommtesD nd reltives lso gin some ene(t from tht tion euse inoulted students re less likely to pss the )u
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CHAPTER 6.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND RESOURCE ECONOMICS

long to themF ositive externlities exist in the world of tions nd produts tht 'et the environmentX

e homeowner who instlls rin rrel to ollet unhlorinted rinwter for her grden lso improves strem hitt in her wtershed y reduing stormwter runo'F e delivery ompny tht reEoptimizes its routing system to ut fuel osts lso improves lol ir qulity y utting its vehile ir pollution emissionsF e frmer who plnts winter over rops to inrese the produtivity of his soil will lso improve wter qulity in lol strems y reduing erosionF
sn situtions where n tion or good hs positive externlityD the privte mrginl ene(t tht shpes the ehvior of n gent is lower thn the mrginl ene(t to soiety s wholeD whih inludes the privte mrginl ene(t nd the externl environmentl mrginl ene(tF he e0ient outome would e where the soil mrginl ost equls the soil mrginl ene(t @leled ecient in pigure Positive Externality @pigure TFSAAF sn the presene of positive externlityD the freeEmrket outome will tend to promote less of the good or tivity thn is soilly optiml euse the gents do not rep ll the ene(tsF oo few rin rrels will e instlledY not enough delivery routes will e reEoptimizedY too few res of griulturl (elds will hve over rops in the winter monthsF egin there is dedweight loss @the shded tringle in the (gureAD ut this time euse the mrginl soil ene(t ssoited with some of the units not produed would hve een greter thn the mrginl osts of produing themF tust euse n externlity is positive rther thn negtive doesn9t men there isn9t prolemY puli poliy ould still mke soiety s whole etter o'F

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Figure 6.5: Positive Externality When there is a a positive externality, the market equilibrates where
the total social marginal benet exceeds the marginal cost of the last unit of a good and society is not as well o as it could be if more were produced. Source: Amy Ando

6.2.5 Public Goods and Common-pool Resources

wrket outomes re lmost never e0ient in two rod kinds of sesX puli goods nd ommonEpool resouresF he mrket filures in these settings re relted to the prolems we sw with negtive nd positive externlitiesF e pure public good is de(ned s eing nonexlusive nd nonrivl in onsumptionF sf something is nonexlusiveD people nnot e prevented from enjoying its ene(tsF e privte house is exlusive euse doorsD windowsD nd n lrm system n e used to keep nonowners outF e lighthouseD on the other hndD is nonEexlusive euse ships t se nnot e prevented from seeing its lightF e good tht is nonrivl in onsumption hs mrginl ene(t tht does not deline with the numer of people who onsume itF e hot dog is ompletely rivl in onsumptionX if s et itD you nnotF yn the other hndD the euty of (reworks disply is ompletely un'eted y the numer of people who look t itF ome elements of the environment re pure puli goodsX
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CHAPTER 6.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND RESOURCE ECONOMICS

glen ir in ity provides helth ene(ts to everyoneD nd people nnot e prevented from rething he strtospheri ozone lyer protets everyone on erth from solr rdition
he e0ient mount of puli good is still where soil mrginl ene(t equls the mrginl ost of provisionF roweverD the soil mrginl ene(t of one unit of puli good is often very lrge euse mny people in soiety n ene(t from tht unit simultneouslyF yne lighthouse prevents ll the ships in n re from running ground in stormF sn ontrstD the soil mrginl ene(t of hot dog is just the mrginl ene(t gined y the one person who gets to et itF oiety ould (gure out the e0ient mount of puli good to provide"syD how muh to spend on lener rs tht redue ir pollution in ityF nfortuntelyD privte individuls ting on their own re unlikely to provide the e0ient mount of the puli good euse of the free rider prolemF sf my neighors redue pollution y uying len eletri rs or ommuting vi trinD s n ene(t from tht lener irY thusD s might try to void doing nything ostly myself in hopes tht everyone else will len the ir for meF ividene suggests tht people do not ehve entirely like free riders ! they ontriute voluntrily to environmentl groups nd puli rdio sttionsF roweverD the levels of puliEgood provision generted y free mrket re lower thn would e e0ientF he ozone lyer is too thinY the ir is too dirtyF uli goods hve ig multilterl positive externlity prolemsF sn ontrstD common-pool resource @lso sometimes lled n openEess resoureA su'ers from ig multilterl negtive externlity prolemsF his sitution is sometimes lled the trgedy of the ommonsF vike puli goodsD ommonEpool resoures re nonexludleF roweverD they re highly rivl in useF wny nturl resoures hve ommonEpool feturesX

ter in river n e removed y nyone ner it for irrigtionD drinkingD or industril useY the more wter one set of users removesD the less wter there is ville for othersF word(sh in the oen n e ught y nyone with the right ot nd gerD nd the more (sh re ught y one )eet of otsD the fewer remin for other (shers to thF yld growth timer in developing ountry n e ut down y mny peopleD nd slow regrowth mens tht the more timer one person uts the less there is ville for othersF
yne person9s use of ommonEpool resoure hs negtive e'ets on ll the other usersF husD these resoures re prone to overexploittionF yne person in sndonesi might wnt to try to hrvest tropil hrdwood timer slowly nd sustinlyD ut the trees they foreer from utting tody might e ut down y someone else tomorrowF he di0ulty of mnging ommonEpool resoures is evident round the world in rpid rtes of tropil deforesttionD dngerous overhrvesting of (sheries @see gse studyX wrine pisheries @etion TFQAAD nd ttles fought over mighty rivers tht hve een redued to dirty triklesF he trgedy of the ommons ours most often when the vlue of the resoure is gretD the numer of users is lrgeD nd the users do not hve soil ties to one notherD ut ommonEpool resoures re not lwys usedF ilinor ystrom9s xoel prizeEwinning ody of workD for exmpleD hs studied ses of ommonEpool resoures tht were not overEexploited euse of informl soil institutionsF
6.2.6 Review Questions
Question 6.2.1 Question 6.2.2 Question 6.2.3

ht does it men for n outome to e e0ientc row do externlities use mrket outomes not to e e0ientc

row re the free rider prolem nd the ommon pool resoure prolem relted to si prolems of externlitiesc

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6.3 Case Study: Marine Fisheries

pisheries re lssi ommonEpool resouresF he detils of the legl institutions tht govern ess to (sheries vry round the gloeF roweverD the physil nture of mrine (sheries mkes them prone to overexploittionF enyone with ot nd some ger n enter the oenF yne ot9s th redues the (sh ville to ll the other ots nd redues the stok ville to reprodue nd sustin the stok ville in the following yerF ionomi theory predits tht the mrket filure ssoited with open ess to (shery will yield soilly exessive levels of entry into the (shery @too mny otsA nd nnul th @too mny (sh ughtA nd ine0iently low stoks of (sh @feddingtonD egnewD 8 glrkD PHHU @pF PRRAAF

Figure 6.6:

Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

nfortuntelyD the stte of (sheries round the gloe seems to indite tht the preditions of tht theory re eing orne outF flue(n tun re in dnger of extintionF toks of (sh in oneEundnt (sheries suh s xorth etlnti od nd wediterrnen sword(sh hve een depleted to ommeril @nd sometimes iologilA exhustion @wontigneD PHHU @pF PRRAAF ientists hve doumented widespred ollpse of (sh stoks nd ssoited loss of mrine iodiversity from over(shingY this devsttes the ility of ostl nd openEoen eosystems to provide wide rnge of eosystem servies suh s food provisioningD wter (ltrtionD nd detoxi(tion @orm et lFD PHHT @pF PRRAAF holrs hve doumented isolted ses suh s
8 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVVUVGIFSGbF 9 httpXGGwwwFnmfsFnoFgovGsfGsttuso0sheriesGPHIIGseondGwpyver(shedtoksgPPHIIFpdf

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CHAPTER 6.

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the loster gngs of ostl wine where ommunl informl mngement prevented overexploittion of the resoure @ehesonD IWVV @pF PRRAAD ut suh ses re the exeption rther thn the ruleF irly e'orts to ontrol over(shing used severl kinds of regultions on quotsD (shing e'ortD nd gerF por exmpleD (shing ots re foridden in some ples from using onventionl longlines euse tht ger yields high levels of yth nd kills endngered letherk turtlesF ome forms of (shery mngement limit the numer of (sh tht n e ught in n entire (sheryF nder totl llowle th @egA systemD (shers n (sh when nd how they wntD ut one the quot for the (shery hs een metD (shing must stop until the next sesonF nfortuntelyD eg poliies do not solve the underlying prolem tht (shermen ompete for the (shD nd often yield perverse inentives nd undesirle outomes suh s overpitliztion of the industry @feddingtonD egnewD 8 glrkD PHHU @pF PRRAA nd res etween (shing ot rews to th (sh efore the quot is rehedF sn the wellEknown se of the elskn hliut (sheryD the re eme so extreme tht the (shing seson ws redued to single PREhour md dshY given tht (sh re perishleD this temporl lumping of the th is not desirle outomeF

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Figure 6.7: Marine Fisheries: Fishing Boats Alaskan waters have been shed by people for thousands of years, but they are under pressure from modern shing technologies and large-scale extraction. Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

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esoure eonomists developed the ide of trdle permit sheme to help mnge (sheriesF sndividul trdle quot @sA shemes re pEndEtrde poliies for (shD where totl th is limited ut (shers in the (shery re given permits tht gurntee them right to shre of tht thF lyers in the (shery n sell their quot shres to eh other @helping the th to )ow voluntrily to the most e0ient ots in the industryA nd there is no inentive for ptins to uy exessively lrge ots or (sh too rpidly to et the other ots to the thF s poliies hve rtionlized the elskn hliut (shery ompletelyX the (sh stok is thrivingD overpitliztion is goneD nd the (sh th is spred out over time @vevyD PHIH @pF PRRAAF ss hve lso een implemented in the (sheries of xew elndD yielding lrge improvements in the iologil sttus of the stoks @ennlD IWWT @pF PRRAAF here is some generl evidene tht s systems hve een reltively suessful in improving (shery outomes @gostelloD qinesD 8 vynhm et lF PHHV @pF PRRAAD though other reserh implies tht evidene of the superiority of the s pproh is more mixed @feddington PHHU @pF PRRAA holrs nd (shery mngers ontinue to work to identify the detils of s mngement tht mke suh systems work most e'etivelyD nd to identify wht needs to e done to promote more widespred doption of good (shery mngement poliy worldwideF
6.3.1 References

ehesonD tF wF @IWVVAF he voster qngs of wineF venonD xrX niversity of xew inglnd ressF ennlD tF rF @IWWTAF xew elnd9s s systemX hve the (rst eight yers een suess or filurec eviews in pish fiology nd pisheriesF T@IAD RQ!TPF doiX IHFIHHUGfpHHHSVSIW feddingtonD tF FD egnewD hFtFD 8 glrkD gF F @PHHUAF gurrent prolems in the mngement of mrine (sheriesF ieneD QIT@SVQPAD IUIQEIUITF doiXIHFIIPTGsieneFIIQUQTP gostelloD gFD qinesD F hFD 8 vynhmD tF @PHHVAF gn th shres prevent (sheries ollpsec ieneD QPI@SVWTAD ITUV ! ITVIF doiIHFIIPTGsieneFIISWRUV vevyD F @PHIHAF gth shres mngementF fioieneD TH@IHAD UVH!UVSF doiXIHFISPSGioFPHIHFTHFIHFQ wontigneD pF @PHHUD eprilAF till wtersD the glol (sh risisF xtionl qeogrphi wgzineF etrieved from httpXGGngmFntionlgeogrphiFomGprintGPHHUGHRGglolE(sheriesErisisGmontigneEtext11 F ormD fFD frierD iF fFD feumontD xFD hu'yD tF iFD polkeD gFD rlpernD fF FD rksonD tF fF gFD votzeD rF uFD wiheliD pFD lumiD F FD lD iFD elkoeD uF eFD thowizD tF tFD 8 tsonD F @PHHTAF smpts of iodiversity loss on oen eosystem serviesF ieneD QIR@SVHHAD UVU ! UWHF doiXIHFIIPTGsieneFIIQPPWR

6.4 Environmental Valuation

6.4.1 Learning Objectives

12

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to IF understnd why it might e useful to develop estimtes of the vlues of environmentl goods in dollr termsF PF know the di'erene etween the two eonomi mesures of vlueD willingness to py nd willingness to eptF QF e fmilir with vlution methods in ll three prts of the environmentl vlution toolkitX diretD reveled prefereneD nd stted preferene methodsF RF understnd the strengths nd weknesses of those vlution methodsF
10 httpXGGwwwFphotoliFnoFgovGhtmlsGlineHRVVFhtm 11 httpXGGngmFntionlgeogrphiFomGprintGPHHUGHRGglolE(sheriesErisisGmontigneEtext 12 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVWSRGIFSGbF

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6.4.2 Use Values

ixternlityD puli goodD nd ommonEpool resoure prolems yield suoptiml levels of environmentl qulity nd exessive rtes of resoure exploittionF wny ftors omplite the proess of deiding wht to do out these prolemsF yne is tht environmentl goods re not trded in ny mrketpleD nd hene nlysts struggle to identify quntittive mesures of their vlues to soietyF invironmentl valuation is ontroversilF ome environmentlists ojet to e'orts to ple dollr vlues on elements of the environment tht might e viewed s prielessF uh vlues re importntD howeverD for mking sure tht soiety does not fil to tke the vlue of nture into ount when mking poliy nd investment hoiesF ell FF government regultionsD for exmpleD re sujeted to ene(tEost nlyses to mke sure tht government tions don9t indvertently mke soiety worse o' @see wodule Evaluating Projects and Policies @etion TFSAAF sf we do not hve dollr vlues for the environmentl ene(ts of things like len wter nd irD then estimtes of the ene(ts of pollution ontrol will e onsistently lower thn the true soil ene(tsD nd government poliy will hronilly underinvest in e'orts to ontrol pollutionF invironmentl nd nturl resoure eonomists hve worked for dedes to develop vlution methods tht n e used to generte resonle estimtes of the dollr vlues of environmentl menitiesF housnds of journl rtiles hve een pulished in this e'ort to re(ne vlution methodologyF sn the erly yers of vlution studiesD most of the work ws foused on generting estimtes of the soil vlues of wter nd ir qulityF yver timeD eonomists rodened their fous to study how to vlue roder rnge of menities suh s wetlnd hitt nd endngered speiesF he nited xtions lunhed n interntionl e'ort in PHHH lled the willennium iosystem essessment whih ws to evlute the urrent stte of erth9s eosystems @nd the servies tht )ow from nture to humnsA nd identify strtegies for onservtion nd sustinle useF eports from this e'ort13 A hve helped sientists nd poliy mkers develop new frmework for thinking out how nture hs vlue to humns y providing wide rnge of ecosystem servicesF ine thenD surge of multidisiplinry reserh hs emerged to quntify the physil servies provided y the environment nd estimte the vlues to humnity of those serviesF ionomists reognize two rod tegories of environmentl vluesX use nd nonEuseF Use values )ow from servies tht 'et people diretlyD suh s food produtionD )ood regultionD reretion opportunitiesD nd potle wter provisionF Non-use values re less tngileX the desire for endngered tigers to ontinue to exist even on the prt of people who will never see them in the wildY onern out equething future genertions plnet with helthy (sh popultionsY sense tht people hve n ethil responsiility to e good stewrds of the erthF ionomi vlution methods exist to pture ll of these environmentl vluesF
13 httpXGGwwwFmweForgGenGindexFspx

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CHAPTER 6.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND RESOURCE ECONOMICS

Figure 6.8: Use Value: Recreational Angler

A sherman takes advantage of the use value of the

natural environment of Four Springs Lake, Tasmania. Source: Photo by Peripitus

14

14 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXpourpringsvkend(shermnFtq

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Figure 6.9: Non-use Value: Sumatran Tiger

Although wild tigers do not directly impact people

living in the United States, many Americans wish for the species to continue existing in their natural environment. This is an example of a non-use value. Source: Photo by Nevit Dilman

15

15 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXumtrnEtigerEnewFjpg

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CHAPTER 6.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND RESOURCE ECONOMICS

6.4.3 Willingness to Pay/Accept

ionomists use mesures of vlue tht re nthropoentriD or humn enteredF e rigorous ody of theory out onsumer hoie lies eneth those mesuresF wthemtil omplexity n mke tht theory seem like unrelile trikeryD ut in truthD onsumer theory rests on only very smll numer of fundmentl ssumptionsX

eople hve preferenes over thingsF eople re le to rnk ny two undles of goods to identify whih one they preferF eople re rtionl in tht they will hoose the undle they prefer @over undles they do not preferA if they n 'ord itF
hose unontroversil xioms re tully enough to derive ll the results eonomists use when working with vlution methodologyF roweverD the derivtions re esier nd sometimes more intuitive with little more struture dded to our hypothetil onsumer hoie prolemX

eople fe udget onstrints @totl expenditures n9t exeed their inomeAF eople mke hoies to mke themselves s well o' s possile @mximize their utilityA within the rtioning fored y their udget onstrintsF
his frmework yields two wys to think out the vlues of hnges to the qulity or quntity of enviE ronmentl goodsF gonsider (rst sitution where we re trying to determine the vlue of projet tht yields n environmentl improvement"syD for exmpleD wter in the ghigo iver will e lenerF he soil ene(t of tht projet turns out to e wht people re willing to py for itF he seond mesure of vlue is pproprite if we wnt to mesure the vlue of environmentl goods tht will e lost or degrded y deleterious hnge"syD for exmpleD limte hnge leding to the extintion of polr ersF sn tht ontextD the vlue of the hnge is given y the mount of money you would hve to py people in order to mke them willing to ept itF  Willingness to pay @A is udgetEonstrined mesure of hnge in welfreY person nnot e willing to py more money for hnge thn they hve inomeF sn ontrstD  willingness to accept @eA is not udget onstrined mesure of vlue"you might hve to inrese person9s inome mny times over in order to fully ompenste them for the loss of n environmentl menity they hold der"nd n theoretilly pproh in(nityF impiril studies tend to (nd tht e vlue estimtes re lrger thn equivlent estimtes of F enlysts usully hoose whether to use e or pprohes s funtion of the ontext of the nlysisF he right mesure to use my depend on whether you wnt vlue estimtes to inform poliy tht would improve onditions reltive to the urrent legl sttus quoD or to understnd the onsequenes of hnge tht would use deteriortion of some environmentl good itizens urrently enjoyF enother ftor in hoosing vlution method is tht is udget onstrined while e is notF estimtes of vlue tend to e lower in ples where people hve lower inomesF ht vrition ptures relisti pttern in the size of willingness to py for environmentl improvementsF roweverD equity prolems lerly plgue study tht onludesD for exmpleD tht improvements in ir qulity re more vlule to soiety if they hppen in rih res rther thn poorF ell vlution methodologies" nd e"re designed to estimte vlues of firly smll hnges in the environmentD nd those vlues re often settingEspei(F greful nlysts n do benet transfer studies in whih they use the results of one vlution study to inform vlue estimtes in di'erent pleF roweverD suh pplitions must e rried out refullyF he vlue of unit hnge in mesure of environmentl integrity is not n immutle onstntD nd the vlues of very lrge hnges in either quntity or qulity of n environmentl menity usully nnot e estimtedF e utionry exmple is n in)uentil ut widely ritiized pper pulished in Nature y oert gostnz nd ollegues tht rried out sweeping ene(t trnsfer estimtes of the totl soil vlues of numer of irth9s iomes @open oensD forestsD wetlndsD etFAF he resulting estimtes were too lrge to e orret estimtes of euse they exeeded the vlue of the whole world9s qhD nd too smll to e orret estimtes of e euse life on erth would

PRW ese to exist if oens dispperedD so e for tht hnge should e in(nity @gostnz et lFD IWWU @pF PSIAAF
6.4.4 An Economist's Environmental Valuation Toolkit: Direct, Revealed Preference, and Stated Preference Methods

irly work on environmentl vlution estimted the ene(ts of improved environmentl qulity using direct methods tht exploit esily otined informtion out the monetry dmge osts of pollutionF hese methods re still sometimes used @most often y people who re not environmentl eonomistsA euse of their simple intuitive ppelF en nlyst n mesure osts ssoited with pollutionY the ene(ts of environmentl lenup re then the redutions in those ostsF pollowing re some exmplesX

Production damage measures X ollution hs deleterious e'et on mny prodution proessesF por exmpleD ir pollution lowers orn yieldsD thus inresing the ost of produing ushel of ornF en nlyst ould try to mesure the ene(ts of eliminting ir pollution y lulting the inrese in net soil ene(ts tht would )ow from the orn mrket s result of higher yieldsF Avoided cost measures X

invironmentl degrdtion often fores people to spend money on e'orts to mitigte the hrm used y tht degrdtionF yne ene(t of reversing the degrdtion is not hving to spend tht money on mitigtion"the avoided costF por exmpleD hydrologil disruption from impervious surfes in urn res fores ities to spend money on expensive storm sewer infrstruture to try to redue )oodsF e ene(t of instlling rin grdens nd green roofs to mnge stormwter might e voided storm sewer infrstruture ostsF
Health cost measures X

ollution hs dverse e'ets on humn helthF por exmpleD toxi hemils n use nerD nd ground level ozone uses sthmF ome mesures of the dmges used y pollution simply ount the (nnil osts of suh illnessesD inluding the osts of ner tretment nd lost wges from dults missing work during sthm ttksF

hese mesures seem ppelingD ut re in ft deeply prolemtiF yne of the most serious prolems with diret mesures is tht they often yield woefully inomplete estimtes of the ene(ts of environmentl lenupF gonsider the exmple of ner oveF uppose womn gets ner from drinking ontminted well wterF fy the time her illness is dignosedD the ner is so dvned tht dotors n do little to tret herD nd she dies few months lterF he medil expenditures ssoited with this illness re not very lrgeY she nd her fmily would surely hve een willing to py muh more money to hve eliminted the toxins so she did not ever get sikF he diret helth ost mesure of the ene(ts of lening up the ontminted wter is serious underestimte of the true ene(t to soiety of tht environmentl improvementF e seond set of vlution tools lled revealed preference methods work to estimte for enviE ronmentl menities nd qulity y exploiting dt on tul ehviors nd mrket hoies tht re relted to the environmentl good in questionF eople revel their for environmentl goods with their tionsF hree exmples of suh methods re elowF

e often nnot oserve individuls tking diret tion to hnge the qulity of the environment to whih they re exposed in given lotion euse they simply nnot e'et suh hngeY no one personD for exmpleD n redue the onentrtion of (ne prtiles in the ir ner his houseF e doD howeverD oserve mrket dt out the hoies people mke out where to liveF sf two houses re otherwise identil ut one house is situted in ple with muh lener ir thn the otherD the ene(t of rething lener ir will get pitlized in the vlue of tht houseF ell else equlD neighorhoods with etter environments will hve more expensive homesF enlysts n gther dt on housing pries nd house hrteristis @oth environmentl nd nonenvironmentlA nd use sttistil nlysis to estimte mrginl for elements of environmentl qulity tht vry mong the houses in the dt setF he hedonic price analysis pproh hs een used to vlue menities suh s ir qulityD hzrdous wste site lenupD nd open speF

Hedonic price analysis X

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CHAPTER 6. Hedonic wage analysis X

ENVIRONMENTAL AND RESOURCE ECONOMICS

ome forms of pollution use people to fe higher risk of deth in ny given yerF husD one importnt gol of vlution is to estimte dollr vlue of redued mortlity resulting from pollution lenupF ixept in the moviesD we rrely oserve people hoosing how muh money they re willing to py to sve spei( person from ertin dethF roweverD ll of us mke hoies every dy tht 'et our risk of dethF yne importnt hoie is whih jo to eptF ilementry shool tehers fe little joErelted mortlity riskF sn ontrstD ol minersD o'shore oil rig workersD nd deep se (shermen ept high rtes of identl deth when they tke their josF fy nlyzing dt on wge rtes nd worker deth rtes in vriety of di'erent industriesD we n estimte to redue the risk of dethF sing suh hedonic wage analysisD eonomists hve developed mesures of the value of a statistical life @vAD whih n e pplied to physil estimtes of redutions in pollutionErelted deths to (nd the ene(ts of redued mortlityF
Travel cost analysis X wny nturl menitiesD suh s forestsD lkesD nd prks re enjoyed y the puli free of hrgeF hile there is no forml mrket for hours of qulity outdoor reretionD people do inur osts ssoited with suh reretion"gs purhsed to drive to the siteD hotel expenses for overnight tripsD nd the opportunity ost of the time spent on the tripF sf environmentl qulity is vluedD people will e willing to py higher trvel osts to visit reretion sites with higher levels of environmentl qulity @eFgFD lener wter in the lkeD more (sh to thD etter view from mountin with low ir pollutionAF sn travel cost analysisD reserhers gther dt on the environmentl fetures of set of reretion sites nd the hoies people mke out visiting those sites"whih they hoose to visitD nd how often"nd pply sttistil nlysis to those dt to estimte for improved qulity of nturl menitiesF

yne of the gretest strengths of reveled preferene vlution methods is tht they use informtion out rel ehvior rther thn hypothetil hoiesF hese pprohes lso yield estimtes of tht re often more omplete thn the results of diret mrket mesure studiesF eveled preferene studies doD howeverD hve weknesses nd limittionsF pirstD they only give good estimtes of for environmentl goods if people hve full nd urte informtion out environmentl qulity nd ssoited risksF por exmpleD hedoni estimtes of to void living with polluted ir will e ised downwrd if people in ity do not know how ir pollution vries mong neighorhoodsF eondD some reveled preferene pprohes re only vlid if the relevnt mrkets @lor mrkets for wge studyD housing mrkets for hedoni prie studyA re not plgued y mrket power nd trnstion osts tht prevent e0ient equiliri from eing rehedF por exmpleD if workers (nd it too dunting nd ostly to move from one region to notherD then ol miners my fil to ern the wge premium tht would e ssoited with suh risky jo in the sene of relotion hurdlesF hirdD reveled preferene pprohes nnot e used to estimte vlues for levels of environmentl qulity tht re not oserved in relEworld dtF sf ll the lkes in region re terrily pollutedD we nnot use trvel ost study of lke site hoie to identify for very len lkesF pourthD reveled preferene methods n pture only use vluesD not nonEuse vluesF he limittions of reveled preferene vlution tools motivted environmentl nd nturl resoure eonomists to develop vlution methods tht do not require nlysts to e le to oserve relEworld ehvior relted to the menity eing vluedF hese stated preference methods re now highly re(nedD ut the essentil ide is simpleF hese studies design survey tht presents people with informtion out hypothetil senrios involving n environmentl goodD gther dt on their responses to questions out how muh they would py for something or whether they would hoose one senrio over notherD nd then nlyze the dt to estimte for the good or e ompenstion for elimintion or degrdtion of the goodF

Contingent valuationX he methodology lled ontingent vlution @or gA gined prominent tE tention when it ws used y eonomists to estimte the dmge done to soiety y the oil spilled y ixxon9s Valdez oil tnker in rine illim ound in IWVW @grson et lFD PHHQ @pF PSIAAF e g survey gives ler desription of single environmentl menity to e vluedD suh s wetlnd restortionD

PSI whle popultionsD or improved wter qulity in lol lkeF he desription inludes detils out how the menity would e retedD nd how the survey respondent would py ny money they lim to e willing to py in support of the menityF espondents re then sked question to eliit their F his vlue eliittion question n e open ended @row muh would you e willing to py in txes to inrese whle popultionscA or losed ended @ould you e willing to py 6QH to inrese whle popultionscAF he resulting dt set is nlyzed to (nd the verge of people in the smple popultionF

Conjoint analysis X

gonjoint nlysis is lso referred to s hoie experiment survey nlysisF st ws developed (rst y nlysts in usiness mrketing nd psyhologyD nd only lter dopted y eonomists for environmentl vlutionF he min di'erene etween onjoint nlysis nd g is tht g eliits for n environmentl menity with single (xed undle of feturesD or ttriutesF gonjoint nlysis estimtes seprte vlues for eh of set of ttriutes of omposite environmentl menityF por exmpleD grsslnds n vry in ird speies diversityD wild)ower overgeD nd distne from humn popultion entersF e onjoint nlysis of grsslnd eosystems would onstrut set of hypothetil grsslnds with vried omintions of ttriutes @inluding the ost to the respondent of hosen grsslndAF he survey would present respondents with severl hoie questionsY in eh hoieD the respondent would e sked to pik whih of severl hypothetil grsslnds they would preferF he resulting dt would e nlyzed to (nd how eh ttriute 'ets the likelihood tht one grsslnd is preferred over notherF his would yield estimtes of mrginl vlues for eh ttriuteY those vlues ould then e used to (nd for omposite grsslnds with mny di'erent omintions of feturesF

foth g nd onjoint nlysis methods n e designed to estimte for improvement or e degrE dtion depending on whih ontext is most pproprite for the prolem t hndF hese stted preferene methods hve two min strengthsF pirstD they n pture nonEuse vluesF eondD their hypothetil nture llows nlysts to estimte for improvements out of the rnge of urrent experiene @or e for degrdtion we hve fortuntely not yet experienedAF roweverD stted preferenes pprohes do hve weknesses nd limittionsF por exmpleD mny eonomists re unomfortle using vlue estimtes derived from hypothetil hoiesD worrying whether onsumers would mke the sme hoies regrding pyment for puli environmentl goods if the pyments were relF holrs lso worry out whether people give responses to stted preferene surveys tht re deliertely skewed from their true F ndersttements of vlue ould rise to protest government poliy @hy should s hve to py to len up the environment when someone else mde it dirty in the (rst plecA or out of desire to free rideF pinllyD the hypothetil nture of stted preferene surveys n men tht some respondents re not fmilir with the thing eing vluedD nd thus my hve troule givE ing meningful responses to the questionsF tted preferene surveys must e designed to give respondents enough informtion without ising their responsesF
6.4.5 References

grsonD F FD withellD F gFD rnemnnD wFD uoppD F tFD resserD FD nd uudD F eF @PHHQAF gontingent vlution nd lost pssive useX hmges from the ixxon ldez oil spillF Environmental and Resource Economics, 25 @QAD PSUEPVTF hysX IHFIHPQGeXIHPRRVTUHPIHRF gostnzD FD d9ergeD FD de qrootD FD prerD FD qrssoD wFD rnnonD fFD vimurgD uFD xeemD FD y9xeillD F FD rueloD tFD skinD F qFD uttonD FD 8 vn den felD wF @IWWUAF he vlue of the world9s eosystem servies nd nturl pitlF NatureD QVUD PSQ!PTHF doiXIHFIHQVGQVUPSQH
6.4.6 Review Questions
Question 6.4.1

hy might it e useful to estimte dollr vlues for fetures of the environmentc

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Question 6.4.2

CHAPTER 6.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND RESOURCE ECONOMICS

ht re the three types of vlution toolsc vist t lest one strength nd one wekness of ehF

6.5 Evaluating Projects and Policies

6.5.1 Learning Objectives

16

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

know (ve importnt fetures of how eonomists think out osts understnd why disounting is oth importnt nd ontroversilD nd e le to lulte the net present vlue of projet or poliy know wht ostEene(t nlysis isD nd e wre of some of its limittions think out four riteri for evluting projet tht re not ptured in si ostEene(t nlysis

6.5.2 Introduction

invironmentl vlution methods help nlysts to evlute the ene(ts soiety would gin from poliies or lenup nd restortion projets tht improve environmentl qulity or etter stewrd our nturl resouresF enother set of tools n yield informtion out the osts of suh tions @ rief desription is elowAF fut even if we hve plusile estimtes of the osts nd ene(ts of somethingD more work needs to e done to put ll tht informtion together nd mke some rtionl hoies out puli poliy nd investmentsF his module disusses the hllenges of poliy evlution when osts nd ene(ts rue over timeD outlines the min fetures of ostEene(t nlysisD nd presents severl other riteri for poliy evlutionF
6.5.3 Net Present Value, Discounting, and Cost-benet Analysis

gost estimtion hs not generted the sme mount of sholrly reserh s ene(t vlution euse the proess of estimting the osts of environmentl improvement is usully more strightforwrd thn the proess of estimting the ene(tsF ionomists do think di'erently out osts thn engineers or other physil sientistsD nd severl key insights out the eonomis of ost evlution re importnt for poliy nlysisF iewed through n inverse lensD ll these ides re importnt for ene(t estimtion s wellF
6.5.3.1 Opportunity Cost

xot ll osts involve tul outlys of moneyF en opportunity ost is the foregone ene(t of something tht we hoose @or re foredA not to doF he opportunity cost of yer of grdute shool is the money you ould hve mde if you hd insted gotten fullEtime jo right fter ollegeF indngered speies protetion hs mny opportunity ostsX timer in oldEgrowth forests n9t e ut nd soldY ritil hitt in urn res n9t e developed into housing nd sold to people who wnt to live in the reF ypportunity osts do not pper on (rms9 or governments9 ounting sheets nd re thus often overlooked in estimtes of the osts of poliyF tudies of FF expenditures on endngered speies9 reoveries hve used only informtion out osts like diret government expenditures euse opportunity osts re so hllenging to mesure @eFgF hwson nd hogrenD PHHI @pF PSVAAF
16 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVTIIGIFUGbF

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Figure 6.10: A Redwood Forest in California

habitat. the value of ecosystems. Michael Barera

Forests can't both be cut down and preserved for

The dollar cost of lumber is straightforward to quantify, but it is more dicult to quantify Cutting down the forest therefore has an opportunity cost that is hard to Source: Photo by

measure, and this can bias people and governments towards resource extraction.

17

6.5.3.2 Transfers Are Not Costs

gost totls should only inlude rel hnges in ehvior or resoure useD nd not trnsfers of money from one prty to notherF por exmpleD imgine progrm in whih wstewter tretment plnt n py
17 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXedwoodsinwuiroodsPFtq

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CHAPTER 6.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND RESOURCE ECONOMICS

frmer for the ost of tking lnd out of prodution nd instlling wetlnd on the lnd tht will sok up nutrients tht would otherwise )ow into lol riverF he ost of those nutrient redutions is the ost of instlling the wetlnd nd the opportunity ost of the foregone frming tivityF sf pyments for multiple servies re permittedD the frmer might lso e le to get pid y onservtion group for the wildlife ene(t ssoited with the new wetlndF roweverD tht dditionl pyment to the frmer is pure trnsferF he soil ost of the wetlnd hs not gone up just euse the frmer ws pid more for itF
6.5.3.3 Use the Correct Counterfactual

wny ursory nlyses of the osts of poliy (nd the di'erene etween the ost of something efore nd fter the poliy ws put in ple nd lim tht ny inrese ws used y the poliyF por exmpleD the FF government put temporry restritions on o'shore oil drilling fter the heepwter rorizon explosion nd oil spill to onsider new environmentl regultions on suh drillingF efter those restritions were put in pleD the prie of rude oil in the FF went upF e sloppy nlysis would ttriute ll the osts of tht prie inrese to the drilling restritionsF roweverD during the sme period of PHIHD the FF eonomy ws eginning to pull out of very deep reessionY this used inresed mnufturing tivity nd onsumer drivingD nd thus n inresed ll for fossilEfuel energyF hereforeD some of the inrese in oil pries might hve een driven y the inresed demnd for oilF e reful nlysis would ompre the prie of oil with the restritions in ple to wht the prie of oil would hve een during the sme time period if the restritions hd not een implemented"tht hypothetil senrio is the true counterfactualF
6.5.3.4 Additionality

e reful nlysis of the osts of progrm inludes only osts tht re dditionlD tht isD new dditions to osts tht would hve existed even in the sene of the progrmF por exmpleD urrent regultions require developers to use temporry ontrols while onstruting new uilding to prevent lrge mounts of sediment from eing wshed into lol rivers nd lkesF uppose ie wnts to estimte the osts of new regultion tht further requires new development to e designed suh tht stormwter doesn9t run o' the site fter the uilding is (nishedF e proper nlysis would not inlude the osts of the temporry stormwter ontrols in the estimte of the ost of the new regultionD euse those temporry ontrols would e required even in the sene of the new regultion @frden nd endoD PHII @pF PSVAAF he onept of additionality hs een mde fmous in the ontext of ene(t estimtion y dete over whether progrms tht py lndowners not to deforest their lnds hve ene(ts tht re dditionlY some of those lnds might not hve een deforested even without the pymentsD or the lndowners my reeive onservtion pyments from multiple soures for the sme tivityF
6.5.3.5 Control for Associated Market Changes

e reful ost nlysis must py ttention to mrket hnges ssoited with ost inresesF o illustrteD suppose the government is thinking of pssing n on griulturl use of methyl romideF his ozoneE depleting hemil is widely used s n griulturl fumigntD nd is prtiulrly importnt in strwerry prodution nd shippingF e n on methyl romide mightD thereforeD inrese the mrginl ost of produing strwerriesF e simple pproh to estimting the ost of the proposed methyl romide n would e to (nd out how mny strwerries were sold efore the n nd lulte the inrese in the totl ost of produing tht mny strwerriesF roweverD the inrese in prodution osts will drive up the prie of strwerries nd lower the numer of strwerries sold in the mrketpleF here is ost to soiety with two prtsX @A dedweight loss ssoited with the net ene(ts of the strwerries not soldD nd @A the inresed ost of produing the strwerries tht still re soldF ht totl soil ost is lowerD howeverD thn the estimte yielded y the simple pproh outlined ove euse the simple pproh inludes inresed prodution osts for strwerries tht re not soldF en urte ost estimte must tke into ount mrket hngesF he onept of net ene(ts ws introdued oveY in the ontext of poliy or projet evlutionD net ene(ts reD quite simplyD the di'erene etween the ene(ts nd the osts of poliy in given yerF

PSS roweverD environmentl poliies typilly hve ene(ts nd osts tht ply out over long period of timeD nd those )ows re often not the sme in every yerF por exmpleD wetlnd restortion in griulturl res hs lrge (xed ost t the eginning of the projet when the wetlnd is onstruted nd plntedF ivery yer fter tht there is n opportunity ost ssoited with foregone frm inome from the lnd in the wetlndD ut tht nnul ost is proly lower thn the (xed onstrution ostF he wetlnd will yield ene(ts to soiety y preventing the )ow of some nitrogen nd phosphorus into nery strems nd y providing hitt for wterfowl nd other nimlsF roweverD the wildlife ene(ts will e low in the erly yersD inresing over time s the restored wetlnd vegettion grows nd mturesF st is not too di0ult to lulte the net ene(ts of the restortion projet in eh yerD ut di'erent methodology is needed to evlute the net ene(ts of the projet over its lifetimeF ome nlysts simply dd up ll the osts nd ene(ts for the yers tht they rueF roweverD tht pproh ssumes impliitly tht we re indi'erent etween osts nd ene(ts we experiene now nd those we experiene in the futureF ht ssumption is invlid for two resonsF pirstD empiril evidene hs shown tht humns re imptient nd prefer ene(ts tody over ene(ts tomorrowF yne need only sk hild whether they wnt to et ndy r tody or next week in order to see tht ehvior t workF eondD the world is full of investment opportunities @oth (nnil nd physilAF woney tody is worth more thn money tomorrow euse we ould invest the money tody nd ern rte of returnF husD if there is ost to environmentl lenupD we would rther py those osts in the future thn py them nowF ionomists hve developed tool for ompring net ene(ts t di'erent points in time lled discountingF hisounting onverts quntity of money reeived t some point in the future into quntity tht n e diretly ompred to money reeived todyD ontrolling for the time preferene desried oveF o do thisD n nlyst ssumes disount rte rD where r rnges ommonly etween zero nd ten perent depending on the pplitionF sf we denote the net ene(ts t yers from now s V t@in the urrent yerD taHAD then we Vt sy the present discounted value of V t is h (Vt ) = (1+r)t pigure TFRFP shows how the present vlue of 6IHDHHH delines with timeD nd how the rte of the derese vries with the hoie of disount rte rF sf projet hs osts nd ene(ts every yer for yersD then the net present value of the entire projet is T Vt given y x = t=0 (1+r)t F

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CHAPTER 6.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND RESOURCE ECONOMICS

Figure 6.11: The Impact of a Discount Rate on Present Value Estimates

Department of Transportation

18

Source: California

e prtiulr ost or ene(t is worth less in present vlue terms the frther into the future it rues nd the higher the vlue of the disount rteF hese fundmentl fetures of disounting rete ontroversy over the use of disounting euse they mke projets to del with longEterm environmentl prolems seem unppelingF he most pressing exmple of suh ontroversy swirls round nlysis of limteEhnge poliyF glimteEhnge mitigtion poliies typilly inur immedite eonomi osts @eFgF swithing from fossil fuels to more expensive forms of energyA to prevent environmentl dmges from limte hnge severl dedes in the futureF hisounting lowers the present vlue of the future improved environment while leving the present vlue of urrent osts lrgely unhngedF Cost-benet analysis is just thtX nlysis of the osts nd ene(ts of proposed poliy or projetF o rry out ostEene(t nlysisD one refully spei(es the hnge to e evlutedD mesures the osts nd ene(ts of tht hnge for ll yers tht will e 'eted y the hngeD (nds the totls of the presented disounted vlues of those osts nd ene(tsD nd ompres themF ome studies look t the di'erene etween the ene(ts nd the osts @the net present vlueAD while others look t the rtio of ene(ts to ostsF e good projet is one with net present vlue greter thn zero nd ene(tGost rtio greter thn oneF he result of ostEene(t nlysis depends on lrge numer of hoies nd ssumptionsF ht disount rte is ssumedc ht is the sttus quo ounterftul ginst whih the poliy is evlutedc row re the physil e'ets of the poliy eing modeledc hih osts nd ene(ts re inluded in the nlysis"re nonEuse ene(ts left outc qood ostEene(t nlyses should mke ll their ssumptions ler nd trnsprentF iven etter prtie explores whether the results of the nlysis re sensitive to ssumptions out things like the disount rte @ prtie lled sensitivity analysisAF ndl erupted in PHHH when
18 httpXGGwwwFdotFFgovGhqGtppGo0esGoteGene(tostGlultionsGdisountrteFhtml

PSU whistleElower reveled tht the ermy gorps of ingineers ws pressuring its st' to lter ssumptions to mke sure ostEene(t nlysis yielded prtiulr result @ih8gfxD PHHH @pF PSVAAF rnspreny nd sensitivity nlysis n help to prevent suh usesF
6.5.4 Eciency, Cost Eectiveness, Innovation, and Equity

gostEene(t nlysis gives us rough sense of whether or not projet is good ideF roweverD it hs mny limittionsF rere we disuss severl other mesures of whether projet is desirleF ionomists use ll these riteri nd more when evluting whether poliy is the right pproh for solving prolem with externlitiesD puli goodsD nd ommonEpool resouresF
6.5.4.1 Eciency

e poliy is e0ient if it mximizes the net ene(ts soiety ould get from n tion of tht kindF wny projets nd poliies n pss ostEene(t test ut still not e e0ientF everl levels of ron dioxide emission redutionD for exmpleD ould hve ene(ts exeeding ostsD ut only one will hve the lrgest di'erene etween ene(ts nd osts possileF uh e0ieny will our when the mrginl ene(ts of the poliy re equl to its mrginl ostsF ometimes ostEene(t nlysis will try to estimte the totl osts nd ene(ts for severl poliies with di'erent degrees of stringeny to try to see if one is etter thn the othersF roweverD only informtion out the mrginl ene(t nd mrginl ost urves will ensure tht the nlyst hs found the e0ient poliyF nfortuntelyD suh informtion is often very hrd to (nd or estimteF
6.5.4.2 Cost Eectiveness

es we sw in the wodule Environmental Valuation @etion TFRAD it n e prtiulrly di0ult to estimte the ene(ts of environmentl poliyD nd ene(t estimtes re neessry for (nding e0ient poliiesF ometimes poliy gols re just set through politil proesses"reduing sulfur dioxide emissions y IH million tons elow IWVH levels in the glen eir et id rin provisionsD utting ron dioxide emissions y S7 from IWWH levels in the uyoto protool"without eing le to know whether those trgets re e0ientF roweverD we n still evlute whether poliy will e cost eective nd hieve its gol in the lest expensive wy possileF por exmpleD for totl pollution redution to e distriuted ostEe'etively etween ll the soures tht ontriute pollution to n re @eFgF lke or n urn irshedAD it must e true tht eh of the soures is lening up suh tht they ll fe the sme mrginl osts of further tementF sf one soure hd high mrginl ost nd nother9s mrginl ost ws very lowD totl ost ould e redued y swithing some of the lenup from the (rst soure to the seondF
6.5.4.3 Incentives to Innovate:

et ny one point in timeD the ost of pollution ontrol or resoure reovery depends on the urrent stte of tehnology nd knowledgeF por exmpleD the ost of reduing ron dioxide emissions from fossil fuels depends in prt on how expensive solr nd wind power reD nd the ost of wetlnd restortion depends on how quikly eologists re le to get new wetlnd plnts to e estlishedF iveryone in soiety ene(ts if those tehnologies improve nd the mrginl ost of ny given level of environmentl stewrdship delinesF husD eonomists think lot out whih kinds of poliies do the est jo of giving people inentives to develop heper wys to len nd stewrd the environmentF
6.5.4.4 Fairness

e projet n hve very high ggregte net ene(tsD ut distriute the osts nd ene(ts very unevenly within soietyF e my hve oth ethil nd prtil resons not to wnt poliy tht is highly unfirF ome people hve strong morl or philosophil preferenes for poliies tht re equitleF sn dditionD if the osts of poliy re orne disproportiontely y single group of people or (rmsD tht group is likely to (ght ginst it in the politil proessF imple ostEene(t nlyses do not spek to issues of equityF

PSV

CHAPTER 6.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND RESOURCE ECONOMICS

roweverD it is ommon for poliy nlyses to rek totl osts nd ene(ts down mong sugroups to see if uneven ptterns exist in their distriutionF tudies n rek down poliy e'ets y inome tegory to see if poliy helps or hurts people disproportiontely depending on whether they re welthy or poorF yther nlyses rry out regionl nlyses of poliy e'etsF F por exmpleD limteEhnge mitigtion poliy inreses osts disproportiontely for poor households euse of ptterns in energy onsumption ross inome groupsF purthermoreD the ene(ts nd osts of suh poliy re not uniform ross spe in the FF he ene(ts of reduing the severity of limte hnge will rue lrgely to those res tht would e hurt most y glol wrming @ostl sttes hit y se level rise nd more hurrinesD estern sttes hit y severe wter shortgesA while the osts will fll most hevily on regions of the ountry with eonomies dependent on sles of oil nd olF ome of our evlutive riteri re losely relted to eh otherY poliy nnot e e0ient if it is not ostEe'etiveF roweverD other riteri hve nothing to do with eh otherY poliy n e e0ient ut not equitleD nd vie versF gostEene(t nlyses provide rude litmus tests"we surely do not wnt to dopt poliies tht hve osts exeeding their ene(tsF roweverD good poliy development nd evlution onsiders roder rry of riteriF
6.5.5 Review Questions
Question 6.5.1

ht re some ommon mistkes people mke in evluting the osts of poliy or projetD nd wht should you do to void themc
Question 6.5.2

ht is disountingD nd how do we use it in lulting the osts nd the ene(ts of projet tht hs e'ets over long period of timec
Question 6.5.3 Question 6.5.4

hy is disounting ontroversilc

row does ostEene(t nlysis omplement some of the other mesures people use to evlute poliy or projetc

6.5.6 References

frdenD tF fF 8 eF F endoF PHIIF ionomi ostsD ene(tsD nd hievility of lowEimpt development sed stormwter regultionsD in Economic Incentives for Stormwater ControlD rle F hurstonD edFD ylor 8 prnisD fo tonD pvF grsonD F FD withellD F gFD rnemnnD wFD uoppD F tFD resserD FD nd uudD F eF @PHHQAFgontinE gent vlution nd lost pssive useX hmges from the ixxon ldez oil spillF Environmental and Resource Economics, 25 @QAD PSUEPVTF hysX IHFIHPQGeXIHPRRVTUHPIHRF hwsonD hF 8 hogrenD tF pF @PHHIAF en updte on priorities nd expenditures under the indngered peies etF Land Economics, 77 @RAD SPUESQPF ih8gfx @PHHHAF invironmentl groups protest ltertion of FF ermy gorps ost ene(t nlysisF Environmental Damage Valuation and Cost Benet NewsD U@RAD IEQF httpXGGwwwFostene(tnlysisForgGnewslettersGnwsHHprFpdf19 F
19 httpXGGwwwFostene(tnlysisForgGnewslettersGnwsHHprFpdf

PSW

6.6 Solutions: Property Rights, Regulations, and Incentive Policies

6.6.1 Learning Objectives

20

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

know why hving lerly de(ned property rights might improve environmentl outomes nd e wre of the limittions of tht pproh de(ne severl di'erent types of ommnd nd ontrol regultionsD nd understnd their omprtive dvntges know wht inentive poliies @txes nd trdle permitsA reD wht they doD nd wht their strengths nd weknesses re

6.6.2 Introduction

qovernments hve implemented mny poliies to solve prolems with environmentl qulity nd nturl resoure depletionF ivery poliy is unique nd deserves detiled individul nlysis in the poliymking proess"the devil is lwys in the detilsF roweverD eonomists hve developed txonomy of poliy typesF his txonomy helps us to understnd generl priniples out how poliies of di'erent types re likely to perform nd under whih irumstnes they re likely to work estF oliies re rodly hrterized s either ommndEndEontrol or inentive poliiesF gommnd nd ontrol inludes severl types of stndrdsF snentive poliies inlude txesD trdle permitsD nd liilityF
6.6.3 Property Rights

sn IWTHD onld gose wrote the pioneering rtile 4he rolem of oil gost4 in whih he put forth ides out externlities tht hve ome to e known s the Coase theorem @goseD IWTH @pF PTRAAF he si ide of the gose theorem is tht if property rights over resoure re well spei(edD nd if the prties with n interest in tht resoure n rgin freelyD then the prties will negotite n outome tht is e0ient regrdless of who hs the rights over the resoureF he initil llotion of rights will not 'et the e0ieny of the outomeD ut it will 'et the distriution of welth etween the prties euse the prty with the property rights n extrt pyment from the other prties s prt of the greementF o ring this strt ide to lifeD we will drw on the lssi exmple employed y genertions of eonomists to think out the gose theoremF uppose frmer nd rnher live next door to eh otherF here is lnd etween them on whih the frmer wnts to plnt ropsD ut the rnher9s ows keep eting the ropsF he frmer would like to hve no ows on the lndD nd the rnher would like the frmer to stop plnting rops so the ows ould et s muh grss s they likeF he e0ient outome is where the mrginl ene(t of ow to the rnher is just equl to the mrginl ost to the frmer of tht ow9s grzingF sf the frmer is given property rights over the lndD the rnher will hve n inentive to py the frmer to llow the e0ient numer of ows rther thn zeroY if the rnher hs the rightsD then the frmer will hve to py the rnher to limit the herd to just the e0ient sizeF iither wy they hve inentives to negotite to the e0ient outome euse otherwise oth of them ould e mde etter o'F he gose theorem is invoked y some sholrs nd poliy nlysts to rgue tht government poliy is not needed to orret prolems of externlitiesY ll you need is property rightsD nd privte negotitions will tke re of the restF roweverD gose himself reognized in his writing tht often the rel world does not hve the fritionless perfet negotition on whih the onlusions of the theorem restF por exmpleD there re trnstion osts in rginingD nd those trnstion osts n e prohiitively lrge when mny people re involvedD s in the se of ir pollution from ftoryF purthermoreD perfet rgining requires perfet informtionF eople often re unwre of the threts posed to their helth y ir nd wter pollutionD nd thus do not know wht kind of rgining would tully e in their own est interestsF
20 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVWSTGIFSGbF

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CHAPTER 6.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND RESOURCE ECONOMICS

hespite these limittionsD there is move foot to use property right development to e'et environmentl improvement nd improve nturl resoure stewrdshipD prtiulrly in developing ountriesF sn prts of efriD new systems hve given villges property rights over wildlife on their lndsD yielding stronger inentives to mnge wildlife well nd demonstrly inresing wildlife popultionsF sn outh emeriD lndEtenure reform is promoted s wy to redue deforesttionF
6.6.4 Command and Control Regulations

wost environmentl poliy in the nited ttes is muh more rigid nd ontrolling thn propertyErights reE formF yur poliies for things like len ir nd wterD toxi wste lenupD nd endngered speies protetion hve lrgely een omposed of rigid rules nd regultionsF nder suh poliiesD people re given strit nd spei( rules out things they must or must not do regrding some fet of pollution ontrol or nturl resoure useD nd then government geny enfores the rulesF rere we disuss nd explore exmples of few kinds of suh 4command-and-control4 regultionsF
6.6.4.1 Ambient Standard

ome poliies hve trgets for the qulity of some element of the environment tht results from humn ehvior nd nturl proessesF en ambient standard estlishes level of environmentl qulity tht must e metF he glen eir et direts the FF invironmentl rotetion egeny @ieA to estlish xtionl emient eir ulity tndrds @xeesA for rnge of ir pollutnts suh s ozone nd (ne prtilesF he glen ter et direts stte o0es of the ie to set mient wter qulity stndrds for rivers nd strems in their oundriesF sn prtieD howeverD suh stndrds re inding only on stte regultorsF tte ie o0es re responsile for developing plns to ensure tht ir nd surfe wter odies meet these mient qulity stndrdsD ut they nnot do the len up on their ownF hey need to use di'erent set of tools to indue privte gents to tully redue or len up pollution suh tht the mient stndrds n e metF ome mient stndrds @suh s the xeesA hve provoked ritiism from eonomists for eing uniform ross speF ivery ounty in the ountry hs to meet the sme ir qulity golsD even though the e0ient levels of ir qulity might vry from one ounty to the next with vrition in the mrginl ene(ts nd mrginl osts of lening the irF roweverD uniform mient stndrds grnt ll people in the FF the sme ess to len ir" gol tht hs powerful ppel on the grounds of equityF
6.6.4.2 Individual Standards

pirstD we disuss kind of poliy pplied to individul people or ompnies lled technology standardF ollution nd resoure degrdtion result from omintion of humn tivity nd the hrteristis of the tehnology tht humns employ in tht tivityF fehvior n e di0ult to monitor nd ontrolF reneD lwmkers hve often drfted rules to ontrol our tools rther thn our ehviorsF por exmpleD utomkers re required to instll tlyti onverters on new utomoiles so tht rs hve lower pollution rtesD nd people in some prts of the ountry must use lowE)ow showerheds nd wterEe0ient toilets to try to redue wter usgeF ehnology stndrds hve the gret dvntge of eing esy to monitor nd enforeY it is esy for regultor to hek wht pollution ontrols re in the design of rF nder some irumstnes tehnology stndrds n redue pollution nd the rte of nturl resoure destrutionD ut they hve severl serious limittionsF pirstD they provide no inentives for people to lter elements of their ehvior other thn tehnology hoieF grs my hve to hve tlyti onverters to redue emissions per mileD ut people re given no reson to redue the numer of miles they driveF sndeedD these poliies n sometimes hve perverse e'ets on ehviorF irly genertions of wterEe0ient toilets performed very poorlyY they used fewer gllons of wter per )ushD ut people found themselves )ushing multiple times in order to get wste down the pipesF husD these stndrds re neither lwys e0ient nor ost e'etiveF eondD tehnology stndrds re the worst poliy in the toolkit for promoting tehnologil innovtionF pirms re tively foridden from using

PTI ny tehnology other thn the one spei(ed in the stndrdsF eutomkers might think of etter nd heper wy to redue ir pollution from rsD ut the stndrd sys they hve to use tlyti onvertersF e seond type of poliy pplied to individul gents is lled performance standardF erformne stndrds set strit limits on n outome of humn tivityF por exmpleD in order to meet the xeesD stte ie o0es set emission stndrds for ir pollution soures in their sttesF hose stndrds limit the mount of pollution ftory or power plnt n relese into the irD though eh soure n ontrol its pollution in ny wy it sees (tF he limits on pollution re the sme for ll soures of given type @eFgFD power plntD ement ftoryD etFAF erformne stndrds re lso used in nturl resoure regultionF por exmpleD euse stormwter runo' uses )ooding nd hrms quti hittD the ity of ghigo requires ll new development to e designed hndle the (rst inh of rinfll in storm onsite efore runo' eginsF o enfore performne stndrd the regultor must e le to oserve the outome of the gents9 tivities @eFgF mesure the pollutionD estimte the runo'AF sf tht is possileD these poliies hve some dvntges over tehnology stndrdsF erformne stndrds do give people nd (rms some inentive to innovte nd (nd heper wys to redue pollution euse they re free to use ny tehnology they like to meet the stted requirementsF erformne stndrds re lso more e0ient euse they give people nd (rms inentives to hnge multiple things out their tivity to redue the totl ost of pollution tementY power plnt n redue sulfur dioxide emissions y some omintion of instlling sruer tehnologyD swithing to lowEsulfur olD nd reduing totl energy genertionF erformne stndrds lso hve some drwks nd limittionsD howeverF st is di0ult for regultor to (gure out the ost e'etive llotion of totl pollution redution etween soures nd then set di'erent performne stndrds for eh soure to reh tht ost e'etive llotionF reneD performne stndrds tend to e uniform ross individul pollution souresD nd so pollution redution is not done in the hepest wy possile for the industry nd soiety overllF his prolem is prtiulrly severe where there is gret vrition mong soures in their tement ostsD nd thus the ostEe'etive llotion of lenup mong soures is fr from uniformF
6.6.5 Incentive Policies

yther pprohes to environmentl poliy give (rms nd individuls inentives to hnge their ehvior rther thn mndting spei( hngesF hese inentive poliies try to mke use of mrket fores for wht they do est"lloting resoures ostEe'etively within n eonomy"while orreting the mrket filures ssoited with externlitiesD puli goodsD nd ommon pool resouresF
6.6.5.1 Tax/Subsidy

invironmentl txes re sed on simple premiseX if someone is not ering the full soil osts of their tionsD then we should hrge them n externality tax per unit of hrmful tivity @eFgF ton of pollutionD gllon of stormwter runo'A tht is equl to the mrginl ost tht is not orne y the individulF sn this wyD tht person must internlize the externlityD nd will hve the inentive to hoose level of tivity tht is soilly optimlF husD if we think the soil mrginl ost of ton of ron dioxide @euse of its ontriution to limte hngeA is 6PHD then we ould hrge tx of 6PH per ton of ron dioxide emittedF he esiest wy to do this would e to hve tx on fossil fuels ording to the mount of ron dioxide tht will e emitted when they re urnedF sf prie is pled on ron dioxideD ll gents would hve n inentive to redue their ron dioxide emissions to the point where the ost to them of reduing one more unit @their mrginl tement ostA is equl to the per unit txF hereforeD severl good things hppenF ell ron dioxide soures re ting to the sme mrginl tement ostD so the totl tement is omplished in the most ostEe'etive wy possileF purthermoreD totl emissions in the eonomy overll will go down to the soilly e0ient levelF pirms nd individuls hve very rod inentives to hnge things to redue ron dioxide emissions" redue output nd onsumptionD inrese energy e0ienyD swith to low ron fuels"nd strong inentives to (gure out how to innovte so those hnges re less ostlyF pinllyD the government ould use the revenue

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CHAPTER 6.

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it ollets from the tx to orret ny inequities in the distriution of the progrm9s ost mong people in the eonomy or to redue other txes on things like inomeF hile txes on externlityEgenerting tivities hve mny good feturesD they lso hve severl drwE ks nd limittionsF pirstD while n externlity tx n yield the e0ient outome @where osts nd ene(ts re lned for the eonomy s wholeAD tht only hppens if poliy mkers know enough out the vlue of the externlity to set the tx t the right levelF sf the tx is too lowD we will hve too muh of the hrmful tivityY if the tx is too highD the tivity will e exessively suppressedF eondD even if we re le to design perfet externlity tx in theoryD suh poliy n e di0ult to enforeF he enforement geny needs to e le to mesure the totl quntity of the thing eing txedF sn some ses tht is esy"in the se of ron dioxide for exmpleD the prtiulr (xed link etween ron dioxide emissions nd quntities of fossil fuels urned mens tht through the esy tsk of mesuring fossil fuel onsumption we n mesure the vst mjority of ron dioxide emissionsF roweverD mny externlityE using tivities or mterils re di0ult to mesure in totlF xitrogen pollution )ows into strems s result of fertilizer pplitions on suurn lwnsD ut it is impossile tully to mesure the totl )ow of nitrogen from single lwn over the ourse of yer so tht one ould tx the homeowner for tht )owF hirdD externlity txes fe strong politil opposition from ompnies nd individuls who don9t wnt to py the txF iven if the government uses the tx revenues to do good things or to redue other tx rtesD the group tht disproportiontely pys the tx hs n inentive to loy hevily ginst suh poliyF his phenomenon is t lest prtly responsile for the ft tht there re no exmples of pollution txes in the FF snstedD FF poliy mkers hve implemented mirrorEimge susidy poliiesD giving susidies for tivities tht redue negtive externlities rther thn txing tivities tht use those externlitiesF invironmentl poliy in the se of FF griulture is prime exmple of thisD with progrms tht py frmers to tke lnds out of prodution or to dopt environmentlly friendly frming prtiesF e susidy is equivlent to the mirrorEimge tx in most wysF roweverD susidy tends to mke the relevnt industry more pro(tle @in ontrst to txD whih redues pro(tsAD whih in turn n stimulte greter output nd hve slight perverse e'et on totl pollution or environmentl degrdtionY degrdtion per unit output might go downD ut totl output goes upF
6.6.5.2 Tradable Permits

enother mjor type of inentive poliy is tradable permits shemeF rdle permits re tully very similr to externlity txesD ut they n hve importnt di'erenesF hese poliies re olloquilly known s 4p nd trde4F sf we know the e0ient mount of the tivity to hve @eFgFD numer of tons of pollutionD mount of timer to e loggedA the poliy mker n set p on the totl mount of the tivity equl to the e0ient mountF ermits re reted suh tht eh permit grnts the holder permission for one unit of the tivityF he government distriutes these permits to the 'eted individuls or (rmsD nd gives them permission to sell @trdeA them to one notherF sn order to e in ompline with the poliy @nd void punishmentD suh s hevy (nesA ll gents must hold enough permits to over their totl tivity for the time periodF he government doesn9t set prie for the tivity in questionD ut the permit mrket yields prie for the permits tht gives ll the mrket prtiipnts strong inentives to redue their externlityE generting tivitiesD to mke ostEe'etive trdes with other prtiipntsD nd to innovte to (nd heper wys to e in omplineF rdle permit poliies re similr to externlity txes in terms of e0ienyD ostEe'etivenessD nd inentives to innovteF rdle permit poliies hve een used in severl environmentl nd nturl resoure poliiesF he FF used trdle permits @where the nnul p delined to zero over (xed numer of yersA in two seprte poliy pplitions to redue the totl ost to soiety of @A phsing out the use of led in gsoline nd @A eliminting prodution of ozoneEdepleting hloro)uororonsF he glen eir et mendments of IWWH put in ple ntionwide trdle permit progrm for emissions of idErin preursor sulfur dioxide from eletri power plntsF he iuropen nion used trdle permit mrket s prt of its poliy to redue ron dioxide emissions under the uyoto protoolF sndividul trdle quots for (sh in (sheries of elsk nd xew elnd hve een used to rtionlize (shing tivity nd keep totl thes down to e0ient nd sustinle levels @see gse tudyX wrine pisheries @etion TFQAAF

PTQ rdle permits hve een dopted more widely thn externlity txesF wo ftors my ontriute to tht di'ereneF pirstD trdle permit poliies n hve di'erent distriutionl e'ets from txes depending on how the permits re given outF sf the government utions the permits to prtiipnts in ompetitive mrketpleD then the trdle permit sheme is the sme s the txY the industry pys the government n mount equl to the numer of permits multiplied y the permit prieF roweverD poliy mkers more ommonly design poliies where the permits re initilly given for free to prtiipnts in the mrketD nd then prtiipnts sell the permits to eh otherF his elimintes the trnsfer of welth from the regulted setor @the eletri utilitiesD the (shing otsD etFA to the governmentD feture tht hs een populr with industryF eondD txes nd trdle permits ehve di'erently in the fe of unertintyF e tx poliy (xes the mrginl ost to the industryD ut might yield more or less of the hrmful tivity thn expeted if mrket onditions )ututeF e p nd trde progrm (xes the totl mount of the hrmful tivityD ut n yield osts to industry tht re wildly vrileF invironmentlists hve liked the outome ertinty of trdle permitsF
6.6.5.3 Liability

e third type of environmentl poliy ws not designed y eonomistsD ut still funtions to give gents inentives to tke e0ient tions to redue environmentl degrdtionX liabilityF viility provisions n mke people or (rms py for the dmges used y their tionsF sf the expeted pyment is equl to the totl externlity ostD then liility mkes the gent internlize the externlity nd tke e0ient preutions to void hrming the environmentF wo kinds of liility exist in the FFX sttutory nd ommon lwF gommon lw derives from long trdition of legl history in the FF"people hve sued ompnies for dmges from pollution under tort lw under dotrines suh s nuisneD negligeneD or trespssF his pproh hs een highly prolemti for numer of resonsF por exmpleD tort lw ples high urden of proof on the plinti' to show tht dmges resulted diretly from tions tken y the defendntF linti's hve often struggled with tht urden euse pollution prolems re often used y mny souresD nd the hrm used y pollution n disply lrge lgs in spe nd timeF sf the plinti' expets with high proility not to e held responsile y the ourtsD then liility does not funtion e'etively to mke gents internlize the externlity osts of their tionsF prustrtion with ommon lw hs led to severl strong sttutory liility lws in the FF whih mke expliit provisions for holding (rms lile for dmges from pollution with muh more mngele urdens of proofF he yil ollution et of IWWH holds ompnies like ixxon nd fritish etroleum stritly lile for the dmges used y oil spills from idents suh s the ldez grounding in rine illim ound or the heepwter rorizon explosion in the qulf of wexioF nder rule of strit liilityD prty is lile for hrm if the hrm ourred s result of their tions regrdless of the presene @or seneA of negligene or intentF he gomprehensive invironmentl esponseD gompenstionD nd viility et @gigveD or 4uperfund4A holds ompnies stritly lile for dmges from toxi wste 4uperfund4 sitesF hese lws hve surely inresed the extent to whih oil nd hemil ompnies tke preutions to void spills nd other releses of hzrdous mterils into the environmentF roweverD enforement of these provisions is very ostlyF he legl proeedings for ig se like heepwter rorizon entil ourtD lwyerD nd expert witness tivity @nd high feesA for mny yersF he trnstion osts re so urdensome to soiety tht liility my not e vile pproh for ll environmentl prolemsF
6.6.6 Review questions
Question 6.6.1

ht re some of the strengths nd weknesses of ommnd nd ontrol regultionc hen would these e the est poliy tool to usec
Question 6.6.2

ht re some of the strengths nd weknesses of inentive poliiesc hen would these e the est poliy tool to usec

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Question 6.6.3

CHAPTER 6.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND RESOURCE ECONOMICS

hid gose think government poliy ws not neessry to solve externlity prolemsc frie)y explinF
Question 6.6.4

row do liility lws funtion s inentive poliiesc ht re some of their limittionsc

6.6.7 References

goseD FrF IWTHF he prolem of soil ostF

Journal of Law and Economics, 3D

IERRF

Chapter 7
Modern Environmental Management

7.1 Modern Environmental Management  Chapter Introduction

7.1.1 Introduction

sn the ghpter The Evolution of Environmental Policy in the United States @etion PFIAD the wys in whih our urrent environmentl poliy evolved were presented nd disussedF elthough the xtionl invironmentl oliy et @etion PFQFSX isk wngement s fsis for invironmentl oliyA @xieA provided lofty gols for our environmentl poliyD nd most importntly legl sis for tionD the ft reminsD then nd todyD tht humn tions produe very lrge quntities of wsteD virtully ll of it hrmful to humn nd eosystem helth if not mnged properlyF his hpter is out how we urrently mnge these wstes @wodule Systems of Waste Management @etion UFPAAD the lws nd regultions tht de(ne our system of wste mngement @wodule Government and Laws on the Environment @etion UFRAAD nd how we determine the onsequenesD iFeF risksD ssoited with hemils relesed into the environment @wodule Risk Assessment Methodology for Conventional and Alternative Sustainability Options @etion UFSAAF yf ourseD environmentl poliies will ontinue to evolveD nd lthough we my not know the ext pthwy or form this will tkeD environmentl poliy of the future will most ertinly uild upon the lws nd regultions tht re used tody to mnge humn intertions with the environmentF husD it is importnt to develop n understnding of our urrent systemD its legl nd philosophil underpinningsD nd the quntittive sis for setting riskEsed prioritiesF en interesting exmple of how our urrent system of environmentl mngement hs dpted to modernD nd glolD prolems is the FF upreme gourt rulingD in epril of PHHUD in the se of wsshusetts vsF the invironmentl rotetion egeny2 tht the ie hd misinterpreted the glen eir et in not lssifyingD nd regultingD ron dioxideD s pollutnt @the plinti's tully involved twelve sttes nd severl itiesAF p until tht time severl dministrtions hd sid tht the et did not give the ie legl uthority to regulte gy2 @nd y inferene ll greenhouse gsesAF et the time the glen eir et @etion UFRFRX glen eir etA ws pssed @most reently in IWWHAD 4len ir4 ws thought to men oth visily len irD nd lso ir free of pollutnts exposure to whih ould use hrm to humns ! hrm eing de(ned s n dverse outome over ourse of time tht might extend to humn lifetimeF end lthough there ws onern out glol limte hnge due to greenhouse gs emissionsD the gses themselves were not thought of s 4pollutnts4 in the lssil senseF his ruling set the stge for the ie to regulte greenhouse gses through series of (ndingsD heringsD rulingsD nd regultions in ord with terms set out in the glen eir etF his proess is underwy t the present timeF sn ddition to its signi(ne for potentilly mitigting the prolem of glol limte hngeD this se illustrtes more generlly how the environmentl mngement system we hve put in ple tody might
1 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRISUQGIFQGbF 2 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGwsshusettsvFinvironmentlrotetionegeny7Sh

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CHAPTER 7.

MODERN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

dpt to prolems of the futureF vws tht re forwrdEthinkingD not overly prosriptiveD nd dministrtively )exile my well ommodte unforeseen prolems nd needsF yf ourseD this does not prelude the pssge of new lws or mendmentsD nor does it imply tht ll our lws on the environment will dpt in this wy to future prolemsF

7.2 Systems of Waste Management

7.2.1 Learning Objectives

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

reognize vrious environmentl regultions governing the mngement of solid nd hzrdous wstesD rdiotive wste nd medil wste understnd the environmentl onerns with the growing quntities nd improper mngement of wstes eing generted reognize integrated waste management strtegies tht onsist of preventionD minimiztionD reyE ling nd reuseD iologil tretmentD ininertionD nd lnd(ll disposl

7.2.2 Introduction

ste is n inevitle yEprodut of humn lifeF irtully every humn tivity genertes some type of mteril side e'et or yEprodutF hen the mterils tht onstitute these yEproduts re not useful or hve een degrded suh tht they no longer ful(ll their originl or other ovious useful purposeD they re lssi(ed s wste mterilF rtilly spekingD wstes re generted from wide rnge of soures nd re usully lssi(ed y their respetive souresF gommon genertive tivities inlude those ssoited with residenesD ommeril usinesses nd enterprisesD institutionsD onstrution nd demolition tivitiesD muniipl serviesD nd wE terGwstewter nd ir tretment plntsD nd muniipl ininertor filitiesF purtherD wstes re generted from numerous industril proessesD inluding industril onstrution nd demolitionD fritionD mnufE turingD re(neriesD hemil synthesisD nd nuler powerGnuler defense soures @often generting lowE to highElevel radioactive wastesAF opultion growth nd urniztion @with inresed industrilD ommeril nd institutionl estlishE mentsA ontriute to inresed wste produtionD s do the rpid eonomi growth nd industriliztion throughout the developing worldF hese soil nd eonomi hnges hve led to n everEexpnding onE sumption of rw mterilsD proessed goodsD nd serviesF hile these trends hveD in mny wysD improved the qulity of life for hundreds of millions of peopleD it hs not ome without drsti osts to the environmentF roper mngement of rnge of wstes hs eome neessry in order to protet puli helth nd the environment s well s ensure sustined eonomi growthF st is ommonly elieved tht ininertion nd lnd(ll disposl represent preferred options in deling with wste produtsY howeverD mny wstes hve the potentil to e reyled or reEused for some purpose or in some mnnerF ome wste mterils my e relimed or reEgenerted nd used gin for their originl or similr purposeD or they my e physilly or hemilly hnged nd employed for lterntive usesF es nturl resoures ontinue to e depletedD nd s ininertion nd lnd(ll disposl options eome more ostly nd unsustinleD numerous eonomi nd soil inentives re eing promoted y government genies to prevent or redue wste genertion nd develop new methods nd tehnologies for recycling nd reusing wstesF uh e'orts n hve roder implitions for energy onservtion nd the redution of greenhouse gs emissions tht ontriute to glol limte hngeD while onurrently fostering sustinle wste mngement prtiesF
3 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRISUPGIFQGbF

PTU his setion provides n overview of the existing regultory frmework mndting the mngement of wstesD environmentl onerns ssoited with wste genertion nd mngementD nd vrious lternE tives for the proper mngement of wstesF eent developments towrds the development of sustinle wste mngement systems re lso highlightedF st should e mentioned here tht lthough the ontent of this setion re)ets the regultory frmework nd prties within the nited ttesD similr developments nd tions hve ourred in other developed ountries nd re inresingly eing initited in numerous developing ountriesF
7.2.3 Regulatory Framework

huring the ourse of the PHth enturyD espeilly following orld r ssD the nited ttes experiened unpreedented eonomi growthF wuh of the growth ws fueled y rpid nd inresingly omplex indusE triliztionF ith dvnes in mnufturing nd hemil pplitions lso me inreses in the volumeD nd in mny ses the toxicityD of generted wstesF purthermoreD few if ny ontrols or regultions were in ple with respet to the hndling of toxi mterils or the disposl of wste produtsF gontinued indusE tril tivity led to severl highEpro(le exmples of detrimentl onsequenes to the environment resulting from these unontrolled tivitiesF pinllyD severl forms of interventionD oth in the form of government regultion nd itizen tionD ourred in the erly IWUHsF ltimtelyD severl regultions were promulgted on the stte nd federl levels to ensure the sfety of puli helth nd the environment @see wodule Government and Laws on the Environment @eE tion UFRAAF ith respet to wste mterilsD the esoure gonservtion nd eovery et4 @geAD ented y the nited ttes gongressD (rst in IWUT nd then mended in IWVRD provides omprehensive frmework for the proper mngement of hzrdous nd nonEhzrdous solid wastes in the nited ttesF ge stipultes rod nd generl legl ojetives while mndting the nited ttes invironmentl rotetion egeny5 @ieA to develop spei( regultions to implement nd enfore the lwF he ge regulE tions re ontined in itle RH of the gode of pederl egultions @gpAD rts PQW to PWWF ttes nd lol governments n either dopt the federl regultionsD or they my develop nd enfore more stringent regultions thn those spei(ed in geF imilr regultions hve een developed or re eing developed worldwide to mnge wstes in similr mnner in other ountriesF he rod gols of ge inludeX @IA the protetion of puli helth nd the environment from the hzrds of wste disposlY @PA the onservtion of energy nd nturl resouresY @QA the redution or elimiE ntion of wsteY nd @RA the ssurne tht wstes re mnged in n environmentllyEsound mnner @eFgF the remedition of wste whih my hve spilledD lekedD or een improperly disposedAF st should e noted here tht the ge fouses only on tive nd future filities nd does not ddress ndoned or historil sitesF hese types of environmentlly impted sites re mnged under di'erent regultory frmeworkD known s the gomprehensive invironmentl esponseD gompenstionD nd viility et6 @gigveAD or more ommonly known s 4uperfundF4
7.2.3.1 Solid Waste Regulations

ge de(nes solid wste s ny grge or refuseD sludge from wstewter tretment plntD wter supE ply tretment plntD or ir pollution ontrol fility nd other disrded mterilD inluding solidD liquidD semiEsolidD or ontined gseous mteril resulting from industrilD ommerilD miningD nd griulturl opE ertionsD nd from ommunity tivitiesF sn generlD solid wste n e tegorized s either non-hazardous waste or hazardous wasteF xonEhzrdous solid wste n e trsh or grge generted from residentil householdsD o0es nd other souresF qenerllyD these mterils re lssi(ed s municipal solid waste @wAF elterntivelyD nonEhzrdous mterils tht result from the prodution of goods nd produts y vrious industries @eFgF ol omustion residuesD mining wstesD ement kiln dustAD re olletively known s industril solid wsteF
4 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGregultionsGlwsGrrFhtml 5 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGregultionsGlwsGrrFhtml 6 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGsuperfundGpoliyGerlFhtm

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CHAPTER 7.

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he regultions pertining to nonEhzrdous solid wste re ontined in RH gp rts PQW to PSW @known s ge utitle h regultions7 AFhese regultions prohiit the open dumping of solid wsteD mndtes the development of omprehensive plns to mnge w nd nonEhzrdous industril wsteD nd estlishes riteri for w landlls nd other solid wste disposl filitiesF feuse they re lssi(ed s nonE hzrdous mterilD mny omponents of w nd industril wste hve potentil for reyling nd reEuseF igni(nt e'orts re underwy y oth government genies nd industry to dvne these ojetivesF rzrdous wsteD generted y mny industries nd usinesses @eFgF dry leners nd uto repir shopsAD is onstituted of mterils tht re dngerous or potentilly hrmful to humn helth nd the environmentF he regultory frmework with respet to hzrdous wsteD spei(lly hzrdous wste identi(tionD lsE si(tionD genertionD mngementD nd disposlD is desried in RH gp rts PTH through PUW @olletively known s ge utitle g regultions8 AF hese regultions ontrol hzrdous wste from the time they re generted until their ultimte disposl @ timeline often referred to s 4rdle to grve4AF eording to the ge utitle g regultionsD solid wste is de(ned s hzrdous if it ppers in one of the four hzrdous wste lssi(tionsX

pEvist @nonEspei( soure wstes s spei(ed in RH gp PTIFQIAD whih inludes wstes from ommon mnufturing nd industril proessesD suh s solvents used in lening nd degresing opertionsF uElist @soureEspei( wste s spei(ed in RH gp PTIFQPAD whih inludes ertin wstes from spei( industries suh s petroleum or pestiide mnufturingF Elist nd Elist @disrded ommeril hemil produts s spei(ed in RH gp PTIFQQAD whih inlude ommeril hemils produts in their unused formF
edditionllyD wste is lssi(ed s hzrdous if it exhiits t lest one of these four hrteristisX

Ignitability @s de(ned in RH gp PTIFPIAD whih refers to retion of (res under ertin onditionsY inluding mterils tht re spontneously omustile or those tht hve )sh point less thn IRH 0 pF Corrosivity @s de(ned in RH gp PTIFPPAD whih refers to pility to orrode metl ontinersY inluding mterils with pr less thn or equl to P or greter thn or equl to IPFSF Reactivity @s de(ned in RH gp PTIFPQAD whih refers to mterils suseptile to unstle onditions suh s explosionsD toxi fumesD gsesD or vpors when hetedD ompressedD or mixed with wter under norml onditionsF oxiity @s de(ned in RH gp PTIFPRAD whih refers to sustnes tht n indue hrmful or ftl e'ets when ingested or soredD or inhledF
7.2.3.2 Radioactive Waste Regulations

elthough nonEhzrdous wste @w nd industril nonEhzrdous wsteA nd hzrdous wste re regE ulted y geD nuler or rdiotive wste is regulted in ordne with the etomi inergy et of IWSR9 y the xuler egultory gommission @xgA10 in the nited ttesF diotive wstes re hrterized ording to four tegoriesX @IA High-level waste @rvAD @PA Transuranic waste @AD @QA Low-level waste @vvAD nd @RA Mill tailingsF rious rdiotive wstes dey t di'erent rtesD ut helth nd environmentl dngers due to rdition my persist for hundreds or thousnds of yersF rv is typilly liquid or solid wste tht results from government defense relted tivities or from nuler power plnts nd spent fuel ssemliesF hese wstes re extremely dngerous due to their hevy onentrtions of rdionulidesD nd humns must not ome into ontt with themF
7 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGesouregonservtionndeoveryet5utitlehXxonEhzrdousolidstes 8 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGesouregonservtionndeoveryet5utitlegXFPPgrdletoqrveFPPrequirements 9 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGetomiinergyetofIWSR 10 httpXGGwwwFnrFgovG

PTW minly results from the reproessing of spent nuler fuels nd from the frition of nuler wepons for defense projetsF hey re hrterized y modertely penetrting rdition nd dey time of pproximtely twenty yers until sfe rdionulide levels re hievedF pollowing the pssge of reproessing n in IWUUD most of this wste genertion endedF iven though the n ws lifted in IWVID ontinues to e rre euse reproessing of nuler fuel is expensiveF purtherD euse the extrted plutonium my e used to mnufture nuler weponsD politil nd soil pressures minimize these tivitiesF vv wstes inlude muh of the reminder of rdiotive wste mterilsF hey onstitute over VH perent of the volume of ll nuler wstesD ut only out two perent of totl rdiotivityF oures of vv inlude ll of the previously ited soures of rv nd D plus wstes generted y hospitlsD industril plntsD universitiesD nd ommeril lortoriesF vv is muh less dngerous thn rvD nd xg regultions llow some very lowElevel wstes to e relesed to the environmentF vv my lso e stored or uried until the isotopes dey to levels low enough suh tht it my e disposed of s nonE hzrdous wsteF vv disposl is mnged t the stte levelD ut requirements for opertion nd disposl re estlished y the ie nd xgF he yuptionl relth nd fety edministrtion @yreA11 is the geny in hrge of setting the stndrds for workers tht re exposed to rdiotive mterilsF will tilings generlly onsist of residues from the mining nd extrtion of urnium from its oreF here re more thn PHH million tons of rdiotive millEtilings in the nited ttesD nd ll of it is stored in sprsely populted res within the western sttesD suh s erizonD xew wexioD thD nd yomingF hese wstes emit lowElevel rditionD nd muh of it is uried to redue dngerous emissionsF
7.2.3.3 Medical Waste Regulations

enother type of wste tht is of environmentl onern is medical wasteF wedil wste is regulted y severl federl geniesD inluding the ieD yreD the genter for hisese gontrol nd revention @ghgA12 of the FF heprtment of relth nd rumn erviesD nd the egeny for oxi ustnes nd hisese egistry @ehA13 of the uli relth ervieD FF heprtment of relth nd rumn ervies14 F huring IWVUEVVD medil wstes nd rw grge wshed up on ehes long the xew tersey hore of the nited ttes on severl osions @lledD 4yringe ide15 4A whih required losure of ehesF he FF gongress susequently ented the wedil ste rking et @weA16 to evlute mngement issues nd potentil risks relted to medil wste disposlF he seven types of wstes listed under we inludeX @IA miroiologil wstes @ultures nd stoks of infetious wstes nd ssoited iologil medi tht n use disese in humnsAY @PA humn lood nd lood produtsD inluding serumD plsmD nd other lood omponentsY @QA pthologil wstes of humn originD inluding tissuesD orgnsD nd other ody msses removed during surgeries or utopsiesAY @RA ontminted niml wstes @iFeF niml rssesD ody mssesD nd edding exposed to infetious gents during medil reserhD phrmeutil testingD or prodution of iologil mediAY @SA isoltion wstes @wstes ssoited with nimls or humns known to e infeted with highly ommunile disesesAY @TA ontminted shrps @inluding hypodermi needlesD slpelsD nd roken glssAY nd @UA unontminted shrpsF sn dditionD the ie onsidered inluding ny other wstes tht hd een in ontt with infetious gents or lood @eFgF spongesD soiled dressingsD drpesD surgil glovesD lortory otsD slidesAF vv nuler wstes re produed in hospitls y phrmeutil lortories nd in performing nuler mediine proedures @eFgF medil imging to detet ners nd hert diseseAY howeverD the dnger posed y these wstes is reltively lowF e vriety of hzrdous sustnes hve lso een identi(ed in medil wstesD inluding metls suh s ledD dmiumD hromiumD nd meruryY nd toxi orgnis suh s dioxins nd furnsF ell medil wstes represent smll frtion of totl wste stremD estimted to onstitute mximum of pproximtely two perentF wedil wstes re ommonly disposed of through ininertionX s
11 httpXGGwwwFoshFgovG 12 httpXGGwwwFdFgovG 13 httpXGGwwwFtsdrFdFgovG 14 httpXGGwwwFhhsFgovG 15 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGyringeide 16 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGoswGnonhzGindustrilGmedilGtrkingFhtm

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with most wstesD the resulting volume is gretly reduedD nd it ssures the destrution nd steriliztion of infetious pthogensF hisdvntges inlude the potentil of ir pollution risks from dioxins nd furns s well s the neessry disposl of potentilly hzrdous sh wstesF xew options for disposl of medil wstes @inluding infetious wstesA re still eing exploredF ome other tehnologies inlude irrditionD mirowvingD utolvingD mehnil lterntivesD nd hemil disinfetionD mong othersF
7.2.4 Environmental Concerns with Wastes
7.2.4.1 Managing Growing Waste Generation

en enormous quntity of wstes re generted nd disposed of nnullyF elrminglyD this quntity ontinues to inrese on n nnul sisF sndustries generte nd dispose over UFT illion tons of industril solid wstes eh yerD nd it is estimted tht over RH million tons of this wste is hzrdousF xuler wstes s well s medil wstes re lso inresing in quntity every yerF qenerlly spekingD developed ntions generte more wste thn developing ntions due to higher rtes of onsumptionF xot surprisinglyD the nited ttes genertes more wste per pit thn ny other ountryF righ wste per pit rtes re lso very ommon throughout iurope nd developed ntions in esi nd yeniF sn the nited ttesD out PRQ million tons @PRQ trillion kgA of w is generted per yerD whih is equl to out RFQ pounds @IFWS kgA of wste per person per dyF xerly QR perent of w is reovered nd reyled or ompostedD pproximtely IP perent is urned omustion filitiesD nd the remining SR perent is disposed of in lnd(llsF ste strem perentges lso vry widely y regionF es n exmpleD n prnisoD gliforni ptures nd reyles nerly US perent of its wste mterilD wheres roustonD exs reyles less thn three perentF ith respet to wste mitigtion optionsD lnd(lling is quikly evolving into less desirle or fesile optionF vnd(ll pity in the nited ttes hs een delining primrily due to @A older existing lnd(lls tht re inresingly rehing their uthorized pityD @A the promulgtion of striter environmentl regultions hs mde the permitting nd siting of new lnd(lls inresingly di0ultD @A puli opposition @eFgF 4xot sn wy fkyrd4 or xswfism17 A delys orD in mny sesD prevents the pprovl of new lnd(lls or expnsion of existing filitiesF sronillyD muh of this puli opposition rises from misoneptions out lnd(lling nd wste disposl prties tht re derived from environmentlly detrimentl histori tivities nd prties tht re no longer in existeneF egrdless of the degree or extent of justi(tionD xswfism is potent opposition phenomenonD whether it is ssoited with lnd(lls or other lnd use tivitiesD suh s irportsD prisonsD nd wstewter tretment filitiesF
7.2.4.2 Eects of Improper Waste Disposal and Unauthorized Releases

rior to the pssge of environmentl regultionsD wstes were disposed improperly without due onsidertion of potentil e'ets on the puli helth nd the environmentF his prtie hs led to numerous ontminted sites where soils nd groundwter hve een ontminted nd pose risk to the puli sfetyF yf more thn QTDHHH environmentlly impted ndidte sitesD there re more thn IDRHH sites listed under the uperfund progrm xtionl riority vist @xvA whih require immedite lenup resulting from uteD imminent threts to environmentl nd humn helthF he ie identi(ed out PDSHH dditionl ontminted sites tht eventully require remeditionF he nited ttes heprtment of hefense mintins IWDHHH sitesD mny of whih hve een extensively ontminted from vriety of uses nd disposl prtiesF purtherD pproximtely RHHDHHH underground storge tnks hve een on(rmed or re suspeted to e lekingD ontminting underlying soils nd groundwterF yver 6IH illion @more thn 6PS illion in urrent dollrsA were spei(lly lloted y gigve nd susequent mendments to mitigte impted sitesF roweverD the ie hs estimted tht the vlue of environmentl remedition exeeds 6IHH illionF elrminglyD if pst expenditures on xv sites re extrpolted ross remining nd proposed xv sitesD this totl my e signi(ntly higher ! well into the trillions of dollrsF
17 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGxswf

PUI st is estimted tht more thn RDUHH filities in the nited ttes urrently tretD store or dispose of hzrdous wstesF yf theseD out QDUHH filities tht house pproximtely TRDHHH solid wste mngement units @wsA my require orretive tionF eidentl spillge of hzrdous wstes nd nuler mteE rils due to nthropogeni opertions or nturl dissters hs lso used enormous environmentl dmge s evidened y the events suh s the fility filure in ghernoylD krine18 @formerly A in IWVTD the e'ets of rurrine utrin19 tht devstted xew yrlensD vouisin in PHHSD nd the PHII hoku o erthquke nd tsunmi in pukushimD tpn20 F
7.2.4.3 Adverse Impacts on Public Health

e wide vriety of hemils re present within wste mterilsD mny of whih pose signi(nt environmentl onernF hough the leachate generted from the wstes my ontin toxi hemilsD the onentrtions nd vriety of toxi hemils re quite smll ompred to hzrdous wste sitesF por exmpleD explosives nd rdiotive wstes re primrily loted t heprtment of inergy @hyiA sites euse mny of these filities hve een historilly used for wepons reserhD fritionD testingD nd triningF yrgni ontminnts re lrgely found t oil re(neriesD or petroleum storge sitesD nd inorgni nd pestiide ontmintion usully is the result of vriety of industril tivities s well s griulturl tivitiesF etD soil nd groundwter ontmintion re not the only diret dverse e'ets of improper wste mngement tivities ! reent studies hve lso shown tht greenhouse gs emissions from the wstes re signi(ntD exerting glol limte hngeF e wide rnge of toxi hemilsD with n eqully wide distriution of respetive onentrtionsD is found in wste stremsF hese ompounds my e present in onentrtions tht lone my pose thret to humn helth or my hve synergistiGumultive e'et due to the presene of other ompoundsF ixposure to hzrdous wstes hs een linked to mny types of nerD hroni illnessesD nd norml reprodutive outomes suh s irth defetsD low irth weightsD nd spontneous ortionsF wny studies hve een performed on mjor toxi hemils found t hzrdous wste sites inorporting epidemiologil or niml tests to determine their toxi e'etsF es n exmpleD the e'ets of rdiotive mterils re lssi(ed s somti or genetiF he somatic eects my e immedite or our over long period of timeF smmedite e'ets from lrge rdition doses often produe nuse nd vomitingD nd my e followed y severe lood hngesD hemorrhgeD infetionD nd dethF helyed e'ets inlude leukemiD nd mny types of ner inluding oneD lungD nd rest nerF Genetic eects hve een oserved in whih gene muttions or hromosome normlities result in mesurle hrmful e'etsD suh s dereses in life expetnyD inresed suseptiility to sikness or diseseD infertilityD or even deth during emryoni stges of lifeF feuse of these studiesD ouptionl dosge limits hve een reommended y the xtionl gounil on dition rotetionF imilr studies hve een ompleted for wide rnge of potentilly hzrdous mterilsF hese studies hveD in turnD een used to determine sfe exposure levels for numerous exposure senriosD inluding those tht onsider ouptionl sfety nd remedition stndrds for vriety of lnd use senriosD inluding residentilD ommerilD nd industril lnd usesF
7.2.4.4 Adverse Impacts on the Environment

he hemils found in wstes not only pose thret to humn helthD ut they lso hve profound e'ets on entire eoEsystemsF gontminnts my hnge the hemistry of wters nd destroy quti life nd underE wter eoEsystems tht re depended upon y more omplex speiesF gontminnts my lso enter the food hin through plnts or miroiologil orgnismsD nd higherD more evolved orgnisms ioumulte the wstes through susequent ingestionF es the ontminnts move frther up the food hinD the ontinued bioaccumulation results in inresed ontminnt mss nd onentrtionF sn mny sesD toxi onenE trtions re rehedD resulting in inresed mortlity of one or more speiesF es the popultions of these
18 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGghernoyldisster 19 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGrurrineutrin 20 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGPHIIhokuerthqukendtsunmi o

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speies dereseD the nturl interEspeies lne is 'etedF ith deresed numers of predtors or food souresD other speies my e drstilly 'etedD leding to hin retion tht n 'et wide rnge of )or nd fun within spei( eoEsystemF es the eoEsystem ontinues to devite from equiliriumD disstrous onsequenes my ourF ixmples inlude the ner extintion of the ld egle due to persistent ingestion of hhEimpted (shD nd the depletion of oystersD rsD nd (sh in ghespeke fy due to exessive quntities of fertilizersD toxi hemilsD frm mnure wstesD nd power plnt emissionsF
7.2.5 Waste Management Strategies

he longEreognized hierrhy of mngement of wstesD in order of preferene onsists of preventionD miniE miztionD reyling nd reuseD biological treatmentD ininertionD nd lnd(ll disposl @see pigure Hierarchy of Waste Management @pF PUPAAF

Figure 7.1: Hierarchy of Waste Management Figure shows the hierarchy of management of wastes
in order or preference, starting with prevention as the most favorable to disposal as the least favorable option. Source: Drstuey via Wikimedia Commons

21

7.2.5.1 Waste Prevention

he idel wste mngement lterntive is to prevent wste genertion in the (rst pleF reneD waste prevention is si gol of ll the wste mngement strtegiesF xumerous tehnologies n e employed throughout the mnufturingD useD or postEuse portions of produt life yles to eliminte wste ndD in turnD redue or prevent pollutionF ome representtive strtegies inlude environmentlly onsious mnufturing methods tht inorporte less hzrdous or hrmful mterilsD the use of modern lekge detetion systems for mteril storgeD innovtive hemil neutrliztion tehniques to redue retivityD or wter sving tehnologies tht redue the need for fresh wter inputsF
21 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXstehierrhyFsvg

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7.2.5.2 Waste Minimization

sn mny sesD wstes nnot e outright eliminted from vriety of proessesF roweverD numerous strteE gies n e implemented to redue or minimize wste genertionF Waste minimizationD or soure redutionD refers to the olletive strtegies of design nd frition of produts or servies tht minimize the mount of generted wste ndGor redue the toxiity of the resultnt wsteF yften these e'orts ome out from identi(ed trends or spei( produts tht my e using prolems in the wste strem nd the susequent steps tken to hlt these prolemsF sn industryD wste n e redued y reusing mterilsD using less hzrdous sustitute mterilsD or y modifying omponents of design nd proessingF wny ene(ts n e relized y wste minimiztion or soure redutionD inluding redued use of nturl resoures nd the redution of toxiity of wstesF ste minimiztion strtegies re extremely ommon in mnufturing pplitionsY the svings of mteE ril use preserves resoures ut lso sves signi(nt mnufturing relted ostsF edvnements in stremE lined pkging redues mteril useD inresed distriution e0ieny redues fuel onsumption nd resulting ir emissionsF purtherD engineered uilding mterils n often e designed with spei( fvorle properE ties thtD when ounted for in overll struturl designD n gretly redue the overll mss nd weight of mteril needed for given strutureF his redues the need for exess mteril nd redues the wste ssoited with omponent fritionF he dry lening industry provides n exellent exmple of produt sustitution to redue toxi wste genertionF por dedesD dry leners used tetrhloroethyleneD or 4per4 s dry lening solventF elthough e'etiveD tetrhloroethylene is reltively toxi ompoundF edditionllyD it is esily introdued into the environmentD where it is highly relitrnt due to its physil propertiesF purtherD when its degrdtion oursD the intermedite dughter produts generted re more toxi to humn helth nd the environmentF feuse of its toxiity nd impt on the environmentD the dry lening industry hs dopted new prties nd inresingly utilizes less toxi replement produtsD inluding petroleumEsed ompoundsF purtherD new emerging tehnologies re inorporting ron dioxide nd other reltively hrmless omE poundsF hile these sustitute produts hve in mny ses een mndted y government regultionD they hve lso een dopted in response to onsumer demnds nd other mrketEsed foresF
7.2.5.3 Recycling and Reuse

eyling refers to reovery of useful mterils suh s glssD pperD plstisD woodD nd metls from the wste strem so they my e inorported into the frition of new produtsF ith greter inorportion of reyled mterilsD the required use of rw mterils for identil pplitions is reduedF eyling redues the need of nturl resoure exploittion for rw mterilsD ut it lso llows wste mterils to e reovered nd utilized s vlule resoure mterilsF eyling of wstes diretly onserves nturl resouresD redues energy onsumption nd emissions generted y extrtion of virgin mterils nd their susequent mnufture into (nished produtsD redues overll energy onsumption nd greenhouse gs emissions tht ontriute to the glol limte hngeD nd redues the ininertion or lnd(lling of the mterils tht hve een reyledF woreoverD reyling retes severl eonomi ene(tsD inluding the potentil to rete jo mrkets nd drive growthF gommon reyled mterils inlude pperD plstisD glssD luminumD steelD nd woodF edditionllyD mny onstrution mterils n e reusedD inluding onreteD sphlt mterilsD msonryD nd reinforing steelF 4qreen4 plntEsed wstes re often reovered nd immeditely reused for mulh or fertilizer ppliE tionsF wny industries lso reover vrious yEproduts ndGor re(ne nd 4reEgenerte4 solvents for reuseF ixmples inlude opper nd nikel reovery from metl (nishing proessesY the reovery of oilsD ftsD nd plstiizers y solvent extrtion from (lter medi suh s tivted ron nd lysY nd id reovery y spry rostingD ion exhngeD or rystlliztionF purtherD rnge of used foodEsed oils re eing reovered nd utilized in 4iodiesel4 pplitionsF xumerous exmples of suessful reyling nd reuse e'orts re enountered every dyF sn some sesD the reyled mterils re used s input mterils nd re hevily proessed into end produtsF gommon exmples inlude the use of srp pper for new pper mnufturingD or the proessing of old luminum

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ns into new luminum produtsF sn other sesD relimed mterils undergo little or no proessing prior to their reEuseF ome ommon exmples inlude the use of tree wste s wood hipsD or the use of rik nd other (xtures into new struturl onstrutionF sn ny seD the suess of reyling depends on e'etive olletion nd proessing of reyllesD mrkets for reuse @eFgF mnufturing ndGor pplitions tht utilize reyled mterilsAD nd puli eptne nd promotion of reyled produts nd pplitions utilizing reyled mterilsF
7.2.5.4 Biological Treatment

vnd(ll disposl of wstes ontining signi(nt orgni frtions is inresingly disourged in mny ounE triesD inluding the nited ttesF uh disposl prties re even prohiited in severl iuropen ountriesF ine lnd(lling does not provide n ttrtive mngement optionD other tehniques hve een identi(edF yne option is to tret wste so tht iodegrdle mterils re degrded nd the remining inorgni wste frtion @known s residulsA n e susequently disposed or used for ene(il purposeF fiodegrdtion of wstes n e omplished y using aerobic ompostingD anaerobicdigestionD or mechanical biological treatment @wfA methodsF sf the orgni frtion n e seprted from inorgni mterilD eroi omposting or neroi digestion n e used to degrde the wste nd onvert it into usle compostF por exmpleD orgni wstes suh s food wsteD yrd wsteD nd niml mnure tht onsist of nturlly degrding teri n e onverted under ontrolled onditions into ompostD whih n then e utilized s nturl fertilizerF eeroi omposting is omplished y pling seleted proportions of orgni wste into pilesD rows or vesselsD either in open onditions or within losed uildings (tted with gs olletion nd tretment systemsF huring the proessD ulking gents suh s wood hips re dded to the wste mteril to enhne the eroi degrdtion of orgni mterilsF pinllyD the mteril is llowed to stilize nd mture during uring proess where pthogens re onurrently destroyedF he endEproduts of the omposting proess inlude ron dioxideD wterD nd the usle ompost mterilF gompost mteril my e used in vriety of pplitionsF sn ddition to its use s soil mendment for plnt ultivtionD ompost n e used remedite soilsD groundwterD nd stormwterF gomposting n e lorEintensiveD nd the qulity of the ompost is hevily dependent on proper ontrol of the omposting proessF sndequte ontrol of the operting onditions n result in ompost tht is unsuitle for ene(il pplitionsF xeverthelessD omposting is eoming inresingly populrY omposting diverted VP million tons of wste mteril wy the lnd(ll wste strem in PHHWD inresed from IS million tons in IWVHF his diversion lso prevented the relese of pproximtely IUV million metri tons of ron dioxide in PHHW ! n mount equivlent to the yerly ron dioxide emissions of QQ million utomoilesF sn some sesD eroi proesses re not fesileF es n lterntiveD neroi proesses my e utilizedF eneroi digestion onsists of degrding mixed or sorted orgni wstes in vessels under neroi ondiE tionsF he neroi degrdtion proess produes omintion of methne nd ron dioxide @iogsA nd residuls @iosolidsAF fiogs n e used for heting nd eletriity produtionD while residuls n e used s fertilizers nd soil mendmentsF eneroi digestion is preferred degrdtion for wet wstes s ompred to the preferene of omposting for dry wstesF he dvntge of neroi digestion is iogs olletionY this olletion nd susequent ene(il utiliztion mkes it preferred lterntive to lnd(ll disE posl of wstesF elsoD wste is degrded fster through neroi digestion s ompred to lnd(ll disposlF enother wste tretment lterntiveD mehnil iologil tretment @wfAD is not ommon in the nited ttesF roweverD this lterntive is widely used in iuropeF huring implementtion of this methodD wste mteril is sujeted to omintion of mehnil nd iologil opertions tht redue volume through the degrdtion of orgni frtions in the wsteF wehnil opertions suh s sortingD shreddingD nd rushing prepre the wste for susequent iologil tretmentD onsisting of either eroi omposting or neroi digestionF pollowing the iologil proessesD the redued wste mss my e sujeted to ininertionF

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7.2.5.5 Incineration

ste degrdtion not only produes useful solid endEproduts @suh s ompostAD degrdtion yEproduts n lso e used s ene(il energy soureF es disussed oveD neroi digestion of wste n generte iogsD whih n e ptured nd inorported into eletriity genertionF elterntivelyD wste n e diretly ininerted to produe energyF sninertion onsists of wste omustion t very high tempertures to produe eletril energyF he yprodut of ininertion is shD whih requires proper hrteriztion prior to disposlD or in some sesD ene(il reEuseF hile puli pereption of ininertion n e negtiveD this is often sed retions to olderD less e0ient tehnologiesF xew ininertors re lenerD more )exile nd e0ientD nd re n exellent mens to onvert waste to energy while reduing the volume of wsteF sninertion n lso o'set fossil fuel use nd redue greenhouse gs @qrqA emissions @fogner et lFD PHHU @pF PUTAAF st is widely used in developed ountries due to lnd(ll spe limittionsF st is estimted tht out IQH million tons of wste re nnully omusted in more thn THH plnts in QS ountriesF purtherD ininertion is often used to e'etively mitigte hzrdous wstes suh s hlorinted hydroronsD oilsD solventsD medil wstesD nd pestiidesF hespite ll these dvntgesD ininertion is often viewed negtively euse of the resulting ir emissionsD the retion of dughter hemil ompoundsD nd prodution of shD whih is ommonly toxiF gurrentlyD mny 9next genertion4 systems re eing reserhed nd developedD nd the ie is developing new regultions to refully monitor ininertor ir emissions under the glen eir et22 F
7.2.5.6 Landll Disposal

hespite dvnes in reuse nd reylingD lnd(ll disposl remins the primry wste disposl method in the nited ttesF es previously mentionedD the rte of w genertion ontinues to inreseD ut overll lnd(ll pity is deresingF xew regultions onerning proper wste disposl nd the use of innovtive liner systems to minimize the potentil of groundwter ontmintion from lehte in(ltrtion nd miE grtion hve resulted in sustntil inrese in the osts of lnd(ll disposlF elsoD puli opposition to lnd(lls ontinues to growD prtilly inspired y memories of histori unontrolled dumping prties the resulting undesirle side e'ets of unontrolled vetorsD ontminted groundwterD unmitigted odorsD nd susequent diminished property vluesF vnd(lls n e designed nd permitted to ept hzrdous wstes in ordne with ge utitle g regultionsD or they my e designed nd permitted to ept muniipl solid wste in ordne with ge utitle h regultionsF egrdless of their wste designtionD lnd(lls re engineered strutures onsisting of ottom nd side liner systemsD lehte olletion nd removl systemsD (nl over systemsD gs olletion nd removl systemsD nd groundwter monitoring systems @hrm nd eddyD PHHR @pF PUTAAF en extensive permitting proess is required for sitingD designing nd operting lnd(llsF ostElosure monitoring of lnd(lls is lso typilly required for t lest QH yersF feuse of their designD wstes within lnd(lls re degrded neroillyF huring degrdtionD iogs is produed nd olletedF he olletion systems prevent unontrolled susurfe gs migrtion nd redue the potentil for n explosive onditionF he ptured gs is often used in ogenertion filities for heting or eletriity genertionF purtherD upon losureD mny lnd(lls undergo 4lnd reyling4 nd redeveloped s golf oursesD reretionl prksD nd other ene(il usesF stes ommonly exist in dry ondition within lnd(llsD nd s resultD the rte of wste degrdtion is ommonly very slowF hese slow degrdtion rtes re oupled with slow rtes of degrdtionEindued settlementD whih n in turn omplite or redue the potentil for ene(il lnd reEuse t the surfeF eentlyD the onept of ioretor lnd(lls hs emergedD whih involves reirultion of lehte ndGor injetion of seleted liquids to inrese the moisture in the wsteD whih in turn indues rpid degrdtionF he inresed rtes of degrdtion inrese the rte of iogs produtionD whih inreses the potentil of ene(il energy prodution from iogs pture nd utiliztionF
22 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGirGG

PUT
7.2.6 Summary

CHAPTER 7.

MODERN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

wny wstesD suh s highElevel rdiotive wstesD will remin dngerous for thousnds of yersD nd even w n produe dngerous lehte tht ould devstte n entire eoEsystem if llowed in(ltrte into nd migrte within groundwterF sn order to protet humn helth nd the environmentD environmentl professionls must del with prolems ssoited with inresed genertion of wste mterilsF he solution must fous on oth reduing the soures of wstes s well s the sfe disposl of wstesF st isD thereforeD extremely importnt to know the souresD lssi(tionsD hemil ompositionsD nd physil hrteristis of wstesD nd to understnd the strtegies for mnging themF ste mngement prties vry not only from ountry to ountryD ut they lso vry sed on the type nd omposition of wsteF egrdless of the geogrphil setting of the type of wste tht needs to e mngedD the governing priniple in the development of ny wste mngement pln is resoure onservtionF xturl resoure nd energy onservtion is hieved y mnging mterils more e0ientlyF edutionD reuseD nd reyling re primry strtegies for e'etive redution of wste quntitiesF purtherD proper wste mngement deisions hve inresing importneD s the onsequenes of these deisions hve roder implitions with respet to greenhouse gs emissions nd glol limte hngeF es resultD severl puli nd privte prtnership progrms re under development with the gol of wste redution through the doption of new nd innovtive wste mngement tehnologiesF feuse wste is n inevitle yEprodut of iviliztionD the suessful implementtion of these inititives will hve diret e'et on the enhned qulity of life for soieties worldwideF
7.2.7 Review Questions

row is hzrdous wste de(ned ording to the esoure gonservtion nd eovery et @geAc sn your opinionD is this de(nition ppropritec ixplinF
Question 7.2.2

Question 7.2.1

ixplin spei( hrteristis of rdiotive nd medil wstes tht mke their mngement more prolemti thn wF
Question 7.2.3 Question 7.2.4

gompre nd ontrst environmentl onerns with wstes in rurl versus urn settingF

ht re the pros nd ons of vrious wste mngement strtegiesc ho you gree or disgree with the generl wste mngement hierrhyc
Question 7.2.5

ixplin the dvntges nd disdvntges of iologil tretment nd ininertion of wstesF

7.2.8 References

fognerD tFD ehmedD wFeFD hizD gF pijD eFD qoD FD rshimotoDFD et lF @PHHUAF ste wngementD sn fF wetzD yFF hvidsonD FF foshD F hveD vFeF weyer @idsFAD Climate Change 2007: Mitigation.
Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on

@ppF SVSETIVAF gmridge niversity ressD gmridgeD nited uingdom nd xew orkD xD eF etrieved eugust IWD PHIH from httpXGGwwwFipFhGpdfGssessmentEreportGrRGwgQGrREwgQE hpterIHFpdf23 hrmD rFhF 8 eddyD uFF @PHHRAF Geoenvironmental Engineering: Site Remediation, Waste Containment, and Emerging Waste Management TechnologiesF rookenD xtX tohn ileyF
Climate Change

23 httpXGGwwwFipFhGpdfGssessmentEreportGrRGwgQGrREwgQEhpterIHFpdf

PUU

7.3

Case

Study:
24

Electronic

Waste

and

Extended

Producer

Responsibility

iletroni wsteD ommonly known s eEwsteD refers to disrded eletroni produts suh s televisionsD omputers nd omputer peripherls @eFgF monitorsD keyordsD disk drivesD nd printersAD telephones nd ellulr phonesD udio nd video equipmentD video mersD fx nd opy mhinesD video gme onsolesD nd others @see pigure Electronic Waste @pigure UFPAAF

Figure 7.2: Electronic Waste Photograph shows many computers piled up in a parking lot as waste.
Source: Bluedisk via Wikimedia Commons

25

sn the nited ttesD it is estimted tht out Q million tons of eEwste re generted eh yerF his wste quntity inludes pproximtely PU million units of televisionsD PHS million units of omputer produtsD nd IRH million units of ell phonesF vess thn IS to PH perent of the eEwste is reyled or refurishedY the remining perentge is ommonly disposed of in lnd(lls ndGor ininertedF st should e noted tht eEwste onstitutes less thn R perent of totl solid wste generted in the nited ttesF roweverD with tremendous growth in tehnologil dvnements in the eletronis industryD mny eletroni produts re eoming osolete quiklyD thus inresing the prodution of eEwste t very rpid rteF he quntities of eEwste generted re lso inresing rpidly in other ountries suh s sndi nd ghin due to high demnd for omputers nd ell phonesF
24 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRISUIGIFQGbF 25 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXgomputereylingFtq

PUV

CHAPTER 7.

MODERN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

sn ddition to the growing quntity of eEwsteD the hzrdous ontent of eEwste is mjor environmentl onern nd poses risks to the environment if these wstes re improperly mnged one they hve rehed the end of their useful lifeF wny eEwste omponents onsist of toxi sustnesD inluding hevy metls suh s ledD opperD zinD dmiumD nd merury s well s orgni ontminntsD suh s )me retrdnts @polyrominted iphenyls nd polyrominted diphenylethersAF he relese of these sustnes into the environment nd susequent humn exposure n led to serious helth nd pollution issuesF gonerns hve lso een rised with regrds to the relese of toxi onstituents of eEwste into the environment if lnd(lling ndGor ininertion options re used to mnge the eEwsteF rious regultory nd voluntry progrms hve een instituted to promote reuseD reyling nd sfe disposl of ulk eEwsteF euse nd refurishing hs een promoted to redue rw mteril use energy onsumptionD nd wter onsumption ssoited with the mnufture of new produtsF eyling nd reovery of elements suh s ledD opperD goldD silver nd pltinum n yield vlule resoures whih otherwise my use pollution if improperly relesed into the environmentF he reyling nd reovery opertions hve to e onduted with extreme reD s the exposure of eEwste omponents n result in dverse helth impts to the workers performing these opertionsF por eonomi resonsD reyled eEwste is often exported to other ountries for reovery opertionsF roweverD lx regultory environments in mny of these ountries n led to unsfe prties or improper disposl of ulk residul eEwsteD whih in turn n dversely 'et vulnerle popultionsF sn the nited ttesD there re no spei( federl lws deling with eEwsteD ut mny sttes hve reently developed eEwste regultions tht promote environmentlly sound mngementF por exmpleD the tte of gliforni pssed the iletroni ste eyling et26 in PHHQ to foster reylingD reuseD nd environmentlly sound disposl of residul ulk eEwsteF etD in spite of reent regultions nd dvnes in reuseD reyling nd proper disposl prtiesD dditionl sustinle strtegies to mnge eEwste re urgently neededF yne sustinle strtegy used to mnge eEwste is extended produer responsiility @iAD lso known s produt stewrdshipF his onept holds mnufturers lile for the entire lifeEyle osts ssoiE ted with the eletroni produtsD inluding disposl ostsD nd enourges the use of environmentlE friendly mnufturing proesses nd produtsF wnufturers n pursue i in multiple wysD inluding reuseGrefurishingD uyEkD reylingD nd energy prodution or ene(il reuse pplitionsF vifeEyle ssessment nd lifeEyle ost methodologies my e used to ompre the environmentl impts of these di'erent wste mngement optionsF snentives or (nnil support is lso provided y some government ndGor regultory genies to promote iF he use of nonEtoxi nd esily reylle mterils in produt frition is mjor omponent of ny i strtegyF e growing numer of ompnies @eFgF hellD onyD rA re emring i with vrious inititives towrds hieving sustinle eEwste mngementF i is preferred strtegy euse the mnufturer ers (nnil nd legl responsiility for their produtsY heneD they hve n inentive to inorporte green design nd mnufturing prties tht inorE porte esily reylle nd less toxi mteril omponents while produing eletronis with longer produt livesF yne ovious disdvntge of i is the higher mnufturing ostD whih leds to inresed ost of eletronis to onsumersF here is no spei( federl lw requiring i for eletronisD ut the nited ttes invironmentl roE tetion egeny @ieA undertook severl inititives to promote i to hieve the following golsX @IA foster environmentlly onsious design nd mnufturingD @PA inrese purhsing nd use of more enviE ronmentlly sustinle eletronisD nd @QA inrese sfeD environmentlly sound reuse nd reyling of used eletronisF o hieve these golsD ie hs een engged in vrious tivitiesD inluding the promotion of environmentl onsidertions in produt designD the development of evlution tools for environmentl ttriutes of eletroni produtsD the enourgement of reyling @or e-ylingAD nd the support of progrms to redue eEwsteD mong othersF wore thn PH sttes in the nited ttes nd vrious orgniztions worldE wide hve lredy developed lws ndGor poliies requiring i in some form when deling with eletroni produtsF por instneD the xew ork tte ireless eyling et27 emphsizes tht uthorized retilers nd servie providers should e ompelled to prtiipte in tkeEk progrmsD thus llowing inresed
26 httpXGGwwwFlreyleFFgovGeletronisGtPHHQG 27 httpXGGwwwFdeFnyFgovGhemilGVVIVFhtml

PUW reyling nd reuse of eEwsteF imilrlyD wine is the (rst FF stte to dopt household eEwste lw with iF sn sllinoisD iletroni roduts eyling 8 euse et28 requires the eletroni mnufturers to prtiiE pte in the mngement of disrded nd unwnted eletroni produts from residenesF he sllinois ie hs lso ompiled eEwste olletion site lotions29 where the residents n give wy their disrded eletroni produts t no hrgeF purthermoreD ie ompiled list of lol progrms nd mnufturersGretilers30 tht n help onsumers to properly donte or reyle eEwsteF yverllD the growing quntities nd environmentl hzrds ssoited with eletroni wste re of mjor onern to wste mngement professionls worldwideF gurrent mngement strtegiesD inluding reyling nd refurishingD hve not een suessfulF es resultD i regultions re rpidly evolving throughout the world to promote sustinle mngement of eEwsteF roweverD neither onsistent frmework nor ssessment tools to evlute i hve een fully developedF

7.4 Government and Laws on the Environment

7.4.1 Learning Objectives

31

efter reding this setionD students should e le to

understnd the purpose of government regultions set for the protetion of humn helth nd the environment distinguish the urrent environmentl lws nd regultions for vrious types of pollutnts present in di'erent medi or phses of the environment disern the need for future environmentl lws s relted to the sustinility of industril tivity nd the eonomy

7.4.2 Introduction

sn the nited ttesD the lws nd regultions pertining to the protetion of the environment hve een ented y the FF gongressF he FF invironmentl rotetion egeny @ieA is uthorized to enfore the environmentl lws nd to implement the environmentl regultionsF he nited ttes environmentl lws over vrious phses of the environment suh s wterD irD nd hzrdous wsteD where most of the regultions hve een sed on the risk ssessment of the pollutntsF he mjor environmentl lws nd regultions re rie)y listed in the le Summary of Major Environmental Laws @le UFIAF
Environmental Issue Description Acronym Year Enacted

ter

pederl ter ollution gontrol et emendment glen ter et

pg ege

IWST IWUP IWUP

continued on next page

28 httpXGGwwwFepFstteFilFusGlndGeletroniEwsteEreylingGindexFhtml 29 httpXGGwwwFepFstteFilFusGlndGeletroniEwsteEreylingGonsumerEedutionFhtml 30 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGoswGonserveGmterilsGeylingGdonteFhtm 31 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRISUHGIFQGbF

PVH hrinking ter

CHAPTER 7.

MODERN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

fe hrinking et emendments glen eir et emendments

ter

he

IWUR IWVTD IWWT IWSS IWWH IWUT IWVR IWVH IWVT

eir rzrdous stes

gee ge re gigve ee

esoure gonservtion nd eovery et rzrdous nd olid stes emendment gomprehensive inviE ronmentl esponseD gompenstion nd viE ility et @uperfundA uperfund emendments nd euthoriztion et yil ollution et oxi ustnes gonE trol et pederl snsetiideD pungiideD nd odentiE ide et ollution et revention fety

yil pills oxi ustnes estiides

ye ge pspe

IWWH IWUT IWUP

ollution revention orkple relth nd fety

e yre

IWWH IWUH IWWH

yuptionl nd relth et emendment

Table 7.1X

Summary of Major Environmental Laws

le lists mjor environmentl lws ented from the IWSHs onwrdF

7.4.3 Water
7.4.3.1 Clean Water Act

o protet the surfe wters of the nited ttes suh s lkesD riversD stremsD shorelines nd esturiesD the pederl ter ollution gontrol et ws estlished in IWSTF he mendment to the pederl ter ollution gontrol et @pgeA of IWUP foused on surfe wter qulity golsD e1uent limits sed on ville tehnologyD nd ntionl dishrge permit systemF he pge @IWUPA introdued e1uent limits for hemil sustnes in surfe wters in onjuntion with xtionl ollutnt hishrge ilimintion ystem @xhiA llowing for enforele ontrol over permits otined y industry for dishrge of e1uents ontining pollutnts into nturl wter systemsF he glen ter et @geA of IWUU pled emphsis on the ontrol of wterorne toxi sustnes relesed into nturl surfe wtersF he ge introdued riE ority vist of ollutnts whih inludes IPU toxi hemil sustnes inluding syntheti orgni ompounds nd hevy metlsF sn ordne with the geD the ie must estlish e1uent limittions for hemil sustnes on the vist of riority ollutnts for dishrge y industril filities nd muniipl wstewter tretment plntsF he ge ims to provide system of ntionl e1uent stndrds for eh industryD set of wter qulity stndrdsD n enforele dishrge permit progrmD provisions for speil wstes suh s toxi hemils

PVI nd oil spillsD nd onstrution progrm for pulily owned tretment works @ysAF wuniipl wstewE ter tretment plnts re exmples of ysF he xhi permits re issued ording to the e1uent limittions required y the pederl ter ollution gontrol et nd the glen ter etF feuse of higher osts ssoited with tretment of industril e1uents efore dishrge into nturl wters whih requires n xhi permitD mny industries dishrge to muniipl sewer nd hve their wstes treted t the y following pretretment regultions overseen y the yF sn dditionD the ge provides permits for stormwter nd other nonEpoint soure @see de(nition in wodule 4ustinle tormwter wngement4A pollution to prevent stormwter runo' over ontminted lnd nd pved res from polluting surfe wters suh s rivers nd lkesF tormwter pollution prevention plns nd stormwter tretment filities hve to e implemented to void ontmintion of len wterF
7.4.3.2 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)

he fe hrinking ter et @heA of IWUR ws estlished to prevent potentil ontmintion of groundE wterD whih my serve s soure of drinking wterF he he mendments of IWVT nd IWWT estlished stndrds for wter qulityD whih pply to drinking wter s supplied y the puli wter supply systemsF he groundwter stndrds re lso used to determine groundwter protetion regultions under numer of other sttutesF he ie hs estlished set of stndrds for unhelthful ontminnts in drinking wE ter referred to s the xtionl rimry hrinking ter egultions @xhsA s required y the he mendment of IWVTF he list of regulted ontminnts inludes syntheti orgni ompoundsD inorgni speies suh s hevy metlsD rdionulidesD nd pthogeni miroorgnismsF he xh stndrds inlude oth enforele wximum gontminnt vevels @wgvsA nd nonenforele wximum gontminnt vevel qols @wgvqsA used s helth golsF he wgvs re hieved in the drinking wter tretment plnt using the fest eville ehnology @feA for removl of the ontminnts from wterF wny of the drinking wter wgvqs hve lso eome the working stndrds for orgni nd inorgni hemil ontminnts s 4uperfund4 regultions for hzrdous wste site lenupsY uperfund regultions del with the lenup of ndoned sites ontining hzrdous wstesF le Example Drinking Water Standards @le UFPA lists the wgvs nd wgvqs for severl hemil ontminntsF he fe hrinking ter et mendment of IWVT lso introdued eondry wximum gontminnt vevels @wgvsA tht t s reommended mxiE mum levels for ontminntsD whih do not hve n dverse helth e'et ut re mostly relted to esthetis of wter @suh s olor nd odorAF he use of sound siene nd riskEsed stndrd setting for the xhs is inluded in the he mendment of IWWTY new ontminnts my e dded in the future using list of ndidte ontminntsF sn dditionD the he mendment of IWWT provides guidne to individul sttes nd industry towrd protetion of soure wter nd wellEhed res used for puli wter supplyF
Organic Contaminant MCL (mg/L) MCLG (mg/L) Potential Health Eect Inorganic MCL Con(mg/L) taminant MCLG (mg/L) Potential Health Eect

fenzene

HFHHS

ero

gner

erseni

HFHIH

ero

xervous systemD ner

continued on next page

PVP etrzine HFHHQ HFHHQ

CHAPTER 7.

MODERN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

viverD kidneyD lung

ghromium HFI @totlA

HFI

viverD kidneyD iruE ltory system gentrl nervous system flue y synE drome uidneyD entrl nervous system

enthlorophenol HFHHI

ero

gner

gynide

HFP

HFP

olyhlorinted HFHHHS iphenyls @gfsA fenzo@Apyrene HFHHHP

ero

gner

xitrte

IH

IH

ero

gner

werury

HFHHP

HFHHP

Table 7.2X

Example Drinking Water Standards (NPDWRs) le lists the drinking wter mximum ontminnt levels nd the mximum ontminnt level gols for vriety of hemil ontminntsD long with the potentil helth e'ets tht ompny these hemilsF Source: A.
Khodadoust using data from U.S. EPA, 2011

32

7.4.4 Clean Air Act

he glen eir et @geeA of IWSS nd susequent mendments were estlished to improve the qulity of the ir resoures in the nited ttesF he gee mendments of IWWH hve provisions for mintenne of mient ir qulity to promote nd improve puli helthF inforement of regultions is rried out through the use of emission stndrds on sttionry nd moile soures of ir pollution tht re direted t deresing the prodution of ir ontminnts from vrious souresF e xtionl emient eir ulity tndrd @xeeA is the mximum permissile onentrtion of ontminnt in mient irF even lsses of ir pollutnts for whih the xee hs een estlished re referred to s riteri pollutntsX ledD nitrogen oxidesD sulfur oxidesD ozoneD prtiulte mtter smller thn IH m @w10 AD hydrorons nd ron monoxideF ome pollutnts hve shortEterm nd longEterm stndrds designed to protet ginst ute nd hroni helth e'etsD respetivelyF sn ddition to riteri pollutntsD rzrdous eir ollutnts @resA re those pollutnts tht re known or suspet rinogensD or my led to other serious helth e'ets over longer period of exposureF he min soures of res re industril nd utomotive emissionsF he gee mendments of IWWH hve provisions for the redution in emission of res tht led to lower onentrtions of res in mient irF he gee mendments of IWWH estlished permit progrm for lrger soures of ir emissionsD where permits re issued y sttes or y the ieF snformtion on the types of pollutnts tht re emittedD the emission levelsD the monitoring of the emissionsD nd the plns to derese the emissions is inluded in the permitF ell pplile informtion on the emissions nd legl responsiilities of the usiness re onveyed y the permit systemF he IWWH gee mendments provide severl mrketEsed pprohes to usinesses to reh their pollution lenup thresholds suh s pollution llownes tht n e trdedF sn dditionD eonomi inentives re provided to usinesses to trde the extr redit for opertions requiring less lenup in exhnge with the lesser redit given for opertions requiring more lenupF he gee ims to redue emissions from moile soures suh s rs nd other vehilesD nd to develop lener fuelsF o mintin higher otne rnking in unleded gsolineD the re(ners hve used more voltile
32 httpXGGwterFepFgovGdrinkGontminntsG

PVQ frtions in unleded gsoline formulsD leding to relese of voltile orgni ompounds @ygsAF nder the gee mendments of IWWHD gsoline fuels re required to ontin less voltile frtionsD to ontin oxyfuel ompounds @suh s loholEsed oxygented ompoundsA for redued prodution of ron monoxide in old wetherD to ontin detergents for smoother running of enginesD nd to ontin less sulfur in diesel fuelF he prodution of rs ple of urning lener fuels suh s nturl gs or lohol is mndted y the gee mendments of IWWHF imission of sulfur dioxide @y2 A nd nitrogen oxides @xyx A from omustion proesses ontriute to the formtion of id rinF wost of the sulfur dioxide emitted nnully in the nited ttes is produed from the urning of highEsulfur ol y eletri utilitiesD resulting in id rin with dverse impts on the environment nd puli helthF edution of sulfur dioxide emissions is mndted y the geeF ollution llownes @up to presried thresholds y ieA for sulfur dioxide hve een estlished y the ie for eh utilityD where llownes my e trded etween utilities or within ompnyF gompnies with emissions less thn the ie llowne my trde their exess llowne with ompnies with llowne de(itsD preventing severe hrdships to those utilities tht tht re dependent on highEsulfur olF he gee hs lso set provisions for redution of xyx emissionsF e mrketEsed pproh is employed y the IWWH gee mendments to eliminte ozoneEdestroying hemil sustnes @suh s hloro)uororonsA tht deplete the ozone lyer using phsingEout shedule y terminting the prodution of these hemils in ordne with the wontrel rotool @IWVWAF he reyling of hloro)uororons @gpgsA nd the leling of ozoneEfriendly sustitute hemils re mndted y the geeF
7.4.5 Hazardous Wastes

rzrdous wstes re wstes tht pose helth nd sfety risk to humns nd to the environmentF he ie designtes hzrdous wstes s wstes whih ontin omponents tht hve one of the four generl hrteristis of retivityD orrosivityD ignitility nd toxiityD in ddition to other ie lssi(tions of hzrdous wstesF he lws nd regultions governing the mngement of hzrdous wstes nd mterils my e divided into two tegoriesX present nd future hzrdous mterils nd wstes re regulted under the esoure gonservtion nd eovery et @geAD while pst nd usully ndoned hzrdous wste sites re mnged under the gomprehensive invironmentl esponseD gompenstion nd viility et @gigveAF
7.4.5.1 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)

he ge @IWUTA ims to hieve environmentlly sound mngement of oth hzrdous nd nonhzrdous wstesF es required y geD the ie estlished rdleEtoEgrve @see wodule Life Cycle Assessment @etion WFPAA hzrdous mteril mngement system in n ttempt to trk hzrdous mteril or wste from its point of genertion to its ultimte point of disposlD where the genertors of hzrdous mterils hve to tth 4mnifest4 form to their hzrdous mterils shipmentsF he mngement of hzrdous wstes inluding the trnsportD tretmentD storge nd disposl of hzrdous wstes is regulted under the geF por hzrdous wstes disposlD this proedure will result in the shipment nd rrivl of those wstes t permitted disposl siteF he ge lso promotes the onept of resoure reovery to derese the genertion of wste mterilsF he geD s mendedD ontins IH sutitlesF utitle gD for exmpleD uthorizes regultions for mngement of hzrdous wstes nd utitle s dels with regultion of nderground torge nks @sAF rzrdous wste mngement filities reeiving hzrdous wstes for tretmentD storge or disposl re referred to s tretmentD storge nd disposl filities @hpsAF he ie losely regultes the hps so tht they operte properly for protetion of humn helth nd the environmentF hps my e owned nd operted y independent ompnies tht reeive wstes from numer of wste genertorsD or y the genertors of wste themselvesF hps inlude lnd(llsD ininertorsD impoundmentsD holding tnksD nd mny other tretment units designed for sfe nd e0ient mngement of hzrdous wsteF he ie losely regultes the onstrution nd opertion of these hpsD where the opertors of hps must otin permit from the ie delineting the proedures for the opertion of these filitiesF he opertors must lso provide

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CHAPTER 7.

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insurne nd dequte (nnil kingF he shipping of wstes to hp or reyler is frequently less expensive thn otining nd meeting ll the requirements for storge permitF he mjor mendment to esoure gonservtion nd eovery et ws instituted in IWVR s the rzE rdous nd olid ste emendments @reAF he re provides regultion for leking underground storge tnks @leking sA 'eting groundwter pollutionF he ge regultes s ontining hzE rdous wstesF he re dded utitle s to ge to provide for regultion of new nd existing systemsD inluding orrosion protetion for ll s to prevent the leking of hzrdous wste from orroded sF es prt of the uperfund emendments euthoriztion et @eeD IWVTAD utitle s to ge ws modi(ed to provide for remedies nd ompenstion due to petroleum releses from systemsF sn dditionD the re provides for regultion to prevent the ontmintion of groundwter y hzrdous wstesD where the ie restrits the disposl of hzrdous wstes in lnd(lls due to the migrtion of hzrdous onstituents from the wste pled in lnd(llsF
7.4.5.2 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Composition, and Liability Act (CERCLA)

he gigve @IWVHA lso known s 9uperfund4 ims to provide for liilityD ompenstion nd the lenup of intive or ndoned hzrdous wste disposl sitesD nd for emergeny response to releses of hzrdous mterils into the environmentF gigve gives the ie the power nd the funding to len up ndoned hzrdous wste sites nd to respond to emergenies relted to hzrdous wste relesesF he uperfund emendments nd euthoriztion et @eeA of IWVT solidi(ed mny of the provisions of gigve suh s inresing the uthority of the ie to respond to remedition of hzrdous wste sites with fster strtup for lenup of ontminted sitesD nd gretly inresed the ville trust fund for lenupF he ie uses the xtionl riority vist @xvA to identify ontminted sites tht present risk to puli helth or the environment nd tht my e eligile for uperfund moneyF e numeri rnking system known s the rzrd nking ystem @rA hs een estlished to determine the eligiility of ontminted sites for uperfund moneyD where sites with high r sores re most likely to e dded to the xvF he xtionl gontingeny ln @xgA provides guidne for the initil ssessment nd the r rnking of ontminted sitesF efter the initil ssessment of ontminted siteD remedil investigtion is rried out where the xg provides for detiled evlution of the risks ssoited with tht siteF e remedil investigtion results in work plnD whih leds to the seletion of n pproprite remedy referred to s fesiility studyF he fesiility study ssesses severl remedil lterntivesD resulting in eord of heision @yhA s the sis for the design of the seleted lterntiveF he degree of lenup is spei(ed y the xg in ordne with severl riteri suh s the degree of hzrd to the puli helth nd the environmentD where the degree of lenup vries for di'erent ontminted sitesF e seprte ddition to the provisions of gigve is itle sss of ee known s the imergeny lnning nd gommunity ightEtoEunow et @igeAF he tte imergeny esponse gommission must e notiE (ed y regulted fility tht hs extremely hzrdous sustnes exeeding the ie spei(ed hreshold lnning untitiesF he ommunity is responsile for estlishing vol imergeny lnning gommittees to develop hemil emergeny response pln whih provides informtion on the regulted filitiesD emerE geny response proeduresD trining nd evution plnsF he wreness of ommunity out the spei( hemils present in the ommunity is n integrl prt of the gommunity9s ightEtoEunowD in ddition to puli informtion out potentil hzrds from those hemilsF he ige lso stipultes tht eh yer those filities tht relese hemils ove spei(ed threshold levels should sumit oxis elese snventory @sA ording to ie spei(tionsF he s inludes informtion on oth identl nd routine releses in ddition to o'Esite trnsfers of wsteF he vilility of the s dt to the puli hs led to serious onsidertion y industry to ontrol their previously unregulted nd unontrolled emissions due to the heightened puli onern out the presene nd the releses of hemils in their ommunityF

PVS
7.4.6 Oil Pollution Act

he yil ollution et @IWWHAD or yeD ws estlished in response to the ixxon ldez oil spill inident33 F he ixxon ldez oil spill @see pigure Exxon Valdez Oil Spill @pigure UFQAAD whih ourred in elsk in IWVWD ws the lrgest ever oil spill in the nited ttesD using mjor environmentl nd eonomi dmge in elskF

Figure 7.3: Exxon Valdez Oil Spill

Heavy sheens of oil covering large areas of the Prince William

Sound, Alaska a few days after the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Source: U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration via Wikimedia Commons

34

he prevention of oil spills in nvigle wters nd shorelines of the nited ttes is stipulted through the ye sttuteF he ye enompsses oil spill preventionD preprednessD nd response performne of industry nd the federl governmentF snentives re provided to owners nd opertors for oil spill preventionD enfored y the ie through the oil spill liility nd penlty provisions of the yeF yil ompnies in the nited ttes engge in oil explortionD oth o'shore nd onshoreD resulting in identl releses of rude petroleum into the environment from wellsD drilling rigsD o'shore pltforms nd oil tnkersF ith the exeption of the PHIH f heepwter rorizon oil spill35 in the qulf of wexioD the numer nd mount of oil spills hve deresed over the pst twenty yers in the nited ttes despite the inresing demnd for oilF his deline hs een ttriuted to the ye fter the ixxon ldez oil spill inidentF he ixxon ldez oil
33 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGixxonldezoilspill 34 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXyilheenpromldezpillFjpg 35 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGheepwterrorizonoilspill

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CHAPTER 7.

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spill ws the lrgest ever in nited ttes wters until the PHIH f heepwter rorizon oil spill @see pigure Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill @pF PVTAAF f hs een held to e responsile for the heepwter rorizon oil spillD nd hs een mde ountle for ll lenup osts nd other dmges y the federl governmentF

Figure 7.4: BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill

as seen from space. Wikimedia Commons

The Deep Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico

36

Source:

NASA/GSFC, MODIS Rapid Response AND demis.nl AND FT2, via

7.4.7 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)

snformtion on ll hemil sustnes nd the ontrol of ny of these sustnes whih my hve n unresonle helth risk hs een grnted to the ie through the oxi ustnes gontrol et @IWUTAF he mnufturer or the importer of new hemil must provide informtion on the identity nd hzrdD useD prodution volume nd disposl hrteristis of the hemil to the ieF oxiologil tests nd unpulished helth nd sfety studies on listed hemils my e required y the ieF he ie my pproveD prohiitD or limit the mnufture nd sle of the listed hemilsD or my require speil lelingF ine some hemil sustnes suh s pestiidesD too produtsD nuler mterilsD phrmeutils nd osmetis sustnes re regulted under other tsD they re exempted from ge regultionsF
36 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXheepwterrorizonoilspillEwyPRDPHIHEwithlotorFjpg

PVU he prodution nd distriution of polyhlorinted iphenyls @gfsA re prohiited through geF gfs re syntheti orgni ompounds tht were mnuftured to e used s eletril trnsformer oilY exposure to gfs inreses the risk of nerD nd my 'et the reprodutive nd nervous systemsF he ie enfores the hndling nd disposl of gfs sed on estlished regultions on gfsD in ddition to mngement of gfs found t hzrdous wste sitesF efter the mendments of IWVT nd IWWHD ge through the esestos rzrd imergeny esponse et requires tht ll puli nd ommeril uildings identifyD ontrol nd mitigte the sestos hzrd in these uildingsF
7.4.8 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)

snsetiidesD fungiides nd rodentiides re ompounds tht re employed to ontrol or eliminte pest popultions @pestiidesAF he pederl snsetiideD pungiideD nd odentiide et @pspeA of IWUP with severl susequent mendments set guidelines for the use of pestiides in the nited ttesF ell mnufturers or importers must register their pestiide produts with the ieD where registrtion is llowed for pestiide whose pplition does not hve unresonle dverse e'ets on the environmentF sndustries suh s the griulturl setor employ pestiides to ontrol vermin nd other pests in industril proesses nd in the workpleF
7.4.9 Pollution Prevention Act (PPA)

e pollution mngement system with fous on generting less pollution t the soure ws estlished through the ollution revention et @eA of IWWHF he pollution prevention hierrhy stipultes tht the (rst step in reduing pollution is to minimize the mount of wste tht is generted y ll tivities nd proessesD whih is referred to s soure redutionF hen the genertion of wste nnot e redued t the soureD then the wste should e reyled in order to derese pollutionF e wste tht nnot e redued t the soure or reyled should go through tretment nd disposl in n environmentlly sfe mnnerF e ollution revention y0e hs een estlished y the ie to promote soure redution s the preferred option in the pollution prevention hierrhyF ollution prevention is voluntry mesure on the prt of the polluting industry rther thn mndtory regultory ontrol enfored y the ie nd the individul sttesY industry is only required to (le toxi hemil soure redution nd reyling report with ie every yerF sndustry is given inentives to institute pollution prevention progrms with the im of relizing the eonomi ene(ts of pollution prevention to industry fter the implementtion of pollution prevention progrmsF
7.4.10 Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA)

he yuptionl fety nd rzrd et @yreA of IWUH nd its mendment of IWWH im to ensure sfe nd helthful working onditions for workers through enforement of stndrds developed under yreD nd to provide for reserhD trining nd edution in the (eld of ouptionl sfety nd helthF he stndrds for ouptionl helth nd sfety re estlished y the yuptionl fety nd relth edministrtion nd its stte prtnersD whih re enfored through inspetions of industry nd providing guidne on etter operting prtiesF he xtionl snstitute for yuptionl fety nd relth @xsyrA ws estlished to reommend ouptionl sfety nd helth stndrds sed on extensive sienti( testingD whih re fterwrds enfored y yreF hose industries whih hve followed yre stndrds hve experiened deline in overll injury nd illness rtesD where the osts due to worker injuriesD illnesses nd ompenstion ssoited with ouptionl sfety re mjor loss for industryF he yre stndrds for worker helth nd sfety re reommended to e used in onjuntion with vrious industril pollution prevention progrmsF
7.4.11 Summary

invironmentl lws nd regultions serve the purpose of limiting the mount of pollution in the environment from nthropogeni soures due to industril nd other eonomi tivitiesF invironmentl regultions re

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CHAPTER 7.

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spei( to di'erent phses of the environment suh s wter nd irF qovernment regultions help industry to urtil the environmentl impt of pollutionD leding to the protetion of humn helth nd the environmentF puture environmentl lws nd poliy should onvey nd work in tndem with the e'orts of the puli nd industry for more sustinle eonomy nd soietyF
7.4.12 Resources

IA por more informtion on environmentl engineeringD red ghpter I ofX hvisD wFvF 8 gornwellD hFeF @PHHVAF Introduction to Environmental Engineering @Rth edFAF xew orkX wqrwErillF PA por more informtion out mnging environmentl resouresD redX vqregD wFhFD fukinghmD FvFD ivnsD tFgFD 8 invironmentl esoures wngement @PHHIAF Haznd edFAF xew orkX wqrwErillF ardous Waste Management @P QA por more informtion on the FF invironmentl rotetion egeny9s lws nd regultionsD visitX httpXGGwwwFepFgovGlwsregsG37

7.5 Risk Assessment Methodology for Conventional and Alternative Sustainability Options
7.5.1 Learning Objectives
38

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

understnd the ontent nd the gols of fourEstep of risk ssessment proess know how to estimte dose reeived vi eh exposure pthwy know how to integrte exposure nd toxiity informtion to hrterize helth risks understnd how to quntittively estimte umultive ner nd nonner risks understnd how to identifyGevlute unertinties in risk ssessment

7.5.2 Introduction

isk ssessment is sienti( proess used y federl genies nd risk mngement deisionEmkers to mke informed deisions out tions tht my e tken to protet humn helth y sertining potentil humn helth risks or helth hzrd ssoited with exposure to hemils in the environmentF
37 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGlwsregsG 38 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRISTTGIFQGbF

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Figure 7.5: Smoke Stack Emissions into the Atmosphere Figure shows emissions billowing from a
smoke stack into the atmosphere. Risk assessment helps federal agencies and risk management decisionmakers arrive at informed decisions about actions to take to protect human health from hazards such as air pollution, pictured here. Source: Alfred Palmer via Wikipedia

39

ome of the relEworld exmples of risk ssessment inludesX estlishment of ntionl mient ir qulity nd drinking wter stndrds for protetion of puli helth @eFgF ozoneD prtiulte mtter in outdoor irY hromiumD hloroform or enzene in wterAY estlishment of lenEup levels for hzrdous wste site remeE ditionY development of (sh onsumption dvisories for pregnnt women nd generl popultion @eFgF gfsD meruryAY ssessment of risks nd ene(ts of di'erent lterntive fuels for sound energy poliy development @eFgF oxygented gsolineD iodieselAY nd estimtion of helth risks ssoited with pestiide residues in foodF he estimted risk is funtion of exposure nd toxiityD s desried in detil in xe @IWVQ @pF PWWAA nd ie @IWVW @pF PWVAAF he regultory risk ssessment follows fourEstep prdigm using qulittive ndGor quntittive pprohesF sn quntittive risk ssessment using either deterministic or probabilistic pprohesD the risk estimtes pertining to n exposure senrio is prtiulrly useful when ompring numer of exposure or risk redution mesures mong one nother s n optimiztion protool to determine the est eonomilly vile option for protetion of puli helth nd the environmentF ith environmentl sustinility nd lifeEyle nlysis in the forefront of green tehnologil innovtionD energyD nd eonomi svings in the PIst genturyD risk ssessment will py pivotl role in diserning the option@sA with the most ene(t in helth protetion ndD thusD will e n integrl prt of ny environmentlly sustinility nlysisF uh omprtive risk ssessment n e performed for trditionl pprohes vsF environmentlly
39 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXelfedlmersmokestksFjpg

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CHAPTER 7.

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sustinle pprohesF hey n lso e performed mong di'erent environmentlly sustinle options for n environmentl pollution prolem suh hzrdous wste site remedition nd redevelopmentD ir qulity mngement in urn resD pest mngement prtiesD griulturl helth nd sfetyD lterntive energy soures for trnsporttion soures nd mong othersF he four steps of risk ssessment re iA hzrd identi(tion @etion UFSFQX rzrd sdenti(tionAY iiA toxiity @etion UFSFRX oxiity @hoseEesponse essessmentAA @or doseEresponseA ssessmentY iiiA exposure ssessment @etion UFSFSX ixposure essessmentAY nd ivA risk hrteriztion @etion UFSFTX isk ghrE teriztionAD whih re desried elow in detilF he emphsis is given in doumenting the resoures neessry to suessfully perform eh stepF
7.5.3 Hazard Identication

sn the hzrd identi(tion stepD sienti( weight of evidene nlysis is performed to determine whether prtiulr sustne or hemil is or is not uslly linked to ny prtiulr helth e'et t environmentlly relevnt onentrtionsF rzrd identi(tion is performed to determine whetherD nd to wht degreeD toxi e'ets in one setting will our in other settingsF por exmpleD is hemil tht is shown to use carcinogenicity in niml test speies @eFgF rtD mouseA likely to e rinogen in exposed humnsc sn order to ssess the weight of evidene for dverse helth e'etsD risk nlysts follow the following steps @ieD IWWQ @pF PWVAAX @IA gompile nd nlyze ll the ville toxiology dt on the sustne of interestY @PA eigh the evidene tht the sustne uses toxi e'et @ner of nonEner helth endEpointsAY nd @QA essess whether dverse helth e'et @or toxiityA ould our from humn exposure in relElife settingF sn the (rst tsk of hzrd identi(tionD risk nlyst exmines the toxiity literture using the following nlytil tools in the order of importneX

ipidemiologil studies gontrolled humn exposure hmer experiments snEvivo niml bioassays snEvitro ell nd tissue ulture iossys untittive truture !etivity eltionship enlysis @eA

emong theseD inEvivo niml iossys reD y frD the most utilized soure of informtion for hzrd idenE ti(tion for hemils ndD on rre instnesD for hemil mixtures @eFgF dieselAF hen villeD wellE onduted epidemiologil studies re regrded s the most vlule soure of humn helth hzrd identiE (tion informtion sine they provide diret humn evidene for potentil helth e'etsF Epidemiology is the study of the ourrene nd distriution of disese or physiologil ondition in humn popultions nd of the ftors tht in)uene this distriution @vilienfeld nd vilienfeldD IWVH @pF PWWAAF he dvntges of epidemiologil studies for hzrd identi(tion re @ieD IWVW @pF PWVAY ieD IWWQ @pF PWVAAX nimlEtoE humn extrpoltion is not neessryD rel exposure onditionsD nd wide rnge of sujets with di'erent geneti nd lifeEstyle ptternsF roweverD epidemiologil studies hve numer of shortomingsD whih limit their usefulness in hzrd identi(tionF ome of these disdvntges inlude di0ulty in reruiting nd mintining ontrol groupY hving no ontrol over some of the nonEsttistil vriles relted to expoE suresD lifestylesD oEexposure to other hemilsD etFY sene of tul exposure mesurements long with memory is for retrospetive studiesY lengthy lteny periods for hroni helth e'ets suh s nerY nd poor sensitivity nd inility to determine useEe'et reltionships onlusivelyF eniml iossys remedy some of the weknesses of epidemiologil studies y llowing for greter ontrol over the experiment nd re deemed to e relile mesurement of toxi e'etsD lthough they require 4high dose in nimlsEto low dose in humns4 extrpoltionF he seletion of design prmeters of niml iossys is ritilly importnt in oserving or missing n tul hzrdF hese prmeters inludeX niml speies seleted for the experiment @rtD mouseAY strin of the test speiesY geGsex of the test speiesY mgnitude of exposure onentrtionsGdoses pplied or dministeredY numer of dose levels studiedY durtion of exposureY ontrols seletedY nd route of exposureF eniml studies re hrterized s ute @ single dose or exposures of short durtionAD hroni @exposures for full lifetimes of test speies ! out two yers in rtsGmieA nd

PWI suEhroni @usully WH dysA sed on the exposure durtionF sn the hzrd identi(tion stepD the following mesures of toxiity re ommonly ompiledX

LD50/LC50/EC50X he dose or onentrtion in toxiity study t whih using SH perent mortlity in test speies ws oservedF he ig50 is the e'etive onentrtion using dverse e'ets or impirment in SH7 of the test speiesF NOAEL @xo yservle edverse i'et vevelAX he highest dose or onentrtion in toxiity study t whih no dverse e'et ws oservedF LOAEL @vowest yservle edverse i'et vevelAX he lowest dose or onentrtion in toxiity study t whih n dverse e'et ws oservedF MTD @wximum olerted hoseAX he lrgest dose test niml n reeive for most of its lifetime without demonstrting dverse helth e'ets other thn rinogeniityF
isk sientists rely on numer of reputle soures to gtherD ompileD nd nlyze hzrd identi(tion informtion to e le to perform weight of evidene nlysis nd to onlude whether hemil my use helth e'et in humnsF ome of these soures reX

Hazardous Substances Data Bank @rhfA mintined y the xtionl virry of wediineX his sienti(lly peerEreviewed dt nk provides humn nd niml toxiity dt for out SDHHH hemils nd n e essed vi httpXGGtoxnetFnlmFnihFgovGgiEinGsisGhtmlgencrhf40 ghemishplus edvned dtse mintined y the xtionl virry of wediineX his dtse llows users to serh the xvw ghemshplus dtse of over QUHDHHH hemilsF gompound identi(ers suh s ghemil xmeD ge egistry xumerD woleulr pormulD glssi(tion godeD votor godeD nd truture or ustruture n e entered to disply toxiity dt vi httpXGGhemFsisFnlmFnihFgovGhemidplusG41 xtionl oxiology rogrm @xA of the heprtment of relth nd rumn erviesX eport of grinogens @ogAX he og is n informtionl sienti( nd puli helth douE ment tht identi(es nd disusses gentsD sustnesD mixturesD or exposure irumstnes tht my pose hzrd to humn helth y virtue of their rinogeniityF he og is pulished ienE nilly nd serves s meningful nd useful ompiltion of dt onX A the rinogeniity @ility to use nerAD genotoxiity @ility to dmge genesAD nd iologi mehnisms @modes of E tion in the odyA of the listed sustne in humns ndGor nimlsY A the potentil for humn exposure to these sustnesY nd A pederl regultions to limit exposuresF he link to the most reent version of the og n e essed vi httpXGGntpFniehsFnihFgovGcojetidafhIePHfSE pIpTEWUSiEUgpVgfpegpHpgUip42 x oxiity esting tudy esults nd eserh eresX x tests hemils for their toxiity in humn nd niml systemsF he results of these toxiity testing studies long with urrent reserh res n e otined tX httpXGGntpFniehsFnihFgovGindexFfmcojetidaUPHITHhfEfhfUEgifeE pUggPhiHePQHgWPH43 xtionl snstitute of yuptionl nd fety relth @xsyrA rzrd sdenti(tion htsesX he following xsyr wesite houses multitude of dtses nd informtion for hemils nd their hzrds under single umrellD inluding xsyr9s 4oket quide to ghemil rzrds4X httpXGGwwwFdFgovGnioshGdtseFhtml44 egeny for oxi ustnes nd hisese egistry @ehA oxiologil ro(les nd uli relth ttementsX eh produes 4toxicological proles4 for hzrdous sustnes found t xtionl riorities vist @xvA uperfund sitesF eout QHH toxiologil pro(les hve so fr een puE
40 httpXGGtoxnetFnlmFnihFgovGgiEinGsisGhtmlgencrhf 41 httpXGGhemFsisFnlmFnihFgovGhemidplusG 42 httpXGGntpFniehsFnihFgovGcojetidafhIePHfSEpIpTEWUSiEUgpVgfpegpHpgUip 43 httpXGGntpFniehsFnihFgovGindexFfmcojetidaUPHITHhfEfhfUEgifeEpUggPhiHePQHgWPH 44 httpXGGwwwFdFgovGnioshGdtseFhtml

PWP

CHAPTER 7.

MODERN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

lished or re under developmentF he hemilEspei( toxiologil pro(les n e essed vi httpXGGwwwFtsdrFdFgovGtoxpro(lesGindexFsp45

World Health Organization (WHO) International Programme of Chemical Safety (IPCS): sg pulishes 4invironmentl relth griteri4 @irgA for hemil sustnesD whih provide ritil reviews on the e'ets of hemils or omintions of hemils nd physil nd iE ologil gents on humn helth nd the environmentF he sg site n e essed vi httpXGGwwwFwhoFintGipsGssessmentGenG46 Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS): wh re invlule resoure to otin ompositionl dt for produts nd mixturesF
7.5.4 Toxicity (Dose-Response Assessment)

hoseEresponse ssessment tkes the toxiity dt gthered in the hzrd identi(tion step from niml studies nd exposed humn popultion studies nd desries the quntittive reltionship etween the mount of exposure to hemil @or doseA nd the extent of toxi injury or disese @or responseAF qenerllyD s the dose of hemil inresesD the toxi response inreses either in the severity of the injury or in the inidene of response in the 'eted popultion @ieD IWVW @pF PWVAY ieD IWWQ @pF PWVAAF sn toxiityE ssessment stepD the reltionship etween the mgnitude of the dministeredD ppliedD or sored dose nd the proility of ourrene nd mgnitude of helth e'et@sA @eFgF tumor inidene in the se of nerA is determinedF hoseEresponse ssessment for rinogens nd nonErinogens di'er in toxiity vlues use nd how these toxiity vlues re derivedF sn generlD toxiity vlues provide mesure of toxi poteny of the hemil in questionF hese toxiity vlues reX

Reference Dose (RfD) for oral/dermal pathways or Reference Concentration (RfC) for inhalation pathway  Noncarcinogens: e chronic RfD is de(ned s n estimte @with unertinty spnning perhps n order of mgnitude or greterA of dily exposure level for the humn popultionD inluding sensitive supopultionsD tht is likely to e without n ppreile risk of deleterious e'ets during lifetimeF st hs the unit of mg of pollutnt per kg of ody weight per dy @mgGkgEdyAF ghroni fhs re spei(lly developed to e protetive for longEterm exposure to hemilD usullyD for exposure periods etween seven yers @pproximtely IH perent of humn lifetimeA nd lifetimeF efter seletion of ritil helth e'et study nd ritil helth e'et through review of toxiity literture in the hzrd identi(tion stepD the fh is derived y dividing the xyeiv @or vyeivA for the ritil toxi e'et y unertinty ftors @psA nd modifying ftor @wpAF he unertinty ftors generlly onsist of multiples of IHD with eh ftor representing spei( re of unertinty inherent in the extrpoltion from the ville dt @eFgF IH for extrpoltion from nimls to humnsY IH for interhumn vriilityY IH when vyeiv is used insted of xyeiv in deriving fhY IH when xyeiv is otined from suhroni study rther thn hroni studyAF e modifying ftor rnging from >H to IH is inluded to ount for dditionl unertinties in the ritil study nd in the entire dt sed on qulittive professionl ssessmentF he defult vlue for the wp is IFhe xyeiv is seleted sed on the ssumption tht if the ritil toxi e'et is preventedD then ll toxi e'ets re prevented @ieD IWVWAF he derivtion of toxiity vlueD fhGfgD for nonrinogens ssumes tht they re threshold hemilsD mening there is threshold elow whih no dverse e'ets re oserved in test speiesF his dose level @iFeF xyeivA in nimls is simply djusted y numer of ftors @ps nd wpA to determine the sfe dose level in humns @iFeF fhA s shown y the following equtionX
fh =
45 httpXGGwwwFtsdrFdFgovGtoxpro(lesGindexFsp 46 httpXGGwwwFwhoFintGipsGssessmentGenG

xyeiv p1 xp2 xp3 FFFxwp

@UFIA

PWQ

Cancer Slope Factor (CSF) for oral/dermal pathway or Unit Risk Factor (URF) for inhalation pathway  Carcinogens: nlike the nonrinogensD rinogens ssumed to e nonE threshold hemils sed on the invironmentl rotetion egeny @ieA ssumption tht smll numer of moleulr events n evoke hnges in single ell tht n led to unontrolled ellulr prolifertion nd eventully to nerF sn deriving slope ftorsD (rstlyD n pproprite doseEresponse dt set is seletedF sn this exeriseD whenever villeD humn dt of high qulity re preferle to niml dtF roweverD if only niml dt re villeD doseEresponse dt from speies tht responds most similrly to humns with respet to metolismD physiologyD nd phrmokinetis is preferredF hen no ler hoie is possileD the most sensitive speies is hosenF eondlyD model to the ville dt set is pplied nd extrpoltion from the reltively high doses dministered to test speies in niml iossy @or the exposures reorded in epidemiologi studiesA to the lower environmentl exposure levels expeted for humns is performed using the modelF elthough vrious models hve een developed for this purpose @eFgF proitD logitD eiullAD the linerized multistge model hs ommonly een used y the ieF efter the dt re (t to the pproprite modelD the upper WSth perent on(dene limit of the slope of the resulting doseEresponse urve is lultedD whih is known s the gner lope ptor @gpAF st represents n upper WSth perent on(dene limit on the proility of response per unit intke of hemil over lifetime @iFeF doseAF husD its units re @mgGkgEdyA -1 F his indites tht there is only (ve perent hne tht the proility of response ould e greter thn the estimted vlue of gpF feuse the doseEresponse urve generlly is liner only in the lowEdose regionD the slope ftor estimte only holds true for low dosesF oxiity vlues for rinogeni e'ets lso n e expressed in terms of risk per unit onentrtion of the hemilD whih re lled unit risk ftors @psAF hey re lulted y dividing the gp y dult ody weight @UH kgA nd multiplying y the dult inhltion rte @PH m3 GdyAD for risk ssoited with unit onentrtion in ir @ieD IWVW @pF PWVAAF
e numer of regultory genies responsile for environmentl nd puli helth protetion hve devoted resoures in developing nd doumenting toxiity vlues for nonrinogens @fhsGfgsA nd rinogens @gpsGpsAF he following hierrhy of soures is reommended y the ie in evluting hemil toxiity for uperfund sites @ieD PHHQ @pF PWWAAX

sntegrted isk snformtion ystem @ssA nd ited referenesD whih is the prime soure for the hemilEspei( toxiity vlue informtion nd n e essed viX httpXGGfpuFepFgovGneGirisGindexFfm47 he rovisionl eer eviewed oxiity lues @A nd ited referenes developed for the ie y0e of olid ste nd imergeny esponse @yiA y0e of uperfund emedition nd ehE nology snnovtion @ysA progrms @not pulily villeAF yther toxiity vluesD whih inludes the following soures of toxiity vlues tht re ommonly onE sulted y the ie uperfund rogrm48 when relevnt toxiity vlue is not ville from either ss or the dtseX gliforni invironmentl rotetion egeny @gl ieA oxiity griteri htseD ville tX httpXGGwwwFoehhFFgovGriskGhemilhfGindexFsp49 Y he egeny for oxi ustnes nd hisese egistry @ehA winiml isk vevels @wvsD ddressing nonner e'ets onlyAF wv is n estimte of the dily humn exposure to hzE rdous sustne tht is likely to e without ppreile risk of dverse nonner helth e'ets over spei(ed durtion of exposureF hese sustneEspei( estimtesD whih re intended to serve s sreening levelsD re used y eh helth ssessors nd other responders to identify ontminnts nd potentil helth e'ets tht my e of onern t hzrdous wste sitesF o dteD IQU inhltion wvsD PPT orl wvs nd V externl rdition wvs hve een derived nd n e found tX httpXGGwwwFtsdrFdFgovGmrlsGindexFhtml50 Y
47 httpXGGfpuFepFgovGneGirisGindexFfm 48 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGsuperfundGpoliyGerlFhtm 49 httpXGGwwwFoehhFFgovGriskGhemilhfGindexFsp 50 httpXGGwwwFtsdrFdFgovGmrlsGindexFhtml

PWR

CHAPTER 7.

MODERN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

he ie uperfund relth i'ets essessment ummry les @rieA dtse nd ited referenesY nd edditionl soures of toxiity vluesF
here re numer of other vlule soures for toxiity vlues @fhsGfgs for nonErinogens nd psGgps for rinogensAD whih n e ompiled vi the following souresX

EPA Region 9 tulted 4Preliminary Remediation Goals (PRGs)" or 4eE gionl reening vevels @vA4 for ghemil gontminnts t uperfund itesD4 whih lso lists toxiity vlues @orlGinhltion fh nd orlGinhltion gpA used in the mediumEspei( qGv lultion for eh hemilF his tle n e essed vi httpXGGwwwFepFgovGregionHWGwsteGsfundGprgGindexFhtml51 he Hot Spot Guidelines pulished y gliforni ie for eir oxis rogrm inludes tehnil kground doumenttion for toxiity riteriGvlues for hemils @iFeF Cancer Potency Factors (CPFs)D whih is equivlent to ie9s gps nd Chronic Recommended Exposure Limits (RELs)D whih re similr to ie9s fgsAF he most reent version of iv le is loted tX httpXGGwwwFoehhForgGirGllrelsFhtml52 F he ehnil upport houment for gps tht ontins ner unit risks nd poteny ftors for IPI of the PHI rinogeni sustnes or groups of sustnes n e essed vi httpXGGwwwFoehhFFgovGirGnerguideGhPFhtml53 F he heprtment of inergy9s Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) mintins Risk Assessment Information System (RAIS) wesiteD whih ontins useful informtion for risk sE sessmentD inluding hemilEspei( toxiity vluesF he es informtion n e essed vi httpXGGrisFornlFgovG54 F Toxicology Excellence in Risk Assessment (TERA)D nonEpro(t orgniztionD mnges nd distriutes free snternet dtse of humn helth risk vlues nd ner lssi(tions for over THH hemils of environmentl onern from multiple orgniztions worldwideF his dtseD Integrated Toxicity Estimates for Risk (ITER)D n e essed viX httpXGGwwwFterForgGiterG55 or vi xvw9s yxi dtse tX httpXGGtoxnetFnlmFnihFgov56 F
he derml fhs nd gps n e derived from orl fhs nd gpsD djusted for hemilEspei( gstroinE testinl sorption e0ienyD sed on the reommended methodology in ie9s Guidance for Dermal Risk Assessment @ieD PHHR @pF PWWAAF
7.5.5 Exposure Assessment

sn the third step of risk ssessmentD the mgnitude of exposure is determined y mesuring or estimting the mount of n gent to whih humns re exposed @iFeF exposure onentrtionA nd the mgnitude of dose @or intkeA is estimted y tking the mgnitudeD frequenyD durtionD nd route of exposure into ountF ixposure ssessments my onsider pstD presentD nd future exposuresF
51 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGregionHWGwsteGsfundGprgGindexFhtml 52 httpXGGwwwFoehhForgGirGllrelsFhtml 53 httpXGGwwwFoehhFFgovGirGnerguideGhPFhtml 54 httpXGGrisFornlFgovG 55 httpXGGwwwFterForgGiterG 56 httpXGGtoxnetFnlmFnihFgovG

PWS

Figure 7.6: Human Health Eects of Environmental Pollution from Pollution Source to Receptor Figure shows the human health eects of environmental pollution from pollution source to
receptor. Source: Mikael Hggstrom via Wikimedia Commons

57

hile estimtes of pst or urrent exposure onentrtionGdose n e sed on mesurements or models of existing onditionsD estimtes of future exposure onentrtionGdose n e sed on models of future onditionsF sn the se of inhltion exposuresD personl or re monitoring to smple for ontminnts in the ir n e employedF he smpling dt n e ugmented with modeling e'orts using defult ndGor siteEspei( input prmetersF he model pplition n egin with simple sreening level dispersion models ndGor n utilize higherElevel PEh or QEh models depending on the omplexity of the environmentl pollution prolem in hndF sn ny exposure ssessmentD the risk sientists sk numer of questions to hypothesize the exposure senrio pertining to environmentl pollution 'eting the popultion or suEgroupF ome of these reX

ht is the soure of pollution t the sitec @eFgF underground storge tnk lekD emissions from n industril plntD surfe wter runEo' from griulturl (eldsA hih environmentl omprtments re likely to e ontmintedc @iFeF irD wterD sedimentD soilD plntsD nimlsD (shA ht re the hemils of onern @gygA originting from the pollution sourec ht re the fte nd trnsport properties of these hemils tht my inform the ging of the pollution in the environment over time nd resultnt hemil signture in eh environmentl mediumc ho is exposedc @eFgF hildrenD elderlyD sthmtisD generl popultionD workersA
57 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXrelthe'etsofpollutionFpng

PWT

CHAPTER 7.

MODERN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

row mny people re exposedc here re people exposedc @eFgF homeD workpleD outside environmentD retirement ommunitiesD shoolsA row re people exposedc @iFeF exposure pthwy ! inhltionD derml ontt or ingestionA row often re people exposedc @iFeF exposure frequenyA row long re people exposedc @iFeF exposure durtionA
enswers to these questions frme the prolem t hndF sn the next stepD numer of exposure prmeters re integrted into n estimte of dily dose reeived y n exposed individul vi eh exposure route @ingestionD derml ontt or skin sorptionD nd inhltionAF he mgnitude of humn exposuresD in generlD is dependent on gyg onentrtion in soilD exposure prmeters desriing humn physiology @eFgF soil ingestion rteD ody weightAD nd popultionEspei( prmeters desriing exposure ehvior @exposure frequenyD durtionAF hen evluting suhroni or hroni exposures to nonrinogeni hemilsD dose is verged over the period of exposureD termed 4everge hily hose4 @ehhAF roweverD for rinogensD dose is verged over n entire lifetime @iFeF UH yersAD thus referred to s 4vifetime everge hily hose4 @vehhAF foth ehh nd vehh represent normlized exposure rte in the units of mg of hemil per kg ody weight per dy @mgGkgEdyAF he ehh for nonrinogeni gygs nd vehh for rinogeni gygs re estimted for four most ommonly studied exposure pthwys in ie risk ssessmentsD prtiulrly for hzrdous wste sitesD s shown elow @irdlD PHHU @pF PWWAAX o xEFxEDxCF oil sngestionX L (ehh)o = Cs xIRBWxAT Cs xSAxAFxABSxEVxEFxEDxCF herml gonttX L (ehh)d = BWxAT 1 Cs xIRi xEFxEDx( PEF ) snhltion of rtiultesX L (ehh)ip = BWxAT 1 Cs xIRi xEFxEDx( VF ) snhltion of oltilesX L (ehh)iv = BWxAT hereX
Cs : Exposure Concentration (i.e., 95th Upper Condence Limit on the Mean) of COC in soil (mg/kg)  (chemical-specic; can be estimated using EPA 2004b (p. 299)) IRo : Ingestion rate of soil (mg/d) IRi : Inhalation rate (m /d) SA: Skin surface area (cm ) AF: Soil-to-skin adherence factor (mg/cm ) ABS: Dermal absorption fraction (unitless  chemical-specic) EV: Event frequency (events/d) EF: Exposure frequency (d/y) ED: Exposure duration (y) PEF: Particulate emission factor (m /kg)  1.36 x 10
3 3 9 2 2 3

m /kg per (EPA 2002a (p. 299))

VF: Soil-to-air volatilization factor (m /kg  chemical-specic) BW: Body weight (kg) AT: Averaging time (days)  (ED*365 d/y for noncarcinogens; 70 y*365 d/y for carcinogens) CF: Conversion factor  10
-6

kg/mg

sn deterministi risk ssessmentD ehh nd vehh estimtes re performed for resonle mximum exE posure senrio @wiA nd entrl tendeny exposure senrio @giAD resulting in rngeF ie9s reline on the onept of wi for estimting risks is sed on onservtive ut plusile exposure senrio @whih is de(ned to e the WHth to WSth perentile exposureD signifying tht fewer thn (ve perent to IH perent of the popultion would e expeted to experiene higher risk levelsAD nd hs een sienti(lly hllenged over the yersF por exmpleD furmster nd rrris @IWWQ @pF PWVAA showed tht the use of ie reommended defult exposure prmeter vlues resulted in exposure nd risk estimtes well in exess of the WWth perentile due to multiplition of three upperEound vlues @iFeF WSth perentilesA for sD ipD nd ihF he uthors rgued tht this leds to hzrdous wste site lenup deisions sed on helth risks tht virtully no one in the surrounding popultion would e expeted to experieneF hey dvised the ie to endorse nd promote the use of proilisti methods @eFgF Monte-Carlo simulationsA s wy to supplement or reple urrent

PWU risk ssessment methodsD in order to overome the prolem of 4ompounded onservtism4 nd enle luE ltion of risks using more sttistilly defensile estimte of the wiF sn proilisti risk ssessmentD the input prmeters re hrterized y their unique proility distriutionF he ie9s ixposure ptors rogrm provides informtion on development of exposure prmeter distriutions in support of proilisti distriutions nd n e essed viX httpXGGfpuFepFgovGneGfmGreordisplyFfmcdeidaPHSTQ58 F he vlues of the exposure prmeters orresponding to wi or gi senrios re often ompiled from ie9s ixposure ptors rndook @iprAX

qenerl ixposure ptors rndook @ieD IWWU @pF PWWAA provides exposure ssessors with dt needed on stndrd ftors to lulte humn exposure to toxi hemils s prt of risk sE sessmentsF hese ftors inludeX drinking wter onsumptionD soil ingestionD inhltion rtesD derml ftors inluding skin re nd soil dherene ftorsD onsumption of fruits nd vegetE lesD (shD metsD diry produtsD homegrown foodsD rest milk intkeD humn tivity ftorsD onsumer produt useD nd residentil hrteristisF eommended vlues re for the generl popultion nd lso for vrious segments of the popultion who my hve hrteristis difE ferent from the generl popultionF he most reent version of the ipr n e essed vi httpXGGfpuFepFgovGneGfmGreordisplyFfmcdeidaPHWVTT59 F he Children-Specic ipr @ieD PHHP @pF PWWAA provides summry of the ville nd upEtoEdte sttistil dt on vrious ftors ssessing hild exposuresD whih n e essed vi httpXGGfpuFepFgovGneGfmGreordisplyFfmcdeidaSTURU60 F
7.5.6 Risk Characterization

sn the lst stepD hzrd quotient @rA s n inditor of risks ssoited with helth e'ets other thn ner nd exess ner risk @igA s the inrementl proility of n exposed person developing ner over lifetimeD re lulted y integrting toxiity nd exposure informtionD s shown elowF sf r > ID there my e onern for potentil dverse systemi helth e'ets in the exposed individulsF sf r ID there my e no onernF st should e noted tht rs re sling ftors nd they re not sttistilly sedF he ie9s eptle riterion for rinogeni risks is sed on puli poliy s desried in the xtionl gontingeny ln @xgA nd is the exposure onentrtion tht represent n ig in the rnge of IH-4 ! IH-6 D iFeF I in IHDHHH to I in IDHHHDHHH exess ner ses @ieD IWWH @pF PWVAAF xonner iskX rzrduotient (r) = ADD RfD ixess gner isk @igAX ig = L (ehh) xgp o ount for exposures to multiple gygs vi multiple pthwysD individul rs re summed to provide n overll rzrd sndex @rsAF sf rs >ID gygs re segregted sed on their ritil helth endEpoint nd seprte trget orgnEspei( rss re lultedF ynly if trget orgnEspei( rs > ID is there onern for potentil helth e'ets for tht endEpoint @eFgF liverD kidneyD respirtory systemAF n gumultive xonner iskX rzrdsndex = rs = COCNC =1 (ro + rd + ri ) n n gumultive ixess gner iskX COCC =1 ig = COCC =1 (igo + igd + igi ) rereD oD d nd i susripts express orl @ingestionAD derml ontt nd inhltion pthwysF es disussed oveD the rD rsD nd ig estimtes re performed for wi nd gi senrios sepE rtely in the se of deterministi risk ssessmentF elthough ie pulished the proilisti risk ssessment guidelines in PHHI @ieD PHHI @pF PWWAAD its pplition hs so fr een limitedF roper evlution of unerE tintiesD whih re ssoited with ompounded onservtism nd potentil underestimtion of quntittive risk estimtes @eFgF due to the presene of gygs without estlished toxiity vluesAD is intrinsi to ny riskEsed sienti( ssessmentF sn generlD unertinties nd limittions re ssoited with smpling nd nlysisD hemil fte nd trnsportD exposure prmetersD exposure modelingD nd humn doseEresponse or toxiity ssessment @derivtion of gpsGfhsD extrpoltion from high niml doses to low humn dosesAD nd siteEspei( unertintiesF
58 httpXGGfpuFepFgovGneGfmGreordisplyFfmcdeidaPHSTQ 59 httpXGGfpuFepFgovGneGfmGreordisplyFfmcdeidaPHWVTT 60 httpXGGfpuFepFgovGneGfmGreordisplyFfmcdeidaSTURU

PWV
7.5.7 Conclusion

CHAPTER 7.

MODERN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

he improvement in the sienti( qulity nd vlidity of helth risk estimtes depends on dvnements in our understnding of humn exposure toD nd toxi e'ets ssoited withD hemils present in environmenE tl nd ouptionl settingsF por exmpleD lifeEyle of nd helth risks ssoited with phrmeutils in the environment is poorly understood due to lk of environmentl onentrtion nd humn exposure dt despite extensive toxiologil dt on drugsF here re mny other exmples for whih either dt on exposure or toxiity or oth hve not yet een developedD preventing quntittive ssessment of helth risks nd development of poliies tht protet the environment nd puli helth t the sme timeF hereforeD it is importnt to ontinue to develop reserh dt to re(ne future risk ssessments for informed reguE ltory deisionEmking in environmentl sustinility nd to ensure tht osts ssoited with di'erent tehnologil ndGor engineering lterntives re sienti(lly justi(ed nd puli helthEprotetiveF yne re thtD prtiulrlyD requires dvnement is the ssessment of helth risks of hemil mixturesF gurrent risk ssessment pprohes onsider one hemil t timeF roweverD hemils re present in mixtures in the environmentF purthermoreD physilD hemil nd iologil trnsformtions in the environment nd intertions mong hemils in the environment my hnge the toxi potentil of the mixture over timeF husD risk ssessment is n evolving sienti( disipline tht hs mny unertinties in ll of the four stepsF hese unertinties should e thoroughly doumented nd disussed nd the risk ssessment results should e interpreted within the ontext of these unertintiesF
7.5.8 Review Questions
Question 7.5.1 Question 7.5.2

ht re the humn helth hzrds of vinyl hloridec

ht re the humn toxiity vlues @fhD gpA of vinyl hloride nd how re these vlues estiE mtedc
Question 7.5.3

row do you lulte the dose reeived y hildren nd dults vi ingestion of vinyl hlorideE ontminted drinking wter under the wi senrioc lese doument nd explin your ssumpE tions long with your referenes for the exposure prmeters for eh reeptor of onern
Question 7.5.4

row do you lulte wi ner nd nonner risks to hildren nd dults for the ove exposure senrioc
Question 7.5.5 Question 7.5.6

ht does exess ner risk of three ses out of ten thousnd exposed @QxIH-4 A signifyc

sf drinking wter were lso ontminted with enzeneD how would you estimte umultive ner nd nonner risks ssoited with exposure to drinking wter ontminted with vinyl hloride nd enzene for hildren nd dults under the wi senrioc

7.5.9 References

furmsterD hFiF 8 rrrisD FrF @IWWQAF he mgnitude of ompounding onservtisms in uperfund risk ssessmentsF Risk AnalysisD 13D IQIEQRF ie @FF invironmentl rotetion egenyAF @IWVWAF Risk assessment guidance for Superfund, volume I: Human health evaluation manual (Part A) (Interim Final) ( ieGSRHGIEVWHHPAF y0e of imergeny nd emedil esponseD shingtonD hg ie @FF invironmentl rotetion egenyAF @IWWHD wrh VAF xtionl ontingeny plnF Federal RegisterD 55D VVRVF shingtonD hgF

PWW ie @FF invironmentl rotetion egenyAF @IWWQD eptemerAF SI 400: Introduction to risk assesseir ollution rining snstituteF invironmentl eserh genterD eserh ringle rkD xgF ie @FF invironmentl rotetion egenyAF @IWWUD eugustAF Exposure factors handbook, volume I  General factors @ieGTHHGEWSGHHPpAF xtionl genter for invironmentl essessmentD y0e of eserh nd hevelopmentD shingtonD hgF ie @FF invironmentl rotetion egenyAF @PHHID heemerAF Risk assessment guidance for Superfund, volume III  Part A: Process for conducting probabilistic risk assessment @ieSRHEEHPEHHPAF y0e of imergeny nd emedil esponseD shingtonD hgF ie @FF invironmentl rotetion egenyAF @PHHPD heemerAF Supplemental guidance for developing soil screening levels for Superfund sites @yi WQSSFREPRAF y0e of imergeny nd emedil esponseD shingtonD hgF ie @FF invironmentl rotetion egenyAF @PHHPD eptemerAF Child-specic exposure factors handbook @ieETHHEEHHEHHPfAF snterim eportF xtionl genter for invironmentl essessmentD y0e of eserh nd hevelopmentD shingtonD hgF ie @FF invironmentl rotetion egenyAF @PHHQD heemer SAF Human health toxicity values in Superfund risk assessments @yi hiretive WPVSFUESQAF wemorndum from wihel fF gookD hiretor of y0e of uperfund emedition nd ehnology snnovtion to uperfund xtionl oliy wngersD egions I ! IHF y0e of imergeny nd emedil esponseD shingtonD hgF ie @FF invironmentl rotetion egenyAF @PHHRD tulyAF Risk assessment guidance for Superfund,
ment and risk management for hazardous air pollutants. volume I: Human health evaluation manual (Part E, supplemental guidance for dermal risk assessment)

@ieGSRHGGWWGHHSAF pinlF y0e of uperfund emedition nd ehnology snnovtionD shingtonD hgF ie @FF invironmentl rotetion egenyAF @PHHRD eprilAF ProUCL Version 3.00.02 user's guide and software @ieGTHHGHRGHUWAF repred y enit ingh nd oert wihle with vokheed wrtin invironmentl ervies nd eshok uF ingh of niversity of xevd for the FF invironmentl rotetion egenyF irdlD F @PHHUAF gse studyX wultiEpthwy risk ssessment for dults nd hildren living ner hzrdous wste siteF sn wFqF oson 8 FeF osno @idsFAD Environmental Health Risk Assessment for Public Health @ppF SPQESQHAF essoition of hools of uli relthF vilienfeld eFwF 8 vilienfeldD hFiF @IWVHAF he prenh in)uene on the development of epidemiologyF Henry E Sigerist Suppl Bull Hist MedD 4D PVERPF xe @xtionl edemy of ienesAF @IWVQAF Risk assessment in the federal government: Managing the processF xtionl edemy ressD shingtonD hgF

QHH

CHAPTER 7.

MODERN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Chapter 8
Sustainable Energy Systems

8.1 Sustainable Energy Systems - Chapter Introduction

8.1.1 Learning Objectives

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

outline the history of humn energy use understnd the hllenges to ontinued reline on fossil energy understnd the motivtions nd time sle for trnsitions in energy use

8.1.2 Introduction and History

inergy is pervsive humn needD s si s food or shelter to humn existeneF orld energy use hs grown drmtilly sine the rise of iviliztion lured humns from their long hunterEgtherer existene to more energy intensive lifestyles in settlementsF inergy use hs progressed from providing only si individul needs suh s ooking nd heting to stisfying our needs for permnent housingD frming nd niml husndryD trnsporttionD nd ultimtely mnufturingD ityEuildingD entertinmentD informtion proessing nd ommunitionF Figure orld inergy se sine IVHH @pF QHIA shows the growth of energy use sine IVHHD drmti inrese re)eting not only popultion growth @ ftor of VA ut lso per pit energy use @lso ftor of VAF yur present lifestyle is enled y redily ville inexpensive fossil energyD onentrted y nture over tens or hundreds of millions of yers into onvenientD high energy density deposits of fossil fuels tht re esily reovered from mines or wells in the erth9s rustF snsert imge here
World Energy Use since 1800 Source:
Christian Science Monitor

8.1.3 Sustainability Challenges

iighty (ve perent of world energy is supplied y omustion of fossil fuelsF he use of these fuels @ol sine the middle ges for hetingY nd olD oil nd gs sine the Industrial Revolution for mehnil energyA grew nturlly from their high energy densityD undne nd low ostF por pproximtely PHH yers following the sndustril evolutionD these energy soures fueled enormous dvnes in qulity of life nd eonomi growthF feginning in the midEPHth genturyD howeverD fundmentl hllenges egn to emerge suggesting tht the hppy stte of fossil energy use ould not lst foreverF
1 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUPRGIFPGbF 2 httpXGGwwwFsmonitorFomGorldGqlolEsssuesGPHIHGIIIHGghinEtoEmoldEfutureEworldEenergyEuseEsie

QHI

QHP
8.1.3.1 Environmental Pollution

CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

he (rst sustinility hllenge to e ddressed ws environmentl pollutionD long notied in industril regions ut often ignoredF heveloped ountries pssed legisltion limiting the pollutnts tht ould e emittedD nd grdully over period of more thn two dedes ir nd wter qulity improved until mny of the most visile nd hrmful e'ets were no longer evidentF
8.1.3.2 Limited Energy Resources

he seond sustinility issue to e ddressed hs een limited energy resouresF he erth nd its fossil resoures re (niteD simple ft with the ovious implition tht we nnot ontinue using fossil fuels inde(nitelyF he question is not when the resoures will run outD rther when they will eome too expensive or tehnilly hllenging to extrtF esoures re distriuted throughout the erth9s rust ! some esily essileD others uried in remote lotions or under impenetrle rriersF here re oil nd gs deposits in the ertiD for exmpleD tht hve not een explored or doumentedD euse until reently they were uried under hevy overs of ie on lnd nd seF e reover the esy nd inexpensive resoures (rstD leving the di0ult ones for future developmentF he ostEene(t lne is usully frmed in terms of peaking ! when will prodution reh pek nd therefter delineD filing to stisfy rising demndD nd thus rete shortgesc eks in energy prodution re notoriously hrd to predit euse rising priesD in response to rising demnd nd the fer of shortgesD provide inresing (nnil resoures to develop more expensive nd tehnilly hllenging prodution opportunitiesF yil is prime exmple of pekingF elthough the pek in nited ttes oil prodution ws fmously predited y M. King Hubbert PH yers efore it ourredD suessful preditions of peks in world oil prodution depend on unknown ftors nd re notoriously di0ult @ywenD snderwildiD 8 uingD PHIH @pF QHTAY rirshD fezdekD 8endlingD PHHT @pF QHTAAF he fundmentl hllenges re the unknown remining resoures t eh level of reovery ost nd the unknown tehnology rekthroughs tht my lower the reovery ostF eeding erti ie nd the growing ility to drill deeper underse wells promise to ring more oil resoures within (nnil nd tehnil rehD ut quntittive estimtes of their impt reD t estD tenttiveF

QHQ

Figure 8.1: Crude Oil Reserves The global distribution of crude oil resources.
barrels of bitumen in oil sands in Alberta, Canada. that were part of the former U.S.S.R.Source: U.S. 2009, p. 312 (Aug. 2010)

Includes 172.7 billion

Excludes countries that were part of the former

U.S.S.R. See " Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.)" in Glossary.

Includes only countries

Energy Information Administration, Annual Review,

8.1.3.3 Uneven Geographical Distribution of Energy

he third sustinility hllenge is the uneven geogrphil distriution of energy resouresF Figure grude yil eserves @pigure VFIA shows the distriution of rude oil reservesD with the widdle ist hving fr more oil thn ny other region nd iurope nd esiD two high popultion nd high demnd regionsD with hrdly ny y omprisonF his geogrphil imlne etween energy resoures nd energy use retes unertinty nd instility of supplyF ether eventsD nturl disstersD terrorist tivity or geopolitil deisions n ll interrupt supplyD with little reourse for the 'eted regionsF iven if glol reserves were undntD their uneven geogrphil distriution retes n energy seurity issue for muh of the worldF
8.1.3.4 CO2 Emissions and Climate Change

he (nl nd most reent onern is ron dioxide emissions nd limte hnge @see Chapter glimte nd qlol ghnge @etion QFIAAF ine the sntergovernmentl nel on glimte ghnge ws estlished y the nited xtions in IWVVD wreness of the links mong humn ron dioxide emissionsD glol wrming nd
3 httpXGGPHSFPSRFIQSFPRGtotlenergyGdtGnnulGpdfGerFpdf 4 httpXGGPHSFPSRFIQSFPRGtotlenergyGdtGnnulGpdfGerFpdf

QHR

CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

the potentil for limte hnge hs grownF glimte sientists worldwide hve doumented the evidene of glol wrming in surfe irD lnd nd se temperturesD the rise of se levelD glier ie nd snow overgeD nd oen het ontent @erndtD fringerD 8 tohnsonD PHIH @pF QHTAAF Figure empertureD e vevelD nd now gover IVSHEPHHH @pigure VFPA shows three often quoted mesures of glol wrmingD the verge surfe tempertureD the rise of se level nd the northern hemisphere snow overF

Figure 8.2:

Temperature, Sea Level, and Snow Cover 1850-2000

5

Three graphs show trends

in average surface temperature, average sea level and northern hemisphere snow cover from 1850-2000. Source: Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report: Press, gure 1.1, page 31 Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University

here n e no dout of the rising trendsD nd there re disturing signs of systemti hnge in other inditors s well @erndtD et lFD PHIH @pF QHTAAF he shortEterm extension of these trends n e estimted y extrpoltionF redition eyond thirty or so yers requires developing senrios sed on ssumptions out the popultionD soil ehviorD eonomyD energy use nd tehnology dvnes tht will tke ple during this timeF feuse trends in these quntities re frequently puntuted y unexpeted developments suh s the reession of PHHV or the pukushim nuler disster of PHIID the pe of ron emissionsD glol wrming nd limte hnge over entury or more nnot e urtely preditedF o ompenste for this unertintyD preditions re normlly sed on rnge of senrios with ggressive nd onservtive ssumptions out the degrees of popultion nd eonomi growthD energy use ptterns nd tehnology dvnesF elthough the hundred yer preditions of suh models di'er in mgnitudeD the ommon theme is lerX ontinued reline on fossil fuel omustion for VS perent of glol energy will elerte glol wrming nd inrese the thret of limte hngeF he present reline on fossil fuels developed over time sles of dedes to enturiesF Figure rimry inergy gonsumption y oureD IUUSEPHHW @pigure VFQA shows the pttern of fuel use in the nited ttes sine IUUSF
5 httpXGGwwwFipFhGpdfGssessmentEreportGrRGsyrGrRsyrFpdf 6 httpXGGwwwFipFhGpdfGssessmentEreportGrRGsyrGrRsyrFpdf

QHS

Figure 8.3: Primary Energy Consumption by Source, 1775-2009

fuel use in the United States since 1775. Review, 2009, p. xx (Aug. 2010)

Source:

U.S.

Graph shows the pattern of

Energy Information Administration, Annual

ood ws dominnt for entury until the IVVHsD when more plentifulD higher energy density nd less expensive ol eme kingF st dominted until the IWSHs when oil for trnsporttion eme the leding fuelD with nturl gs for heting lose seondF gol is now in its seond growth phseD spurred y the populrity of eletriity s n energy rrier in the seond hlf of the PHth genturyF hese long time sles re uilt into the energy systemF ses suh s oil nd its gsoline derivtive for personl trnsporttion in rs or the widespred use of eletriity tke time to estlish themselvesD nd one estlished provide soil nd infrstruturl inerti ginst hngeF he historil hnges to the energy system hve een driven y severl ftorsD inluding prie nd supply hllenges of woodD the esy vilility nd dropEin repleility of ol for woodD the disovery of undnt supplies of oil tht enled widespred use of the internal combustion engineD nd the disovery of undnt nturl gs tht is lener nd more trnsportle in pipelines thn olF hese drivers of hnge re sed on eonomisD onveniene or new funtionlityY the resulting hnges in our energy system provided new vlue to our energy mixF he energy motivtions we fe now re of di'erent hrterF snsted of dding vlueD the motivtion is to vert 4doomsdy4 senrios of diminishing vlueX inresing environmentl degrdtionD fuel shortgesD inseure supplies nd limte hngeF he lterntives to fossil fuel re more expensive nd hrder to implementD not heper nd esier thn the sttus quoF he historil motivtions for hnge leding to greter vlue nd funtionlity re reversedF e now fe the prospet tht hnging the energy system to redue our dependene on fossil fuels will inrese the ost nd redue the onveniene of energyF
8.1.4 Summary

gontinued use of fossil fuels tht now supply VS perent of our energy needs leds to hllenges of environE mentl degrdtionD diminishing energy resouresD inseure energy supplyD nd elerted glol wrmingF ghnging to lternte soures of energy requires dedesD to develop new tehnologies ndD one developedD to reple the existing energy infrstrutureF nlike the historil hnge to fossil fuel tht provided inE resed supplyD onveniene nd funtionlityD the trnsition to lterntive energy soures is likely to e more expensive nd less onvenientF sn this hpter you will lern out the environmentl hllenges of energy useD strtegies for mitigting greenhouse gs emissions nd limte hngeD eletriity s lenD e0ient nd verstile energy rrierD the new hllenges tht eletriity fes in pityD reliility nd omE munitionD the hllenge of trnsitioning from trditionl fossil to nuler nd renewle fuels for eletriity produtionF ou will lso lern out the promise of iofuels from ellulose nd lge s lterntives to
7 httpXGGPHSFPSRFIQSFPRGtotlenergyGdtGnnulGpdfGerFpdf 8 httpXGGPHSFPSRFIQSFPRGtotlenergyGdtGnnulGpdfGerFpdf

QHT

CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

oilD heting uildings nd wter with solr therml nd geotherml energyD nd the e0ieny dvntges of omining het nd power in single genertion systemF vstlyD you will lern out the ene(tsD hllenges nd outlook for eletri vehilesD nd the sustinle energy prties tht will redue the negtive impt of energy prodution nd use on the environment nd humn helthF
8.1.5 Review Questions
Question 8.1.1

possil fuels hve eome minsty of glol energy supply over the lst ISH yersF hy is the use of fossil fuels so widespredc
Question 8.1.2

possil fuels present four hllenges for longEterm sustinilityF ht re theyD nd how do they ompre in the severity of their impt nd ost of their mitigtion strtegiesc
Question 8.1.3

he dominnt glol energy supply hs hnged from wood to ol to oil sine the IUHHsF row long did eh of these energy trnsitions tke to ourD nd how long might trnsition to lternte energy supplies requirec

8.1.6 References
Meteor. SocFD 91D

erndtD hF FD fringerD wF yFD 8 tohnsonD wF F @edsFAF @PHIHAF tte of the glimte in PHHWF Bull. Amer. I!PPRD httpXGGwwwFndFnoFgovGmsEstteEofEtheElimteGPHHWFphp9 rirshD FvFD fezdekD FD 8 endlingD F @PHHTAF eking of orld yil rodution nd sts witigtionF AIChE JournalD 52D P ! VF doiX IHFIHHPGiFIHURU ywenD xFeFD snderwildiD yFFD 8 uingD hFeF @PHIHAF he sttus of onventionl world oil reserves ! rype or use for onernc Energy Policy,38D RURQ ! RURWF doiX IHFIHITGjFenpolFPHIHFHPFHPT

8.2 Environmental Challenges in Energy, Carbon Dioxide, Air, Water and Land Use
10

8.2.1 Learning Objectives

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

outline environmentl impts of energy use evlute the di'erent energy soures sed on their environmentl impt understnd the glol pity for eh nonErenewle energy soure

8.2.2 Introduction

inergy to illuminteD het nd ool our homesD usinesses nd institutionsD mnufture produtsD nd drive our trnsporttion systems omes from vriety of soures tht re originte from our plnet nd solr systemF his provides soil nd eonomi ene(t to soietyF he erth9s ore provides geothermal energyF he grvittionl pull of moon nd sun rete tidesF he sun mkes power in multiple wysF fy itselfD the sun genertes diret solr powerF he sun9s rdition in omintion with the hydrologi yle n mke wind power nd hydroeletri powerF hrough photosynthesisD plnts grow mking wood nd biomass
9 httpXGGwwwFndFnoFgovGmsEstteEofEtheElimteGPHHWFphp 10 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUPSGIFPGbF

QHU tht dey fter they die into orgni mtterF yver the ourse of thousnds of yersD this dey results in fossil fuels11 tht hve onentrted or stored energyF o lern more out mesuring di'erent kinds of energyD known s emergyD see Chapter rolemEolvingD wetris nd ools for ustinility @etion WFIAF ih of these types of energy n e de(ned s renewable or non-renewable fuels nd they eh hve some environmentl nd helth ostF possil fuel reserves re not distriuted eqully round the plnetD nor re onsumption nd demndF e will see in this hpter tht fuel distriution is ritil to the sustinility of fossil fuel resoures for given geogrphi reF eess to renewle resoures nd their viility is gretly dependent on geogrphy nd limteF wking energy requires n input of energy so it is importnt to look t the net energy generted ! the di'erene of the energy produed less the energy investedF
8.2.3 Environmental and Health Challenges of Energy Use

he environmentl impts of energy use on humns nd the plnet n hppen nywhere during the life yle of the energy soureF he impts egin with the extrtion of the resoureF hey ontinue with the proessingD puri(tion or mnufture of the soureD its trnsporttion to ple of energy genertionD e'ets from the genertion of energy inluding use of wterD irD nd lndD nd end with the disposl of wste generted during the proessF ixtrtion of fossil fuelsD espeilly s the more onventionl soures re depletedD tkes high toll on the nturl environmentF es we mine deeper into mountinsD further out t seD or further into pristine hittsD we risk dmging frgile environmentsD nd the results of idents or nturl dissters during extrtion proesses n e devsttingF possils fuels re often loted fr from where they re utilized so they need to e trnsported y pipelineD tnkersD ril or truksF hese ll present the potentil for identsD lekge nd spillsF hen trnsported y ril or truk energy must e expended nd pollutnts re genertedF roessing of petroleumD gs nd ol genertes vrious types of emissions nd wstesD s well s utilizes wter resouresF rodution of energy t power plnts results in irD wterD ndD oftenD wste emissionsF ower plnts re highly regulted y federl nd stte lw under the glen eir12 nd glen ter ets13 D while nuler power plnts re regulted y the xuler egultory gommission14 F es long s the filities re omplyingD muh of the environmentl impt is mitigted y treting the emissions nd using proper wste disposl methodsF roweverD from sustinility perspetive these still present environmentl threts over the long run nd hve omplex vriety of issues round themF Table invironmentl smpts of xonrenewle nd enewle iletriity oures @le VFIX invironmentl smpts of xonrenewle nd enewle iletriity ouresA summrizes these hllengesF vter in the hpterD they re desried more fully for eh soure of energy nd exmples re givenF
11 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGlenenergyGenergyEndEyouGglossryFhtml5p 12 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGirGG 13 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGregultionsGlwsGwFhtml 14 httpXGGwwwFnrFgovG

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CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

Environmental Impacts of Nonrenewable and Renewable Electricity Sources PART A IMPACTEmissions lbs/MWh* Air SOURCE CO2NOxSO2 Other Water Resources Qty Use Aquatic Life

CoalPDPRWT

IQ

werury

wining vrge gooling t plnts tem 8 vrge oolE ing hrilling wE ter e(neries

es

Oil

IDTUPR

IP

wD ledD ygs

es

Natural IDIQSIFU gas

wethne HFI when not )red

vittlegomustion rydruli vrge frE turE ing emove imE puE riE ties while minE ing

es es

Nuclear H

vrge lntsD stem proE duE tionD oolE ing vrge hm fE fets )ow of rivers vrge tem 8 oolE ing

es

Hydroelectric wethne from

vegettion uild up

es

Municipal QDTVSTFU solid@IGP waste from

IFP

es

fosE sil fuE elsA

QHW

Table 8.1X

Source: C. Klein-Banai using data from U.S. Energy Information Administration and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

8.2.4 Geopolitical Challenges of Fossil Fuels

he use of fossil fuels hs llowed muh of the glol popultion to reh higher stndrd of livingF roweverD this dependene on fossil fuels results in mny signi(nt impts on soietyF yur modern tehnologies nd serviesD suh s trnsporttionD lndspingD nd plstis prodution depend in mny wys on fossil fuelsF weningD if supplies eome limited or extremely ostlyD our eonomies re vulnerleF sf ountries do not hve fossil fuel reserves of their ownD they inur even more riskF he nited ttes hs eome more nd more dependent on foreign oil sine IWUH when our own oil prodution pekedF e imported over hlf of the rude oil nd re(ned petroleum produts tht we onsumed during PHHWF tust over hlf of these imports me from the estern remisphere @see Figure oures of nited ttes xet etroleum smportsD PHHW @pigure VFRAAF

Figure 8.4: Sources of United States Net Petroleum Imports, 2009 Figure illustrates that the
United States imported over half of the crude oil and rened petroleum products that it consumed during 2009. data

15

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Petroleum Supply Annual, 2009, preliminary

he holder of oil reserves in the oil mrket is the yrgniztion of etroleum ixporting gountries16 D @yigA @see Figure roven yil eserves rolders @pF QIHAAF es of tnury PHHWD there were IP memer ountries in yigX elgeriD engolD iudorD srnD srqD uuwitD viyD xigeriD trD udi eriD the nited er imirtesD nd enezuelF yig ttempts to in)uene the mount of oil ville to the world y ssigning prodution quot to eh memer exept srqD for whih no quot is presently setF yverll ompline with these quots is mixed sine the individul ountries mke the tul prodution deisionsF
15 httpXGGwwwFeiFdoeFgovGenergyinriefGforeignoildependeneFfm 16 httpXGGwwwFopeForgG

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CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

ell of these ountries hve ntionl oil ompny ut lso llow interntionl oil ompnies to operte within their ordersF hey n restrit the mounts of prodution y those oil ompniesF hereforeD the yig ountries hve lrge in)uene on how muh of world demnd is met y yig nd nonEyig supplyF e reent exmple of this is the prie inreses tht ourred during the yer PHII fter multiple populr uprisings in er ountriesD inluding viyF

Figure 8.5: Proven Oil Reserves Holders Pie chart shows proven oil reserves holders.
Klein-Banai

17

using data from BP Statistical Review of World Energy (2010)

18

Source: C.

his pressure hs led the nited ttes to developing poliies tht would redue reline on foreign oil suh s developing dditionl domesti soures nd otining it from nonEwiddle istern ountries suh s gndD wexioD enezuelD nd xigeriF roweverD sine fossil fuel reserves rete jos nd provide dividends to investorsD lot is t stke in ntion tht hs these reservesF hepending on whether tht oil welth is shred with the ountry9s inhitnts or retined y the oil ompnies nd dittorshipsD s in xigeri prior to the IWWHsD ntion with fossil fuel reserves my ene(t or ome out even worseF
8.2.5 Nonrenewable Energy and the Environment

possil fuels re lso known s nonErenewle energy euse it tkes thousnds of yers for the erth to regenerte themF he three min fuel soures ome in ll phses ! solidD liquidD nd gs ! nd will e disussed in tht orderF yne overriding onern is the ron dioxide emissions tht ontriute to limte hngeF Figure puel ype nd gron imissions @pigure VFTA displys the reltionship etween fuel type nd ron emissionsF
17 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGindyk 18 httpXGGwwwFpFomGsttistilreview

QII

Figure 8.6: Fuel Type and Carbon Emissions

Administration

The two charts show the relationship between fuel Source: U.S. Energy Information

type and carbon emissions for U.S. energy consumption in 2010.

19

8.2.5.1 Solid Fossil Fuel: Coal

gol omes from orgni mtter tht ws ompressed under high pressure to eome denseD solid ron struture over thousnds to millions of yersF hue to its reltively low ost nd undneD ol is used to generte out hlf of the eletriity onsumed in the nited ttesF gol is the lrgest domestilly produed soure of energyF Figure ristori FF gol rodution @pigure VFUA shows how ol prodution hs douled in the nited ttes over the lst sixty yerF gurrent world reserves re estimted t VPTDHHH million tonnesD with nerly QH perent of tht in the nited ttesF st is mjor fuel resoure tht the nited ttes ontrols domestillyF
19 httpXGGwwwFeiFgovGenergyinriefGroleolusFfm

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CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

Figure 8.7: Historic U.S. Coal Production

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration

20

Graph shows U.S. Coal Production from 1950-2010.

gol is plentiful nd inexpensiveD when looking only t the mrket ost reltive to the ost of other soures of eletriityD ut its extrtionD trnsporttionD nd use produes multitude of environmentl impts tht the mrket ost does not truly representF gol emits sulfur dioxideD nitrogen oxideD nd meruryD whih hve een linked to id rinD smogD nd helth issuesF furning of ol emits higher mounts of ron dioxide per unit of energy thn the use of oil or nturl gsF gol ounted for QS perent of the totl nited ttes emissions of ron dioxide relesed into the irth9s tmosphere in PHIH @see Figure puel ype nd
20 httpXGGwwwFeiFgovGenergyinriefGimgesGhrtsGusolprodutionElrgeFjpg

QIQ gron imissionsAF esh generted from omustion ontriutes to wter ontmintionF ome ol mining hs negtive impt on eosystems nd wter qulityD nd lters lndspes nd seni viewsF here re lso signi(nt helth e'ets nd risks to ol miners nd those living in the viinity of ol minesF rditionl underground mining is risky to mine workers due to the risk of entrpment or dethF yver the lst IS yersD the FF wine fety nd relth edministrtion hs pulished the numer of mine worker ftlities nd it hs vried from IVERV per yer @see Figure FF gol wining elted ptlities @pigure VFVAAF

Figure 8.8: U.S. Coal Mining Related Fatalities Graph shows U.S. coal mining related fatalities
from 1995-2010. Source: C. Klein-Banai and Health Administration

21

22

using data from the U.S. Department of Labor, Mine Safety

wentyEnine miners died on epril TD PHIH in n explosion t the pper fig frnh ol mine in est irginiD ontriuting to the uptik in deths etween PHHW nd PHIHF sn other ountriesD with less sfety regE ultionsD idents our more frequentlyF sn wy PHIID for exmpleD three people died nd II were trpped in olmine in wexio for severl dysF here is lso risk of getting lk lung disese @pneumooniosisA23 his is disese of the lungs used y the inhltion of ol dust over long period of timeF st uses oughing nd shortness of rethF sf exposure is stopped the outome is goodF roweverD the omplited form my use shortness of reth tht gets inresingly worseF wountin op wining @wwAD while less hzrdous to workersD hs prtiulrly detrimentl e'ets on lnd resouresF ww is surfe mining prtie involving the removl of mountintops to expose ol semsD nd disposing of the ssoited mining wste in djent vlleys ! 4vlley (llsF4 he proess of ww24 is desried in more detil y the FF invironmentl rotetion egeny @FF ieAF
21 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGindyk 22 httpXGGwwwFmshFgovGpeevGpefgWSFrw 23 httpXGGwwwFdFgovGnioshGtopisGpneumooniosesG 24 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGregionQGmtntopGproessFhtm

QIR

CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

Figure 8.9:

Mountaintop Removal Coal Mining in Martin County, Kentucky

25
.

Photograph

shows mountaintop coal removal mining in Martin County, Kentucky. Source: Flashdark

he following re some exmples of the impt of wwX

n inrese of minerls in the wter tht negtively impt (sh nd mroinvertertesD leding to less diverse nd more pollutntEtolernt speies strems re sometimes overed up y silt from mining the reEgrowth of trees nd woody plnts on regrded lnd my e slowed due to ompted soils 'ets the diversity of ird nd mphiin speies in the re sine the eosystem hnges from wooded res to other there my e soilD eonomi nd heritge issues reted y the loss of wooded lnd tht my hve een importnt to trditions nd eonomies of the re
e study y ipsteinD et lF @PHIIA @pF QQHA ssigned monetry vlue @full ost ountingA for the life yle of ol in the nited ttesD ounting for mny environmentl nd helth impts of olF he uthors found the ost to e out 6HFIUVGkh of eletriity generted from ol @6QRSFR illion in PHHVAD douling or tripling the prie of olEgenerted eletriityF his study ounted for ll of the impts disussed ove nd moreF
8.2.5.2 Liquid Fossil Fuel: Petroleum

hirty seven perent of the world9s energy onsumption nd RQ perent of the nited ttes energy onE sumption omes from oilF es disussed oveD most of the oil prodution is in the qulf regionF ientists nd poliyEmkers often disuss the question of when the world will reh pek oil produtionD nd there re lot of vriles in tht equtionD ut it is generlly thought tht pek oil will e rehed y the middle of the PIst genturyF gurrently world reserves re IFQ trillion rrelsD or RS yers left t urrent level of produtionD ut we my redue prodution s supplies run lowF
25 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXwrtingountyhomeFjpg

QIS
8.2.5.2.1 Environmental Impacts of Oil Extraction and Rening

yil is usully found one to two miles @IFT ! QFP kmA elow the surfeF yil re(neries seprte the mix of rude oil into the di'erent types for gsD diesel fuelD trD nd sphltF o (nd nd extrt oil workers must drill deep elow oen )oorF es the nited ttes tries to extrt more oil from its own resouresD we re drilling even deeper into the erth nd inresing the environmentl risksF he lrgest nited ttes oil spill to dte26 egn in epril PHIH when n explosion ourred on heepwter rorizon yil ig killing II employees nd spilling nerly PHH million gllons of oil efore the resulting lek ould e stoppedF ildlifeD eosystemsD nd people9s livelihood were dversely 'etedF e lot of money nd huge mounts of energy nd wste were expended on immedite lenEup e'ortsF he longEterm impts re still not knownF he xtionl gommission on the heepwter rorizon yil pill nd y'shore hrilling27 ws set up to study wht went wrongF his video28 summrizes their (ndingsF yne oil is found nd extrted it must e re(nedF yil re(ning is one of top soures of ir pollution in the nited ttes for voltile orgni hydrorons nd toxi emissionsD nd the single lrgest soure of rinogeni enzeneF hen petroleum is urned s gsoline or dieselD or to mke eletriity or to power oilers for hetD it produes numer of emissions tht hve detrimentl e'et on the environment nd humn helthX

gron dioxide29 @gy2 A is greenhouse gs nd soure of limte hngeF ulfur dioxide30 @y2 A uses id rinD whih dmges plnts nd nimls tht live in wterD nd it inreses or uses respirtory illnesses nd hert disesesD prtiulrly in vulnerle popultions like hildren nd the elderlyF xitrous oxides31 @xyx A nd oltile yrgni grons32 @ygsA ontriute to ozone33 t ground levelD whih is n irrittnt nd uses dmge to the lungsF rtiulte wtter34 @wA produes hzy onditions in ities nd seni resD nd omines with ozone to ontriute to sthm nd hroni ronhitisD espeilly in hildren nd the elderlyF ery smllD or (ne wD is lso thought to penetrte the respirtory system more deeply nd use emphysem nd lung nerF ved35 n hve severe helth imptsD espeilly for hildrenF eir toxins re known or prole rinogensF

here re other domesti soures of liquid fossil fuel tht re eing onsidered s onventionl resoures nd re eing depletedF hese inlude soil sndsGtr snds ! deposits of moist snd nd ly with IEP perent itumen @thik nd hevy petroleum rih in ron nd poor in hydrogenAF hese re removed y strip mining @see setion ove on olAF enother soure is oil shle in nited ttes west whih is sedimentry rok (lled with orgni mtter tht n e proessed to produe liquid petroleumF elsoD mined y strip mines or susurfe minesD oil shle n e urned diretly like ol or ked in the presene of hydrogen to extrt liquid petroleumF roweverD the net energy vlues re low nd they re expensive to extrt nd proessF foth of these resoures hve severe environmentl impts due to strip miningD ron dioxideD methne nd other ir pollutnts similr to other fossil fuelsF
8.2.5.3 Gaseous Fossil Fuel: Natural Gas

xturl gs meets PH perent of world energy needs nd PS perent of nited ttes needsF xturl gs is minly omposed of methneD the shortest hydroron @gr4 AD nd is very potent greenhouse gsF here
26 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGheepwterrorizonoilspill 27 httpXGGwwwFoilspillommissionFgovG 28 httpXGGwwwFoilspillommissionFgovGmediG 29 httpXGGwwwFoilspillommissionFgovGmediG 30 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGlenenergyGenergyEndEyouGglossryFhtml5 31 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGlenenergyGenergyEndEyouGglossryFhtml5x 32 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGirGemissionsGvoFhtm 33 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGozoneG 34 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGlenenergyGenergyEndEyouGglossryFhtml5 35 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGiqGledFhtml

QIT

CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

re two types of nturl gsF fiogeni gs is found t shllow depths nd rises from neroi dey of orgni mtter y teriD like lnd(ll gsF hermogeni gs omes from the ompression of orgni mtter nd deep het undergroundF hey re found with petroleum in reservoir roks nd with ol depositsD nd these fossil fuels re extrted togetherF wethne is relesed into the tmosphere from ol minesD oil nd gs wellsD nd nturl gs storge tnksD pipelinesD nd proessing plntsF hese leks re the soure of out PS perent of totl FF methne emissionsD whih trnsltes to three perent of totl FF greenhouse gs emissionsF hen nturl gs is produed ut nnot e ptured nd trnsported eonomillyD it is 4)redD4 or urned t well sitesF his is onsidered to e sfer nd etter thn relesing methne into the tmosphere euse gy2 is less potent greenhouse gs thn methneF sn the lst few yers new reserve of nturl gs hs een identi(ed E shle resouresF he nited ttes possesses PDSSP trillion ui feet @fA @UPFPU trillion ui metersA of potentil nturl gs resouresD with shle resoures ounting for VPU f @PQFRP tmAF es gs pries inresed it hs eome more eonomil to extrt the gs from shleF Figure FF xturl qs upplyD IWWHEPHQS @pigure VFIHA shows the pst nd forested FF nturl gs prodution nd the vrious souresF he urrent reserves re enough to lst out IIH yers t the PHHW rte of FF onsumption @out PPFV f per yer ETRSFU m per yerAF

Figure 8.10:

U.S. Natural Gas Supply, 1990-2035

Graph shows U.S. historic and projected

natural gas production from various sources. Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration

36

xturl gs is preferred energy soure when onsidering its environmentl imptsF pei(llyD when urnedD muh less ron dioxide @gy2 AD nitrogen oxidesD nd sulfur dioxide re omitted thn from the omustion of ol or oil @see Table invironmentl smpts of xonrenewle nd enewle iletriity
36 httpXGGwwwFeiFgovGenergyinriefGoutshlegsFfm

QIU oures @le VFIX invironmentl smpts of xonrenewle nd enewle iletriity ouresAAF st lso does not produe sh or toxi emissionsF
8.2.5.3.1 Environmental Impacts of Exploration, Drilling, and Production

vnd resoures re 'eted when geologists explore for nturl gs deposits on lndD s vehiles distur vegettion nd soilsF od leringD pipeline nd drill pd onstrution lso 'et nturl hitts y lering nd diggingF xturl gs prodution n lso result in the prodution of lrge volumes of ontminted wterF his wter hs to e properly hndledD storedD nd treted so tht it does not pollute lnd nd wter suppliesF ixtrtion of shle gs is more prolemti thn trditionl soures due to proess niknmed frkingD or frturing of wellsD sine it requires lrge mounts of wter @see Figure rydruli prturing roess @pF QIUAAF he onsiderle use of wter my 'et the vilility of wter for other uses in some regions nd this n 'et quti hittsF sf mismngedD hydruli frturing )uid n e relesed y spillsD leksD or vrious other exposure pthwysF he )uid ontins potentilly hzrdous hemils suh s hydrohlori idD glutrldehydeD petroleum distillteD nd ethylene glyolF he risks of frking hve een highlighted in populr ulture in the doumentryD qslnd37 @PHIHAF prturing lso produes lrge mounts of wstewterD whih my ontin dissolved hemils from the hydruli )uid nd other ontminnts tht require tretment efore disposl or reuseF feuse of the quntities of wter used nd the omplexities inherent in treting some of the wstewter omponentsD tretment nd disposl is n importnt nd hllenging issueF he rw gs from well my ontin mny other ompounds esides the methne tht is eing soughtD inluding hydrogen sul(deD very toxi gsF xturl gs with high onentrtions of hydrogen sul(de is usully )red whih produes gy2 D ron monoxideD sulfur dioxideD nitrogen oxidesD nd mny other ompoundsF xturl gs wells nd pipelines often hve engines to run equipment nd ompressorsD whih produe dditionl ir pollutnts nd noiseF
37 httpXGGwwwFgslndthemovieFomG

QIV

CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

Figure 8.11: Hydraulic Fracturing Process Graphic illustrates the process of hydraulic fracturing.
Source: Al Granberg, ProPublica holder (ProPublica).

38

. This graphic may not be relicensed for sale except by the copyright

8.2.6 Alternatives to Fossil Fuels

8.2.6.1 Nuclear Power

xuler power plnts produe no ron dioxide ndD thereforeD re often onsidered n lterntive fuelD when the min onern is limte hngeF gurrentlyD world prodution is out IWFI trillion uhD with the nited ttes produing nd onsuming out PP perent of thtF xuler power provides out nine perent of our totl onsumption for eletriity @see Figure FF inergy gonsumption y inergy oureD PHHW @pigure VFIPAAF roweverD there re environmentl hllenges with nuler powerF wining nd re(ning urnium ore nd mking retor fuel demnds lot of energyF he plnts themselves re mde of metl nd onrete whih lso requires energy to mkeF he min environmentl hllenge for nuler power is the wstes inluding urnium mill tilingsD spent @usedA retor fuelD nd other rdiotive wstesF hese mterils hve long radioactive half-lives nd thus remin thret to humn helth for thousnds of yersF he FF xuler
38 httpXGGwwwFpropuliForgGspeilGhydruliEfrturingEntionl

QIW egultory gommission39 regultes the opertion of nuler power plnts nd the hndlingD trnsporttionD storgeD nd disposl of rdiotive mterils to protet humn helth nd the environmentF fy volumeD urnium mill tilings re the lrgest wste nd they ontin the rdiotive element rdiumD whih deys to produe rdonD rdiotive gsF his wste is pled ner the proessing fility or mill where they ome fromD nd re overed with rrier of mteril suh s ly to prevent rdon from esping into the tmosphere nd then lyer of soilD roksD or other mterils to prevent erosion of the seling rrierF righElevel rdiotive wste onsists of used nuler retor fuelF his fuel is in solid form onsisting of smll fuel pellets in long metl tues nd must e stored nd hndled with multiple ontinmentD (rst ooled y wter nd lter in speil outdoor onrete or steel ontiners tht re ooled y irF here is no longEterm storge fility for this fuel in the nited ttesF here re mny other regultory preutions governing permittingD onstrutionD opertionD nd deomE missioning of nuler power plnts due to risks from n unontrolled nuler retionF he potentil for ontmintion of irD wter nd food is high should n unontrolled retion ourF iven when plnning for worstEse senriosD there re lwys risks of unexpeted eventsF por exmpleD the wrh PHII erthquke nd susequent tsunmi tht hit tpn resulted in retor meltdowns t the pukushim hiihi xuler ower ttion using mssive dmge to the surrounding reF
note:

pukushim hiihi xuler ower ttion40

wrh IID PHIIX wgnitude WFH erthquke PQI miles northest of okyoF vess thn I hour lter IRm tsunmi hit SH power sttion employees worked round the lok to try to stilize the sitution
nited ttes9 nuler retors hve ontinment vessels tht re designed to withstnd extreme wether events nd erthqukesF roweverD in the ftermth of the tpn inidentD they re reviewing their filitiesD poliiesD nd proeduresF
39 httpXGGwwwFnrFgovG 40 httpXGGwwwFieForgGnewsenterGfousGfukushimGindexFhtml

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CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

Figure 8.12: U.S. Energy Consumption by Energy Source, 2009

Renewable energy makes up

8% of U.S. energy consumption. Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration

41

8.2.6.2 Hydropower

rydropower @hydroEeletriA is onsidered len nd renewle soure of energy sine it does not diretly produe emissions of ir pollutnts nd the soure of power is regenertedF roweverD hydropower dmsD reservoirsD nd the opertion of genertors n hve environmentl imptsF Figure roover ower lnt @pigure VFIQA shows the roover ower lnt loted on the golordo iverF rydropower provides QS perent of the nited ttes9 renewle energy onsumption @see Figure FF inergy gonsumption y inergy oureD PHHW @pigure VFIPAAF sn PHHQ pity ws t WTDHHH w nd it ws estimted tht QHDHHH w pity is undevelopedF
41 httpXGGwwwFeiFgovGenergyinriefGrenewleenergyFfm

QPI

Figure 8.13: Hoover Power Plant

Source: U.S. Department of the Interior

42

View of Hoover Power Plant in Colorado as seen from above.

wigrtion of (sh to their upstrem spwning res n e ostruted y dm tht is used to rete reservoir or to divert wter to runEofEriver hydropower plntF e reservoir nd opertion of the dm n 'et the nturl wter hitt due to hnges in wter temperturesD hemistryD )ow hrteristisD nd silt lodsD ll of whih n led to signi(nt hnges in the eology nd physil hrteristis of the river upstrem nd downstremF gonstrution of reservoirs my use nturl resD frmsD nd rheologil sites to e overed nd fore popultions to reloteF rydro turines kill nd injure some of the (sh tht pss through the turine lthough there re wys to redue tht e'etF sn res where slmon must trvel upstrem to spwnD suh s long the golumi iver in shington nd yregonD the dms get in the wyF his prolem n e prtilly llevited y using (sh ldders tht help the slmon get up the dmsF gron dioxide nd methne my lso form in reservoirs where wter is more stgnnt nd e emitted to the tmosphereF he ext mount of greenhouse gses produed from hydropower plnt reservoirs is unertinF sf the reservoirs re loted in tropil nd temperte regionsD inluding the nited ttesD those emissions my e equl to or greter thn the greenhouse e'et of the ron dioxide emissions from n equivlent mount of eletriity generted with fossil fuels @iseD PHII @pF QQHAAF
42 httpXGGwwwFusrFgovGlGhooverdmGglleryGpwrplntFhtml

QPP
8.2.6.3 Municipal Solid Waste

CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

ste to energy proesses re gining renewed interest s they n solve two prolems t one ! disposl of wste s lnd(ll pity dereses nd prodution of energy from renewle resoureF wny of the environmentl impts re similr to those of ol plnt ! ir pollutionD sh genertionD etF ine the fuel soure is less stndrdized thn ol nd hzrdous mterils my e present in muniipl solid wste @wAD or grgeD ininertors nd wsteEtoEenergy power plnts need to len the stk gses of hrmful mterilsF he FF ie regultes these plnts very stritly nd requires ntiEpollution devies to e instlledF elsoD while ininerting t high temperture mny of the toxi hemils my rek down into less hrmful ompoundsF he sh from these plnts my ontin high onentrtions of vrious metls tht were present in the originl wsteF sf sh is len enough it n e reyled s n w lnd(ll over or to uild rodsD ement lok nd rti(il reefsF
8.2.6.4 Biomass

is derived from plntsF ixmples inlude lumer mill swdustD pper mill sludgeD yrd wsteD or ot hulls from n otmel proessing plntF e mjor hllenge of iomss is determining if it is relly more sustinle optionF st often tkes energy to mke energy nd iomss is one exmple where the proessing to mke it my not e o'set y the energy it produesF por exmpleD iomss omustion my inrese or derese emission of ir pollutnts depending on the type of iomss nd the types of fuels or energy soures tht it replesF fiomss redues the demnd for fossil fuelsD ut when the plnts tht re the soures of iomss re grownD nerly equivlent mount of gy2 is ptured through photosynthesisD thus it reyles the ronF sf these mterils re grown nd hrvested in sustinle wy there n e no net inrese in gy2 emissionsF ih type of iomss must e evluted for its full lifeEyle impt in order to determine if it is relly dvning sustinility nd reduing environmentl imptsF
Biomass

QPQ

Figure 8.14: Woodchips Photograph shows a pile of woodchips, which are a type of biomass.
Ulrichulrich

43

Source:

8.2.6.4.1 Solid Biomass: Burning Wood

sing woodD nd hrol mde from woodD for heting nd ooking n reple fossil fuels nd my result in lower gy2 emissionsF sf wood is hrvested from forests or woodlots tht hve to e thinned or from urn trees tht fll down or needed e ut down nywyD then using it for iomss does not impt those eosystemsF roweverD wood smoke ontins hrmful pollutnts like ron monoxide nd prtiulte mtterF por home hetingD it is most e0ient nd lest polluting when using modern wood stove or (reple insert tht re designed to relese smll mounts of prtiultesF roweverD in ples where wood nd hrol re mjor ooking nd heting fuels suh s in undeveloped ountriesD the wood my e hrvested fster thn trees n grow resulting in deforesttionF fiomss is lso eing used on lrger sleD where there re smll power plntsF por instneD golgte gollege hs hd woodEurning oiler sine the midEIWVH9s nd in one yer it proessed pproximtely PHDHHH tons of lolly nd sustinly hrvested wood hipsD the equivlent of IFIU million gllons @RFRQ million litersA of fuel oilD voiding IQDUSU tons of emissionsD nd sving the university over 6IFV million in heting ostsF he niversity9s stemEgenerting woodEurning fility now stis(es more thn US perent of the mpus9s het nd domesti hot wter needsF por more informtion out thisD lik here44
43 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXumustrgungrkshnitzelFtq 44 httpXGGwwwFnwfForgGmpusiologyGdosGgolgte7PHniversity7PHPHIH7PHgse7PHtudy7PHinergy7PHpsxevFpdf

QPR

CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

8.2.6.4.2 Gaseous Biomass: Landll Gas or Biogas

vnd(ll gs45 nd iogs is sort of mnEmde iogeni gs s disussed oveF wethne nd ron dioxide re formed s result of iologil proesses in sewge tretment plntsD wste lnd(llsD neroi ompostingD nd livestok mnure mngement systemsF his gs is pturedD nd urned to produe het or eletriity usully for onEsite genertionF he eletriity my reple eletriity produed y urning fossil fuels nd result in net redution in gy2 emissionsF he only environmentl impts re from the onstrution of the plnt itselfD similr to tht of nturl gs plntF
8.2.6.4.3 Liquid Biofuels: Ethanol and Biodiesel

my e onsidered to e ronEneutrl euse the plnts tht re used to mke them @suh s orn nd sugrne for ethnolD nd soy ens nd plm oil trees for iodieselA sor gy2 s they grow nd my o'set the gy2 produed when iofuels re mde nd urnedF glulting the net energy or gy2 generted or redued in the proess of produing the iofuel is ruil to determining its environmentl imptF iven if the environmentl impt is net positiveD the eonomi nd soil e'ets of growing plnts for fuels need to e onsideredD sine the lndD fertilizersD nd energy used to grow iofuel rops ould e used to grow food rops instedF he ompetition of lnd for fuel vsF food n inrese the prie of foodD whih hs negtive e'et on soietyF st ould lso derese the food supply inresing mlnutrition nd strvtion glollyF fiofuels my e derived from prts of plnts not used for food @ellulosi iomssA thus reduing tht imptF gellulosi ethnol feedstok inludes ntive pririe grssesD fst growing treesD swdustD nd even wste pperF elsoD in some prts of the worldD lrge res of nturl vegettion nd forests hve een ut down to grow sugr ne for ethnol nd soyens nd plmEoil trees to mke iodieselF his is not sustinle lnd useF fiofuels typilly reple petroleum nd re used to power vehilesF elthough ethnol hs higher otne nd ethnolEgsoline mixtures urn lener thn pure gsolineD they lso re more voltile nd thus hve higher 4evportive emissions4 from fuel tnks nd dispensing equipmentF hese emissions ontriute to the formtion of hrmfulD ground level ozone nd smogF qsoline requires extr proessing to redue evportive emissions efore it is lended with ethnolF Biodiesel n e mde from used vegetle oil nd hs een produed on very lol sisF gompred to petroleum dieselD iodiesel omustion produes less sulfur oxidesD prtiulte mtterD ron monoxideD nd unurned nd other hydroronsD ut more nitrogen oxideF
Biofuels 8.2.6.5 Endless Sources of Energy: Earth, Wind, and Sun 8.2.6.5.1 Geothermal Energy

pive perent of the nited ttes9 renewle energy portfolio is from geotherml energy @see Figure FF inergy gonsumption y inergy oureD PHHW @pigure VFIPAAF he susurfe temperture of the erth provides n endless energy resoureF he environmentl impt of geotherml energy depends on how it is eing usedF hiret use nd heting pplitions hve lmost no negtive impt on the environmentF
45 httpXGGwwwFeiFgovGtoolsGglossryGindexFfmcidav

QPS

Figure 8.15: Installing a Geothermal Pipe

pipe system. Source: Oce of Sustainability, UIC

46

System Drilling to install geothermal ground source

qeotherml power plnts do not urn fuel to generte eletriity so their emission levels re very lowF hey relese less thn one perent of the ron dioxide emissions of fossil fuel plntF Geothermal plants use sruer systems to len the ir of hydrogen sul(de tht is nturlly found in the stem nd hot wterF hey emit WU perent less id rinEusing sulfur ompounds thn re emitted y fossil fuel plntsF efter the stem nd wter from geotherml reservoir hve een usedD they re injeted k into the erthF qeotherml ground soure systems utilize hetEexhnge system tht runs in the susurfe out PH
46 httpXGGwwwFuiFeduGsustinilityG

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CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

feet @S metersA elow the surfe where the ground is t onstnt tempertureF he system uses the erth s het soure @in the winterA or het sink47 @in the summerAF his redues the energy onsumption requires to generte het from gsD stemD hot wterD nd hiller nd onventionl eletri irEonditioning systemsF ee more in Chapter ustinle inergy ystems @etion VFIAF
8.2.6.5.2 Solar Energy

olr power hs miniml impt on the environmentD depending on where it is pledF sn PHHWD one perent of the renewle energy generted in the nited ttes ws from solr power @ITRT wA out of the eight perent of the totl eletriity genertion tht ws from renewle souresF he mnufturing of photovoltaic (PV) cells genertes some hzrdous wste from the hemils nd solvents used in proessingF yften solr rrys re pled on roofs of uildings or over prking lots or integrted into onstrution in other wysF roweverD lrge systems my e pled on lnd nd prtiulrly in deserts where those frgile eosystems ould e dmged if re is not tkenF ome solr therml systems use potentilly hzrdous )uids @to trnsfer hetA tht require proper hndling nd disposlF gonentrted solr systems my need to e lened regulrly with wterD whih is lso needed for ooling the turineEgenertorF sing wter from underground wells my 'et the eosystem in some rid lotionsF
47 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGretsink

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Figure 8.16: Rooftop Solar Installations Rooftop solar installation on Douglas Hall at the University
of Illinois at Chicago has no eect on land resources, while producing electricity with zero emissions. Source: Oce of Sustainability, UIC

48

48 httpXGGwwwFuiFeduGsustinilityG

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8.2.6.5.3 Wind

CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

ind is renewle energy soure tht is len nd hs very few environmentl hllengesF ind turines re eoming more prominent sight ross the nited ttesD even in regions tht re onsidered to hve less wind potentilF ind turines @often lled windmillsA do not relese emissions tht pollute the ir or wter @with rre exeptionsAD nd they do not require wter for oolingF he FF wind industry hd RHDIVI w of wind power pity instlled t the end of PHIHD with SDIIT w instlled in PHIH loneD providing more thn PH perent of instlled wind power round the gloeF eording to the emerin ind inergy essoition49 D over QS perent of ll new eletril generting pity in the nited ttes sine PHHT ws due to windD surpssed only y nturl gsF

Figure 8.17: Twin Groves Wind Farm, Illinois Wind power is becoming a more popular source of
energy in the United States. Source: Oce of Sustainability, UIC

50

ine wind turine hs smll physil footprint reltive to the mount of eletriity it produesD mny wind frms re loted on ropD pstureD nd forest lndF hey ontriute to eonomi sustinility y providing extr inome to frmers nd rnhersD llowing them to sty in usiness nd keep their property from eing developed for other usesF por exmpleD energy n e produed y instlling wind turines in the epplhin mountins of the nited ttes insted of engging in mountin top removl for ol miningF
49 httpXGGwwwFweForgGlernoutGindustrysttsGindexFfm 50 httpXGGwwwFuiFeduGsustinilityG

QPW y' shore wind turines on lkes or the oen my hve smller environmentl impts thn turines on lndF ind turines do hve few environmentl hllengesF here re estheti onerns to some people when they see them on the lndspeF e few wind turines hve ught on (reD nd some hve leked luriting )uidsD though this is reltively rreF ome people do not like the sound tht wind turine ldes mkeF visten to one here51 nd see wht you thinkF urines hve een found to use ird nd t deths prtiulrly if they re loted long their migrtory pthF his is of prtiulr onern if these re thretened or endngered speiesF here re wys to mitigte tht impt nd it is urrently eing reserhedF here re some smll impts from the onstrution of wind projets or frmsD suh s the onstrution of servie rodsD the prodution of the turines themselvesD nd the onrete for the foundtionsF roweverD overll life yle nlysis hs found tht turines mke muh more energy thn the mount used to mke nd instll themF
8.2.7 Summary

e derive our energy from multitude of resoures tht hve vrying environmentl hllenges relted to ir nd wter pollutionD lnd useD ron dioxide emissionsD resoure extrtion nd supplyD s well s relted sfety nd helth issuesF e diversity of resoures n help mintin politil nd eonomi independene for the nited ttesF enewle energy soures hve lower environmentl impt nd n provide lol energy resouresF ih resoure needs to e evluted within the sustinility prdigmF sn the ner futureD we n expet the interim use of more di0ult nd environmentllyEhllenging extrtion methods to provide fossil fuels until the growth nd development of renewle nd len energy soures will e le to meet our energy demndsF
8.2.8 Review Questions
Question 8.2.1 Question 8.2.2 Question 8.2.3

hesrie three mjor environmentl hllenges for fossil fuels in generl or one in prtiulrF ht re the ompelling resons to ontinue using ol in spite of its hllengesc

te the following eletriity soures for their ontriution to limte hnge from most to lestX iomssD olD solrD windD nulerD nturl gsD oilD geothermlD hydroeletriD wF ss there ny ompelling reson not to use ny of the ron neutrl @no net ron emissionsA souresc
Question 8.2.4

hesrie the environmentl nd soil onerns with regrd to iofuelsF

8.2.9 Resources

o lern more out glol energy issuesD visit the snterntionl inergy egeny wesite52 F o lern more out nited ttes nd interntionl energy issuesD visit the FF inergy snformtion edministrtion wesite53 F o lern more out the FF xuler egultory gommissionD plese lik here54 F vern out your len energy options here55 F
51 httpXGGwwwFyoutueFomGvGueiiyhwyws8hlaen8fetureaplyeremedded8versiona 52 httpXGGwwwFieForgG 53 httpXGGwwwFeiFgovGtoolsGglossryGindexFfmcidav 54 httpXGGwwwFeiFgovGtoolsGglossryGindexFfmcidav 55 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGlenenergyGenergyEndEyouGindexFhtml

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8.2.10 References

CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

emerin ind inergy essoitionF @PHIIAF Industry StatisticsF etrieved eptemer TD PHII from httpXGGwwwFweForgGlernoutGindustrysttsGindexFfm56 ipsteinD FFD fuonoreD tFtD ikerleD uFD rendryxD wFD tout sssD fFwFD reinergD FD et lF @PHIIAF pull ost ounting for the life yle of olF Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1219D UQEWVF etrieved wy IUD PHII from httpXGGmluiForgGdownlodsGgolixternlitiesrrvrdHPEIUEIIFpdf57 FF inergy snformtion edministrtionF @PHIIAF Hydropower generators produce clean electricity, but hydropower does have environmental impactsF etrieved eptemer TD PHII from httpXGGwwwFeiFgovGenergyexplinedGindexFfmcpgeahydropowerenvironment58 oodD tFrFD vongD qFD 8 worehouseD hFpF @PHHRAF Long-term world oil supply scenarios:The future is neither as bleak or rosy as some assert. inergy snformtion edministrtionF etrieved wy IUD PHII from httpXGGwwwFeiFdoeFgovGpuGoilgsGpetroleumGfeturertilesGPHHRGworldoilsupplyGoilsupplyHRFhtml59

8.3 Case Study: Greenhouse Gases and Climate Change

8.3.1 Introduction

60

sf inresed greenhouse gs emissions from humn tivity re using limte hngeD then how do we redue those emissionsc hether ditted y n interntionlD ntionlD or lol regultion or voluntry greementD plns re needed to move to lowEron eonomyF sn the sene of federl regultionD itiesD sttesD government institutionsD nd olleges nd universitiesD hve ll tken limte tion inititivesF his se study provides two exmples of limte tion plns ! one for ity @ghigoA nd one for n institution @the niversity of sllinois t ghigoAF
8.3.2 Chicago's Climate Action Plan

rn res produe lot of wsteF sn ftD US perent of ll greenhouse gs emissions re generted in urn resF hereforeD it is importnt for ities to develop plns to ddress environmentl issuesF he ghigo glimte etion ln61 @ghigo geA is one suh exmpleF he midEterm gol of this pln is PS perent redution in greenhouse gs emissions y PHPH nd (nl gol is VH perent redution elow IWWH qrq levels y the yer PHSHF he ghigo ge outlines severl ene(ts of limte tion plnF he (rst would oviously e the redution of the e'ets of limte hngeF nder higher emissions senrio s per the sntergovernmentl nel on glimte ghnge62 @sggAD it is predited tht the numer of IHH degree phrenheit dys per yer would inrese to QID under the lower emissions senrio it would only e eightF istlished y the nited xtions invironment rogrmme63 @xiAD the sgg is the leding interntionl ody tht ssesses limte hnge through the ontriutions of thousnds of sientistsF eondD there is n eonomi ene(t derived from inresed e0ienies tht redue energy nd wter onsumptionF hirdD lol governments nd genies hve gret in)uene over their ity9s greenhouse gs emissions nd n enhne energy e0ieny of uildings through odes nd ordinnes so they ply key role in limte tion t ll governmentl levelsF pinllyD reduing our dependene on fossil fuels helps the nited ttes hieve energy independeneF
56 httpXGGwwwFweForgGlernoutGindustrysttsGindexFfm 57 httpXGGmluiForgGdownlodsGgolixternlitiesrrvrdHPEIUEIIFpdf 58 httpXGGwwwFeiFgovGenergyexplinedGindexFfmcpgeahydropowerenvironment 59 httpXGGwwwFeiFdoeFgovGpuGoilgsGpetroleumGfeturertilesGPHHRGworldoilsupplyGoilsupplyHRFhtml 60 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUPTGIFPGbF 61 httpXGGwwwFhigolimtetionForgG 62 httpXGGwwwFipFhG 63 httpXGGwwwFunepForgG

QQI
8.3.3 Designing a Climate Action Plan

Figure 8.18: Chicago Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Reduction Goals

Figure illustrates the

emissions calculated for Chicago through 2005. Source: City of Chicago, Chicago Climate Action Plan

64

e good limte tion pln inludes reporting of greenhouse gs emissionsD s fr k s there is dtD preferly to IWWHF Figure ghigo qreenhouse qs imissions nd edution qols @pigure VFIVA depits the emissions lulted for ghigo through PHHSF prom tht point there is n estimte @the dotted lineA of further inrese efore the redutions eome evident nd the gols portryed n e otinedF he pln ws relesed in eptemer PHHV nd provides rodmp of (ve strtegies with QS tions to redue greenhouse gs emissions @qrqA nd dpt to limte hngeF he strtegies re shown in Table elignment of the ghigo nd sg glimte etion lns @le VFPX elignment of the ghigo nd sg glimte etion lnsAF Figure oures of the ghigo ge imission edutions y trtegy @pigure VFIWA identi(es the proportion of emissions redutions from the vrious strtegiesF
64 httpXGGwwwFhigolimtetionForgG(leinGpdfG(nlreportGggeiypsxevvPFpdf

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CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

Figure 8.19:
C. Klein-Banai

65

Graph shows the sources of the Chicago CAP emission reductions by strategy. Source: using data from City of Chicago, Chicago Climate Action Plan

66

sn PHIH gge put out progress report67 wherein progress is mesured y the mny smll steps tht re eing tken to implement the plnF st is not trnslted extly to emissions redutions ut reports on progress for eh step suh s the numer of residentil units tht hve een retro(tted for energy e0ienyD the numer of pplines trded inD the inrese in the numer of rides on puli trnsitD nd the mount of wter onserved dilyF
8.3.4 University Climate Action Plan

everl ftors used mjor ghigo university to develop limte tion plnF es prt of the emerin gollege nd niversity residents9 glimte gommitment68 @egggAD nerly TUH presidents hve signed ommitment to inventory their greenhouse gsesD pulily report itD nd to develop limte tion plnF rt of the ghigo ge is to engge usinesses nd orgniztions within the ity in limte tion plnningF sn order to e etter stewrd of the environmentD the niversity of sllinois t ghigo @sgA developed limte tion pln69 F he gols re similr to ghigo9sX RH perent qrq emissions redution y PHQH nd t lest VH perent y PHSHD using PHHR selineF he strtegies lign with those of the ity in whih the mpus resides @see Table elignment of the ghigo nd sg glimte etion lns @le VFPX elignment of the ghigo nd sg glimte etion lnsAAF sg9s greenhouse gs reports re lso mde pulilly ville on the eggg reporting site70 F Figure sg9s rojeted imissions edutions
65 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGindyk 66 httpXGGwwwFhigolimtetionForgG(leinGpdfG(nlreportGggeiypsxevvPFpdf 67 httpXGGwwwFhigolimtetionForgG(leinGpdfGggerogresseportvQFpdf 68 httpXGGwwwFpresidentslimteommitmentForgG 69 httpXGGwwwFuiFeduGsustinilityGlimtetionplnG 70 httpXGGrsFupForgG

QQQ @pigure VFPHX A displys sg9s lulted emissions inventory @in redA nd then the predited inreses for growth if tivities ontinue in usiness s usul @feA pprohF he tringulr wedges elow represent emissions redutions through vriety of strtegiesD similr to those of the wedge pproh71 tht rofessors okolow nd l proposedF hose strtegies re displyed in Table elignment of the ghigo nd sg glimte etion lns @le VFPX elignment of the ghigo nd sg glimte etion lnsAD longside ghigo9s for omprtive purposesF

Figure 8.20: UIC's Projected Emissions Reductions Projected emissions reductions from 2004 to
2030. Where BAU stands for Business as Usual, what would happen if no action were taken? Source: UIC Climate Action Plan, gure 6

72

he sg ge lso hs mjor strtegy tegories tht re similr to ghigo9s nd within eh strtegy there re numer of reommended tionsF rogress on this pln will e monitored oth y reporting emissions t lest every two yers to the eggg nd y trking individul tions nd reporting to the mpus ommunityF
Alignment of the Chicago and UIC Climate Action Plans CHICAGO CAP Energy Ecient Buildings UIC CAP Energy Eciency and Conservation

etro(t ommeril nd industril uildings

etro(t uildings
continued on next page

71 httpXGGwwwFwriForgGstoriesGPHHTGIPGwedgeEpprohElimteEhnge 72 httpXGGwwwFuiFeduGsustinilityGlimtetionplnGdrftsGsgFgeFpsxevdftFpdf

QQR etro(t residentil uildings rde in pplines gonserve wter pdte gity energy ode istlish new guidelines for renovtions gool with trees nd green roofs ke esy steps
Clean & Renewable Energy Sources

CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

inergy performne ontrting wonitoring nd mintenne ter onservtion istlish green uilding stndrds qreen roofsGre)etive roofs inergy onservtion y mpus ommunity
Clean and Renewable Energy

pgrde power plnts smprove power plnt e0ieny fuild renewle eletriity snrese distriuted genertion romote household renewle power
Improved Transportation Options

wodify power plnts urhse eletriity from renewle eletriity provider fuild renewle eletriity qeotherml heting nd ooling
Improved Transportation Options

snvest more in trnsit ixpnd trnsit inentives romote trnsitEoriented development wke wlking nd iking esier gr shre nd r pool smprove )eet e0ieny ehieve higher fuel e0ieny stndrds with to lener fuels upport interity ril smprove freight movement
Reduced Waste & Industrial Pollution

ixpnd trnsit inentives wke wlking nd iking esier gr shringGr pool progrm gontinue to improve )eet e0ieny

edue usiness trvel @we onfereningA entiEsdling regultionsGguidelines

Recycling and Waste Management

edueD reuse nd reyle hift to lterntive refrigernts gpture stormwter on site

istlishing reyling gols gomposting ustinle food purhses 8 use of iodegrdle pkging
continued on next page

QQS golleting nd onverting vegetle oil hevelop userEfriendly property mngement sysE tem ixpnd the wste minimiztion progrm eyle onstrution deris urhsing poliies
Preparation (Adaptation) Improved Grounds Operations

wnge het rotet ir qulity wnge stormwter smplement green urn design reserve plnts nd trees ursue innovtive ooling ingge the puli ingge usinesses ln for the future

gpture stormwter on site se ntive speies edueGeliminte irrigtion sntegrted pest mngement ree re pln
Education, Research and Public Engagement Employment Strategies

eleommuting plextime ghildre enter uli inggement

Table 8.2X

Source: C. Klein-Banai using data from Chicago Climate Action Plant and UIC Climate Action Plan

8.3.5 Conclusion

here is no one pproh tht will e'etively redue greenhouse gs emissionsF glimte tion plns re helpful tools to represent strtegies to redue emissionsF qovernmentl entities suh s ntionsD sttesD nd ities n develop plnsD s n institutions nd usinessesF st is importnt tht there e n lignment of plns when they intersetD suh s ity nd university tht resides within itF

8.4 Energy Sources and Carriers

8.4.1 Electricity
8.4.1.1 Electricity
73

8.4.1.1.1 Learning Objectives

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

outline the growth of eletriity s lenD verstileD swithle energy rrier understnd the omponents of the eletriity grid ! genertionD deliveryD use understnd the hllenges to the modern eletriity grid ! pityD reliilityD ommodting renewE les
73 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUPVGIFPGbF

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8.4.1.1.2 Introduction

CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

yver the pst entury nd hlf eletriity hs emerged s populr nd verstile energy rrierF gommuE nition ws n erly widespred use for eletriity following the introdution of the telegrph in the IVRHsF sn the IVUHs nd IVVHs eletri motors nd lights joined the telegrph s prtil eletril deviesD nd in the IVWHs eletriity distriution systemsD the forerunners of tody9s electricity gridD egn to pperF he telegrph eme wireless with the invention of rdioD demonstrted in the lortory in the IVVHs nd for trnstlnti ommunition in IWHIF odyD eletriity is exploited not only for its diverse end uses suh s lightingD motionD refrigertionD ommunition nd omputtionD ut lso s primry rrier of energyF iletriity is one of two kones of the modern energy system @liquid trnsporttion fuels re the otherAD rrying high density energy over short nd long distnes for diverse usesF sn PHHWD eletriity onsumed the lrgest shre of the nited ttes9 primary energyD QV perentD with trnsporttion lose seond t QU perent @ise ennul inergy eviewD PHHW @pF QRRAAF hese two setors lso ounted for the lrgest shres of FF ron emissionsD QV perent for eletriity nd QQ perent for trnsporttion @ise ennul inergy eviewD PHHW @pF QRRAAF Figure nited ttes iletriity xet qenertion ine IWRW nd ses @pF QQTA shows the growth of eletriity s n energy rrier sine IWRW nd the growing rnge of its usesF

Figure 8.21: United States Electricity Net Generation Since 1949 and Uses
from EIA Annual Energy Review 2009, Table 8.2a, p 230. Wichary

The growth of

United States electricity generation since 1949 and some of its uses. Source: G. Crabtree

74

75

79

, Samboy

80

, Andrew

81

, Jan Ainali

82

, Lovelac7

83

; Felix O

76

, U.S. CPSC

77

using data

, Joe Mabel,

78

Marcin

QQU
Figure iletriity inergy ghin @pF QQUA shows the eletriity energy hin from genertion to useF fy fr most eletriity is generted y omustion of fossil fuels to turn stem or gs turinesF his is the lest e0ient step in the energy hinD onverting only QT perent of the hemil energy in the fuel to eletri energyD when verged over the present gs nd ol genertion mixF st lso produes ll the ron emissions of the eletriity hinF feyond produtionD eletriity is remrkly len nd e0ient rrierF gonversion from rotry motion of the turine nd genertor to eletriityD the delivery of eletriity through the power gridD nd the onversion to motion in motors for use in industryD trnsporttion nd refrigertion n e more thn WH perent e0ientF xone of these steps produes greenhouse gs emissionsF st is the postEprodution verstilityD lenlinessD nd eciency of eletriity tht mke it prime energy rrier for the futureF iletriity genertionD sed on reltively plentiful domesti ol nd gsD is free of immedite fuel seurity onernsF he dvent of eletri rs promises to inrese eletriity demnd nd redue dependeny on foreign oilD while the growth of renewle wind nd solr genertion redues ron emissionsF he primry sustinility hllenges for eletriity s n energy rrier re t the prodution stepX e0ieny nd emission of ron dioxide nd toxinsF

Figure 8.22: Electricity Energy Chain Graph shows the electricity energy chain from generation to
use. Source: G. Crabtree

84

74 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGrtree 75 httpXGGPHSFPSRFIQSFPRGtotlenergyGdtGnnulGpdfGerFpdf 76 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXiletkrikjednotkRPHFWSDtrsklesoFjpg 77 httpXGGwwwFpsFgovGpspuGprerelGprhtmlHSGHSPUWFhtml 78 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXettlefonydoriPHHUIIReFjpg 79 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXriusehrgesHQPHHVtrimFjpg 80 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXrRVTdilloigFjpg 81 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXspodnnoinplmFjpg 82 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXwsEhilipsFtq 83 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXgompt)uoresenttrnspFpng 84 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGrtree

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CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

8.4.1.1.3 The Electricity Grid: Capacity and Reliability

feyond produtionD eletriity fes hllenges of pityD reliilityD nd implementing storge nd trnsE mission required to ommodte the remoteness nd vriility of renewlesF he lrgest pity hlE lenges re in urn resD where UW perent of the nited ttes nd SH perent of the world popultion liveF he high popultion density of urn res requires orrespondingly high energy nd eletri power densityF sn the nited ttesD QQ perent of eletri power is used in the top PP metro resD nd eletriity demnd is projeted to grow QI perent y PHQS @ennul inergy yutlookD PHII @pF QRRAAF his retes n 4urn power ottlenek4 where underground les eome sturtedD hmpering eonomi growth nd the e0ienies of sle in trnsporttionD energy use nd greenhouse gs emission tht ome with high popultion density @ywenD PHHW @pF QRRAAF turtion of existing le infrstruture requires instlltion of sustntil new pityD n expensive proposition for digging new underground le tunnelsF Superconducting underground cables with (ve times the power delivery pity of onventionl opper o'er n innovtive lterntive @see Figure uperonduting nderground gles @pF QQVAAF nlike onventionl lesD superonduting les emit no het or eletromgneti rditionD eliminting interferE ene with other underground energy nd ommunition infrstrutureF epling onventionl with superE onduting les in urn res drmtilly inreses pity while voiding the onstrution expense of dditionl underground infrstrutureF

Figure 8.23: Superconducting Underground Cables The superconducting wires on the right carry
the same current as the conventional copper wires on the left. Superconducting cable wound from these wires carries up to ve times the current of conventional copper cables. Superconductor Corporation Source: Courtesy, American

he reliility of the eletriity grid presents seond hllengeF he nited ttes9 grid hs grown ontinuously from origins in the erly PHth genturyY muh of its infrstruture is sed on tehnology nd

QQW design philosophy dting from the IWSHs nd IWTHsD when the mjor hllenge ws extending eletri(tion to new rurl nd urn resF yutside urn resD the grid is minly ove groundD exposing it to wether nd temperture extremes tht use most power outgesF he response to outges is frustrtingly slow nd trditionl ! utilities re often (rst lerted to outges y telephoned ustomer omplintsD nd response requires sending rews to identify nd repir dmgeD muh the sme s we did SH yers goF he nited ttes9 grid reliility is signi(ntly lower thn for newer grids in iurope nd tpnD where the typil ustomer experienes ten to PH times less outge time thn in the nited ttesF eliility is espeilly importnt in the digitl geD when n interruption of even frtion of yle n shut down digitlly ontrolled dt enter or frition lineD requiring hours or dys to restrtF eliility issues n e ddressed y implementing smart grid with twoEwy ommunition etween utility ompnies nd ustomers tht ontinuously monitors power deliveryD the opertionl stte of the delivE ery systemD nd implements demnd response mesures djusting power delivered to individul ustomers in ordne with previously estlished unique ustomer protoolF uh system requires instlling digitl sensors tht monitor power )ows in the delivery systemD digitl deision nd ontrol tehnology nd digitl ommunition pility like tht lredy stndrd for ommunition vi the snternetF por ustomers with onEsite solr genertion pilityD the smrt grid would monitor nd ontrol selling exess power from the ustomer to the utilityF Figure mrt qrid @pigure VFPRA illustrtes the twoEwy ommunition fetures of the smrt gridF he onventionl grid in the upper pnel sends power one wyD from the generting sttion to the ustomerD reording how muh power leves the genertor nd rrives t the ustomerF sn the smrt gridD the power )ow is ontinuously monitoredD not only t the genertor nd the ustomerD ut lso t eh onnetion point in etweenF snformtion on the rel time power )ow is sent over the snternet or nother speil network to the utility nd to the ustomerD llowing rel time deisions on dding genertion to meet hnges in lodD opening iruit rekers to reroute power in se of n outgeD reduing power delivered to the ustomer during pek periods to void outges @often lled 4demnd response4AD nd trking reverse power )ows for ustomers with their own solr or other genertion pityF he onventionl power grid ws designed in the middle of the lst entury to meet the simple need of delivering power in one diretionF snorporting modern snternetEstyle ommunitions nd ontrol fetures ould ring the eletriity grid to qulittively new level of pility nd performne required to ommodte lol genertion nd deliver higher reliilityF

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CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

Figure 8.24:

Smart Grid

The addition of real-time monitoring and communicating capability like

that used on the Internet would add 'smart' operation of the electricity grid. Source: National Institute of Standards and Technology

85

mrt omponents inorported throughout the grid would e le to detet overlod urrents nd open rekers to interrupt them quikly nd utomtilly to void unneessry dmge nd triggering domino e'et sde of outges over wide res s hppened in the xorthest flkout of PHHQF por mximum e'etivenessD suh smrt systems require fst utomti response on milliseond time sles ommensurte with the yle time of the gridF iven simple digitl ommunition meets this requirementD ut mny of the grid omponents themselves nnot respond so quiklyF gonventionl mehnil iruit rekersD for exmpleD tke mny seonds to open nd muh longer to loseF uh long times inrese the risk of dngerous overlod urrents dmging the grid or propgting sdesF elong with digitl ommunitionsD new reker tehnologyD suh s tht sed on fstD selfEheling superonduting fult urrent limitersD is needed to ring power grid opertion into the modern erF
8.4.1.1.4 Integrating Renewable Electricity on the Grid

eommodting renewle eletriity genertion y wind nd solr plnts is mong the most urgent hlE lenges fing the gridF vedership in promoting renewle eletriity hs moved from the federl to the stte governmentsD mny of whih hve legislted enewle ortfolio tndrds @A tht require PH perent of stte eletriity genertion to e renewle y PHPHF QH sttes nd the histrit of golumi hve suh requirementsD the most ggressive eing gliforni with QQ perent renewle eletriity required y PHPH nd xew ork with QH perent y PHISF o put this legl requirement in perspetiveD wind nd solr now ount for out IFT perent of FF eletriity produtionY pproximtely ftor of ten short of the requirementsF @grtree 8 wisewihD PHIH @pF QRRAAF
85 httpXGGwwwFnistFgovGitlGntdGemntgGsmrtgridFfm

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8.4.1.1.4.1 Renewable Variability

he grid fes mjor hllenges to ommodte the vriility of wind nd solr eletriityF ithout signi(nt storge pityD the grid must preisely lne genertion to demnd in rel timeF et presentD the vriility of demnd ontrols the lning proessX demnd vries y s muh s ftor of two from night to dy s people go through their dily routinesF his preditle vriility is ommodted y swithing reserve genertion soures in nd out in response to demnd vritionsF ith renewable generationD vrition n e up to UH perent for solr eletriity due to pssing louds nd IHH perent for wind due to lm dysD muh lrger thn the vriility of demndF et the present level of IFT perent wind nd solr penetrtionD the reltively smll vrition in genertion n e ommodted y swithing in nd out onventionl resoures to mke up for wind nd solr )ututionsF et the PH perent penetrtion required y stte enewle ortfolio tndrdsD ommodting the vrition in genertion requires signi(nt inrese in the onventionl reserve pityF et high penetrtion levelsD eh ddition of wind or solr pity requires nerly equl ddition of onventionl pity to provide genertion when the renewles re quiesentF his doule instlltion to insure reliility inreses the ost of renewle eletriity nd redues its e'etiveness in lowering greenhouse gs emissionsF e mjor omplition of renewle vrition is its unpreditilityF nlike demnd vriilityD whih is relily high in the fternoon nd low t nightD renewle genertion depends on wether nd does not follow ny ptternF entiipting wetherEdriven wind nd solr genertion vriility requires more sophistited forests with higher ury nd greter on(dene levels thn re now villeF feuse tody9s forests often miss the tul performne trgetD dditionl onventionl reserves must e held t the redy to over the risk of inuriesD dding nother inrese to the ost of renewle eletriityF
8.4.1.1.4.2 Storing Electricity

torge of renewle eletriity o'ers vile route to meeting the vrile genertion hllengeF qrid eletriity storge enompsses mny more options thn portle eletriity storge required for eletri rsF nlike vehile storgeD grid storge n oupy lrge footprint with little or no restrition on weight or volumeF qrid storge n e housed in ontrolled environmentD eliminting lrge temperture nd humidity vritions tht 'et performneF qrid storge must hve muh higher pity thn vehile storgeD of order ISH MWh for wind frm versus PHESH kWh for vehileF feuse of these di'erenesD the reserh strtegy for grid nd vehile energy storge is very di'erentF o dteD muh more ttention hs een pid to meeting vehile eletriity storge requirements thn grid storge requirementsF here re mny options for grid storgeF umped hydroeletri storgeD illustrted in Figure umped rydroeletri torge @pigure VFPSAD is n estlished tehnology pproprite for regions with high nd low elevtion wter resouresF gompressed eir inergy torge @geiA is ompressed ir equivlent of pumped hydro tht uses exess eletriity to pump ir under pressure into underground geologi formtions for lter relese to drive genertorsF his option hs een demonstrted in runtorfD qermny nd in wintoshD elmF righ temperture sodiumEsulfur tteries operting t QHH g hve high energy densityD projeted long yle lifeD nd high round trip e0ienyY they re the most mture of the ttery tehnologies suggested for the gridF plow tteries re n ttrtive nd reltively unexplored optionD where energy is stored in the high hrge stte of liquid eletrolyte nd removed y eletrohemil onversion to low hrge stteF ih )ow ttery requires n eletrolyte with high nd low hrge stte nd hemil retion tht tkes one into the otherF here re mny suh eletrolytes nd hemil retionsD of whih only few hve een exploredD leving host of promising opportunities for the futureF he energy storge pity depends only on the size of the storge tnkD whih n e designed fully independently of the power pity tht depends on the size of the eletrohemil retorF odium sulfur nd )ow tteries store eletri hrge nd n e used t ny ple in the eletriity gridF sn ontrstD therml storge pplies only to onentrting solr power tehnologiesD where mirrors fous solr rdition to het working )uid tht drives onventionl turine nd genertorF sn these systemsD het energy n e stored s molten slt in highly insulted enlosure for hours or dysD llowing solr eletriity to e generted on demnd fter sunset or on loudy dysF ell of these options re promising nd require reserh nd development to explore innovtionsD performne nd

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CHAPTER 8.

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Figure 8.25:

Pumped Hydroelectric Storage

86

Upper storage reservoir for pumped hydroelectric Source: Ongrys via

storage, an established technology for storing large amounts of grid electricity. Wikimedia Commons

8.4.1.1.4.3 How to Transmit Electricity Over Long Distances

he (nl hllenge for ommodting renewles is long distne trnsmissionF es Figure enewle esoure votion vsF hemnd votion @pigure VFPTA showsD the lrgest wind resouresD loted t midE ontinentD nd the lrgest solr resouresD in the southwestD re fr from the popultion enters est of wississippi nd on the est gostF sf these resoures re to e usedD higher pity long distne trnsmisE sion must e developed to ring the renewle eletriity to mrketF elthough suh long distne delivery is possile where speil high voltge trnsmission lines hve een lotedD the pity nd numer of suh lines is limitedF he sitution is muh like utomoile trnsporttion efore the interstte highwy system ws uilt in the IWSHsF st ws possile to drive ost to ostD ut the driving time ws long nd unertin nd the route indiretF o use renewle eletriity resoures e'etivelyD we must rete kind of interstte highwy system for eletriityF
86 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXrziornikFjpg

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Figure 8.26: Renewable Resource Location vs. Demand Location

Wind and solar electricity

resources are located far from population centers, requiring a dramatic improvement in long-distance electricity transmission  an "interstate highway system for electricity." Source: Integrating Renewable Electricity on the Grid, Report of the Panel on Pubic Aairs, American Physical Society (2010) (p. 344).

8.4.1.1.5 Summary

iletriity nd liquid petroleum re the two primry energy rriers in the nited ttesD nd in the worldF yne produedD eletriity is len nd verstile mking it n ppeling energy rrier for the futureF he hllenges fing the eletriity grid re pityD reliilityD nd ommodting renewle soures suh s solr nd wind whose output is vrile nd whose lotion is remote from popultion entersF iletriity storge nd long distne trnsmission re needed to ommodte these renewle resouresF
8.4.1.1.6 Review Questions Question 8.4.1.1.1

iletriity is the fstest growing energy rrier in the worldD triled y liquid fuels for trnsportE tionF hy is eletriity more ppeling thn liquid fuelsc
Question 8.4.1.1.2

e primry hllenge for the eletriity grid is pity to hndle the 4urn power ottlenek4 in ities nd suursF row n superonduting les ddress urn pity issuesc enewle wind nd solr eletriity is plentiful in the nited ttesD ut they re loted remotely from high popultion enters nd their output is vrile in timeF row n these two issues e ddressedc
Question 8.4.1.1.3

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8.4.1.1.7 References

CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

grtreeD qF 8 wisewihD tF @goEghirsAF @PHIHAF Integrating Renewable Electricity on the Grid, Ameremerin hysil oietyD shington hFgF etrieved eugust IPD PHII from httpXGGwwwFpsForgGpoliyGreportsGpopEreportsGuplodGintegrtingeleFpdf87 ywenD hF @PHHWAF Green Metropolis X Why Living Smaller, Living Closer, And Driving Less Are the Keys to SustainabilityF xew orkX iverhed fooksF FF inergy snformtion edministrtionF @PHIHAF Annual Energy Review 2009F etrieved eugust IPD PHII from httpXGGwwwFeiFgovGtotlenergyGdtGnnulGpdfGerFpdf88
ican Physical SocietyF

8.4.1.2 Fossil Fuels (Coal and Gas) 8.4.1.2.1 Learning Objectives

89

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

outline the reltive ontriutions of ol nd gs to eletriity genertion nd to ron emissions understnd the link etween eletriity genertion nd ron emissions understnd the hllenges of sequestering ron in geologi formtions ! hemil trnsformtionD migrtionD nd longevity
8.4.1.2.2 Introduction

et present the fossil fuels used for eletriity genertion re predominntly ol @RS perentA nd gs @PQ perentAY petroleum ounts for pproximtely I perent @see Figure iletriity qenertion y oure @pF QRRAAF gol eletriity tres its origins to the erly PHth genturyD when it ws the nturl fuel for stem engines given its undneD high energy density nd low ostF qs is lter ddition to the fossil eletriity mixD rriving in signi(nt quntities fter orld r ss nd with its gretest growth sine IWWH s shown in Figure qrowth of puels sed to rodue iletriity in the nited ttes @pF QRSA @ise ennul inergy eviewD PHHW @pF QRWAAF yf the two fuelsD ol emits lmost twie the ron dioxide s gs for the sme het outputD mking it signi(ntly greter ontriutor to glol wrming nd limte hngeF
87 httpXGGwwwFpsForgGpoliyGreportsGpopEreportsGuplodGintegrtingeleFpdf 88 httpXGGwwwFeiFgovGtotlenergyGdtGnnulGpdfGerFpdf 89 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUPUGIFPGbF

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Figure 8.27: Electricity Generation by Source Chart shows U.S. electricity generation by source.
Source: U.S.

90

Energy Information Administration, Annual Review, 2009, p. 228 (Aug. 2010)

91

90 httpXGGPHSFPSRFIQSFPRGtotlenergyGdtGnnulGpdfGerFpdf 91 httpXGGPHSFPSRFIQSFPRGtotlenergyGdtGnnulGpdfGerFpdf

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Figure 8.28: Growth of Fuels Used to Produce Electricity in the United States Graph shows
the growth of fuels used to produce electricity in the United States from 1950 to 2009. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 2009, p. 238 (Aug. 2010)

92

Source: U.S.

8.4.1.2.3 The Future of Gas and Coal

he future development of ol nd gs depend on the degree of puli nd regultory onern for ron emissionsD nd the reltive prie nd supply of the two fuelsF upplies of ol re undnt in the nited ttesD nd the trnsporttion hin from mines to power plnts is well estlished y long experieneF he primry unknown ftor is the degree of puli nd regultory pressure tht will e pled on ron emissionsF trong regultory pressure on ron emissions would fvor retirement of ol nd ddition of gs power plntsF his trend is reinfored y the reent drmti expnsion of shle gs reserves in the nited ttes due to tehnology dvnes in horizontl drilling nd hydruli frturing @4frking4A of shle gs (eldsF hle gs prodution hs inresed RV perent nnully in the yers PHHT ! PHIHD with more inreses expeted @ise ennul inergy yutlookD PHII @pF QRWAAF qreter nited ttes prodution of shle gs will grdully redue imports nd ould eventully mke the nited ttes net exporter of nturl gsF he tehnique of hydruli frturing of shle uses highEpressure )uids to frture the normlly hrd shle deposits nd relese gs nd oil trpped inside the rokF o promote the )ow of gs out of the rokD smll prtiles of solids re inluded in the frturing liquids to lodge in the shle rks nd keep them open fter the liquids re depressurizedF elthough hydruli frturing hs een used sine the IWRHsD is tehnologilly fesileD eonomiD nd proven to enhne gs n oil reoveryD it fes onsiderle environmentl hllengesF sn quifers overlying the wrellus nd ti shle formtions of northestern ennsylvni nd upstte xew orkD methne ontmintion of drinking wter ssoited with shle gs extrtion hs een reported @ysornD @pF QRWAengoshD rnerD 8 tksonD PHII @pF QRWAAF he puli retion to these reports hs
92 httpXGGPHSFPSRFIQSFPRGtotlenergyGdtGnnulGpdfGerFpdf

QRU een strong nd negtiveD prompting lls for greter trnsprenyD sienti( investigtion nd regultory ontrol to lerly estlish the sfetyD sustinility nd puli on(dene in the tehniqueF ee Module invironmentl ghllenges in inergyD gron hioxideD eir nd ter @etion VFPA for more on the proess of hydruli frturing nd its ssoited risksF

Figure 8.29: Global Carbon Cycle, 1990s The global carbon cycle for the 1990s, showing the main
annual uxes in GtC yr1: pre-industrial `natural' uxes in black and `anthropogenic' uxes in red. Source: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis: Press, gure 7.3

93

Contribution of Working Group I to the

Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University

94

feyond trend from ol to gs for eletriity genertionD there is need to del with the ron emissions from the fossil prodution of eletriityF Figure qlol gron gyleD IWWHs @pigure VFPWA shows the size of these emissions ompred to nturl )uxes etween oen nd tmosphere nd from vegettion nd lnd useF he nthropogeni )uxes re smll y omprisonD yet hve lrge e'et on the onentrtion of ron dioxide in the tmosphereF he reson is the stepEwise dynmis of the ron yleF he ultimte storge repository for ron emissions is the deep oenD with undnt pity to sor the reltively smll )ux from fossil fuel omustionF rnsfer to the deep oenD howeverD ours in three stepsX (rst to the tmosphereD then to the shllow oenD nd (nlly to the deep oenF he ottlenek is the slow trnsfer of ron dioxide from the shllow oen to the deep oenD governed y the great ocean conveyor belt or thermohaline circulation illustrted in Figure qret yen gonveyor felt @pigure VFQHAF he gret oen onveyor elt tkes RHH ! IHHH yers to omplete one yleF hile ron dioxide wits to e trnsported to the deep oenD it sturtes the shllow oen nd 4ks up4 in the tmosphere using glol wrming nd thretening limte hngeF sf ron emissions re to e ptured nd stored @or 4sequestered4A they must e trpped for thousnds of yers while the tmosphere djusts to pst nd future ron emissions @ventonD PHHT @pF QRWAAF
93 httpXGGwwwFipFhGpulitionsnddtGrRGwgIGenGhUsUEQFhtml 94 httpXGGwwwFipFhGpulitionsnddtGrRGwgIGenGhUsUEQFhtml

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CHAPTER 8.

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Figure 8.30: Great Ocean Conveyor Belt The great ocean conveyor belt (or thermohaline current)
sends warm surface currents from the Pacic to Atlantic oceans and cold deep currents in the opposite direction. The conveyor belt is responsible for transporting dissolved carbon dioxide from the relatively small reservoir of the shallow ocean to much larger reservoir of the deep ocean. It takes 400 - 1000 years to complete one cycle. Source: Argonne National Laboratory

95

Sequestration of carbon dioxide in underground geologi formtions is one proess thtD in prinipleD hs the pity to hndle fossil fuel ron emissions @yljireD PHIH @pF QRWAAY hemil retion of ron dioxide to stle solid form is nother @tephens 8 ueithD PHHV @pF QRWAAF por sequestrtionD there re fundmentl hllenges tht must e understood nd resolved efore the proess n e implemented on wide sleF he hemil retions nd migrtion routes through the porous roks in whih ron dioxide is stored underground re lrgely unknownF hepending on the rok environmentD stle solid ompounds ould form tht would e'etively remove the sequestered ron dioxide from the environmentF elterntivelyD it ould remin s ron dioxide or trnsform to moile speies nd migrte long distnesD (nlly (nding n espe route to the tmosphere where it ould resume its ontriution to greenhouse wrming or use new environmentl dmgeF he requirement on long term sequestrtion is severeX lek rte of I perent mens tht ll the ron dioxide sequestered in the (rst yer espes in enturyD link of the eye on the timesle of limte hngeF 8.4.1.2.4 Summary

gol @RS perentA nd gs @PQ perentA re the two primry fossil fuels for eletriity prodution in the nited ttesF gol omustion produes nerly twie the ron emissions of gs omustionF snresing
95 httpXGGwwwFnlFgovGwedigenterGprontiersGPHHQGdVeeFhtml

QRW puli opinion nd regultory pressure to lower ron emissions re shifting eletriity genertion towrd gs nd wy from olF he domesti supply of gs is inresing rpidly due to shle gs relesed y hydruli frturingD tehnology with signi(nt potentil for hrmful environmentl imptF eduing the greenhouse gs impt of eletriity prodution requires pturing nd sequestering the ron dioxide emitted from power plntsF toring ron dioxide in underground geologi formtions fes hllenges of hemil trnsformtionD migrtionD nd longevityF
8.4.1.2.5 Review Questions Question 8.4.1.2.1

he nited ttes9 eletriity supply is provided primrily y olD nturl gsD nulerD nd hydropowerF row sfe re these fuel supplies from interruption y interntionl disstersD wether events or geopolitil tensionc
Question 8.4.1.2.2

xturl gs reserves from shle re inresing rpidly due to inresed use of hydrofrturing tehnology @4frking4AF he inresed domesti resoure of shle gs hs the potentil to provide greter energy seurity t the expense of greter environmentl imptF ht re the longEterm ostsD ene(tsD nd outlook for tpping into domesti shle gs reservesc
Question 8.4.1.2.3

enthropogeni ron emissions re smll ompred to nturl exhnge etween oen nd tE mosphere nd )uxes from vegettion nd lnd useF hy do nthropogeni emissions hve suh lrge e'et on the onentrtion of ron dioxide in the tmospherec
Question 8.4.1.2.4

yne proposl for mitigting ron emissions is pturing nd storing them in underground geologi formtions @sequestrtionAF ht sienti(D tehnologil nd poliy hllenges must e overome efore sequestrtion n e deployed widelyc

8.4.1.2.6 References

ventonD FwF @PHHTAF glimte hnge to the end of the millenniumF Climatic ChangeD UTD UEPWF doiX IHFIHHUGsIHSVREHHSEWHPPEI yljireD eF @PHIHAF gyP pture nd seprtion tehnologies for endEofEpipe pplitionsX e reviewD Energy QSD ppF PTIHEPTPVF doiX IHFIHITGjFenergyFPHIHFHPFHQH ysornD FqFD engoshD eFD rnerD xFFD 8 tksonD FfF @PHIIAF wethne ontmintion of drinkE ing wter ompnying gsEwell drilling nd hydruli frturingF PNASD IHVD ppF VIUPEIVUTF doiX IHFIHUQGpnsFIIHHTVPIHV tephensD tFgF 8 ueithD hFF @PHHVAF essessing geohemil ron mngementF Climatic ChangeD WHD PIUEPRPF doiX IHFIHHUGsIHSVREHHVEWRRHEy FF inergy snformtion edministrtionF @PHIHAF Annual Energy Review 2009F etrieved eugust IPD PHII from httpXGGwwwFeiFgovGtotlenergyGdtGnnulGpdfGerFpdf96 FF inergy snformtion edministrtionF @PHIIAF Annual Energy Outlook 2011F etrieved eptemer PD PHII from httpXGGwwwFeiFgovGforestsGeoGpdfGHQVQ@PHIIAFpdf97
8.4.1.3 Nuclear Energy
98

8.4.1.3.1 Learning Objectives

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

96 httpXGGwwwFeiFgovGtotlenergyGdtGnnulGpdfGerFpdf 97 httpXGGwwwFeiFgovGforestsGeoGpdfGHQVQ@PHIIAFpdf 98 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUPWGIFPGbF

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CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

outline the rpid development of nuler eletriity nd its plteu due to puli onerns out sfety understnd the dilemm nuler eletriity presents for sustinility ! redued ron emissions nd long term storge of spent fuel understnd the sustinle ene(ts nd prolifertion threts of reproessing spent nuler fuel
8.4.1.3.2 Introduction

prom sustinility perspetiveD nuler eletriity presents n interesting dilemmF yn the one hndD nuler eletriity produes no ron emissionsD mjor sustinle dvntge in world fing humn indued glol wrming nd potentil limte hngeF yn the other hndD nuler eletriity produes spent fuel tht must e stored out of the environment for tens or hundreds of thousnds of yersD it produes omEgrde plutonium nd urnium tht ould e diverted y terrorists or others to destroy ities nd poison the environmentD nd it thretens the nturl nd uilt environment through identl leks of long lived rditionF houghtful sientistsD poliy mkers nd itizens must weigh the ene(t of this soure of ron free eletriity ginst the environmentl risk of storing spent fuel for thousnds or hundreds of thousnds of yersD the soietl risk of nuler prolifertionD nd the impt of identl releses of rdition from operting retorsF here re very few exmples of humns hving the power to permnently hnge the dynmis of the erthF qlol wrming nd limte hnge from ron emissions is one exmpleD nd rdition from the explosion of su0ient numer of nuler wepons is notherF xuler eletriity touhes oth of these opportunitiesD on the positive side for reduing ron emissions nd on the negtive side for the risk of nuler prolifertionF
8.4.1.3.3 Debating Nuclear Energy

xuler eletriity me on the energy sene remrkly quiklyF pollowing the development of nuler tehnology t the end of orld r ss for militry endsD nuler energy quikly quired new peetime pth for inexpensive prodution of eletriityF ileven yers fter the end of orld r ssD in IWSTD very short time in energy termsD the (rst ommeril nuler retor produed eletriity t glder rll in ell(eldD inglndF he numer of nuler retors grew stedily to more thn RHH y IWWHD four yers fter the ghernoyl disster99 in IWVT nd eleven yers following hree wile sslnd100 in IWUWF ine IWWHD the numer of operting retors hs remined pproximtely )tD with new onstrution lning deommissioningD due to puli nd government relutne to proeed with nuler eletriity expnsion plnsF Figure qrowth of puels sed to rodue iletriity in the nited ttes @pF QRSA nd Figure xuler hre of nited ttes iletriity qenertion @pigure VFQIA show the development nd sttus of nuler power in the nited ttesD re)etion of its worldwide growthF
99 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGghernoyldisster 100 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGhreewilesslndident

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Figure 8.31: Nuclear Share of United States Electricity Generation The percentage of electricity
generated by nuclear power in the United States, 1957-2009. Source: U.S. Energy Information Agency, Annual Energy Review 2009, p. 276 (Aug. 2010)

101

he outome of this dete @pergusonD wrurgerD 8 prmerD PHIH @pF QSQAA will determine whether the world experienes nuler renissne tht hs een in the mking for severl yers @qrimes 8 xuttllD PHIH @pF QSQAAF he glol disussion hs een strongly impted y the unlikely nuler ident in pukushimD tpn102 in wrh PHIIF he pukushim nuler disster ws used y n erthquke nd tsunmi tht disled the ooling system for nuler energy omplex onsisting of operting nuler retors nd storge pools for underwter storge of spent nuler fuel ultimtely using prtil meltdown of some of the retor ores nd relese of signi(nt rditionF his eventD PS yers fter ghernoylD reminds us tht sfety nd puli on(dene re espeilly importnt in nuler energyY without them expnsion of nuler energy will not hppenF
101 httpXGGPHSFPSRFIQSFPRGtotlenergyGdtGnnulGpdfGerFpdf 102 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpukushimhiihinulerdisster

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Figure 8.32: Operating and Decommissioned Nuclear Power Plants in the United States
Graph shows the number of operating versus decommissioned nuclear power plants in the United States. Source: U.S. Energy Information Agency, Annual Energy Review 2009, p. 274 (Aug. 2010)

103

here re two si routes for hndling the spent fuel of nuler retorsX once through nd repro@orld xuler essoitionY uzimiD wonizD 8 porsergD PHIH @pF QSQAAF yne through stores spent fuel following single pss through the retorD (rst in pools t the retor site while it ools rdiotively nd thermllyD then in longEterm geologi storge siteD where it must remin for hundreds of thousnds of yersF eproessing seprtes the usele frtion of spent fuel nd reyles it through the retorD using greter frtion of its energy ontent for eletriity produtionD nd sends the remining highElevel wste to permnent geologi storgeF he primry motivtion for reyling is greter use of fuel resouresD extrting PS perent more energy thn the one through yleF e seondry motivtion for reyling is signi(nt redution of the permnent geologi storge spe @y ftor of S or moreA nd time @from hundreds of thousnds of yers to thousnds of yersAF hile these dvntges seem nturl nd ppeling from sustinility perspetiveD they re omplited y the risk of theft of nuler mteril from the reproessing yle for use in illiit wepons prodution or other nonEsustinle endsF et presentD prneD the nited uingdomD ussiD tpn nd ghin engge in some form of reproessingY the nited ttesD weden nd pinlnd do not reproessF
cessing
103 httpXGGPHSFPSRFIQSFPRGtotlenergyGdtGnnulGpdfGerFpdf

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8.4.1.3.4 Summary

xuler eletriity o'ers the sustinle ene(t of low ron eletriity t the ost of storing spent fuel out of the environment for up to hundreds of thousnds of yersF xuler energy developed in only II yersD unusully quikly for mjor energy tehnologyD nd slowed eqully quikly due to puli onerns out sfety following hree wile sslnd nd ghernoylF he pukushim retor ident in wrh PHII hs rised further serious onerns out sfetyY its impt on puli opinion ould drmtilly 'et the future ourse of nuler eletriityF eproessing spent fuel o'ers the dvntges of higher energy e0ieny nd redued spent fuel storge requirements with the disdvntge of higher risk of wepons prolifertion through diversion of the reproessed fuel stremF
8.4.1.3.5 Review Questions Question 8.4.1.3.1

xuler eletriity me on the sene remrkly quikly following the end of orld r ssD nd its development stgnted quikly following the hree wile sslnd nd ghernoyl identsF he pukushim disster of PHII dds third utionry noteF ht onditions must e ful(lled if the world is to experiene n expnsion of nuler eletriityD often lled nuler renissnec
Question 8.4.1.3.2

xuler fuel n e used one nd ommitted to storge or reproessed fter its initil use to reover unused nuler fuel for reEuseF ht re the rguments for nd ginst reproessingc
Question 8.4.1.3.3

torge of spent nuler fuel for tens to hundreds of thousnds of yers is mjor sustinility hllenge for nuler eletriityF purther development of the u wountin storge fility hs een hltedF ht re some of the lterntives for storing spent nuler fuel going forwrdc

8.4.1.3.6 Resources

pergusonD gFhFDwrurgerD vFiF 8 prmerD tFhF @PHIHA e nuler futurec NatureD 467D QWIEQWQF doiX IHFIHQVGRTUQWI qrimesD FtF 8 xuttllD FtF @PHIHAF qenerting the yption of twoEstge nuler renissneF ScienceD 329D UWWEVHQF doiX IHFIIPTGsieneFIIVVWPV uzimiD wFD wonizD iFtFD 8 porsergD gF @PHIHA The Future of the Nuclear Fuel CycleF ws inergy sniE titiveF etrieved wy QHD PHII from httpXGGweFmitFeduGmiteiGreserhGstudiesGnulerEfuelEyleFshtml104 F orld xuler essoition @PHIIAF Processing of Used Nuclear FuelF etrieved wy QHD PHII from httpXGGwwwFworldEnulerForgGinfoGinfTWFhtml105 F
8.4.1.4 Renewable Energy: Solar, Wind, Hydro and Biomass 8.4.1.4.1 Learning Objectives
106

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

outline the soietl motivtions for renewle energy understnd the ultimte soures of renewle energy ppreite the geogrphil distriution of renewle energy understnd ost nd puli opinion s two key rriers to the widespred deployment of renewle energy

104 httpXGGweFmitFeduGmiteiGreserhGstudiesGnulerEfuelEyleFshtml 105 httpXGGwwwFworldEnulerForgGinfoGinfTWFhtml 106 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUQIGIFPGbF

QSR
8.4.1.4.2 Introduction

CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

trong interest in renewle energy in the modern er rose in response to the oil shocks of the IWUHsD when the yrgniztion of etroleum ixporting gountries107 @yigA imposed oil emrgos nd rised pries in pursuit of geopolitil ojetivesF he shortges of oilD espeilly gsoline for trnsporttionD nd the eventul rise in the prie of oil y ftor of pproximtely IH from IWUQ to IWVI disrupted the soil nd eonomi opertion of mny developed ountries nd emphsized their prerious dependene on foreign energy suppliesF he retion in the nited ttes ws shift wy from oil nd gs to plentiful domesti ol for eletriity prodution nd the imposition of fuel eonomy stndrds for vehiles to redue onsumption of oil for trnsporttionF yther developed ountries without lrge fossil reservesD suh s prne nd tpnD hose to emphsize nuler @prne to the VH perent level nd tpn to QH perentA or to develop domesti renewle resoures suh s hydropower nd wind @ndinviAD geotherml @selndAD solrD iomss nd for eletriity nd hetF es oil pries ollpsed in the lte IWVHs interest in renewlesD suh s wind nd solr tht fed signi(nt tehnil nd ost rriersD delined in mny ountriesD while other renewlesD suh s hydro nd iomssD ontinued to experiene growthF he inresing prie nd voltility of oil sine IWWVD nd the inresing dependene of mny developed ountries on foreign oil @TH perent of nited ttes nd WU perent of tpnese oil ws imported in PHHVA spurred renewed interest in renewle lterntives to ensure energy seurityF e new onernD not known in previous oil risesD dded further motivtionX our knowledge of the emission of greenhouse gses nd their growing ontriution to glol wrmingD nd the thret of limte hngeF en dditionl eonomi motivtionD the high ost of foreign oil pyments to supplier ountries @pproximtely 6QSH illionGyer for the nited ttes t PHII priesAD grew inresingly importnt s developed ountries struggled to reover from the eonomi reession of PHHVF hese energy seurityD ron emissionD nd limte hnge onerns drive signi(nt inreses in fuel eonomy stndrdsD fuel swithing of trnsporttion from unertin nd voltile foreign oil to domesti eletriity nd iofuelsD nd prodution of eletriity from low ron souresF
8.4.1.4.3 Physical Origin of Renewable Energy

elthough renewle energy is often lssi(ed s hydroD solrD windD iomssD geothermlD wve nd tideD ll forms of renewle energy rise from only three souresX the light of the sunD the het of the erth9s rustD nd the grvittionl ttrtion of the moon nd sunF unlight provides y fr the lrgest ontriution to renewle energyD illustrted in Figure porms of enewle inergy rovided y the un @pigure VFQQAF he sun provides the het tht drives the wetherD inluding the formtion of highE nd lowEpressure res in the tmosphere tht mke windF he sun lso genertes the het required for vporiztion of oen wter tht ultimtely flls over lnd reting rivers tht drive hydropowerD nd the sun is the energy soure for photosynthesisD whih retes iomssF olr energy n e diretly ptured for wter nd spe hetingD for driving onventionl turines tht generte eletriityD nd s exittion energy for eletrons in semionE dutors tht drive photovoltisF he sun is lso responsile for the energy of fossil fuelsD reted from the orgni remins of plnts nd se orgnisms ompressed nd heted in the sene of oxygen in the erth9s rust for tens to hundreds of millions of yersF he time sle for fossil fuel regenertionD howeverD is too long to onsider them renewle in humn termsF qeotherml energy origintes from het rising to the surfe from erth9s molten iron ore reted during the formtion nd ompression of the erly erth s well s from het produed ontinuously y rdiotive dey of urniumD thorium nd potssium in the erth9s rustF idl energy rises from the grvittionl ttrtion of the moon nd the more distnt sun on the erth9s oensD omined with rottion of the erthF hese three soures ! sunlightD the het trpped in erth9s ore nd ontinuously generted in its rustD nd grvittionl fore of the moon nd sun on the oens ! ount for ll renewle energyF
107 httpXGGwwwFopeForgGopeweGenG

QSS

Figure 8.33: Forms of Renewable Energy Provided by the Sun The sun is the ultimate source for
many forms of renewable energy: wind and running water that can be used for power generation without heat or combustion, and photosynthesis of green plants (biomass) for combustion to provide heat and power generation and for conversion to biofuels (upper panels). Solar energy can be directly captured for water and space heating in buildings, after concentration by mirrors in large plants for utility-scale power generation by conventional turbines, and without concentration in photovoltaic cells that produce power without heat or combustion (lower panels). Source: G. Crabtree using images from Linuxerist Mor plus

108

109

, Richard Dorrell

110

, Hernantron

111

, BSMPS

112

, Cachogaray

113

, and Andy F

114

es reltive newomers to energy produtionD renewle energy typilly opertes t lower e0ieny thn its onventionl ounterprtsF por exmpleD the est ommeril solr photovolti modules operte t out PH perent e0ienyD ompred to nerly TH perent e0ieny for the est omined yle nturl gs turinesF hotovolti modules in the lortory operte ove RH perent e0ieny ut re too expensive for generl useD showing tht there is mple hedroom for performne improvements nd ost redutionsF ind turines re loser to their theoretil limit of SW perent @known s Betz's lawA often hieving QS ! RH perent e0ienyF fiomss is notoriously ine0ientD typilly onverting less thn one perent of inident sunlight to energy stored in the hemil onds of its rootsD stlks nd levesF freeding nd geneti
108 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXunFlxsetFsvg 109 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXonnenshirmEimEindFtq 110 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXiveroskhillfterrinEgeogrphForgFukEIHIVIIHFjpg 111 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXnelolrenvvlosFtq 112 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXIPEHSEHVeIFtq 113 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXglefonsolrtermosifonioomptoFjpg 114 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXfiomssropwestoftvertonEgeogrphForgFukEIRWVWWPFjpg

QST

CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

modi(tion my improve this poor energy e0ienyD though hundreds of millions of yers of evolution sine the pperne of multielled orgnisms hve not produed signi(nt dvneF qeotherml energy is lredy in the form of het nd temperture grdientsD so tht stndrd tehniques of therml engineering n e pplied to improve e0ienyF ve nd tidl energyD though demonstrted in severl working plntsD re t erly stges of development nd their tehnologil development remins lrgely unexploredF
8.4.1.4.4 Capacity and Geographical Distribution

elthough renewle energies suh s wind nd solr hve experiened strong growth in reent yersD they still mke up smll frtion of the world9s totl energy needsF Figure enewle inergy hre of qlol pinl inergy gonsumptionD PHHV @pigure VFQRA shows the ontriution of fossilD nuler nd renewle energy to (nl glol energy onsumption in PHHVF he lrgest shre omes from trditionl iomssD mostly fuel wood gthered in trditionl soieties for household ooking nd hetingD often without regrd for sustinle replementF rydropower is the next lrgest ontriutorD n estlished tehnology tht experiened signi(nt growth in the PHth genturyF he other ontriutors re more reent nd smller in ontriutionX wter nd spe heting y iomss omustion or hrvesting solr nd geotherml hetD iofuels derived from orn or sugr neD nd eletriity generted from windD solr nd geotherml energyF ind nd solr eletriityD despite their lrge pity nd signi(nt reent growthD still ontriuted less thn one perent of totl energy in PHHVF

Figure 8.34: Renewable Energy Share of Global Final Energy Consumption, 2008
REN21. 2010. Renewables 2010 Global Status Report (Paris: REN21 Secretariat), p. 15

The

contribution of fossil, nuclear and renewable energy to global nal energy consumption in 2008. Source:

115

he potentil of renewle energy resoures vries drmtillyF olr energy is y fr the most plentifulD delivered to the surfe of the erth t rte of IPHDHHH erwtts @AD ompred to the glol humn use of IS F o put this in perspetiveD overing IHHxIHH km2 of desert with IH perent e0ient solr ells would produe HFPW of powerD out IP perent of the glol humn demnd for eletriityF o supply ll of the erth9s eletriity needs @PFR in PHHUA would require UFS suh squresD n re out the size of nm @HFHS perent of the erth9s totl lnd reAF he world9s onventionl oil reserves re estimted t three trillion rrelsD inluding ll the oil tht hs lredy een reovered nd tht remin for future reoveryF he solr energy equivlent of these oil reserves is delivered to the erth y the sun in IFS dysF he glol potentil for produing eletriity nd trnsporttion fuels from solrD wind nd iomss is limited y geogrphil vilility of lnd suitle for generting eh kind of energy @desried s
115 httpXGGwwwFrenPIFnetGortlsGWUGdoumentsGqGixPIqPHIHfullrevised7PHeptPHIHFpdf

QSU the geographical potentialAD the tehnil e0ieny of the onversion proess @reduing the geogrphil potentil to the technical potentialAD nd the eonomi ost of onstrution nd opertion of the onversion tehnology @reduing the tehnil potentil to the economic potentialAF he degree to whih the glol potentil of renewle resoures is tully developed depends on mny unknown ftors suh s the future extent of eonomi nd tehnologil dvnement in the developing nd developed worldsD the degree of gloliztion through usinessD intelletul nd soil links mong ountries nd regionsD nd the reltive importne of environmentl nd soil gends ompred to eonomi nd mteril ojetivesF Scenarios evluting the development of renewle energy resoures under vrious ssumptions out the world9s eonomiD tehnologil nd soil trjetories show tht solr energy hs PHESH times the potentil of wind or iomss for produing eletriityD nd tht eh seprtely hs su0ient potentil to provide the world9s eletriity needs in PHSH @de riesD PHHU @pF QTPAA he geogrphil distriution of usele renewle energy is quite unevenF unlightD often thought to e reltively evenly distriutedD is onentrted in deserts where loud over is rreF inds re up to SH perent stronger nd stedier o'shore thn on lndF rydroeletri potentil is onentrted in mountinous regions with high rinfll nd snowmeltF fiomss requires ville lnd tht does not ompete with food produtionD nd dequte sun nd rin to support growthF Figure enewle iletriity ypportunities @pigure VFQSA shows the geogrphil distriution of renewle eletriity opportunities tht re likely to e eonomilly ttrtive in PHSH under n ggressive world development senrioF

Figure 8.35:
(2007) (p. 362).

Renewable Electricity Opportunities

Source:

Map shows areas where one or more of the

wind, solar, and biomass options of renewable electricity is estimated to be able to produce electricity in 2050 at costs below 10 b kWh. de Vries, B.J.M., van Vuuren, D.P., & Hoogwijk, M.M. A hyper-text must be included to the Homepage of the journal from which you are

licensing at http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03014215/35/4 be obtained from Elsevier.

116

. Permission for reuse must

116 httpXGGwwwFsienediretFomGsieneGjournlGHQHIRPISGQSGR

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CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

8.4.1.4.5 Wind and Solar Resources in the United States

he nited ttes hs undnt renewle resouresF he solr resoures of the nited ttesD qermny nd pin re ompred in Figure olr esoures of the nited ttesD pin nd qermny @pigure VFQTAF he solr irrdition in the southwestern nited ttes is exeptionlD equivlent to tht of efri nd eustrliD whih ontin the est solr resoures in the worldF wuh of the nited ttes hs solr irrdition s good or etter thn pinD onsidered the est in iuropeD nd muh higher thn qermnyF he vrition in irrdition over the nited ttes is out ftor twoD quite homogeneous ompred to other renewle resouresF he size of the nited ttes dds to its resoureD mking it prime opportunity for solr developmentF

Figure 8.36: Solar Resources of the United States, Spain and Germany

The solar resources The

of the United States, Spain and Germany, expressed as solar insolation averaged over the year.

geographic variation of solar irradiation in the United States is only a factor of two, much less than for other renewable energy sources. Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Eciency and Renewable Energy, 2008 Solar Technologies Market Report, DOE/GO-102010-2867 (January, 2010), p52.

117

he wind resoure of the nited ttesD while undntD is less homogeneousF trong winds require stedy grdients of temperture nd pressure to drive nd sustin themD nd these re frequently ssoited with topologil fetures suh s mountin rnges or ostlinesF he onshore wind mp of the nited ttes shows this ptternD with the est wind long northEsouth orridor roughly t midEontinent @Figure VH weter ind esoure wp @pF QSWAAF y'shore winds over the qret vkes nd the est nd west osts re
117 httpXGGwwwIFeereFenergyFgovGsolrGpdfsGRTHPSFpdf

QSW stronger nd stedier though they over smller resF he tehnil potentil for onshore wind is over VHHH q of pity @vuD PHHW @pF QTPAY flk 8 ethD PHHU @pF QTPAA nd o'shore is VHH ! QHHH q @vuD PHHW @pF QTPAY hwrtzD reimillerD rymesD 8 wusilD PHIH @pF QTQAAF por omprisonD the nited ttes used eletriity in PHHW t the rte of RSH q verged over the dyEnight nd summerEwinter peks nd vlleysF

Figure 8.37: 80 Meter Wind Resource Map

States at 80 meters.

Figure shows the average wind speeds in the United

Also see oshore wind resource maps

118

Source:

National Renewable Energy Laboratory and AWS Truepower LLC

119

U.S. Department of Energy,

8.4.1.4.6 Barriers to Deployment

enewle energy fes severl rriers to its widespred deploymentF gost is one of the most seriousD illusE trted in Figure rodution gost of iletriity E PHPH rojetion @pF QTHAF elthough the ost of renewles hs delined signi(ntly in reent yersD most re still higher in ost thn trditionl fossil lterntivesF posE sil energy tehnologies hve longer experiene in stremlining mnufturingD inorporting new mterilsD
118 httpXGGwwwFwindpoweringmeriFgovGwindmpsGo'shoreFsp 119 httpXGGwwwFwindpoweringmeriFgovGwindmpsFsp

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CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

tking dvntge of eonomies of sle nd understnding the underlying physil nd hemil phenomen of the energy onversion proessF es Figure rodution gost of iletriity E PHPH rojetion @pF QTHA showsD the lowest ost eletriity is generted y nturl gs nd olD with hydro nd wind mong the renewle hllengersF gostD howeverD is not n isolted metriY it must e ompred with the lterntivesF yne of the unertinties of the present usiness environment is the ultimte ost of ron emissionsF sf governments put prie on ron emission to ompenste the soil ost of glol wrming nd the thret of limte hngeD the reltive ost of renewles will eome more ppeling even if their solute ost does not hngeF his poliy unertinty in the eventul ost of ronEsed power genertion is mjor ftor in the future eonomi ppel of renewle energyF

Figure 8.38: Production Cost of Electricity - 2020 Projection Estimates of the cost of electricity
in 2020 by fossil, nuclear and renewable generation. Source: European Commission, Strategic Energy Technologies Information System

120

e seond rrier to widespred deployment of renewle energy is puli opinionF sn the onsumer
120 httpXGGsetisFeFeuropFeuGnewsroomEitemsEfolderGprodutionEostEofEeletriityEPHPHEprojetion

QTI mrketD sles diretly smple puli opinion nd the onnetion etween deployment nd puli eptne is immediteF enewle energy is not hoie tht individul onsumers mkeF snstedD energy hoies re mde y government poliy mkers t ityD stte nd federl levelsD who lne onerns for the ommon goodD for firness to stkeholdersD nd for eonomi ostF xeverthelessD puli eptne is mjor ftor in lning these onernsX strongly fvored or disfvored energy option will e re)eted in government deisions through representtives eleted y or responding to the puliF Figure eeptne of hi'erent oures of inergy @pigure VFQWA shows the puli eptne of renewle nd fossil eletriity optionsF he rnge of eptne goes from strongly positive for solr to strongly negtive for nulerF he disprity in the puli eptne nd eonomi ost of these two energy lterntives is strikingX solr is t one the most expensive lterntive nd the most eptle to the puliF he importne of puli opinion is illustrted y the pukushim nuler disster of PHII121 F he erthquke nd tsunmi tht ultimtely used meltdown of fuel in severl retors of the pukushim omplex nd relese of rdition in populted re used mny of the puli in mny ountries to question the sfety of retors nd of the nuler eletriity enterprise generllyF he response ws rpidD with some ountries registering puli onsensus for drsti tion suh s shutting down nuler eletriity when the lienses for the presently operting retors expireF elthough its ultimte resolution is unertinD the sudden nd serious impt of the pukushim event on puli opinion shows the key role tht soil eptne plys in determining our energy trjetoryF

Figure 8.39:

Acceptance of Dierent Sources of Energy

Figure shows the European Union

citizens' public acceptance of renewable and fossil electricity generation technologies. Source: European Commission, Eurobarameter on Energy Technologies: Knowledge-Perception-Measures, p. 33

122

8.4.1.4.7 Summary

trong interest in renewle energy rose in the IWUHs s response to the shortge nd high prie of imported oilD whih disrupted the orderly opertion of the eonomies nd soieties of mny developed ountriesF ody there re new motivtionsD inluding the reliztion tht growing greenhouse gs emission elertes glol wrming nd thretens limte hngeD the growing dependene of mny ountries on foreign oilD nd
121 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpukushimhiihinulerdisster 122 httpXGGeFeuropFeuGreserhGenergyGpdfGenergyteheurorometerenFpdf

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CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

the eonomi drin of foreign oil pyments tht slow eonomi growth nd jo retionF here re three ultimte soures of ll renewle nd fossil energiesX sunlightD the het in the erth9s ore nd rustD nd the grvittionl pull of the moon nd sun on the oensF enewle energies re reltively reently developed nd typilly operte t lower e0ienies thn mture fossil tehnologiesF vike erly fossil tehnologiesD howeverD renewles n e expeted to improve their e0ieny nd lower their ost over timeD promoting their eonomi ompetitiveness nd widespred deploymentF he future deployment of renewle energies depends on mny ftorsD inluding the vilility of suitle lndD the tehnologil ost of onversion to eletriity or other usesD the osts of ompeting energy tehnologiesD nd the future need for energyF enrio nlyses indite tht renewle energies re likely to e tehnilly nd eonomilly ple of supplying the world9s eletriity needs in PHSHF sn ddition to ostD puli eptne is key ftor in the widespred deployment of renewle energyF
8.4.1.4.8 Review Questions Question 8.4.1.4.1 Question 8.4.1.4.2

ht events in the IWUHs nd lte IWWHs motivted the modern interest in renewle energyc

enewle energy is often divided into solrD windD hydropowerD iomssD geothermlD wve nd tideF ht re the ultimte soures of eh of these renewle energiesc ht is the ultimte soure of fossil fuel nd why is it not lssi(ed s renewlec
Question 8.4.1.4.3

enewle energy hs the tehnil potentil to supply glol eletriity needs in PHSHF ht ftors determine whether renewle energy will tully e deployed to meet this needc row n unknownsD suh s the rte of tehnologil nd eonomi dvnesD the eonomiD intelletul nd soil onnetions mong ountriesD nd the reltive importne of environmentl nd soil gends e tken into ount in determining the ourse of deployment of renewle energyc
Question 8.4.1.4.4

uli eptne is key ftor in the growth of renewle energy optionsF ht is the puli eptne of vrious energy optionsD nd how might these hnge over the next few dedesc

8.4.1.4.9 References

ettriD FFD heuyD wFvFD hvidsonD gFsFD 8 de fruinD FfF @PHIHAF uli pereptions of energy onsumpE tion nd svingsF PNASD 107D ITHSRF flk 8 eth @PHHUD ytoerAF Twenty percent wind energy penetration in the United States: A technical analysis of the energy resourceF lnut greekD geX flk 8 eth gorpF etrieved heemer WD PHII from wwwFPHperentwindForgGflkethPHerenteportFpdf123 124 Clean Energy Progress ReportD sie @PHIIAD httpXGGwwwFieForgGpulitionsGfreenewhesFspcfshaPQVR de riesD fFtFwFD vn uurenD hFFD 8 roogwijkD wFwF @PHHUAF enewle energy souresX heir glol potentil for the (rstEhlf of the PIst entury t glol levelX en integrted pprohF Energy PolicyD 35, PSWHF tosonD wFF 8 heluhiD wFeF @PHHWAF e pln for sustinle futureF Scientic AmericanD 301D SVF uldellisD tFuF 8 (rkisD hF @PHIIAF he wind energy @rAevolutionX e short review of long historyF Renewable EnergyD 36D IVVU-IWHIF vuD FD wilroyD wFfFD 8 uiviluomD tF @PHHWAF qlol potentil for windEgenerted eletriityF PNASD 106D IHWQQF
123 httpXGGwwwFPHperentwindForgGflkethPHerenteportFpdf 124 httpXGGwwwFieForgGpulitionsGfreenewhesFspcfshaPQVR

QTQ

st Renewables 2010 Global Status ReportD ixPID enewle inergy oliy xetwork for the PI genturyD httpXGGwwwFrenPIFnetGixPIetivitiesGulitionsGqlolttuseportGqPHIHGtidGSVPRGhefultFspx125 hwrtzD wFD reimillerD hFD rymesD FD 8 wusilD F @PHIHD tuneAF Assessment of oshore wind energy resources for the United States @xivEESHHERSVVWAF qoldenD gyX xtionl enewle inergy vortoryF etrieved heemer WD PHII from wwwFnrelFgovGdosGfyIHostiGRSVVWFpdf126
8.4.2 Liquid Fuels
8.4.2.1 Fossil Fuel (Oil)
127

8.4.2.1.1 Learning Objectives

efter reding this moduleD the student should e le to

outline the glol dependene of trnsporttion on oil understnd the thret to energy seurity posed y onentrtion of oil in few ountries understnd the hllenge of pturing ron emissions from trnsporttion nd the vlue of repling oil with n lternteD suh s iofuel or eletriity
8.4.2.1.2 Introduction

viquid petroleum fuels nd eletriity re the two dominnt energy carriers in the nited ttesD oil ounting for QU perent of primry energy nd eletriity for QV perentF hese two energy rriers ount for similr frtion of ron emissionsD QT perent nd QV perentD respetivelyF wo thirds of oil onsumption is devoted to trnsporttionD providing fuel for rsD truksD trins nd irplnesF por the nited ttes nd most developed soietiesD trnsporttion is woven into the fri of our livesD neessity s entrl to dily opertions s food or shelterF he onentrtion of oil reserves in few regions or the world @Figure grude yil eserves @pigure VFIAA mkes muh of the world dependent on imported energy for trnsporttionF he rise in the prie of oil in the lst dede mkes dependene on imported energy for trnsporttion n eonomi s well s n energy issueF he nited ttesD for exmpleD now spends upwrds of 6QSH illion nnully on imported oilD drin of eonomi resoures tht ould e used to stimulte growthD rete josD uild infrstruture nd promote soil dvnes t homeF prom sustinility perspetiveD oil presents severl hllengesF pirst is the length of time over whih the world9s (nite oil reserves n ontinue to supply rising demndF eond is the impt on glol wrming nd limte hnge tht ron emissions from oil omustion will hveD nd third is the hllenge of (nding sustinle replement for oil for trnsporttionF he (rst hllengeD how muh oil is left nd when its prodution will pekD ws disussed in etion VFIF he ottom line is thtD s ogi ferr fmously sidD mking preditions is di0ultD espeilly out the futureF elthough we know the generl ourse of initil rise nd ultimte fll tht glol oil prodution must tkeD we do not know with on(dene the time sle over whih it will ply outF he unertinty of the timing of the pek in glol oil prodution enourges us to (nd other issues nd motivtions for deling with n inevitly unsustinle supplyF e prime motivtion is energy seurityD the thret tht oil supplies ould e interrupted y ny of severl events inluding wetherD nturl dissterD terrorism nd geopolitisF wuh of the world feels these threts re good resons for onerted e'ort to (nd replements for oil s our primry trnsporttion fuelF e seond motivtion is the environmentl dmge nd umultion of greenhouse gses in the tmosphere due to trnsporttion emissionsF nlike eletriity genertionD trnsporttion emissions rise from millions of tiny souresD eFgF the tilpipes of rs nd truks nd the exhust of trins nd irplnesF he hllenge of pturing nd sequestering ron dioxide from
125 httpXGGwwwFrenPIFnetGixPIetivitiesGulitionsGqlolttuseportGqPHIHGtidGSVPRGhefultFspx 126 httpXGGwwwFnrelFgovGdosGfyIHostiGRSVVWFpdf 127 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUQSGIFPGbF

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CHAPTER 8.

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these distriuted nd moving soures is drmtilly greter thn from the lrge (xed soures of power plntsF e more hievle ojetive my e repling oil s trnsporttion fuel with iofuel tht reyles nturlly eh yer from tilpipes of rs to iofuel rops tht do not ompete with food ropsF yther options inlude repling liquid fuels with eletriity produed domestillyD or inresing the e0ieny of vehiles y reduing their weightD regenertively pturing rking energyD nd improving engine e0ienyF ih of these options hs promise nd eh must overome hllengesF ghnges in the energy system re inevitly slowD euse of the time needed to develop new tehnologies nd the opertionl inerti of phsing out the infrstruture of n existing tehnology to mke room for suessorF he trnsporttion system exhiits this opertionl inertiD governed y the turnover time for the )eet of vehilesD out IS yersF elthough tht time sle is long ompred to eonomi ylesD the pro(t horizon of orportions nd the politil horizon of eleted o0ilsD it is importnt to egin now to identify nd develop sustinle lterntives to oil s trnsporttion fuelF he timesle from innovtion of new pprohes nd mterils to mrket deployment is typilly PH yers or moreD well mthed to the opertionl inerti of the trnsporttion systemF he hllenge is to initite innovtive reserh nd development for lterntive trnsporttion systems nd sustin it ontinuously until the lterntives re estlishedF
8.4.2.1.3 Summary

yil for trnsporttion nd eletriity genertion re the two iggest users of primry energy nd produers of ron emissions in the nited ttesF rnsporttion is lmost ompletely dependent on oil nd internl omustion engines for its energyF he onentrtion of oil in few regions of the world retes trnsportE tion energy seurity issueF nlike eletriity genertion emissionsD ron emissions from trnsporttion re di0ult to pture euse their souresD the tilpipes of vehilesD re mny nd movingF he hllenges of oil energy seurity nd pturing the ron emissions of vehiles motivte the serh for n oil replementD suh s iofuelsD eletriity or greter energy e0ieny of vehilesF
8.4.2.1.4 Review Questions Question 8.4.2.1.1

he lmost exlusive dependene of the trnsporttion system on liquid fuels mkes oil n essentil ommodity for the orderly opertion of mny soietiesF ht re some lterntives to oil s trnsporttion fuelc
Question 8.4.2.1.2

here re mny resons to redue onsumption of oilD inluding n ultimtely (nite supplyD the high ost nd lost eonomi stimulus of pyments to foreign produersD the thret of interruption of supply due to wetherD nturl dissterD terrorism or geopolitil deisionsD nd the thret of limte hnge due to greenhouse gs emissionsF hih of these resons re the most importntc ill their reltive importne hnge with timec
Question 8.4.2.1.3

he trnsporttion system hnges slowlyD governed y the lifetime of the )eet of vehilesF gompre the time required for hnge in the trnsporttion system with the timesle of eonomi ylesD the pro(t horizon of usinessD the politil horizon of eleted o0ils nd the time required to develop new trnsporttion tehnologies suh s eletri rs or iofuelsF ht hllenges do these time sles present for hnging the trnsporttion systemc

8.4.2.1.5 References

renhD gFtF @nFdFAF Oil Market BasicsF FFinergy snformtion edministrtionF etrieved eptemer IPD PHII from httpXGGPHSFPSRFIQSFPRGpuGoilgsGpetroleumGnlysispulitionsGoilmrketsisGdefultFhtm128
128 httpXGGPHSFPSRFIQSFPRGpuGoilgsGpetroleumGnlysispulitionsGoilmrketsisGdefultFhtm

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8.4.2.2 The Conversion of Biomass into Biofuels 8.4.2.2.1 Learning Objectives
129

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

understnd the soil nd environmentl motivtions for iofuels prodution lern the min types of tlyti nd iotlyti routes to produe iofuels nd iohemils ompre lohol @ethnol nd utnolA iofuels to hydroron iofuels @green gsolineD dieselD nd jet fuelA
8.4.2.2.2 Introduction

fiofuels re fuels mde from iomssF he est known exmple is ethnolD whih n e esily fermented from sugr ne juieD s is done in frzilF ithnol n lso e fermented from roken down @sri(edA orn strhD s is minly done in the nited ttesF wost reentlyD e'orts hve een devoted to mking dropEin replement hydroron iofuels lled green gsolineD green dieselD or green jet fuelF his hpter disusses the need for iofuelsD the types of iofuels tht n e produed from the vrious ville iomss feedstoksD nd the dvntges nd disdvntges of eh fuel nd feedstokF he vrious wys of produing iofuels re lso reviewedF
8.4.2.2.3 The Need for Renewable Transportation Fuels

sn rude oilD olD nd nturl gsD @olletively lled fossil fuelsA our plnet hs provided us with soures of energy tht hve een esy to otin nd onvert into useful fuels nd hemilsF ht sitution will soon hngeD howeverD in few dedes for petroleum rude nd in few enturies for ol nd nturl gsF Peak oil refers to the pek in oil prodution tht must our s petroleum rude runs outF es shown in Figure ek yil ! he qrowing qp @pigure VFRHAD the min disoveries of rude oil ourred prior to IWVHF
129 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUQTGIFPGbF

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CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

Figure 8.40: Peak Oil  The Growing Gap

Petroleum crude oil discoveries versus rened oil

production. Source: Rep. Roscoe Bartlett, Maryland

130

ine oil is getting hrder nd hrder to (ndD we now hve to otin it from less essile ples suh s fr under the oenD whih hs led to hrdEtoErepir idents suh s the heepwter rorizon oil spill131 in wyD PHIHF en dditionl e'et is the higher ost of re(ning the petroleum sine it omes from more remote lotions or in less desirle forms suh s thikD roky tr snd or oil snd found in gnd or enezuelF yverllD the use of petroleum rude nnot exeed the mount of petroleum tht hs een disoveredD nd ssuming tht no mjor oil disoveries lie hedD the prodution of oil from rude must strt to dereseF ome nlysts think tht this pek hs lredy hppenedF en dditionl spet of oil srity is energy independeneF he nited ttes urrently imports out two thirds of its petroleumD mking it dependent on the ene(ene of ountries tht possess lrge mounts of oilF hese ountries re shown in Figure he orld eording to yil @pigure VFRIAD world mp resled with the re of eh ountry proportionl to its oil reservesF widdle istern ountries re mong those with the highest oil reservesF ith its eonomy nd stndrd of living so sed on imported petroleum rude it is esy to see why the nited ttes is deeply involved in widdle ist politisF st should e noted tht Figure ek yil ! he qrowing qp @pigure VFRHA orresponds to the entire world nd even urrently oilErih ountries suh s udi eri will soon experiene pek oilF
130 httpXGGwwwFrtlettFhouseFgovGuploded(lesGekyilqphisoverygonsumptionFpdf 131 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGheepwterrorizonoilspill

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Figure 8.41: The World According to Oil

World map redrawn with country area proportional to

oil resources. Source: Rep. Roscoe Bartlett, Maryland

132

e seond mjor motivtion to move wy from petroleum rude is glol limte hngeF hile the orE reltion of ron dioxide @gy2 A onentrtion in the tmosphere to verge glol temperture is presently eing detedD the rise of gy2 in our tmosphere tht hs ome from urning fossil fuel sine the industril revolution is from out PVH ppm to out QWH ppm t presentD nd nnot e deniedF inergy soures suh s windD solrD nulerD nd iomss re needed tht minimize or eliminte the relese of tmospheri gy2 F fiomss is inluded in this list sine the ron tht mkes up plnt (er is tken from the tmosphere in the proess of photosynthesisF furning fuel derived from iomss releses the gy2 k into the tmosphereD where it n gin e inorported into plnt mssF he inergy sndependene nd eurity et @iseA of PHHU133 de(nes n dvned iofuel s one tht lowers lifeyle greenhouse gs emissions @emissions from ll proesses involved in otiningD re(ningD nd (nlly urning the fuelA y TH7 reltive to the seline of PHHS petroleum rudeF
8.4.2.2.4 First Generation Biofuels

pirst genertion iofuels re ommonly onsidered to e ethnolD s hs een produed in frzil for over QH yers from sugr neD nd iodiesel produed y reking downD in proess lled transestericationD vegetle oilF frzil n e0iently hrvest the juie from its sugr ne nd mke ethnolD whih is prieE ompetitive with gsoline t ost per mileF
132 httpXGGwwwFrtlettFhouseFgovGuploded(lesGekghrthorstheyilFpdf 133 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGinergysndependenendeurityetofPHHU

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CHAPTER 8.

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Figure 8.42: Gas/Ethanol Fuel Pump A fuel pump in Brazil oering either ethanol alcohol (A) or
gasoline (G). Source: Natecull

134

hereD if the ost of lohol @s it is known olloquillyA is less thn UH7 thn the ost of gsolineD tnks re (lled with ethnolF sf the ost of lohol is more thn UH7 of the ost of gsolineD people (ll up with gsoline sine there is out QH7 penlty in gs milege with ethnolF his omes out simply euse the hemil struture of ethnol hs less energy per volume @out UTDHHH ftuGgllon or SDIHH klGliterA thn gsoline @IIS ftuGgllon or UDTHH klGliterA or diesel @IQPDHHH ftuGgllon or VDVHH klGliterAF gne ethnol quli(esD per ise PHHUD s n dvned iofuelF sn the nited ttesD for ost of out twie tht of neEderived ethnolD orn strh is shri(ed nd fermented into ethnolF ithnol is used predominntly s high otneD oxygented lend t IH7 to improve the omustion in gsoline enginesF he distriution of ethnol s iVS )ex fuel135 @VS7 ethnol nd IS7 gsolineA hs fltered proly euse the prieD even with SH entsGgllon federl susidyD does not mke up for the PS ! QH7 derese in gs milege @see Figure wilege gomprisons @pigure VFRQAAF
134 httpXGGwwwF)ikrFomGphotosGnteullGQSISUSUG 135 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGiVS

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Figure 8.43:
Source:

Mileage Comparisons

Mileage

comparison

of

gasoline

and

E85

ex

fuel.

U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Eciency and Renewable Energy.

http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/byfueltype.htm

136

Image created at

pirst genertion iodiesel is mde vi the se tlyzed transesterication of plnt oils suh s soy nd plmF he min disdvntge with plnt oilEsed iofuels is the high ost of the plnt oilD owing to the reltively little oil tht n e produed per re of frmlnd ompred to other iofuel souresF he prolem with trnsesteri(tion is tht it produes fuel reltively high in oxygenD whih A uses the iodiesel to eome loudy @prtilly freezeA t reltively high tempertureD nd mkes the iodiesel A less stleD nd A less energy dense thn petroleumEderived dieselF gne ethnol quli(es s n dvned iofuelD s its prodution lowers greenhouse gs emissions more thn TH7 reltive to the PHHS petroleum seline @per ise PHHUAF gorn ethnol is fr from this energy e0ienyF roweverD ethnol mde from lignocellulose ! the nonEfood prt of plnts E omes loseD t SH7 redutionF his rings us to the seond genertion of iofuelsF
136 httpXGGwwwFfueleonomyFgovGfegGyfueltypeFhtm

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8.4.2.2.5 Second Generation Biofuels

CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

eond genertion iofuels re shown in Figure eond qenertion fiofuels @pigure VFRRAF sn ntiiption of the food versus fuel deteD ise PHHU pled p on the prodution of orn ethnol @t IS illion gllonsGyerD lose to wht is now produedAD with the ulk of iofuels to e derived from griulturl residues suh s orn stover @the prts of the orn plnt left over from the ers of orn ! the stlk nd levesA nd whet strwD forest wste @wood trimmingsA nd energy rops suh s swithgrss nd short rottion poplr trees whih n e grown on ndoned or mrginl frmlnd with miniml irrigtion nd fertiliztionF e FF heprtment of egriulture study ommissioned in PHHS lled the fillion on tudy137 estimted tht pproximtely one illion tons per yer of iomss ould e sustinly produed in the nited ttes eh yerY the energy in this iomss equls to the mount of oil we importF sf the energy ontined in this iomss n e reovered t n e0ieny of SH perentD we n reple hlf of our imported oil with domestilly produed iofuelsF

Figure 8.44: Second Generation Biofuels Cellulosic ethanol and green diesel.
buto

138

Source: John Regal-

golletively termed lignoelluloseD this mteril onsists of three min omponentsY elluloseD hemielE luloseD nd ligninF ghemil or iologil pretretments re required to seprte the whole iomsss into these frtionsF remiellulose nd elluloseD with the pproprite enzymes or inorgni idsD n e deonE struted into simple sugrs nd the sugrs fermented into ethnolD or with some newer strins of miroesD into utnolF futnol hs only IH7 less energy density thn gsolineF he lignin frtion of iomss is
137 httpXGGfeedstokreviewFornlFgovGpdfGilliontonvisionFpdf 138 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGjrr

QUI the most resistnt to deonstrution y iologil or hemil mens nd is often urned for het or power reoveryF et the sme time ttention turned towrd ellulosi ethnolD petroleum re(ning ompnies set out to improve iodieselF e petroleum re(ning proess lled hydrotreating ws used to upgrde plnt oilF sn this proessD the oil is reted with hydrogen in the presene of inorgni tlystsD nd the plnt oil is onverted into muh higher qulityD oxygenEfree green diesel nd jet fuelF his type of iofuel is in ft drop in replement to petroleumEderived diesel nd jet fuel nd psses ll of the stringent regultions demnded y the utomoile nd defense industriesF st hs een tested in numer of ommeril nd militry irrftF
8.4.2.2.6 Advanced Biofuels

edvned iofuels reD in ftD hrterized y their similrity to present dy gsolineD dieselD nd jet fuelsF edvned iofuels re infrastructure compatible nd energy denseF he two disdvntges with even ellulosi ethnol re its low energy density @the energy ontent of ethnol eing independent of whether it omes from ornD elluloseD etFA nd its inomptiility with existing r enginesD oil pipelinesD storge tnksD re(neriesD etF por these two resons the ltest reserh nd development e'orts in the nited ttes hve een devoted to hydroron iofuelsD whih hve the sme gs milege s the gsoline nd diesel fuels now usedD nd re ompletely omptile with the existing oil infrstrutureF

Figure 8.45: Routes to Advanced Biofuels

biofuels. Source: John Regalbuto

139

Various routes to drop-in replacement hydrocarbon

he vrious routes to dropEin replement hydroron iofuels re shown in Figure outes to edvned fiofuels @pigure VFRSAF yn the left side of the (gureD feedstoks re ordered reltive to their undne nd ostF he most undnt ndD thereforeD hepest feedstok is lignoellulose from soures suh s griulturl residueD forest wsteD nd energy rops suh s swith grss nd short rottion poplr treesF yf
139 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGjrr

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CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

lesser undne nd higher expense re the sugrs nd strhes ! orn nd sugr neF he lest undnt nd most expensive iofuelsD lipidEsed feedstoks from plnt oil or niml ftD re shown t the ottomF i'orts re underwy to mss produe oilElden lgeF he oils hrvested from lge re reltively esy to onvert to hydroron iofuelsD y using proessing similr to hydrotretingF he min set of prolems ssoited with lge lie in its mss produtionF elgl feedstoks re esy to onvert to hydrorons ut lge itself is di0ult to mss produeD wheres lignoellulose is very undnt ut more di0ult to onvert into hydroronsF wo of the routes to hydroron iofuels ompete diretly with fermentation of sugrs to ethnolF he sme sugrs n e treted with inorgni tlystsD vi the lue liquid phse proessing routes seen in the enter of Figure outes to edvned fiofuels @pigure VFRSAD or with miroil routes to yield hydrorons s the fermenttion produt @pink routesAF wiroes re exmples of iotlystsY enzymes within the miroe t in silly the sme wy tht inorgni tlysts t in inorgni solutionsF he (eld of reserh in whih enzymes re engineered to lter iologil retion pthwys is lled syntheti iologyF e )ow sheet of n inorgni tlyti set of proesses to hydroron iofuelsD from leding iofuel strtup ompny @irent inergy ystems140 of wdisonD isonsinA is shown in Figure snorgni gtlyti outes to edvned fiofuels @pigure VFRTAF foth of the biocatalytic nd the inorgni tlyti proesses involve n intrinsi seprtion of the hydroron produt from wterD whih elimintes the energy intensive distilltion step needed for lohol fuelsF por the miroil route the dded ene(t of this selfEseprtion is tht the miroes re not poisoned y the umultion of produt s ours in fermenttion to loholF

Figure 8.46: Inorganic Catalytic Routes to Advanced Biofuels

Systems. Source: Virent Energy Systems, gure 1

A ow sheet of an inorganic

catalytic set of processes to hydrocarbon biofuels, from a leading biofuel startup company, Virent Energy

141

wo other min routes to hydroron iofuels re seen in the upper setion of Figure outes to edvned fiofuels @pigure VFRSAX gasication nd pyrolysisF en dvntge of oth of these routes is tht they proess whole iomssD inluding the energyErih lignin frtion of itF qsi(tion produes mixture of ron monoxide nd hydrogen lled synthesis gsD whih n e onverted to hydroron fuels y numer of urrently ommerilized tlyti routes inluding Fischer-Tropsch synthesis nd methnolEtoEgsolineF he hllenge with iomss is to mke these proesses eonomilly vile t smll
140 httpXGGwwwFvirentFomG 141 httpXGGwwwFvirentFomGxewsGinthemediGtlytionversionofsugrFpdf

QUQ sleF he seond proess is pyrolysisD whih yields rudeElike intermedite lled pyrolysis oil or ioEoilF his intermedite must e further treted to remove oxygenY one this is done it n e inserted into n existing petroleum re(nery for further proessingF
8.4.2.2.7 Summary

he motivtions for hydroron iofuels re energy independene nd redution in greenhouse gs emisE sionsF he (rst renewle iofuels were iodiesel nd ioethnolF ith inorganic catalysis nd synthetic biologyD these hve een supplnted with dropEin replement gsolineD dieselD nd jet fuelsF hese n e mde in the nited ttes in numer of wys from presently villeD sustinly produed lignoellulosi feedstoks suh s orn stoverD wood hipsD nd swithgrssD nd in the futureD from mssEprodued lgeF st is too erly to tell whih prodution method will previlD if in ft one doesF ome proesses might end up eing prtiulrly dvntgeous for prtiulr feedstok suh s wood or swithgrssF ht we do know is tht something hs to e doneY our supply of inexpensiveD esily essile oil is running outF fiofuels will e ig prt of the ountry9s longEterm energy independeneF e gret del of sienti( nd engineering reserh is urrently underwyY it9s n exiting time for iofuelsF
8.4.2.2.8 Review Questions Question 8.4.2.2.1 Question 8.4.2.2.2

ht re the potentil dvntges of hydroron iofuels over lohol iofuelsc

row ould iofuels e used with other lternte energy forms to help the nited ttes eome energy independentc

8.4.3 Heat
8.4.3.1 Geothermal Heating and Cooling 8.4.3.1.1 Learning Objectives
142

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

understnd the si thermodynmi priniples of het lern wht mkes geotherml heting nd ooling more e0ient thn onventionl systems ompre di'erent types of geotherml systems nd the priniples tht govern their design
8.4.3.1.2 Introduction

ith limited supplies of fossil fuels in the oming dedes nd inresing wreness of environmentl onerns relted to omustions of fossil fuelsD lternte energy soures suh s geotherml re eoming inresingly ttrtiveF Geothermal energy is energy tht omes from the erthF sn this setion we desrie the si priniples of geotherml energy systems nd the energy svings tht n result from their useF
8.4.3.1.3 The Heat Pump

he key to understnding geotherml energy system is the het pumpF xormlly het goes from hot re to old reD ut het pump is devie tht enles het to e trnsferred from lower temperture to higher temperture with miniml onsumption of energy @see Figure e imple ret ump @pF QURAAF e home refrigertor is n exmple of simple het pumpF e refrigertor removes het from the inside of
142 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUQUGIFQGbF

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CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

refrigertor t pproximtely Q gD QV p @ee Heat In in the Figure e imple ret ump @pF QURAA nd then disrds it to the kithen @t pproximtely PU gD VH p @ee Heat Out in Figure e imple ret ump @pF QURAAF st is pumping het from the inside of the refrigertor to the outside using ompressorD hene the nme heat pumpF he ft the most )uids oil t di'erent tempertures when pressure is hnged143 is ruil to the opertion of the het pumpF foiling removes het from the environmentD just like oiling wter tkes het from the stoveF sn het pumpD oiling tkes ple t lower pressure ndD onsequentlyD t lower tempertureF vet9s ssume RH pD or R gD so tht it n e'etively remove het from the soil or the pond wter @the het soureA in the geotherml unit t SH pD or IH gF he stem produed from the oiling n then e ompressed @see Compressor in Figure e imple ret ump @pF QURAA to higher pressure so tht it will ondense @the opposite of oilingA t muh higher tempertureF hen geotherml unit is inorported into uildingD it is the uilding tht removes the hetD susequently wrming it up @ee Heat Out in Figure e imple ret ump @pF QURAAF he ondensed stem in geotherml het pump will thus provide het t muh higher temperture to the re eing heted thn the originl het soureF pinlly throttleD similr to wter fuet t homeD is used to lower the pressure @ee Expansion Valve in Figure e imple ret ump @pF QURAA to omplete the losed system yleD whih is then repetedF fy swithing the diretion of the het pumpD the geotherml system n e used for ooling s wellF
143 his is the sme reson why wter oils t lower tempertures t higher elevtions where pressure is lowerD for exmple in foulderD golordoF

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Figure 8.47: A Simple Heat Pump A typical vapor compression heat pump for cooling used with a
Geothermal System. Source: Sohail Murad

144

adapted from Ilmari Karonen

145

8.4.3.1.4 Geothermal Heating and Cooling

qeotherml systems re suited to lotions with somewht extreme temperture rngesF eres with moderte temperture rnges @eFgF some res of gliforniA n use ordinry het pumps with similr energy svings y dding or removing het toGfrom the outside ir diretlyF eres tht experiene somewht extreme tempertures @eFgF the widwest nd ist gostA re idel trget lotions for geotherml systemsF por regions with moderte limtesD suh s mny prts of the outh or the est gostD onventionl het pumpsD tht exhnge energy generlly with the outside irD n still e used with similr energy svingsF qeotherml het pumps @qrsA use the lmost onstnt tempertures @U g to V gD or RS p to RV pA of soil eneth the frost line s n energy soure to provide e0ient heting nd ooling ll yer longF he instlltion ost of qrs is higher thn onventionl systems due to dditionl drilling nd exvtion expensesD ut the dded ost is quikly o'set y qrs9 higher e0ienyF st is possile to gin up to SH perent
144 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGmurd 145 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXretpumpFsvg

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svings over onventionl heting nd ooling systems @see Figure istimted gooling gosts gomprison @pF QUTAAD whih llows the dditionl pitl osts from instlltion to e reoveredD on vergeD in less thn S yersF qr9s hve n verge lifespn of over QH yersD leving PS yers or more of hetingGooling svings for those willing to mke the investmentF sn dditionD qrs re spe e0ient ndD euse they ontin fewer moving omponentsD they lso hve lower mintenne ostsF

Figure 8.48: Estimated Cooling Costs Comparison Estimated cooling costs of geothermal systems
compared with conventional systems. Source: Sohail Murad

146

8.4.3.1.5 Types of Geothermal Systems

here re two mjor types of geotherml systemsX in ground nd pond systems. In ground geothermal systems n e vertil nd horizontl s shown in Figure sn qround qeotherml ystems @pigure VFRWAF he exvtion ost of vertil systems is generlly higher nd they require more lnd re for instlltionD whih is generlly not n option in urn lotionsF yther thn exvtion ostsD vertil nd horizontl qrs hve similr e0ienies sine the ground temperture elow the frost line is essentilly onstntF
146 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGmurd

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147

Figure 8.49: In Ground Geothermal Systems Examples of horizontal and vertical ground systems.
Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Eciency and Renewable Energy

Pond geothermal systems re generlly preferle if there is wter ville in the viinity t lmost onstnt temperture yer roundF hese systems re espeilly suited to industril units @eFgF oil re(neriesA with wter tretment filities to tret proessed wter efore it is dishrgedF he temperture of treted wter from these filities is essentilly onstnt throughout the yer nd is n idel lotion for pond systemF ond geotherml systems re onstruted with either open loops or losed loops @see Figure ond qeotherml ystems @pigure VFSHAAF ypen loop systems tully remove wter from the pondD while the lose loop systems only remove energy in the form of het from the pond wterF yf ourseD in open pond system this wter is gin returned to the pondD leit t lower temperture when used for hetingF

147 httpXGGwwwFenergysversFgovGyourhomeGspehetingoolingGindexFfmGmytopiaIPTSH

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Source:

Figure 8.50: Pond Geothermal Systems Examples of closed and open loop pond systems.
U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Eciency and Renewable Energy

8.4.3.1.6 Economics of Geothermal Systems

es stted erlierD depending upon the type of systemD the pitl nd instlltion ost of geotherml system is out twie the ost of trditionl heating, ventilation, air conditioning (HVAC) systemF roweverD oth the operting nd mintenne osts re muh lower nd swithing from heting to ooling is e'ortlessF e typil return of investment @ysA plot for ground geotherml system for multiEunit uilding is fvorle @see Figure eturn of snvestment in qeotherml ystem @pF QUVAAF e geotherml system tht hd n dditionl 6SHHDHHH in pitl osts ut lower operting nd mintenne osts llowed the dded ost to e reouped in S to V yersF ine the verge lifespn of geotherml system is t lest QH yersD the svings over the lifetime of the system n e sustntilF he e0ieny of ground geotherml systems is firly onstnt sine there re no lrge vritions in ground tempertureF he e0ieny for pond systems wouldD in generlD e muh higher thn those shown in Figure eturn of snvestment in qeotherml ystem @pF QUVA ifD during the winter monthsD the pond wter temperture is higher thn typil ground tempertures elow the frost line @U g E V gD or RR p E RV pA euse the e0ieny of het pumps inreses with higher het soure tempertureF enother reson for higher e0ieny of pond systems is the muh higher het trnsfer rte etween )uid nd the outer surfe of the geotherml pipesD espeilly if the wter is )owingF
148 httpXGGwwwFenergysversFgovGyourhomeGspehetingoolingGindexFfmGmytopiaIPTSH

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Figure 8.51: Return of Investment in Geothermal System Return of additional capital investment
in a typical geothermal system. Source: Murad, S., & Al-Hallaj, S. from Feasibility Study For a Hybrid Fuel Cell/Geothermal System, Final Report, HNTB Corporation, August 2009.

8.4.3.1.7 Increasing Eciency of Geothermal Systems

everl strtegies re ville to inrese the e0ieny of geotherml systemsF yne of the most promising possiilities is to use it in onjuntion with phase change materials (PCM) @see lso Module eppliE tions of hse ghnge wterils for ustinle inergy @etion VFTAAD prtiulrly to hndle pek lods of energy onsumptionsF hse hnge mterils re mterils tht n sor nd deliver muh lrger mounts of energy ompred to typil uilding mterilsF he ost of geotherml systems unlike other reg systems inreses lmost linerly with system size @pproximtely 6IHHHGtonAF husD uilding lrger systems to ount for pek lods n signi(ntly dd to oth the pitl nd instlltion ostsF gw n e inorported into ll four geotherml systems desried erlierF he est pproh is to inorporte gws with geotherml systems for pplitions in systems with nonEuniform energy requirementsD or systems with short ut signi(nt swings nd peks in energy needsF por exmpleD designers my inlude snow melting heting systems for trin pltforms or they my uild u'er energy reservoir using gws to stisfy pek needs of ooling on hot summer fternoonF he dvntges in the former pplition would e to void running the geotherml system for het lods t low tempertures over prolonged periodsD whih would not e s energy e0ient nd would require speilly designed systemsF sing phse hnge mterils llows for the use of stndrd geotherml systemsD whih would then store energy in gw unit to supply het t onstnt temperture nd t uniform het rte toD for exmpleD melt the snow on trin pltformsF yne the energy in the gw is nerly used the geotherml system would

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repower the gw storgeF he extr energy needs for pek periods ould e stored in gw torge nks nd then used to ddress suh needsF por exmpleD on hot summer dyD the gw unit n e used to remove dditionl het ove the designed pity of the geotherml system during temperture spikesD whih generlly lst only few hoursF his then redues the lod on the geotherml system during pek hours when eletriity ost is generlly the highestF gw torge nks redue the overll ost of the geotherml het pump system signi(ntly sine it does not hve to e designed to ddress pek hetingGooling needsF sn dditionD it lso shifts energy lods from pek hours to nonEpek hoursF Figure emperture rition @pF QVHA shows temperture vritions for typil summer dy in tuly PHIH in ghigoF he high temperture of WH degree lsted only for short period of out R hoursD nd then returned to elow VS degrees rpidlyF hese reltively short temperture peks n e esily mnged y gwsF

Figure 8.52: Temperature Variation

Source: Sohail Murad tory

149

Temperature variation during a typical July day in Chicago.

150

produced gure using data from Great Lakes Environmental Research Labora-

sn onlusionD geotherml het pumps re very ttrtiveD ost e0ient sustinle energy soure for oth heting nd ooling with miniml ron printF st is wellEdeveloped tehnology tht n e esily inorported into oth residentil nd ommeril uildings t either the design stge or y retro(tting uildingsF
8.4.3.1.8 Review Questions Question 8.4.3.1.1 Question 8.4.3.1.2

yn wht priniple does geotherml het pump workc ht mkes it more ost e0ient thn eletril heting or onventionl furnesc

149 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGmurd 150 httpXGGwwwFglerlFnoFgovGmetdtGhiGrhiveG

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Question 8.4.3.1.3

ere geotherml het pumps suitle for moderte limtes @eFgF wimiD pvAc ere onventionl eletril or gs furnes the only hoies in these resc

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8.4.4 Sustainable Energy Practices: Climate Action Planning

8.4.4.1 Learning Objectives

151

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

understnd the onsidertions needed to mke move to sustinle energy eonomy desrie pth to get to sustinle energy eonomy onnet sustinle energy poliies to limte tion plnning
8.4.4.2 Introduction

rditionllyD the nited ttes hs relied on fossil fuels with miniml use of lterntives to provide powerF he resoures ppered to e unlimited nd they were found within our ordersF es our popultion hs grown nd our reline on power inresedD our resoures re deresingF es disussed in Module invironmentl ghllenges in inergyD gron hioxideD eir nd ter @etion VFPAD this is prtiulrly true of petroleum oilD whih primrily powers trnsporttionF yur eletril grid nd trnsporttion infrstruture of rods nd highwys support these fossil fuel dependent tehnologiesF possil fuels store energy wellD re ville upon demnd @not wether dependentAD nd re inexpensiveF roweverD s we sw in Module invironmentl ghllenges in inergyD gron hioxideD eir nd ter @etion VFPA there re mny environmentlD soilD nd even eonomi impts of using these nonrenewle fuel soures tht re not ounted for in the trditionl methods of ost ountingF purtherD the oil industry hs een provided with mny susidies or tx inentives not ville to other energy industriesF row do we move to more sustinle energy eonomyc e need to py more ttention to the enviE ronmentD humnsD iodiversityD nd respeting our eosystemsF st mens (nding wys to shre our resoures equitly oth now nd in the future so ll people n hve n equl opportunity to derive ene(ts from eletriityD motorized trnsporttion systemsD industryD nd onditioned indoor environmentsF et the sme timeD we must preserve humn helth nd protet the nturl worldF inergy use is one ig piee of the sustinility puzzleD ut it is not the only oneF ghnging the wy we use energy is not esy euse of infrstrutureD the vision of the emerin hrem @own house with ig yrdD ig rD independeneAD hnging government poliyD lk of eonomi inentivesD etF qols need to e setD plns mdeD nd poliy set to hnge the wy we use energyF his hpter will disuss some of the ommonly held views of where we n strt nd how we n hngeF
8.4.4.3 Climate Action Planning as a Model

ine one of the mjor sustinility issues is tht of limte hnge nd the mjor use of limte hnge is energy useD limte tion plnning is vlule frmework for exmining sustinle energy prtiesF qreenhouse gs emissions result primrily from our uilding nd trnsporttion energy usesD nd they re mesure of the mount of fossil fuels used to provide tht energyF hey do not diretly represent other environmentl emissionsD lthough they mostly prllel other ir pollutntsF qreenhouse gs emissions do not express other eosystem e'ets suh s lnd use nd wterD ut this plnning llows for eonomil solutionsF e limte tion pln provides rodmp for hieving greenhouse gs redution trgets within spei( timeline nd uses numer of strtegiesF
8.4.4.3.1 Who is Doing Climate Action Planning?

sn sene of federl regultionD itiesD sttesD government institutionsD nd olleges nd universitiesD hve ll tken limte tion inititivesF sn wsshusetts152 entities tht generte more thn SDHHH metri tons per yer of gron hioxide iquivlent @gy2 eA egn in PHIH with PHHW emissionsF he FF invironmentl rotetion egeny @ieA153 requires filities tht emit more thn PSDHHH metri tons gy2 e per yer to
151 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIURIGIFPGbF 152 httpXGGwwwFmssFgovGdepGirGlimteGghgrinfoFhtm 153 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGlimtehngeGemissionsGghgrulemkingFhtml

QVQ strt reporting in PHII for PHIHF wny ities hve developed glimte etion lns tht set greenhouse gs redution gols nd ly out pthwys to hieve themF ghigo lunhed its pln154 in PHHV nd reports nnully on its progressF resident ym signed hite rouse ixeutive yrder IQSIR155 D in ytoer PHHW requiring ll federl genies to ppoint sustinility diretorD tke inventory of greenhouse gs emissionsD nd work to meet sustinility trgetsF yver TUH emerin olleges nd universities hve signed the emerin gollege nd niversity residents9 glimte gommitment @egggA156 tht requires them to develop limte tion plnsF rivte industries lso develop limte tion plnsF he xtionl ildlife pedertion157 suggests tht there re six steps to redue ron emissions t universities ! this ould e similr for ny other entityX IF PF QF RF SF TF gommitment to emissions redution snstitutionl strutures nd support imissions inventory heveloping the pln vunhing the pln glimte tion plnning over the long hul

fsed on the limte hnge senrios lulted y the sntergovernmentl nel on glimte ghnge158 D it is reommended to redue greenhouse gs emissions to VH perent elow the IWWH levelsD whether or not there is ontinued growthF his is n solute redution to prevent greenhouse gses from rehing levels tht will hve severe e'etsF e limte tion pln is mde of numer of strtegies to hieve tht golF o exmine the impt of eh strtegy the wedge approach is usedF heveloped y two professors t rinetonD oolow nd lD the pproh proposes tht in order to reh those levelsD emissions must e deresed glolly y seven gigtons of ron @not ron dioxideA ompred to 4usiness s usul4 @feA senrios whih would inrese emissions over time due to growth nd inresed demnd for energy @Figure he edge epproh @A @pigure VFSQ@AAF hese professors identi(ed IS proposed tions tht ould eh redue emissions y I gigtonD nd if we ould ent seven of them we would hieve the gol @Figure he edge epproh @A @pigure VFSQ@AAF ih of those tehnologies is represented y 4wedge4 of the tringleD hene the designtion of the 4wedge pprohF4
154 httpXGGwwwFhigolimtetionForgG 155 httpXGGwwwFwhitehouseFgovGssetsGdoumentsGPHHWfedledereorelFpdf 156 httpXGGwwwFpresidentslimteommitmentForgG 157 httpXGGwwwFmpuseologyForgG 158 httpXGGwwwFipFhG

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Figure 8.53: The Wedge Approach

University

The upper gure (a) represents the current path of increasing Source: The Carbon Mitigation Initiative, Princeton

carbon emissions and the lower gure (b) represents the eects of many dierent strategies used to reduce the emissions (a wedge of the triangle).

159

8.4.4.4 Sustainable Solutions

ell of the proposed solutions in okolov nd l9s proposl re existing tehnologiesF roweverD for solution to e sustinle it must e eonomilly vileF enother spet of developing pln is the ost of the solutionsF Figure qlol qrq etement gost gurve feyond fusinessEesEsul ! PHQH @pF QVRA shows the mount of greenhouse gs emissions tht n e ted eyond 4usiness s usul4 in PHQHD long with the osts of di'erent tement strtegiesF hose tehnologies tht fll elow the H line will tully hve negtive ost or positive eonomi ene(tF hose tehnologies tht rise ove the H line will hve positive ost ssoited with them whih ould e o'set y the tehnologies tht fll elow the lineF
159 httpXGGmiFprinetonFeduGwedgesGintroFphp

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Figure 8.54: Global GHG Abatement Cost Curve Beyond Business-As-Usual  2030 Source:
McKinsey & Company, Pathways to a Low-Carbon Economy. Version 2 of the Global Greenhouse Gas Abatement Cost Curve, 2009

160

he types of tehnologies tht fll elow the line re primrily energy onservtion nd e0ieny tehE nologiesF inergy onservtion is the t of reduing energy use to void wsteD sve moneyD nd redue the environmentl imptF sn the frmework of sustinle energy plnning it llows the more expensive lterntivesD suh s renewlesD to eome more dvned nd ostEe'etiveD while we onserve s muh s possileF gonservtion hs ehviorl spet to itD suh s turning o' lights when not neededD lowering thermostts in the winterD or keeping the proper ir pressure in vehile9s tiresF here is very low ost to onservtion ut it entils ehviorl hngeF here re tehnologies suh s motion detetors tht n ontrol lights or progrmmle thermostts tht djust temperture tht n help overome the ehviorl rrierF inergy e0ieny161 n e seen s suset of onservtion s it is relly out using tehnologil dvnements to mke more e0ient energyEonsuming equipmentF sn the nited ttes we use twie s muh energy per dollr of qh s most other industrilized ntions @see Figure inergy hemnd nd qh er gpit @IWVHEPHHRA @pF QVSAAF here re mny resons for thisF yne reson is tht we use less e0ient vehiles nd use proportionlly more energy to het nd ool uildingsD ehviors tht ould e modi(ed to e more e0ientF
160 httpsXGGsolutionsFmkinseyFomGglimteheskGdefultFspx 161 httpXGGwwwFeiFgovGtoolsGglossryGindexFfmcidai

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Figure 8.55: Energy Demand and GDP Per Capita (1980-2004) Each line represents a dierent
country and the points are for the years 1980-2004, which the exception of Russian which is 1992-2004. Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Sustainability and Maintaining US Competitiveness (June 2010), p. 4

162

162 httpXGGsieneFenergyFgovGGmediGsERGpdfGIHHTPSFpdf

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Figure 8.56: U.S. Energy Consumption by Source Figure shows United States energy consumption by source, with breakdown for buildings. Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Berkeley Lab

163

enother reson tht the nited ttes uses so muh more energy thn other industrilized ountries hs to do with hetingD oolingD nd illuminting uildingsF fuildings ount for out RH perent of totl energy onsumption in the nited ttes @osting 6QSH illion per yerA nd greenhouse gs emissions @see Figure FF inergy gonsumption y oure @pigure VFSTAAF inergy use in uildings is primrily for hetingD oolingD nd illumintionD with signi(nt di'erenes etween ommeril nd residentil uildingsF he rest of the energy use is for equipment suh s o0e equipmentD eletronisD refrigertionD ookingD nd wshingF here re mny wys to sve energy in existing uildings nd most of them hve good (nnil ene(t of sving money on the energy ostsD iFeF they hve short term (nnil pykD or return on investment @ysAF
8.4.4.4.1 Start with the Lights

he most prevlent messge in energy e0ieny is 4hnge the light ulsF4 epling trditionl inndesE ent light uls with ompt )uoresent light uls n sve energyF he light ul hd not evolved muh sine homs idison perfeted it in IVUWF yver the lst few yers there hve een mjor inititives ross the nited ttes to reple ine0ient inndesent light uls with ompt )uoresent light uls @gpvsA tht n redue energy use y US perentF he light uls lso lst IH times s longD reduing wste nd mintenne ostsF sn ommeril uildings more e0ient )uoresent light uls @EVsA nd llsts164 re repling the older EIPsF sn PHHPD the FF heprtment of inergy required tht EIP llsts no longer e mnufturedD ending (ve yer phse out of this tehnologyF
163 httpXGGnewsenterFllFgovGfetureEstoriesGPHHWGHTGHPGworkingEtowrdEtheEveryElowEenergyEonsumptionEuildingEofEtheE futureG 164 httpXGGwwwFenergystrFgovGindexFfmca)sFpr)sglossry

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Figure 8.57:
Kevin Rector

Compact Fluorescent Light Bulb

Over its lifetime, each standard (13 watt) CFL Source:

will reduce electricity bills by about $30 and emissions from 200 lbs of coal over its lifetime.

165

elredy newerD more e0ient tehnologies re hitting the mrket ! lightEemitting diodes @vihsA166 ! whih use less thn PS perent of the energy of n inndesent light nd lst t lest IS times longerD if it hs the ixiq e rtingF ixiq e167 is the governmentEked symol for energy e0ieny reognitionF vihs re smll light soures tht eome illuminted y the movement of eletrons through semiondutor mteril @Figure olid tte vighting @vA @pigure VFSVAAF he tehnology is still evolving nd not ll vih lights re reted equllyF vihs re more expensive nd will hve longer py k timeD ut they lso lst longerF
165 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXgomptpluoresentvightfulFjpg 166 httpXGGwwwFenergystrFgovGindexFfmcalightingFprwhtre 167 httpXGGwwwFenergystrFgovGindexFfmcaprodutsFprhowern

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Figure 8.58:
LEDs. Source: Ocrho

Solid State Lighting (SSL)

168

Solid state lighting (SSL) is comprised of many small

Since they release very little energy as heat, they are cool to the touch and highly ecient.

sf gpvs were used in ll homesD the most dvned liner )uoresent lights in o0e uildingsD ommeril outlets nd ftoriesD nd vihs in tr0 lights would redue the perentge of eletriity used for lighting in the world from IW perent to sever perentF ht9s equivlent to UHS olE(red power plntsF
8.4.4.4.2 Buy More Ecient Equipment and Appliances

ixiq e lso rnks equipment for e0ieny from refrigertors to ir onditioners to omputers nd televisionsF oliies nd (nnil inentives enourge people to uy more energy e0ient produts whih tend to e more expensiveF roweverD y sving on energy osts onsumers n reuperte the investmentF efrigertion mkes up W perent of household energy useF efrigertors hve gotten more e0ient from QFVR ui feet per kilowtt hour per dy in IWUP to IIFPP ui feet per kilowtt hour y IWWT @Figure everge i0ieny of xew efrigertors in the nited ttes @IWUPEIWWUA @pigure VFSWAAF he e0ieny of n verge new refrigertor hs inresed drmtillyF xew tehnologyD inresing prie of eletriityD nd ntiipted energy e0ieny stndrds ontriuted to inresed e0ieny in new refrigertorsF he xtionl eppline inergy gonservtion et of IWVU169 set minimum e0ieny stndrds for IQ produt
168 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXiPUwithQVvghFtq 169 httpXGGwwwIFeereFenergyFgovGuildingsGpplinestndrdsGhistoryFhtml

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typesD inluding refrigertorsF efter IWWQD no refrigertor ould e sold tht did not meet the stndrdsF tndrds were updted gin in PHHPF roweverD Q perent more households hd two or more refrigertors in PHHI ompred to IWVHD prtilly reduing the e'et of inresed e0ienyD espeilly sine the seond refrigertor tends to e less e0ientF odyD onsidertion should e given to eletronis in purhsingF vptopsD for instne use onsiderly less eletriity thn desktops nd )t sreens less thn the old thode ry tue @gA monitorsF xew rh televisions use more energy thn older nlog sF elsoD there re mny pplines tht even if turned o'D drw power from the gridF his is sometimes lled phantom load or vampire powerF elthough it is smll mountD it n omprise up to IH perent of home eletriity useF ghrgers for ell phonesD digitl mersD omputersD nd power tools re very ommon soures of phntom lodF elsoD sD omputer monitorsD nd hh plyers hve urrent whenever they re plugged inF sing 4smrt4 power strip n eliminte the need to mnully upEplugF lugging everything in to strip tht is ontrol y one mster devie or tivted y motion detetor provides the tehnology to reple the ehvior of mnully turning o' nd unplugging ll the devies when they re not in useF

Figure 8.59:

Average Eciency of New Refrigerators in the United States (1972-1997)

170

Graph shows the eciency of an average new refrigerator in the United States from 1972 to 1997. Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration

8.4.4.4.3 Tighten Up the Building Envelope

he uilding envelope @eFgF wllsD windowsD foundtionsD doorsD nd roofsA gretly 'ets how e0ient uilding will e in mintining omfortle interior temperturesF snsultion in wlls nd sels round windows nd doors re prime ftorsF Low-emittance otings @mirosopilly thinD virtully invisileD metl or metlli oxide lyers deposited on window or skylight glzing surfe primrily to redue the
170 httpXGGwwwFeiFdoeFgovGemeuGPSopeGsldHPTFhtm

QWI y suppressing rdiotive het )owAD gsE(llsD nd insulting spers nd frmes n signi(ntly redue winter het loss nd summer het gin through windowsF houleEpneD insulted glss windows signi(ntly redue the lod on the heting nd ooling systems nd drftsD whih in turnD redues energy demndF hese projets re most (nnilly ene(il when leverged s prt of other renovtion projetsF ixisting windows n lso e 4(xed4 with wetherEstripping nd ulking to sel them from ir lekgesF qood storm windows over singleEpne glss windows n lso provide similr insultion to douleEpne without the need for the lrger (nnil investment nd the retion of wste tht replement entilsF snsultion in the tti or roof of uilding nd t the 4sem4 of the uilding etween the sement nd (rst )oorD s well s the wlls n e instlled or inresed to retin the heted or ooled ir for uilding or homeF elted to insultion is seling of opening to prevent ir from leking out @see Figure higrm of veky rome @pigure VFTHAAF
U-factor

Figure 8.60: Diagram of a Leaky Home Diagram shows the various points in a home where energy
may leak. Source: ENERGY STAR

171

8.4.4.4.4 Maintain or Upgrade Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Systems

retingD ventiltionD nd irEonditioning systems in ommeril nd industril uildings need to e propE erly monitored nd mintined for the most e0ient funtionF his is often not done well fter system is
171 httpXGGwwwFenergystrFgovGiGnewhomesGehindthewllsGhollrrouseFjpg

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instlled euse not enough resoures re dedited to mintenne of systemsF roesses relted to uildE ing ommissioning mke sure tht uildings re redy for servie fter equipment instlltion nd testingD prolems re identi(ed nd orretedD nd the mintenne st' is extensively trinedF sf this ws not done or the e'et hs worn outD uildings my undergo reommissioning172 D or if it ws never ommissionedD retroommissioning173 n e performedF sf equipment suh s motorsD fnsD oilersD nd hillers re too old to (x or ine0ientD they n e repled or retro(tted with more energy e0ient equipmentF Building automation systems @feA use eletroni tehnology to ontrol nd monitor uilding systemsF hey n shedule temperture settings nd ventiltion needs sed on tul or sheduled oupny so energy n e sved when spe is unoupiedF sn homesD this is typilly done with progrmmle thermostt tht n set the temperture points to onserve energy during the dy when home is unoupied nd then go k to oupny settings when the fmily returnsF inergy onsulting ompnies n provide mny servies nd innovtive solutions for uilding owners tht will redue energy ostsF his is growing jo setor within the nited ttes eonomy s usinesses try to pitlize on the svings tht energy projets like those desried ove n provideF
8.4.4.4.5 Combining Heat and Power

yne re of huge potentil for energy e0ieny is from pturing wste het from eletriity genertion nd mny industries through proess lled ogenertion or omined het nd power @grAD whih is disussed in greter detil in the Module gomined ret nd ower @etion VFSFPAF gogenertion is the simultneous prodution of het nd eletril power in single thermodynmi proessF snsted of disrding the het produed y the eletril power prodution or industril proessD it is ptured nd used to provide spe heting nd hot wter hetingD humidi(tionD ooling @vi sorption hillersAD s well s other usesD thus eliminting the dded expense of urning fuels for the sole purpose of spe heting @see Figure gomprison of inergy i0ieny of tndrd ower lnt nd gomined ret nd ower lnt @pigure VFTIAAF he FF heprtment of inergy lulted tht gr genertion from industril proesses lone is equl to the output of RH perent of olE(red generting plnts tht produed eletriity in PHHUF
172 httpXGGxFllFgovGde(nitionFhtml 173 httpXGGxFllFgovGde(nitionFhtml

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Figure 8.61: Comparison of Energy Eciency of Standard Power Plant and Combined Heat and Power Plant Diagram compares the energy eciency of a standard power plant with a
combined heat and power plant. Source: Cindy Klein-Banai

174

8.4.4.5 Design New Buildings to Reduce Energy Use

he onstrution of new uildings onsumes lot of energy from the prodution of the rw mterilsD the trnsporttion to the uilding siteD the onstrution proessD nd ultimtely the energy used to operte the uildingF sn the lst dede in the nited ttesD there hs een growing reognition tht muh ould e done to redue the environmentl impt of new onstrutionF hereforeD uilding energy odes inresingly demnd higher energy e0ieny nd green uilding erti(tion nd reognition systems hve een developedD suh s qreen qloes175 nd vedership in inergy nd invironmentl hesign @viihA176 D to promote design for the environmentF espets of onstrution tht n enhne energy e0ieny inlude site seletionD energy nd wter e0ienyD mterils usedD proximity to puli trnsit nd provision of iking menitiesD nd renewle energyF sn dditionD using proess of integrted design where the struture of the uilding itself provides the energy needed to hetD ool or illuminte the uildingD energy svings n e hieved more redilyF
174 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGindyk 175 httpXGGwwwFgreengloesFomG 176 httpXGGwwwFusgForgG

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CHAPTER 8.

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Figure 8.62: Lincoln Hall, LEED Gold Certied, University of Illinois at Chicago

Lincoln

Hall, LEED Gold certied building on the University of Illinois at Chicago campus. Features include geothermal heating and cooling, solar photovoltaic rooftop system, low-emittance, high-U windows, daylighting, native planting, bioswales for stormwater management, and use of recycled materials. Source: UIC Oce of Sustainability

177

8.4.4.6 Implementing Renewable Energy Technologies

hen uildings hve een retro(tted to e more energy e0ient nd omined het nd power systems re used more rodlyD we will hve redued energy demnd signi(ntly nd ost e'etivelyD while reting more jos domestillyF e n then look t the mss deployment of renewle energy tehnologiesF yver time these tehnologies will mture nd eome more 'ordleF his proess n e enhned through poliy implementtion tht inentivizes renewle energy developmentF he eletri grid will need to e expndedF his will llow for more interstte trnsmission of renewle eletriity from the res where the resoures re good suh s the southwestD for solrD nd the entrl nd plins sttesD for windD to the res where the popultion enters re suh s the est nd west ostsF sf these grids re smrt nd llow for relEtime energy priing then demnd will e leveled outF his uni(ed ntionl smrt grid would inlude more e0ientD higherEvoltge longEdistne trnsmission linesY 4smrt4 distriution networks tht use the internet to onnet smrt meters in homes nd long the gridY energy storge units @iFeF tteriesA throughout the networkY nd twoEwy ommunition etween the equipment tht onsumes eletriity nd the equipment tht produes itF
177 httpXGGwwwFuiFeduGsustinilityG

QWS e n envision future where most rs on the rod re eletriF et nightD onsumption ross the grid is lower euse lights re o'D uildings re losedD nd less mnufturing oursF ywners of eletri rs will plug their rs into the grid t night nd rehrge them fter eing driven during the dyF ineD demnd for eletriity is lowerD pries for this utility will e lowerF ith smrt metersD residents will e hrged for the tul ost of eletriity t time of use rther thn n verge prieF hey will e inentivized to set wshing mhines nd dishwshers to run t night when eletriity demnd is lowestF ell of this evens out the demnd on the gridD whih mens tht power plnts do not need to operte t pek pity nd redues the need for new plntsF
8.4.4.7 Energy Savings in Transportation

rnsporttion omprises nerly third of energy demnd in the nited ttes so energy svings hieved here will trnslte to overll energy svingsFo redue energy onsumption y vehiles we need to enourge vehile e0ieny nd onservtionF his is omplished through the gorporte everge puel ionomy @gepA178 stndrdsF gongress (rst ented these stndrds in IWUS due to the rising ost of gs tht resulted from the ountry9s dependene on inresing levels of petroleum importsF he xtionl righwy r0 fety edministrtion179 sets fuel eonomy stndrds for rs nd light truks sold in the nited ttes while the ie lultes the verge fuel eonomy for eh mnufturerF sn ddition to gep stndrdsD in IWUS the speed limit on nited ttes highwys ws redued to SS mph to limit gs onsumptionF Figure gron hioxide imissions nd puel ionomy y wodel er @pigure VFTQA shows tht model yer PHHW hd the lowest gy2 emission rte @QWU gGmiA nd highest fuel eonomy @PPFR mpgA sine trking egn in IWUSF

Figure 8.63: Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Fuel Economy by Model Year Two graphs show
carbon dioxide emissions and fuel economy by model year from 1975-2010. Source: U.S. EPA, Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 through 2010 (Nov. 2010), p. iv

180

yther wys to inrese e0ieny n e found through innovtive lterntive vehile tehnologiesD improved internl omustion enginesD exhust gs reylingD vrile vlve timingD vehile downsizingD lightweightingD nd ehviorF qovernment poliies need to mke the ost of driving evident through full mortiztionD fuelGrod txD nd insurne ostsF
178 httpXGGwwwFnhtsFgovGfuelEeonomy 179 httpXGGwwwFnhtsFgovG 180 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGotqGertGmpgGfetrendsGRPHrIHHPQFpdf

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CHAPTER 8.

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enother tti to redue fuel onsumption is inresing the use of trnsporttion lterntivesF he use of active transportation will use hnge from environmentlly hrmfulD pssive trvel to lenD tive trvel y iyleD footD nd puli trnsitF gonvenient nd sfe puli trnsit is not ville in ll ommunitiesD s it requires ertin popultion density to e vileF woreoverD sine emerins often ssoite the r they drive with their mteril suess nd our ommunities re spred outD mny people do not view puli trnsporttion fvorlyF wost metropolitn res hve some kind of trnsit system to provide trnsporttion to those who nnot 'ord rs or nnot drive ndGor to relieve tr0 ongestionF ristorillyD the nited ttes hs not invested eqully in rod nd puli trnsporttion infrstruture mening tht often it is slower nd more omplited to trvel y trnsitF roweverD trnsit use is generlly more eonomil thn owning nd driving rF he emerin uli rnsporttion essoition181 hs lulted the svings sed on two personEtwo r household going to oneErF hey found tht riding puli trnsporttion sves individulsD on verge 6WDTST nnullyD nd up to 6VHS per month sed on the tnury SD PHII verge ntionl gs prie @6QFHV per gllonEreported y eeeA nd the ntionl unreserved monthly prking rteF vings for spei( ities re shown here182 F fiyling nd wlking re two forms of lternte trnsit tht hve no environmentl impt on energy demndF wny lol governments re devoting resoures to dding ike routes nd prking filities to enourge iyling s mode of trnsporttionF idewlks nd sfe rossEwlks re prerequisites for sfe wlkingF here re some options for those who must drive to redue their energy useF Carpooling nd car sharing re lso options tht lower the numer of rs on the rodD while providing opportunities to trvel y r when neededF smproved soil networkEsed rEpooling progrms n help to mth riders with drivers in dynmi wyF gr shring is deentrlizedD hourly r rentl system tht llows people who do not own rsD ut osionlly need oneD to ess vehile in proximity to their workple or homeF
8.4.4.8 Summary

here is no one silver ullet when it omes to solving the 4energy prolem4 or plnning for limte tionF here re mny vile solutions nd the prolem is so lrge tht multiple pthwys must e forgedF he primry hllenge is to use energy more e0iently so little goes to wsteF prom smll tions like hnging light ulD to lrge projets like grD the potentil is gret nd the (nnil pyk rewrdingF snresed vehile e0ieny nd tive trnsporttion re lso strtegies for reduing energy useF foth within the uilding setor nd the trnsporttion setor we hve the gretest hllenges to nd potentil for hnging how we use energy todyF e hve lredy strted to mke tht trnsition from more stringent gep stndrds to more green uildingsF he hllenge is to upsle ll the strtegies to mke signi(nt imptF
8.4.4.9 Review Questions Question 8.4.4.1

ht does the hrt in pigure inergy hemnd nd qh er gpit @IWVHEPHHRA @pF QVSA tell us out developing ountries suh s ghinD sndi nd frzil9s energy usec A sn omprison to developed ountriesF A yver timeF
Question 8.4.4.2

frie)y desrie pth to reduing our dependeny on fossil fuels for trnsporttion energy onE sumptionF
Question 8.4.4.3

hy is energy e0ieny onsidered sustinle energy hoiec

181 httpXGGwwwFptFomGgesGdefultFspx 182 httpXGGptFomGmedienterGpressrelesesGPHIIGgesGIIHTHIrnsitvingseportFspx

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8.4.4.10 References

frownD vFF @PHHVAF Plan B 3.0: Mobilizing to save civilizationF xew orkX irth oliy snstituteF gity of ghigoF @PHIIAF Chicago Climate Action PlanF etrieved eptemer IPD PHII from httpXGGwwwFhigolimtetionForgG(leinGpdfG(nlreportGggeiypsxevvPFpdf183 ignD hFtFD glhounD FD hottD tF 8 hynndD F @PHHVAF Guide to climate action planning: Pathways to a low-carbon campusF xtionl ildlife pedertionX gmpus iologyF etrieved eptemer IPD PHII from httpXGGwwwFnwfForgGqlolErmingGgmpusEolutionsGesouresGeportsGquideEtoEglimteE etionElnningFspx184 qoreD eF @PHHWAF Our choice: A plan to solve the climate crisisF xew orkX welher wediF lD F 8 oolowD F @PHHRAF tiliztion wedgesX olving the limte prolem for the next SH yers with urrent tehnologiesF Science, 305 , WTVEWUPF niversity of sllinois t ghigoF @PHHWAF UIC Climate Action PlanF etrieved eptemer IPD PHII from httpXGGwwwFuiFeduGsustinilityGlimtetionplnG185 F

8.5 Energy Uses

8.5.1 Electric and Plug-in Hybrids
8.5.1.1 Learning Objectives
186

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

outline the trditionl dependene of trnsporttion on oil nd the internl omustion engine understnd two lterntives to oil s trnsporttion fuelX hydrogen nd eletriity understnd the dul use of oil nd eletriity in hyrid vehiles nd their impt on energy e0ieny nd ron emissions
8.5.1.2 Introduction

ine the erly PHth genturyD oil nd the internal combustion engine hve dominted trnsporttionF he fortunes of oil nd vehiles hve een intertwinedD with oil ring to meet the energy demnds of the ever growing power nd numer of personl vehilesD vehiles driving frther in response to growing interstte highwy opportunities for long distne personl trvel nd freight shippingD nd greter personl moility produing living ptterns in frE)ung suurs tht require oil nd rs to funtionF sn reent nd future yersD the gretest trnsporttion growth will e in developing ountries where the need nd the mrket for trnsporttion is growing rpidlyF ghin hs n emerging middle lss tht is lrger thn the entire popultion of the nited ttesD sign tht developing ountries will soon diret or strongly in)uene the emergene of new tehnologies designed to serve their needsF feyond deploying new tehnologiesD developing ountries hve potentilly lrge seond dvntgeX they need not follow the sme development pth through outdted intermedite tehnologies tken y the developed worldF vepfrogging diretly to the most dvned tehnologies voids legy infrstrutures nd long turnover timesD llowing innovtion nd deployment on n elerted sleF he internl omustion engine nd the vehiles it powers hve mde enormous engineering strides in the pst hlf enturyD inresing e0ienyD durilityD omfort nd dding suh nowEstndrd fetures s ir onditioningD ruise ontrolD hndsEfree ell phone useD nd glol positioning systemsF imultneouslyD the utomoile industry hs eome glolD drmtilly inresing ompetitionD onsumer hoie nd mrketing rehF he most reent trend in trnsporttion is drmti swings in the prie of oilD the lifelood of trditionl vehiles powered with internl omustion enginesF
183 httpXGGwwwFhigolimtetionForgG(leinGpdfG(nlreportGggeiypsxevvPFpdf 184 httpXGGwwwFnwfForgGqlolErmingGgmpusEolutionsGesouresGeportsGquideEtoEglimteEetionElnningFspx 185 httpXGGwwwFuiFeduGsustinilityGlimtetionplnG 186 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUQVGIFPGbF

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8.5.1.3 Hydrogen as an Alternative Fuel

CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

he trditionl synergy of oil with utomoiles my now e showing signs of strinF he reline of vehiles on one fuel whose prie shows strong )ututions nd whose future ourse is ultimtely unsustinle presents longEterm usiness hllengesF wotivted y these usiness nd sustinility onernsD the utomoile industry is eginning to diversify to other fuelsF rydrogen mde its deut in the erly PHHHsD nd showed tht it hs the potentil to power vehiles using fuel ells to produe onEord eletriity for eletri motors @ierle nd von relmholtD PHIH @pF RHQAD grtreeD hresselhusD 8 fuhnnD PHHR @pF RHQAAF yne dvntge of hydrogen is e0ienyD up to SH perent or greter for fuel ellsD up to WH perent or greter for eletri motors powering the rD ompred with PS perent e0ieny for n internl omustion engineF e seond dvntge is redued dependene on foreign oil ! hydrogen n e produed from nturl gs or from entirely renewle resoures suh s solr deomposition of wterF e third potentil dvntge of hydrogen is environmentl ! the emissions from the hydrogen r re hrmlessX wter nd smll mount of hetD though the emissions from the hydrogen prodution hin my signi(ntly o'set this dvntgeF he vision of hydrogen rs powered y fuel ells remins strongF st must overome signi(nt hllengesD howeverD efore eoming prtilD suh s storing hydrogen on ord vehiles t high densitiesD (nding inexpensive nd erthEundnt tlysts to promote the redution of oxygen to wter in fuel ellsD nd produing enough hydrogen from renewle soures suh s solr driven wter splitting to fuel the utomoile industry @grtree 8 hresselhusD PHHV @pF RHQAAF he hydrogen nd eletri energy hins for utomoiles re illustrted in Figure iletri rnsporttion @pigure VFTRAF wny sientists nd utomoile ompnies re exploring hydrogen s longEterm lterntive to oilF

Figure 8.64: Electric Transportation Transportation is electried by replacing the gasoline engine
with an electric motor, powered by electricity from a battery on board the car (upper panel) or electricity from a fuel cell and hydrogen storage system on board the car (lower panel). For maximum eectiveness, both routes require renewable production of electricity or hydrogen. Source: George Crabtree images from Rondol

187

188

, skinnylawyer

189

, Tinu Bao

190

using

, U.S. Department of Energy, Oce of Science

191

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8.5.1.4 Electricity as an Alternative Fuel

iletri rs represent seond lterntive to oil for trnsporttionD with mny similrities to hydrogen @see Figure iletri rnsporttion @pigure VFTRAAF iletri vehiles re run y n eletri motorD s in fuel ell rD up to four times s e0ient s gsoline engineF he eletri motor is fr simpler thn gsoline engineD hving only one moving prtD shft rotting inside sttionry housing nd surrounded y oil of opper wireF iletriity omes from tteryD whose storge pityD like tht of hydrogen mterilsD is too smll to enle long distne drivingF heveloping higher energy density tteries for vehiles is mjor hllenge for the eletri r industryF he ttery must e hrged efore drivingD whih n e done from the grid using exess pity ville t nightD or during the dy from speil solr hrging sttions tht do not dd dditionl lod to the gridF feuse hrging typilly tkes hoursD potentilly ttrtive lterntive is swithing the ttery out in mtter of minutes for freshly hrged one t speil swpping sttionsF e lrge )eet of eletri rs in the nited ttes would require signi(nt dditionl eletriityD s muh s IQH q if the entire pssenger nd light truk )eet were onverted to eletriityD or QH perent of verge nited ttes eletriity usge in PHHVF he energy usge of eletri rs is out ftor of four less thn for gsoline rsD onsistent with the higher e0ieny of eletri motors over internl omustion enginesF elthough gsoline rs vry signi(ntly in their energy e0ienyD 4typil4 middle of the rod vlue for (veEpssenger r is VHkhGIHHkmF e typil eletri r @suh s the hink yx from xorwyD the ghevy olt operting in its eletri modeD or the xissn vefA uses PH khGIHHkmF hile the energy ost of eletri rs t the point of use is signi(ntly lessD one must onsider the ost t the point of productionD the eletriity generting plntF sf the vehile9s eletriity omes from ol with onversion e0ieny of QQ perentD the primry energy ost is TH khGIHHkmD pprohing ut still smller thn tht of the gsoline rF sf eletriity is generted y omined yle nturl gs turines with TH perent e0ienyD the primry energy ost is QQ khGIHHkmD less thn hlf the primry energy ost for gsoline rsF hese omprisons re presented in Table gomprisons of inergy se @le VFQX gomprisons of inergy seAF
Comparisons of Energy Use Gasoline Engine 5 passenger car Energy use at point of use Energy use at point of production: Coal at 33% eciency Combined Cycle Natural Gas at 60% eciency Battery Electric Nissan Leaf, Chevy Volt (battery mode), Think Ox

VH khGIHHkm

PH khGIHHkm TH khGIHHkm

QQ khGIHHkm

Table 8.3X gomprison of energy use for gsoline driven nd ttery driven rsD for the ses of ine0ient
ol genertion @QQ7A nd e0ient omined yle nturl gs genertion @TH7A of eletriityF
George Crabtree

192 .

Source:

187 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGrtree 188 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXenkerpowerlinesFtq 189 httpXGGwwwF)ikrFomGphotosGskinnylwyerGSVUIPWVWHWG 190 httpXGGwwwF)ikrFomGphotosGtinouGQWQUWRIHVG5G 191 httpXGGsieneFenergyFgovGGmediGesGpdfGreportsG(lesGnherptFpdf 192 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGrtree

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Comparisons of Carbon Emissions Gasoline Engine 5 passenger car Battery Electric Nissan Leaf, Chevy Volt (battery mode), Think Ox
continued on next page

RHI
CO2 Emissions at point of use CO2 Emissions at point of production Coal@2.1 lb CO2/kWh Gas@1.3 lb CO2/kWh Nuclear, hydro, wind or solar

RI ls

H
RP ls

PS ls

< I l

Table 8.4X gomprison of ron emissions from gsoline driven nd ttery driven rsD for the ses of
high emission ol genertion @PFI l gyPGkhAD lower emission nturl gs @IFQ lgyPGkhA nd very low emission nulerD hydroD wind or solr eletriityF Source: George Crabtree 193 F

he ron footprint of eletri rs requires similr lultionF por olE(red eletriity produing PFI l gy2 GkhD driving IHHkm produes RP ls @IW kgsA of ron dioxideY for gsE(red eletriity produing IFQ l gy2 GkhD IHHkm of driving produes PT ls @IIFU kgsA of ron dioxideF sf eletriity is produed y nuler or renewle energy suh s windD solr or hydroeletriD no ron dioxide is produedF por 4typil4 gsoline rD IHHkm of driving produes RI ls @IVFS kgsA of ron dioxideF hus the ron footprint of 4typil4 eletri r isD t worst equlD to tht of gsoline r ndD t estD zeroF Table gomprisons of gron imissions @le VFRX gomprisons of gron imissionsA summrizes the ron footprint omprisonsF
8.5.1.5 The Hybrid Solutions

nlike eletri rsD hybrid vehicles rely only on gsoline for their powerF ryrids doD howeverD hve supplementl eletri motor nd drive system tht opertes only when the gsoline engine performne is wek or needs oostX on strting from stopD pssingD or liming hillsF gonventionl gsoline rs hve only single engine tht must propel the r under ll onditionsY it mustD thereforeD e sized to the lrgest tskF nder norml driving onditions the engine is lrger nd less e0ient thn it needs to eF he hyrid solves this dilemm y providing two drive trinsD gsoline engine for norml driving nd n eletri motor for high power needs when strtingD liming hills nd pssingF he engine nd motor re tilored to their respetive tsksD enling eh to e designed for mximum e0ienyF es the eletri motor is overll muh more e0ientD its use n rise fuel eonomy signi(ntlyF he ttery in hyrid rs hs two funtionsX it drives the eletri motor nd lso ollets eletril energy from regenertive rkingD onverted from kineti energy t the wheels y smll genertorsF egenertive rking is e'etive in strtEstop drivingD inresing e0ieny up to PH perentF nlike gsoline enginesD eletri motors use no energy while stnding stillY hyrids therefore shut o' the gsoline engine when the r omes to stop to sve the idling energyF qsoline engines re notoriously ine0ient t low speeds @hene the need for low ger rtiosAD so the eletri motor elertes the hyrid to IS mph @PR kphA efore the gsoline engine restrtsF hutting the gsoline engine o' while stopped inreses e0ieny s muh s IU perentF he energy sving fetures of hyrids typilly lower their energy requirements from VH khGIHHkm to SHETH khGIHHkmD signi(nt svingsF st is importnt to noteD howeverD tht despite supplementry eletri motor drive systemD ll of hyrid9s energy omes from gsoline nd none from the eletriity gridF he plugEin hyrid di'ers from onventionl hyrids in tpping oth gsoline nd the eletriity grid for its energyF wost plugEin hyrids re designed to run on eletriity (rst nd on gsoline seondY the gsoline engine kiks in only when the ttery runs outF he plugEin hyrid is thus n eletri r with supplementl gsoline engineD the opposite of the onventionl hyrid rs desried oveF he vlue of the plugEin hyrid is tht it solves the 4driving rnge nxiety4 of the onsumerX there re no worries out getting home sfely from trip tht turns out to e longer thn expetedF he disdvntge of the plugEin
193 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGrtree

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CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

hyrid is the dditionl supplementl gsoline engine tehnologyD whih dds ost nd omplexity to the utomoileF
8.5.1.6 The Battery Challenge

o hieve resonle driving rngeD eletri rs nd plugEin hyrids need lrge tteriesD one of their gretest design hllenges nd potentilly signi(nt onsumer rrier to widespred slesF iven with the lrgest prtil tteriesD driving rnge on eletriity is limitedD perhps to IHHkmF hesigning higher energy density tteries is urrently mjor fous of energy reserhD with dvnes in viEion ttery tehnology expeted to ring signi(nt improvementsF he seond potentil rrier to puli eptne of eletri vehiles is hrging timeD up to eight hours from stndrd household outletF his my suit overnight hrging t homeD ut ould e prolem for trips eyond the ttery9s rnge ! with gsoline r the driver simply (lls up in few minutes nd is on his wyF xovel infrstruture solutions suh s ttery swpping sttions for long trips re under onsidertionF prom sustinility perspetiveD the omprison of gsolineD eletriD hyrid nd plugEin hyrid rs is interestingF ryrid rs tke ll their energy from gsoline nd represent the lest di'erene from gsoline rsF heir supplementry eletri drive systems redue gsoline usge y QHERH perentD thus promoting onservtion of (nite resoure nd reduing reline on foreign oilF iletri rsD howeverD get ll of their energy from grid eletriityD domesti energy soureD ompletely eliminting reline on foreign oil nd use of (nite oil resouresF heir sustinility vlue is therefore higher thn hyridsF lugEin hyrids hve the sme potentil s ll eletri vehilesD provided their gsoline engines re used springlyF sn terms of ron emissionsD the sustinility vlue of eletri vehiles depends entirely on the eletriity soureX neutrl for olD positive for gs nd highly positive for nuler or renewle hydroD wind or solrF prom n energy perspetiveD eletri rs use ftor of four less energy thn gsoline rs t the point of useD ut this dvntge is prtilly ompromised y ine0ienies t the point of eletriity genertionF iven ine0ient olE(red eletriity leves n dvntge for eletri rsD nd e0ient gsE(red omined yle eletriity leves eletri rs more thn ftor of two more energy e0ient thn gsoline rsF
8.5.1.7 Summary

iletriity o'ers n ttrtive lterntive to oil s trnsporttion fuelX it is domestilly produedD uses energy more e0ientlyD ndD depending on the mode of eletriity genertionD n emit muh less ronF iletri vehiles n e powered y fuel ells produing eletriity from hydrogenD or from tteries hrged from the eletriity gridF he hydrogen option presents greter tehnologil hllenges of fuel ell ost nd durility nd high pity onEord hydrogen storgeF he ttery option is redy for implementtion in the nerer term ut requires higher energy density tteries for extended driving rngeD nd fst hrging or ttery swpping lterntive to long ttery hrging timesF
8.5.1.8 Review Questions Question 8.5.1.1

rnsporttion relies lmost exlusively for its fuel on oilD whose prie )ututes signi(ntly in response to glol geopolitis nd whose longEterm vilility is limitedF ht re the motivtions for eh of the stkeholdersD inluding itizensD ompnies nd governmentsD to (nd lterntives to oil s trnsporttion fuelc
Question 8.5.1.2

iletriity n reple oil s trnsporttion fuel in two wysX y on ord prodution in hydroE gen fuel ellD nd y on ord storge in tteryF ht reserh nd developmentD infrstruture nd prodution hllenges must e overome for eh of these eletri(tion options to e widely deployedc

RHQ
Question 8.5.1.3

iletriE nd gsolineEdriven rs eh use energy nd emit ron dioxideF hih is more susE tinlec
Question 8.5.1.4

row do gsolineEdrivenD tteryEdriven nd hyrid rs @like the riusA ompre for @iA energy e0ienyD @iiA ron emissionsD nd @iiiA reduing dependene on foreign oilc

8.5.1.9 References

grtreeD qFFD hresselhusD wFFD 8 fuhnnD wFF @PHHRAF he rydroE gen ionomyD Physics TodayD 57D QWERSF etrieved eptemer PD PHII from httpXGGtenetFpteFenelFitGdepositiGtenetGrtiolisegnltiGIRRUGQVTRVEhydrogeneonomyFpdf194 grtreeD qFF 8 hresselhusD wFF @PHHVAF he rydrogen puel elterntiveF MRS Bulletin,33D RPIERPVF etrieved eptemer PD PHII from httpXGGwwwFphysisFohioE stteFeduGwilkinsGenergyGesouresGhrnessingEmtlEenergyGhfuelFpdf195 houetteD FF 8 wgullohD wFhF @PHIIAF wodeling the gyP emissions from ttery eletri vehiles given the power genertion mixes of di'erent ountriesF Energy PolicyD 39D VHQEVIIF doiX IHFIHITGjFenpolFPHIHFIHFHSR ierleD F 8 relmoltD FF @PHIHAF ustinle trnsporttion sed on eletri vehile oneptsX rief overviewF Energy and Environmental ScienceD 3D TVWETWWF doiX IHFIHQWGgHHITURr
8.5.2 Combined Heat and Power
8.5.2.1 Learning Objectives
196

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

de(ne omined het nd power @grA s n lterntive energy soure provide gr omponent hrteristis nd opertionl ene(ts outline the hrteristis of good gr pplitions
8.5.2.2 Introduction

iletriity in the nited ttes is genertedD for the most prtD from entrl sttion power plnts t onversion e0ieny of roughly QH to QS perentF weningD for every IHH units of fuel energy into simple yle entrl sttion eletri power plntD we get only QH to QS units of eletriityF he reminder of the energy in the fuel is lost to the tmosphere in the form of hetF he therml requirements of our uildings nd filities re generlly provided onEsite through the use of oiler or furneF he e0ienies of this equipment hve improved over the yers nd now it is ommon to hve oilers nd furnes in ommeril nd industril filities with e0ienies of VH perent nd higherF weningD for every IHH units of fuel energy into the oilerGfurneD we get out VH units of useful therml energyF gommeril nd industril filities tht utilize the onventionl energy system found in the nited ttes @eletriity supplied from the eletri grid nd therml energy produed onEsite through the use of oilerGfurneA will often times experiene overll fuel e0ienies of etween RH to SS perent @tul e0ieny depends on the filities het to power rtioAF Combined Heat and Power @grA is form of distriuted genertionF st is n integrted system loted t or ner the uildingGfility tht genertes utility grde eletriity whih stis(es t lest portion
194 httpXGGtenetFpteFenelFitGdepositiGtenetGrtiolisegnltiGIRRUGQVTRVEhydrogeneonomyFpdf 195 httpXGGwwwFphysisFohioEstteFeduGwilkinsGenergyGesouresGhrnessingEmtlEenergyGhfuelFpdf 196 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIURHGIFPGbF

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CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

of the eletril lod of the filityD nd ptures nd reyles the wste het from the eletri generting equipment to provide useful therml energy to the filityF Conventional CHP @lso referred to s topping yle grA utilizes single dedited fuel soure to sequentilly produe useful eletri nd therml powerF Figure gonventionl @opping gyleA gr @pF RHRA provides digrm of typil topping yle gr systemF e vriety of fossil fuelsD renewle fuelsD nd wste produts re utilized s input fuel to power prime mover tht genertes mehnil shft power @exeption is fuel ellsAF rime movers might inlude reciprocating enginesD gas turbinesD steam turbines or fuel cellsF he mehnil shft power is onverted into utility grde eletriity through highly e0ient genertorF ine the gr system is loted t or ner the uildingGfilityD the het lost through the prime mover n e reyled through het exhnger nd provide hetingD ooling @absorption chillersAD ndGor dehumidication @desiccantsA to meet the therml lod of the uildingF hese systems n reh fuel use e0ienies of s high s US to VS perent @versus the onventionl energy system t pproximtely RH to SS perentAF

Figure 8.65: Conventional (Topping Cycle) CHP

CHP systems. Source: John Cuttica

197

Diagram illustrates a typical topping cycle of

sn our exmple of IHH units of fuel into the gr systemD only QH to QS units of eletriity re genertedD ut nother RH to SH units of the fuels energy n e reovered nd utilized to produe therml powerF ht this tells us is tht for onventionl gr systems to reh the high e0ieny levelD there must e use for the reovered therml energyF hus key ftor for onventionl gr systems is the oinidene of eletri nd therml lods in the uildingF his is shown in Figure smportne of ste ret eovery @pF RHSAF he  xis represents the ost of generting eletriity with gr system utilizing QP perent e0ient reiproting engineF he  xis represents the ost of nturl gs utilized to operte the gr system nd lso the vlue of the nturl gs eing displed if the reyled het from the engine n e utilizedF he lines in the hrt show vrious levels of reoverle het ville from the engineF sf no het is reovered @no use for the therml energyAD the ost of generting eletriity with the gr system is 6HFHVGkhrF hen
197 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGutti

RHS the full mount of het from the engine is reovered @full use of the therml energyAD the ost of generting eletriity with the gr system then drops to 6HFHQGkhrF

Figure 8.66: Importance of Waste Heat Recovery

recovery in CHP systems. Source: John Cuttica

198

Graph shows the importance of waste heat

ine the high e0ieny of gr system is dependent on the e'etive use of the reoverle hetD gr systems re often times sized to meet the therml lod of the pplition nd the mount of eletriity produed is the yEprodutF he eletriity is used to o' set the eletriity otherwise purhsed from the lol eletri utilityF hen the gr system does not produe enough eletriity to stisfy the lodD the utility supplies the di'erene from the gridF hen the gr system @sized from the therml requirementsA produes more eletriity thn the lod requiresD the exess eletriity n e sold to the lol utility @normlly t the avoided cost of power to the utilityAF here re three generl modes of opertion for gr onEsite genertors reltive to the eletri utility gridX

tnd elone @totlly isolted from the gridA ssolted from the grid with utility kEup @when neededA rllel opertion with the grid
he preferred mode of opertion is prllel with the gridF foth the onEsite gr system nd the utility grid power the fility simultneouslyF ith proper sizing nd on(gurtion of the gr systemD the prllel mode of opertion provides the most )exiilityF hould the grid go downD the gr system n keep operting @eFgF during the PHHQ xorthest flkout199 nd the PHHS rurrine utrin200 AD nd should the
198 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGutti 199 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGxorthestflkoutofPHHQ 200 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGrurrineutrine'etsyregion

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CHAPTER 8.

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gr system go downD the utility grid n supply power to the lodF yverll reliility of power to the lod is inresedF he si omponents of onventionl @topping yleA gr system reX

rime wover tht genertes mehnil shft energy eiproting engine urines @gsD miroD stemA puel gell @fuel ells ustilize n eletrohemil proess rther thn mehnil shft proessA qenertor onverts the mehnil shft energy into eletril energy Synchronous generator @provides most )exiility nd independene from the gridA Induction generator @grid goes down ! the gr system stops opertingA Inverter @used minly on fuel ells ! onverts hg power to utility grde eg powerA ste ret eovery is one or more het exhngers tht pture nd reyle the het from the prime mover herml tiliztion equipment onverts the reyled het into useful hetingD ooling @sorption hillersA ndGor dehumidi(tion @deisint dehumidi(ersA yperting gontrol ystems insure the gr omponents funtion properly together
8.5.2.3 Reducing CO2 Emissions

sn PHHUD wuinsey 8 gompny201 pulished study202 on reduing nited ttes greenhouse gs emissionsF he report nlyzed the ost nd potentil impt of over PSH tehnology options regrding ontriution to reduing gy2 emissionsF wo onlusions stted in the report wereX

etement opportunities re highly frgmented nd spred ross the eonomyF elmost RH perent of tement ould e hieved t negtive mrginl ostsF
pigure gost of gy @pigure VFTUA2 edution ehnologies @pigure VFTUA emphsizes oth of these pointsF st is interesting to point out tht gr @oth industril nd ommeril pplitionsAD when sized nd instlled ppropritelyD delivers gy2 redutions t negtive mrginl ostF ell the tehnologies tht show negtive mrginl ost on the hrt generte positive eonomi returns over the tehnology9s life yleF he (gure lso shows tht in terms of ost e'etiveness of the wide rnge of tement tehnologiesD energy e0ieny mesures re y fr more e'etive thn renewleD nuler nd len ol generting tehnologiesF gr tehnologies stnd out s hving negtive mrginl osts nd overll positive ost e'etiveness omprle to most of the energy e0ieny mesuresF
201 httpXGGwwwFmkinseyFomG 202 httpXGGwwwFmkinseyFomGenGglientervieGustinilityGvtestthinkingGeduinggreenhousegsemissionsFspx

RHU

Figure 8.67: Cost of CO2 Reduction Technologies Figure shows the cost of CO2


reduction tech-

nologies. Source: Oak Ridge National Laboratory (2008) (p. 410), p. 13, and McKinsey & Company,

203

Reducing U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: How Much at What Cost?, December, 2007

204

8.5.2.4 CHP Applications

ody there re more thn QDSHH gr instlltions in the nited ttesD totling more thn VSDHHH w of eletri genertionF ht represents pproximtely W perent of the totl eletri genertion pity in the nited ttesF he VSDHHH w of instlled gr redues energy onsumption y IFW uds @IH15 ftusA nnully nd elimintes pproximtely PRV million metri tons @wwA of gy2 nnullyF gr systems re generlly more ttrtive for pplitions tht hve one or more of the following hrteristisX

qood oinidene etween eletri nd therml lods wximum ost di'erentil etween eletriity ost from the lol utility nd the ost of the fuel utilized in the gr system @referred to s sprk spredA vong operting hours @normlly more thn QDHHH hours nnullyA xeed for good power qulity nd reliility
he following re just few of the type pplitions where gr mkes senseX

rospitls golleges nd niversities righ hools pitness genters y0e fuildings rotels

203 httpXGGwwwFmkinseyFomGenGglientervieGustinilityGvtestthinkingGeduinggreenhousegsemissionsFspx 204 httpXGGwwwFmkinseyFomGenGglientervieGustinilityGvtestthinkingGeduinggreenhousegsemissionsFspx

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CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

ht genters risons ulp nd per wills ghemil wnufturing lnts wetl prition pilities qlss wnufturers ithnol lnts pood roessing lnts ste ter retment pilities vivestok prms

8.5.2.5 CHP Benets

gr is not the only solution to our energy prolemsF sn ftD gr is not the most ost e'etive solution in ll pplitions or in ll res of the ountryF here re mny vriles tht determine the viility of gr instlltionsF roweverD when the tehnil nd (nnil requirements of the pplition re metD well designedD instlled nd operted gr system provides ene(ts for the fility owner @end userAD the eletri utilityD nd soiety in generlF he high e0ieny ttined y the gr system provides the end user with lower overll energy ostsD improved eletri reliilityD improved eletri power qulityD nd improved energy seurityF sn res where the eletri utility distriution grid is in need of expnsion ndGor upgrdesD gr systems n provide the eletri utility with mens of deferring ostly modi(tions to the gridF elthough the eletriity generted onEsite y the end user disples the eletriity purhsed from the lol eletri utility nd is seen s lost revenue y mny utilitiesD energy e0ieny nd lower utility osts re in the est interest of the utility ustomer nd should e onsidered s resonle ustomer option y forwrdElooking ustomer oriented utilitiesF pinllyD soiety in generl ene(ts from the high e0ienies relized y gr systemsF he high e0ienies trnslte to less ir pollutnts @lower greenhouse gs nd xyx emissionsA thn produed from entrl sttion eletri power plntsF
8.5.2.6 Waste Heat to Power

here is seond type of gr systemD referred to s Waste Heat to Power @fottoming gyle grAF nlike onventionl gr where dedited fuel is omusted in prime moverD ste ret to ower gr systems ptures the het otherwise wsted in n industril or ommeril proessF he wste hetD rther thn the proess fuelD eomes the fuel soure for the wste het to power systemF st is used to generte stem or hot wterD whih in turn is utilized to drive stem turine or @for lower temperturesA n organic rankine cycle het engineF sn this seD the wste het from the industrilGommeril proess is onverted to eletri powerF Figure ste ret to ower @fottoming gyleA gr @pigure VFTVA provides digrm of ste ret to ower gr systemF

RHW

Figure 8.68: Waste Heat to Power (Bottoming Cycle) CHP Diagram illustrates a waste heat to
power (bottoming cycle) CHP system. Source: John Cuttica

205

8.5.2.7 Summary

gomined ret nd ower @grA represents proven nd e'etive nerEterm lterntive energy option tht n enhne energy e0ienyD ensure environmentl qulityD nd promote eonomi growthF he onept of generting eletriity onEsite llows one to pture nd reyle the wste het from the prime mover providing fuel use e0ienies s high s US to VS perentF vike other forms of lterntive energyD gr should e onsidered nd inluded in ny portfolio of energy optionsF
8.5.2.8 Review Questions Question 8.5.2.1 Question 8.5.2.2 Question 8.5.2.3

ht drives the system e0ieny in onventionl gr systemc o ensure high system e0ienyD how would you size onventionl gr systemc

ht is the preferred method of operting gr system tht provides the most )exiility with the utility gridc
Question 8.5.2.4 Question 8.5.2.5

hy re gr systems onsidered one of the most ostEe'etive gy2 tement prtiesc xme t lest three pplition hrteristis tht mke gr n ttrtive hoieF

205 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGutti

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8.5.2.9 Resources

CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

por more informtion on gomined wwwFmidwestlenenergyForg206

8.5.2.10 References

ret

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nd

ste

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to

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etrieved eptemer PTD httpXGGwwwIFeereFenergyFgovGindustryGdistriutedenergyGpdfsGhpreportIPEHVFpdf207

Energy Solutions for a Sustainable

yk

idge

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vortoryF

@PHHVAF

Combined

Heat

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8.6 Applications of Phase Change Materials for Sustainable Energy

8.6.1 Learning Objectives

208

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

lern the generl onept of hse ghnge wterils @gwA understnd the pplitions of gws in sustinle energy reognize the uses of gw for heting nd ooling systems reognize the uses of gw in uildings reognize the uses of gw in trnsporttion

8.6.2 Introduction

he growing demnd for sustinle energy from onsumers nd industry is onstntly hngingF he highest demnd of energy onsumption during single dy rings ontinuous nd unsolved prolemX how to mintin onsistent desired temperture in sustinle wyF eriods of extreme old or wrm wether re the triggering ftors for inresing the demnd on heting or oolingF orking hoursD industry proessesD uilding onstrutionD operting poliiesD nd type nd volume of energy prodution filities re some of the min resons for pek demnd risesF fetter power genertion mngement nd signi(nt eonomi ene(t n e hieved if some of the pek lod ould e shifted to the o' pek lod periodF his n e hieved y therml storge for spe heting nd ooling purposesF herml energy n e stored s hnge in the internl energy of ertin mterils s sensible heatD latent heat or othF he most ommonly used method of therml energy storge is the sensile het methodD lthough phase change materials @gwAD whih e'etively store nd relese ltent het energyD hve een studied for more thn QH yersF vtent het storge n e more e0ient thn sensile het storge euse it requires smller temperture di'erene etween the storge nd relesing funtionsF hse hnge mterils re n importnt nd underused option for developing new energy storge deviesD whih re s importnt s developing new soures of renewle energyF he use of phse hnge mteril in developing nd onstruting sustinle energy systems is ruil to the e0ieny of these systems euse of gw9s ility to hrness het nd ooling energies in n e'etive nd sustinle wyF
8.6.3 Phase Change Materials for Energy Storage Devices

herml storge sed on sensile het works on the temperture rise on soring energy or hetD s shown in the solid nd liquid phses in pigure Temperature Prole of a PCM @pF RIIAF hen the stored het is relesedD the temperture fllsD providing two points of di'erent temperture tht de(ne the storge nd relese funtionsF hse hnge mterils re oneptully di'erentD howeverF hey operte y storing
206 httpXGGwwwFmidwestlenenergyForgG 207 httpXGGwwwIFeereFenergyFgovGindustryGdistriutedenergyGpdfsGhpreportIPEHVFpdf 208 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUQRGIFRGbF

RII energy t onstnt temperture while phse hnge oursD for exmple from solid to liquidD s illustrted in the enter of pigure Temperature Prole of a PCM @pF RIIAF es het is dded to the mterilD the temperture does not riseY insted het drives the hnge to higher energy phseF he liquidD for exmpleD hs kineti energy of the motion of toms tht is not present in the solidD so its energy is higherF he higher energy of the liquid ompred to the solid is the latent heatF hen the solid is fully trnsformed to liquidD dded energy reverts to going into sensible heat nd rising the temperture of the liquidF

Figure 8.69:
Said Al-Hallaj

Temperature Prole of a PCM.

209
& Riza Kizilel

Figure shows the temperature prole of a PCM.

In the region where latent heat is eective, the temperature keeps either constant or in a narrow range. The phase of the material turns from one to another and both phases appears in the medium. Source:

210

e gw is sustne with high latent heat @lso lled the het of fusion if the phse hnge is from solid to liquidA whih is ple of storing nd relesing lrge mounts of energy t ertin tempertureF e gw stores het in the form of ltent het of fusion whih is out IHH times more thn the sensile hetF por exmpleD ltent het of fusion of wter is out QQRktGkg wheres sensile het t PS gelsius @UU pA is out RFIVktGkgF gw will then relese therml energy t freezing point during solidi(tion proess @pigure Phase Change of a PCM @pF RIPAAF wo widely used gws y mny of us re wter nd wxF hink how wter requires signi(nt mount of energy when it hnges from solid phse to liquid
209 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGsh 210 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGrkizilel

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CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

phse t H g @QP pA or how wx extends the urning time of ndleF woreoverD the yle of the melting nd solidi(tion n e repeted mny timesF

Figure 8.70:

Phase Change of a PCM.

Figure represents the phase change of a PCM when the

heat is applied or removed. Source: Said Al-Hallaj

211

& Riza Kizilel

212

here re lrge numers of gws tht melt nd solidify t wide rnge of temperturesD mking them ttrtive in numer of pplitions in the development of the energy storge systemsF wterils tht hve een studied during the lst RH yers inlude hydrated saltsD paran waxesD ftty ids nd eutectics of orgni nd nonEorgni ompounds @pigure Energy Storage Systems @pF RIPAAF hereforeD the seletion of gw with suitle phse trnsition temperture should e prt of the design of therml storge systemF st should e good t het trnsfer nd hve high ltent het of trnsitionF he melting temperture should lie in the rnge of the opertionD e hemilly stleD low in ostD nonEorrosive nd nontoxiF
211 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGsh 212 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGrkizilel

RIQ

Figure 8.71: Energy Storage Systems.

Riza Kizilel

Figure shows materials commonly studied for use in PCMs

due to their ability to melt and solidify at a wide range of temperatures. Source: Said Al-Hallaj

213

214

&

iven though the list of the gws is quite longD only limited numer of the hemils re possile ndidtes for energy pplitions due to the vrious limittions of the proessesF Parans nd hydrated salts re the two most promising gwsF qenerllyD pr0ns hve lower fusion energy thn slt hydrtes ut do not hve the reversiility issueD iFe pr0n is only in physil hnges nd keeps its omposition when het is relesed or gined wheres hydrted slt is in hemil hnge when het is relesed or ginedF hereforeD mjor prolem with slt hydrtes is inongruent meltingD whih redues the reversiility of the phse hnge proessF his lso results in redution of the het storge pity of the slt hydrteF yn the other hndD pr0ns lso hve mjor drwk ompred to slt hydrtesF he low therml ondutivity retes mjor drwk whih dereses the rtes of het stored nd relesed during the melting nd rystlliztion proesses nd hene results in limited pplitionsF he therml ondutivity of pr0n used s gw is slightly ove HFPH Gmu @ompre with ieY kice aP GmuAF everl methods suh s nned tubes with di'erent on(gurtions nd metal matrices (lled with gw hve een investigted to enhne the het trnsfer rte of gwF xovel omposite mterils of gwD whih hve superior propertiesD hve lso een proposed for vrious pplitionsF por exmpleD when gw is emedded inside graphite matrixD the het ondutivity n e onsiderly inresed without muh redution in energy storgeF
213 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGsh 214 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGrkizilel

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8.6.4 Applications of PCMs

CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

he three pplitions of gws listed elow @solr energyD uildingsD nd vehilesA re only smll portion of the mny res where they n e used @teringD teleom sheltersD eletronisD etFAF he pplitions of gws in these res hve een widely studied in order to minimize the greenhouse e'et nd to minimize the need for foreign gsoline whih osts FF eonomy millions of dollrs every yerF snresing onerns of the impt of fossil fuels on the environment nd their inresing ost hs led to studies on therml energy storge for the spe heting nd ooling of uildingsF ixtreme old or wrm wether inreses the demnd on heting or oolingF sf the therml energy of het or oolness is stored nd then provided during the dy or nightD prt of the pek lods n e shifted to o'Epek hoursF hereforeD n e'etive energy mngement nd eonomi ene(t n e hievedF Solar energy is reognized s one of the most promising lterntive energy resoure optionsF roweverD it is intermittent y ntureX there is no sun t nightF he reliility of solr energy n e inresed y storing it when in exess of the lod nd using the stored energy whenever neededF he minimiztion of het loss or gin through wllsD eilingsD nd )oors hs een studied for long time nd gw pplitions hve een onsidered for more thn QH yers to minimize these lossesGginsD nd thus redue the ost of eletriity or nturl gs use in uildingsF tudies on viility of gws in vehile pplitions re lso growing widelyF Denaturation of food during trnsport rings mjor prolem whih is eing prtilly solved y refrigerted truksF roweverD this uses not only more expensive foodsD ut lso irreversile environmentl e'ets on living orgnismsF
8.6.4.1 Solar Energy Applications

olr therml energy is tehnology for hrnessing solr energy for therml energyF he solr energy is sored y the erth nd is dissipted throughout the ground t di'erent rtes tht is dependent on the ompositions of the ground nd mount of wterF qround temperture is stle nd solr energy n e trnsferred etween the ground nd spe hetingGooling plesF ter heters tht use solr energy ply n importnt role for this purpose nd they strted to eome populr in the lte IWTHs @pigure Solar Heater @pF RIRAAF sn order to utilize the energy from the sun t ll timesD this preious energy should e stored nd used when neededF ssive systems using gws hve een good ndidtes for therml energy storge nd hve een pplied sine IWVHsF et (rstD the wter heters were supported y (lling the ottom of the heters with gwsD whih ws (rst step in storing energy in heting systemsF roweverD the quntity of the ville energy in the storge system ws limited y low therml ondutivity of the gwF smprovements on therml storge systems nd developments in the inorportion of gws tht utilize the solr energy hve een extensively studied sine thenF

RIS

Figure 8.72: Solar Heater.

Al-Hallaj

215

& Riza Kizilel

216

Figure shows solar heating system with and without PCM. Source: Said

vter studies hve minly onentrted on inresing therml ondutivity using omposite mterilsF edding gw modules t the top of the wter tnk gives the system higher storge density nd ompenste for het loss in the top lyer euse of the ltent het of gwF he on(gurtion of the gw storge unit n result in dvntgeous ontrol of the wter temperture rise nd drop during oth dy nd night timeF hereforeD thermlly strti(ed wter tnks re widely used for short term therml energy storgeF epplition of these tnks signi(ntly inreses not only the energy density with the numer of gw modulesD ut lso the ooling period nd keeps the wter temperture higher ompred to the ones without gwsF fesidesD solr wter heting systems operte within wide rnge of tempertures from ambient temperatures to VH g @IUT pAF e gw hs muh lrger het storge pity reltive to wter over nrrow temperture rngeD lose to its melting tempertureF e mjor omponent of totl household energy onsumption is ookingF olr energy o'ers n eonomil option for ooking in householdsD espeilly in third world ountriesF e solr ooker is devie whih uses the energy of sunlight to het food or drink to ook or sterilize it @pigure Solar Cooker @pF RISAAF st uses no fuelD osts nothing to operteD nd redues ir pollutionF e solr ooker9s re)etive surfe onentrtes the light into smll ooking re nd turns the light into hetF st is importnt to trp the het in the ooker euse het my e esily lost y onvetion nd rditionF he fesiility of using phse hnge mteril s the storge medium in solr ookers hve een exmined sine IWWSF e oxEtype solr ooker with steri id sed gw hs een designed nd frited y fuddhi nd hoo @IWWUA @pF RPHAD showing tht it is possile to ook food even in the evening with solr ookerF he rte of het trnsfer from the gw to the ooking pot during the dishrging mode of the gw is quite slow nd more time is required for ooking food in the eveningF pins tht re welded t the inner wll of the gw ontiner were used to enhne the rte of het trnsfer etween the gw nd the inner wll of the gw ontinerF ine the gw surrounds the ooking vesselD the rte of het trnsfer etween the gw nd the food is higher nd the ooking time is shorterF st is remrkle tht if food is loded into the solr ooker efore QXQH pFmF during the winter sesonD it ould e ookedF roweverD the melting temperture of the gw should e seleted refullyF he more the input solr rditionD the lrger quntity of het there is in gwF pew exmples for gws for solr ooker pplitions re etmide @melting point of VP gAD etnilide @melting point of IIV gAD erythritol @melting point of IIV gA nd mgnesium nitrte hexhydrte @melting point of VW!WH gAF
215 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGsh 216 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGrkizilel

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CHAPTER 8.

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Figure 8.73: Solar Cooker.

Wikimedia Commons

217

Photograph shows solar heating system. Source: Atlascuisinesolaire via

8.6.4.2 Building Applications

gws n e used for temperture regultionD het or old storge with high storge densityD nd therml omfort in uildings tht require nrrow rnge of temperture @pigure Typical Application of PCM in Buildings @pF RITAAF hereforeD if the solr energy is stored e'etivelyD it n e utilized for night oldF he use of gws rings n opportunity to meet the demnd for hetingF st helps to store the energy whih is ville during dytime nd to keep the temperture of the uilding in the omfort levelF
217 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXevyvFjpg

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Figure 8.74: Typical Application of PCM in Buildings Figure illustrates a typical application of
PCM in buildings. Heat storage and delivery occur over a fairly narrow temperature range. Wallboards containing PCM have a large heat transfer area that supports large heat transfer between the wall and the space. Source: Said Al-Hallaj

218

& Riza Kizilel

219

inergy storge in the wlls or other omponents of the uilding my e enhned y enpsulting gw within the surfes of the uildingF he ltent het pity of the gw is used to pture solr energy or mnEmde het or old diretly nd derese the temperture swings in the uildingF st lso mintins the temperture loser to the desired temperture throughout the dyF eserhers hve proposed mro or miro level enpsulted gw in onreteD gypsum wllordD eiling nd )oor in order to hieve resonly onstnt temperture rngeF odyD it is possile to improve the therml omfort nd redue the energy onsumption of uildings without sustntil inrese in the weight of the onstrution mterils y the pplition of miro nd mro enpsulted gwF he mximum nd minimum pek tempertures n e redued y the use of smll quntities of gwD either mixed with the onstrution mteril or tthed s thin lyer to the wlls nd roofs of uildingF sn dditionD the energy onsumption n lso e redued y soring prt of the inident solr energy nd delyingGreduing the externl het lodF he sorption of het gins nd the relese of het t night y pr0n wxEsed gws enpsulted within oEpolymer nd sndwihed etween two metl sheets @gw ordA hve een used in some uilding
218 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGsh 219 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGrkizilel

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CHAPTER 8.

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mterilsF he gw ords on wll redue the interior wll surfe temperture during the hrging proessD wheres the gw wll surfe temperture is higher thn the other wlls during the het relesing proessF he het )ux density of gw wll in the melting zone is lmost twie s lrge s tht of n ordinry wllF elsoD the hetEinsultion performne of gw wll is etter thn tht of n ordinry wll during the hrging proessD while during the het dishrging proessD the gw wll releses more het energyF nlike struturl insulted pnelsD whih exhiit firly uniform therml hrteristisD gw9s tE triutes vry depending upon environmentl ftorsF he struturl insulted pnel works t ll timesD resisting therml )ow from hot tempertures to older temperturesF he therml )ux is diretly proporE tionl to the temperture di'erene ross the struturl insulted pnel insultionF he usefulness of gw is seen when the inEwll tempertures re suh tht it uses the gw to hnge stteF st n e inferred tht the greter the temperture di'erene etween dy nd nightD the etter the gw works to redue het )uxF he use of phse hnge mteril struturl insulted pnel wll would e exellent for geogrphi res where there is typilly lrge temperture swingD wrm during the dy nd ool t nightF
8.6.4.3 Vehicle Applications

tudies on viility of gw in vehile pplitions re growing widelyF por exmpleD gws re studied with regrd to refrigerted truksD whih re designed to rry perishle freight t spei( temperturesF efrigerted truks re regulted y smll refrigertion units tht re pled outside the vehile in order to keep the inside of the truk triler t onstnt temperture nd reltive humidityF hey operte y urning gsD hene the ost of shipment is highly 'eted y the hnges of temperture in the trilerF he use of gw hs helped in lowering pek het trnsfer rtes nd totl het )ows into refrigerted trilerF ehmedD wedeD nd wedin @PHIHA @pF RPHA modi(ed the onventionl method of insultion of the refrigerted truk triler y using pr0nEsed gws in the stndrd triler wlls s het trnsfer redution tehnologyF en verge redution in pek het trnsfer rte of PWFI perent ws oserved when ll wlls @southD estD northD westD nd topA were onsideredD wheres the pek het trnsfer rte ws redued in the rnge of IIFQ E RQFV perent for individul wllsF yverll verge dily het )ow redutions into the refrigerted omprtment of ITFQ perent were oservedF hese results ould potentilly trnslte into energy svingsD pollution tement from dieselEurning refrigertion unitsD refrigertion equipment size redutionD nd extended equipment opertionl lifeF ehiles re minly powered y gasoline @iFe gs or petrolAF Liquied petroleum gases nd diesel re other types of )uids used in vehilesF vtelyD hyrid vehiles eme populr mong onsumers s they signi(ntly redue the toxi exhust gses if the vehiles run in eletri modeF viEion tteries hve een used in eletroni devies for long time @ellEphonesD lptopsD nd portle deviesAF wny sientistsD espeE illy in the nited ttesD hve een working on the possiility of using viEion tteries for trnsporttion pplitions in order to doule the fuel e0ieny nd redue emissions of hyrid vehilesF Li-ion battery modules n e onneted in order to meet the nominal voltage of the vehile to run the vehile in the eletri modeF rowever this rings huge prolem whih keeps wy the uses of viEion tteries in mny pplitionsX s result of exothermi eletrohemil retionsD viEion tteries relese energy during disE hrgeF he generted energy should e trnsferred from the ody of the ttery to environmentF sf the rte of the trnsfer is not su0ientD some of the gelled phse mterils turn into gas phase nd inrese the internl pressure of the ellF herefore the energy should e relesed from the ell s soon s possile or the temperture of the ell should not led to n inreseF veumD uizilelD uhderD nd elErllj @PHHUA @pF RPHA hve shown tht viEion tteries with therml mngement using gw eliminte the need for dditionl ooling systems nd improve ville power @pigure Application with PCM Technology @pF RIVAAF he reserhers mintined ttery pks t n optimum temperture with proper therml mngement nd the gw ws ple of removing lrge quntities of het due to its high ltent het of fusionF

RIW

Figure 8.75: Application with PCM Technology.

Technology

A pack of Li-ion batteries kept at a narrow

temperature range with a proper use of passive thermal management system. Source: AllCell's PCM

8.6.5 Summary

here is gret interest in sving energy nd in the use of renewle energiesF gws provide n underused option for developing new energy storge devies in order to minimize greenhouse e'etsF hey operte t onstnt tempertureY s het is dded to the mterilD the temperture remins stleD ut the het drives the hnge to higher energy phseF e gw stores het in the form of ltent het of fusion whih is out IHH times more thn the sensile hetF rydrted sltsD pr0n wxesD ftty ids nd eutetis of orgni nd nonEorgni ompounds re the mjor types of gws tht melt t wide rnge of temperturesF he spei( melting point of the gw determines the design of therml storge systemF sn this moduleD pplitions of gw in solr energyD uildingsD nd vehiles were reviewedF olr heters hve een populr sine IWTHs nd gws hve een used to store the preious energy from sun sine IWVHsF hey hve een used extensively in solr ookersD espeilly in the third world ountries in order to derese the therml relted ostsF he ookers do not use fuel nd hene redue ir pollutionF gw n e used for temperture regultion in order to minimize the het loss or gin through uilding wllsF hey hve een used to pture solr het nd derese the temperture )ututions in uildingsF woreoverD sine smll mount of gw is su0ient in order to store solr energyD therml omfort is hieved without sustntil inrese in the weight of the onstrution mterilsF epplition of gws in trnsporttion is growing widelyF odyD refrigerted truks re regulted y refrigertion unitsD ut the use of gws is vile option to prevent the denturtion of food during trnsporttionF he trnsfer rte of het n e redued signi(ntly with gwsF woreoverD gw mkes viEion tteriesD whih hve high energy densityD vile for highEpower pplitionsF he generted energy during dishrge or drive mode n e trnsferred from the ody of the ttery to environment with the help of gwsF fttery pks n e mintined t n optimum temperture with proper therml mngement nd the gw hs een shown to e ple of removing lrge quntities of het due to its high ltent het of fusionF iven though there is lot of onEgoing reserh on e'etive nd e0ient pplitions of gws in vriety of res @eFgF solr ookersD uildingsD vehilesAD gws hve yet to eome widely used tehnology for sustinle energyF he dvntges of gws re hrdly known y mny people ndD thereforeD the pplitions of gws nd their ene(ts should e o'ered to onsumersF he sun is out thereD ontinuously trnsferring its energy for freeD ut we need to do more to hrness tht sustinle energy for our own needsF
8.6.6 Review Questions
Question 8.6.1

ixplin rie)y how phse hnge mterils workF

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Question 8.6.2 Question 8.6.3

CHAPTER 8.

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

ht is the min disdvntge of the pr0n wx s phse hnge mterilc

xme three di'erent res in the sustinle energy (eld in whih gws re key element in lning heting nd oolingF

8.6.7 References

ehmedD wFD wedeD yFD 8 wedinD wF eF @PHIHD wrhAF eduing het trnsfer ross the insulted wlls of refrigerted truk trilers y the pplition of phse hnge mterilsF Energy Conversion and Management, 51D QVQEQWPF doiX IHFIHITGjFenonmnFPHHWFHWFHHQ fuddhiD hF 8 hooD vF uF @IWWUD wrhAF olr ooker with ltent het storgeX hesign nd experimentl testingF Energy Conversion and Management, 38D RWQERWVF doiX IHFIHITGHIWTEVWHR@WTAHHHTTEH veumD FD uizilelD FD uhderD wFD 8 elErlljD F @PHHUD eptemerAF ss lugEin gonversion rojet with the gity of ghigoF per presented t the ehile ower nd ropulsion gonfereneD erlingtonD F doiX IHFIIHWGgFPHHUFRSRRIUR

Chapter 9
Problem-Solving, Metrics, and Tools for Sustainability

9.1 Problem-Solving, Metrics, and Tools for Sustainability - Chapter Introduction

1

9.1.1 Introduction

ht gets mesured gets done is n oftEquoted sying @ttriuted to mny individulsA tht ttempts to pture the essentil role of qunti(tion in order to understnd systemD solve prolemD dvne useD or estlish poliyF hroughout this text wide vriety of mesurements re put forthD itedD nd disussed in onnetion with prtiulr onepts inluding limte hngeD eonomisD soil wellEeingD engineering e0ienyD nd onsumer hitsF his hpter is devoted to speil olletion of methodsD mesurementsD toolsD inditorsD nd indies tht re used to ssess the omprtive sustinility mong potentil nd often ompeting optionsD designsD or deisionsD nd to mesure progress towrd hieving the gols of sustinility over timeF he hpter egins in the wodule Life Cycle Assessment @etion WFPA with rief disussion of industril eologyD n emerging siene tht fouses on understnding mteril nd energy )ows to nd through di'erent kinds of humnEreted systemsF his kind of understnding is essentil for frming prolems tht need to e solved in holisti wyF sndustril eologists study suh topis s reyling nd reuse of mterilsD energy e0ienyD orgniztionl struturesD supply hinsD the soil impts of deisionsD nd the eonomis of produt developmentF st hs een termed the siene of sustinility @qredelD PHHH @pF RPPAAF yne of the prinipl tools of industril eology whih is disussed in this hpter is life yle ssessment @vgeAD omprehensive set of proedures for quntifying the impts ssoited with the energy nd reE soures needed to mke nd deliver produt or servieF vge9s re rried out for two min resonsX @A to nlyze ll the steps in produt hin nd see whih use the gretest mount of energy nd mterils or produe the most wsteD nd @A to enle omprisons mong lterntive produts or supply hins nd to see whih one rete the lest environmentl imptF snherent in the onept of vge is the notion of trdeE o's ! the reognition tht in (nite world hoosing one produtD pthwyD or wy of living hs onsequenes for environmentl nd soil wellEeingF yf ourse hoies must e mdeD ut the gol of quntifying the implitions of our tions s holistilly s possile is to void onsequenes tht re unintendedF elthough life yle ssessment grew out of the needs of industry to etter design produts nd understnd the implitions of their deisionsD the systemi mnner of frming prolems upon whih vge is sed hs permeted wide vriety of (eldsD stimulting wht might e termed life yle thinking in eh of themF
1 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVTPQGIFQGbF

RPI

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CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

he uolletion Derivative Life Cycle Concepts2 in this hpter ontins modules devoted to presenE ttions of numer of wys of expressing the impts of humns on the environmentF hese re derived from life yle priniples nd re drwn from the (elds of eologyD thermodynmisD nd environmentl sieneF hey inlude  footprinting @etion WFQFPA nd severl sustainability indicators @etion WFQFIAD ll of whih quntify humn impts in terms of resoure onsumption nd wste prodution over n extended geogrphi rnge ndGor over timefrmes tht go eyond the immediteF A case study on the UN Millennium Development Goals Indicator @etion WFQFTA presents omprehensive pproh for ssessing not only environmentl sustinilityD ut lso hunger nd povertyD edutionD gender equityD infnt mortlE ityD mternl helthD diseseD nd glol prtnerships ! ll elements of sustinle development mde ler in the frundtlnd reportF pinllyD this hpter onludes with module out sustainability and business @etion WFRAF
9.1.2 References

qredelD FiF @PHHHAF he ivolution of sndustril iologyF PVeEQIeF doiX IHFIHPIGesHHQHQW

Environmental Science and TechnologyD

QRD

9.2 Life Cycle Assessment

9.2.1 Learning Objectives

efter reding this setionD students should e le to

lern to view prolem solving in systemti nd holisti mnner understnd the si elements of industril eology nd life yle nlysis eome wre of ville tools for onduting life yle nlysis

9.2.2 Problem Solving for Sustainability

st should e ler y now tht mking deisions nd solving prolems in support of greter sustinility of humnEreted systems nd their impt on the nturl environment is omplex undertkingF yften in modern life our deisions nd designs re driven y single gol or ojetive @eFgF greter monetry pro(tilityD use of less energyD design for shorter trvel timesD genertion of less wsteD or redution of riskAD ut in most ses solving prolems sustinly requires more holisti pproh in whih the funtioning of mny prts of the system must e ssessed simultneouslyD nd multiple ojetives must e integrted when possileF purthermoreD s noted in the frundtlnd eport4 @or see ghpter Introduction to Sustainability: Humanity and the Environment @etion IFIAAD often our deisions require the reognition of trdeo's ! there re mny kinds of impts on the environment nd most deisions tht we mke rete more thn one impt t the sme timeF yf ourse hoies must e mdeD ut it is etter if they re mde with fuller knowledge of the rry of impts tht will ourF he history of environmentl degrdtion is littered with deisions nd solutions tht resulted in unintended onsequenesF en illustrtive exmple of the role of sustinility in solving prolems is the issue of iofuels ! turning plnt mtter into usle energy @mostly liquid hydroronEsed fuelsAF hen viewed from fr nd with single golD energy independeneD using our onsiderle griulturl resoures to turn solr energyD vi photosynthesisD into usle fuels so tht we n redue our dependene on imported petroleum ppers to e quite ttrtiveF he nited ttes is the lrgest produer of grin nd forest produts in the worldF st hs pioneered new tehnologies to mintin nd even inrese griulturl produtivityD nd it hs vst proessing pilities to rete rti(il fertilizer nd to onvert iomss into griulturl produts @see Renewable
2 Sustainability: A Comprehensive Foundation `httpXGGnxForgGontentGolIIQPSGltestGb 3 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVTRQGIFIIGbF 4 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGfrundtlndgommission5frundtlndeport

RPQ
Energy: Solar, Wind, Hydro and Biomass @etion VFRFIFRAAF endD fter llD suh venture is oth domesti nd nturl ! ttriutes tht inline mnyD initilly t lestD to e fvorly disposedF rowever upon loser exmintion this diretion is not quite s unequivolly positive s we might hve thoughtF es it is possile to onvert grin into ethnol nd plnt oils into diesel fuelD ut the gret mjority of these resoures hve historilly een used to feed emerins nd the nimls tht they onsume @nd not just emerinsY the nited ttes is the world9s lrgest exporter of griulturl produtsAF es demnd hs inresedD the pries for mny griulturl produts hve risenD mening tht some frtion of the world9s poor n no longer 'ord s muh foodF wore mrginl lnds @whih re etter used for other ropsD grzingD or other usesA hve een rought under ultivtion for fermentle grinsD nd there hve een prllel indiret onsequenes glolly ! s the world prie of griulturl ommodities hs risenD other ountries hve egun diverting lnd from existing uses to rops s wellF purthermoreD griulturl runo' from rti(il fertilizers hs ontriuted to over RHH regionl episodes of hypoxi @see Water Pollution @pF IWPAA in esturies round the worldD inluding the FF qulf gost nd ghespeke fyF sn response to suh prolemsD FF gongress pssed the inergy sndependene nd eurity et5 in PHHUD whih limits the mount of grin tht n e onverted into iofuels in fvor of using griulturllyE derived elluloseD the hief onstituent of the ell wlls of plntsF his hs given rise to lrge sienti( nd tehnologil reserh nd development progrm to devise eonomil wys to proess ellulosi mterils into ethnolD nd prllel e'orts to investigte new ellulosi ropping systems tht inludeD for exmpleD ntive grsses6 F husD the seemingly simple deision to grow our iofuels industry in response to politil ojetive hs hd unintended politilD (nnilD dietryD soilD lnd useD environmentl qulityD nd tehnologil onsequenesF ith hindsightD the multiple impts of iofuels hve eome lerD nd there is lwys the hope tht we n lern from exmples like thisF fut we might lso sk if there is wy to foresee ll or t lest some of these impts in dvneD nd djust our designsD proessesD nd poliies to tke them into ount nd mke more informed deisionsD not just for iofuels ut lso for omplex soietl prolems of similr ntureF his pproh is the relm of the (eld of industrial ecologyD nd the sis for the tool of life cycle assessment (LCA)D methodology tht hs een designed to perform holisti nlyses of omplex systemsF

9.2.3 Industrial Ecology

wny systems designed y humns fous on mximizing pro(tility for the (rmD usiness or orportionF sn most ses this mens inresing prodution to meet demnd for the produts or servies eing delivE eredF en unfortunte yprodut of this is the retion of lrge mounts of wsteD mny of whih hve signi(nt impts if they enter the environmentF pigure Human-Designed Industry @pigure WFIA is generlEpurpose digrm of typil mnufturing proessD showing the inputs of mterils nd energyD the mnufturing of produtsD nd the genertion of wstes @the ontents of the mnufturing ox re generi nd not ment to depit ny prtiulr industry"it ould e mineD ftoryD power plntD ityD or even universityAF ht mny (nd surprising is the lrge disprity etween the mounts of wste produed nd the quntity of produt deliveredF le Waste-to-Product Ratios for Selected Industries @le WFIX steEtoErodut tios for eleted sndustriesA provides suh informtionD in the form of wsteEtoEprodut rtiosD for few ommon industriesF
5 httpXGGwwwFgovtrkFusGongressGillFxpdcillahIIHET 6 httpXGGwwwFnsfFgovGnewsGnewssummFjspcntnidaIHVPHT

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CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

Figure 9.1: Human-Designed Industry Generic representation of a human-designed industry.Source:

Theis, T.

ht industril systems designed to mximize prodution ndGor pro(ts while ignoring wstes should e so mterilly ine0ient is not surprisingF es noted in the wodule Sustainability and Public Policy @etion PFRAD the impts of wstes on humn helth nd the environment hve historilly een ignoredD or steeply underpriedD so tht little inentive hs existed to limit wste produtionF wore reently lws hve een ented tht ttempt to fore those responsile for wste emissions into more pproprite ounting @see ghpters Environmental and Resource Economics @etion VFIA nd Modern Environmental Management @etion UFIA for fuller tretment of the lwsD regultionsD nd prties used to inorporte soiety9s osts into the prodution hinAF yne relisti osts re ssigned to the wste setorD mnufturers re quik to innovte nd investigte wys to eliminte themF
Waste-to-Product Ratios for Selected Industries Industrial Sector Waste-to-Product Ratio

eutomoiles per fsi wetls @eFgF teel nd eluminumA ghemils xnostrutured mterils @eFgF omputer hipsA wodern egriulture
7 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGtheist

PGI @up to IHGI if onsumer use is inludedA IHGI QHESHGI HFIEIHHGI UHHEIUHHGI

RGI

RPS

Table 9.1X le shows the wste to produt rtios for six ommon industriesF

Source: Theis, T.

sn IWVWD oert prosh 8 xihols qllopoulosD who worked in the qenerl wotors eserh vortoryD pulished n importnt nlysis of this prolem in ienti( emerin @prosh nd qllopoulosD IWVW @pF RQTAAF heir pper ws entitled trtegies for wnufturing 9 Y in it they posed ritil questionX hy is it tht humnEdesigned mnufturing systems re so wstefulD ut systems in nture produe littleD if nyD wstec elthough there hd een mny studies on wys to minimize or prevent wstesD this ws the (rst to seek systemi understnding of wht ws fundmentlly di'erent out humn systems in distintion to nturl systemsF he pper is widely redited with spwning the new (eld of sndustril iologyD n pplied siene tht studies mteril nd energy )ows through industril systemsF sndustril iology10 is onerned with suh things s losing mteril loops @reyling nd reuseAD proess nd energy e0ienyD orgniztionl ehviorD system ostsD nd soil impts of goods nd serviesF e priniple tool of sndustril iology is life yle ssessmentF
9.2.4 Life Cycle Assessment Basics

vge11 is systems methodology for ompiling nd evluting informtion on mterils nd energy s they )ow through produt or servie mnufturing hinF st grew out of the needs of industryD in the erly IWTHsD to understnd mnufturing systemsD supply hinsD nd mrket ehviorD nd mke hoies mong ompeting designsD proessesD nd produtsF st ws lso pplied to the evlution of the genertion nd emission of wstes from mnufturing tivitiesF huring the IWUHs nd IWVHs generl interest in vge for environmentl evlution delined s the ntion foused on the ontrol of toxi sustnes nd remedition of hzrdous wste sites @see ghpters The Evolution of Environmental Policy in the United States @etion PFIA nd Modern Environmental Management @etion UFIAAD ut inresing onern out glol imptsD prtiulrly those ssoited with greenhouse gs emissionsD sw renewed interest in the development of the vge methodology nd more widespred pplitionsF vge is good wy to understnd the totlity of the environmentl impts nd ene(ts of produt or servieF he method enles reserhers nd prtitioners to see where long the produt hin mteril nd energy re most intensively onsumed nd wste produedF st llows for omprisons with onvenE tionl produts tht my e displed in ommere y new produtsD nd helps to identify eonomi nd environmentl trdeo'sF vge n filitte ommunition of risks nd ene(ts to stkeholders nd onsumers @eFgF the ron footprint 12 of individul tivities nd life stylesAF erhps most importntly of llD vge n help to prevent unintended onsequenesD suh s reting solutions to prolems tht result in the trnsferl of environmentl urdens from one re to notherD or from one type of impt to notherF e omplete vge ssessment de(nes system s onsisting of four generl stges of the produt or servie hinD eh of whih n e further roken down into sustgesX

equisition of mterils @through resoure extrtion or reyled souresA wnufturingD re(ningD nd frition se y onsumers indEofElife disposition @ininertionD lnd(llingD ompostingD reylingGreuseA

ih of these involves the trnsport of mterils within or etween stgesD nd trnsporttion hs its own set of imptsF sn most sesD the impts ontriuted from eh stge of the vge re unevenD iFeF one or two of the stges my dominte the ssessmentF por exmpleD in the mnufture of luminum produts it is quisition of mterils @miningAD puri(tion of the oreD nd hemil redution of the luminum into metl tht rete
8 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGtheist 9 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGsndustrileology5ristory 10 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGsndustrileology 11 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGnrmrlGstdGsGlG 12 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGlimtehngeGemissionsGindlultorFhtml

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CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

environmentl imptsF usequent usge of luminum produts y onsumers ontriutes very few imptsD lthough the filittion of reyling of luminum is n importnt step in voiding the onsumption of primry mterils nd energyF sn ontrstD for internl omustionEpowered utomoilesD usge y onsumers retes UHEVH7 of the life yle imptsF husD it is not lwys neessry tht the vge inlude ll stges of nlysisY in mny ses it is only portion of the produtGservie hin tht is of interestD nd often there is not enough informtion to inlude ll stges nywyF por this reson there re ertin hrteristi terminologies for vrious sopes of vges tht hve emergedX

Cradle-to-grave X

inludes the entire mteril yleD inluding reylingGreuseF inludes mteril quisitionD mnufturingGre(ningGfrition @ftory gteAD ut exludes produt uses nd endEofElifeF Gate-to-gate X prtil vge looking t single dded proess or mteril in the produt hinF Well-to-wheel X speil type of vge involving the pplition of fuel yles to trnsporttion vehilesF Embodied energy X e rdleEtoEgte nlysis of the life yle energy of produtD inlusive of the ltent energy in the mterilsD the energy used during mteril quisitionD nd the energy used in mnufturing intermedite nd (nl produtsF imodied energy is sometimes referred to s emergyD or the umultive energy demnd @gihA of produt or servieF
Cradle-to-gate X

lingGreuseF

inludes the entire mterilGenergy yle of the produtGmterilD ut exludes reyE

Cradle-to-cradle X

9.2.5 LCA Methodology

yver time the methodology for onduting vife gyle enlyses @vgesA hs een re(ned nd stndrdizedY it is generlly desried s tking ple in four stepsX sopingD inventoryD impt ssessmentD nd interprettionF he (rst three of these re onseutiveD while the interprettion step is n ongoing proess tht tkes ple throughout the methodologyF pigure General Framework for Life Cycle Assessment @pigure WFPA illustrtes these in generl wyF

RPU

Figure 9.2: General Framework for Life Cycle Assessment The four steps of life cycle assessment
and their relationship to one another. Source: Mr3641 via Wikipedia

13

9.2.5.1 Scoping

is rguly the most importnt step for onduting n vgeF st is here tht the rtionle for rrying out the ssessment is mde expliitD where the oundries of the system re de(nedD where the dt quntityD qulityD nd soures re spei(edD nd where ny ssumptions tht underlie the vge re sttedF his is ritilly importnt oth for the qulity of the resultnt nlysisD nd for omprison mong vges for ompeting or lterntive produtsF
Scoping 9.2.5.2 Inventory Analysis

he inventory nlysis step involves the olletion of informtion on the use of energy nd vrious mterils used to mke produt or servie t eh prt of the mnufturing proessF sf it is true tht soping is the most importnt step in n vge then the inventory is proly the most tedious sine it involves lotingD quiringD nd evluting the qulity of dt nd speifying the soures of unertinties tht my hve risenF por produts tht hve een produed for long time nd for whih mnufturing proesses re well knownD suh s mking steelD onreteD pperD most plstisD nd mny mhinesD dt re redily
13 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXhsesyfvifegyleenlysisFpng

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CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

villeF fut for newer produts tht re either under development or under ptent protetionD dt re often onsidered proprietry nd re generlly not shred in open souresF nertinty n rise euse of missing or poorly doumented dtD errors in mesurementD or nturl vritions used y externl ftors @eFgFD wether ptterns n use onsiderle vrition in the outputs of griulturl systems or the wys tht onsumers use produts nd servies n use vriility in the emission of pollutnts nd the disposition of the produt t end of lifeAF yften the mnufturing hin of proess involves mny steps resulting in detiled inventory nlysisF pigure Detailed System Flow Diagram for Bar Soap @pigure WFQAD for exmpleD shows the mnufturing )ow for r of sop @this digrm is for mking r sop using sponi(tion"the hydrolysis of triglyerides using niml fts nd lyeAF he inventory requires mteril nd energy inputs nd outputs for eh of these stepsD lthough it my turn out tht some steps ontriute little to the ultimte impt nlysisF por exmpleD the inventory ssoited with pitl equipment for mnufturing proessD iFeF mhines tht re repled t lengthy intervls suh tht their impts in the short term re minimlD re often omitted from the nlysisF here re two dditionl spets of vge tht should lso e ddressed during inventory nlysisX the functional unit of omprisonD nd the allocation of inventory quntities mong oEproduts or serviesF he funtionl unit is the sis for ompring two or more produtsD proessesD or servies tht ssure equlity of the funtion deliveredF his my seem like strightforwrd tskF por exmpleD for the sop produed y the proess of pigure Detailed System Flow Diagram for Bar Soap @pigure WFQAD one might hoose one r of sop s funtionl unit of omprisonF fut then how would vge omprison e mde withD syD liquid hnd sop or ody wsh produt @whih omines the funtionlity of sop nd shmpooAc erhps numer of wshings would e etter hoieD or mye onentrtion of surftnt mde ville per verge use @in the ltter se n verge dose would need to e de(nedAF purthermoreD sops hve other dditives nd ttriutes suh s sentsD lotionsD olorsD nd even the funtionlity of the shpe ! ftors tht my not 'et lening e'etiveness ut ertinly do hve n impt on onsumer preferenesD nd hene quntity soldF ine it is quite likely tht essentilly ll sops purhsed y onsumers will eventully e wshed down the drinD suh mrketility ftors my indeed hve n environmentl imptF snventory dt re virtully lwys sought for totl supplyEmnufturingEonsumerEuse hin rther thn individul produtsD thus when tht sme hin produes multiple produts it is neessry to llote the mterilsD energyD nd wstes mong themF eginD referring to pigure Detailed System Flow Diagram for Bar Soap @pigure WFQAD there re potentilly severl oEproduts produedX tllow nd other niml produtsD forest produtsD rdord nd pperD nd slle srpF here re generlly three wys to llote mterils nd energy mong oEprodutsX mssD volumeD nd eonomi vlueF wss nd volume llotions re the most strightforwrdD ut my not pture mrket fores tht re importnt in ringing mterils into the environmentF ellotion vi eonomi vlution usully re)ets the vlue of the energy nd ny vlue dded to the rw mterilsD ut my miss the impts of the mterils themselvesF sn dditionD mrket vlues my )utute over timeF sn the (nl nlysis the importnt spet of ny llotion proedure is tht it e fully doumentedF

RPW

Figure 9.3: Detailed System Flow Diagram for Bar Soap

The manufacturing ow for a bar

of soap (this diagram is for making bar soap using saponicationthe hydrolysis of triglycerides using animal fats and lye). Source: (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2006) (p. 436)

9.2.5.3 Impact Assessment

he life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) tkes the inventory dt on mteril resoures usedD energy onsumedD nd wstes emitted y the system nd estimtes potentil impts on the environmentF et (rst glneD given tht n inventory my inlude thousnds of sustnesD it my seem tht the numer

RQH

CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

of potentil impts is ewilderingly lrgeD ut the prolem is mde more trtle through the ppliE tion of system of impt lssi(tions within whih vrious inventory quntities n e grouped s hving similr onsequenes on humn helth or the environmentF ometimes inventoried quntities in ommon impt tegory originte in di'erent prts of the life yle nd often possess very di'erent hemE ilGiologilGphysil hrteristisF he vgse groups emissions sed on their ommon impts rther thn on their hemil or physil propertiesD hoosing referene mteril for whih helth impts re well knownD s si unit of omprisonF e key spet is the onversion of impts of vrious sustnes into the referene unitF his is done using hrteriztion ftorsD some of whih re wellEknownD suh s glol wrming potentil14 nd ozone depletion potentil15 D nd vg50 16 @the onentrtion of sustne t whih (fty perent of n exposed popultion is killedAD nd others re still under developmentF le Common Impact Categories and Their References @le WFPX gommon smpt gtegories nd heir eferE enesA presents severl impt tegories tht re frequently used in the vgse long with their referenesF he tegories listed in le Common Impact Categories and Their References @le WFPX gommon smpt gtegories nd heir eferenesA re not exhustive ! new types of impt tegoriesD suh s lnd use nd soil impts ! nd ontinue to e developedF
Common Impact Categories and Their References Human Health (cancer) Kg Benzene eq/unit

rumn relth @nonEnerA qlol glimte ghnge iutrophition iotoxiityequtiD errestril oxiity eidi(tion mog pormtion trtospheri yzone hepletion

vg50 eq from exposure modeling ug gy2 eqGunit ug xitrogen eqGunit ug PDR h eqGunitvg50 eq from exposure modeling ug r+ Gunit ug ithne eqGunit ug gpgEII eqGunit

Table 9.2X everl impt tegories tht re frequently used in the vgse long with their referenesF
Source: T. Theis

17 adapted from (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2006) (p.

436)

en exmple will help to illustrte the type of informtion tht results from life cycle inventory nd impt ssessmentsF sn this seD system tht produes iologillyEderived plstiD polyltideD is exminedF @veA18 F ve hs een proposed s more sustinle lterntive to plstis produed from petroleum euse it is mde from plnt mterilsD in this se ornD yet hs properties tht re similr to plstis mde from petroleumF pigure Processing Diagram for Making Polylactide @pigure WFRA shows shemti of the systemD whih is rdleEtoEgte ssessmentF es with ny plstiD ve n e turned into vriety of (nl produts nd eh will hve di'erent rdleEtoEgrve vge hrteristisF he prodution of ve involves growing ornD hrvesting nd proessing the grinD nd polymerizing the lti id moleules produed from fermenttionF et eh step vriety of hemils nd energy re used or produedF st is these prodution mterils tht ontriute to the impt nlysisF snventory quntities were lloted mong mjor ioEproduts on mss sisF
14 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGqlolEwrmingpotentil 15 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGyzonedepletionpotentil 16 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGwedinlethldose 17 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGtheist 18 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGolyltiid

RQI

Figure 9.4: Processing Diagram for Making Polylactide (PLA) The production of PLA involves
growing corn, harvesting and processing the grain, and polymerizing the lactic acid molecules produced from fermentation. At each step a variety of chemicals and energy are used or produced. It is these production materials that contribute to the impact analysis. Source: Landis, A.E. (2007) (p. 436)

emong the inventory dt quired in this se is life yle fossil fuel used y the systemD mostly to power frming equipment @egriultureAD wetEmill orn @gwAD het fermenttion vts @permentAD nd olymeriztion @olymAF he trnsport of intermedite produts from soures to the proessing enter is lso inludedF pigure Fossil Fuel Use to Make PLA vs. Petroleum-Based Plastics @pigure WFSA shows the fossil fuel used to mke ve ompred with fossil fuel used for mking severl petroleumEsed plstisF pigure Global Warming Potential Impact Analysis @pigure WFTA shows the glol wrming potentil impt nlysisF es might hve een expetedD the fossil fuels used to mke ve re slightly less thn for the petroleumEderived plstis on n

RQP

CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

Figure 9.5: Fossil Fuel Use to Make PLA vs. Petroleum-Based Plastics

The amount of

fossil fuels used when making PLA is slightly less in comparison to making several petroleum-based products. (note: PS-GPPS  General Purpose Polystyrene; HDPE  High Density Polyethylene; PET  Polyethylene Terephthalate; LDPE  Low Density Polyethylene; PP  Polypropylene). Source: Landis, A.E. using data from: PLA-L, PLA-L2, (Landis, A.E., 2007) (p. 436); PLA-V, (Vink, et al., 2003) (p. 436); PLA-B, (Bohlmann, 2004) (p. 436); PLA-P, (Patel, et al., 2006) (p. 436).

Figure 9.6: Global Warming Potential Impact Analysis

Global warming impact for PLA com-

pared with several other petroleum- derived plastics. Source: Landis, A.E. (2007) (p. 436)

RQQ equl mss sis @the funtionl unit is one kilogrm of plstiAF he ve inventory lso shows the soures of fossil fuel used for eh step long the mnufturing hinD with the fermenttion step eing the most intense userF ht my not e ovious is tht the totl greenhouse gses @qrqA emitted from the proessD on n equivlent ron dioxide @gy2 A sisD re generlly higher for the iopolymer in omprison with the petroleum polymers in spite of the lower fossil fuel usgeF hen the dt re exmined losely this is due to the griulturl stepD whih onsumes genertes reltively little fossil fuelD ut is responsile for disproportionte mount of emissions of qrqsD mostly in the form of nitrous oxideD powerful greenhouse gs @QIH times the glol wrming potentil of gy2 A tht is yEprodut of fertilizer pplition to (eldsF his exmple lso illustrtes ounterEintuitive results tht vges often generteD prinipl reson why it is importnt to ondut themF
9.2.6 Interpretation of LCA

he interprettion step of vge ours throughout the nlysisF es noted oveD issues relted to the rtionle for onduting the vgeD de(ning the system nd setting its oundriesD identifying dt needsD souresD nd qulityD nd hoosing funtionl unitsD llotion proeduresD nd pproprite impt tegories must ll e ddressed s the vge unfoldsF here re essentilly two forml resons for onduting n vgeX @A identi(tion of hot spots where mteril ndGor energy use nd wste emissionsD oth quntity nd typeD re gretest so tht e'orts n e foused on improving the produt hinY nd @A omprison of results etween nd mong other vges in order to gin insight into the preferle produtD servieD proessD or pthwyF sn oth sesD there re utions tht pply to the interprettion of resultsF
9.2.6.1 Assumptions

ypilly vriety of ssumption must e mde in order to rry out the vgeF ometimes these re minorD for exmpleD exlusion of elements of the study tht lerly hve no ppreile impt on the resultsD nd sometimes more ritilD for exmple hoosing one set of system oundries over notherF hese must e expliitly sttedD nd (nl results should e interpreted in light of ssumptions mde
9.2.6.2 Data Quality, Uncertainty, and Sensitivity

sn the ourse of onduting n vge it is usully the se tht vriety of dt soures will e usedF sn some ses these my e from the fullEsle opertion of proessD in others the soure is from smll sle or even lortory sleD in still other ses it my e neessry to simulte informtion from literture souresF uh heterogeneity inevitly leds to unertinty in the (nl resultsY there re severl sttistil methods tht n e pplied to tke these into ountF en importnt spet of the ompleted vge is the degree of sensitivity the results disply when key vriles re perturedF righly sensitive steps in the hin hve greter need to nrrow unertinties efore drwing onlusions with on(deneF
9.2.6.3 Incommensurability

ometimes vge impt tegoriesD suh s those shown in le Common Impact Categories and Their @le WFPX gommon smpt gtegories nd heir eferenesAD overlp in the sense tht the sme pollutnt my ontriute to more thn one tegoryF por instneD if given ssessment omes up with high sores for oth quti toxiity nd humn toxiity fromD syD pestiide use then one might e justi(ed in using oth of these tegories to drw onlusions nd mke hoies sed on vge resultsF roweverD more typilly elevted sores re found for tegories tht re not diretly omprleF por instneD the extrtionD re(ningD nd use of petroleum generte high sore for glol wrming @due to qrq releseAD while the produt hin for the iofuel ethnol hs high sore for eutrophition @due to nitrogen relese during the frming stgeAF hih prolem is worse ! limte hnge or ostl hypoxic oiety my well hoose ourse of tion tht fvors one diretion over notherD ut in this se the min vlue of the vge is to identify the trdeo's nd inform us of the onsequenesD not tell us whih ourse is orretF
References

RQR

CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

9.2.6.4 Risk Evaluation and Regulation

yne of the inherent limits to vge is its use for ssessing riskF isk ssessment nd mngementD s desried in the wodules The Evolution of Environmental Policy in the United States @etion PFIA nd Modern Environmental Management @etion UFIAD is forml proess tht qunti(es risks for known popultion in spei( lotion exposed to spei( hemil for de(ned period of timeF st genertes risk vlues in terms of the proility of known onsequene due to sequene of events tht re diretly omprleD nd upon whih deisions on wterD lndD nd ir qulity stndrds nd their violtion n e nd re mdeF vge is method for evluting the impts of wstes on humn helth nd the environment from the point of view of the produtGservie hin rther thn prtiulr popultionF st n e used to identify the soures of ontmintion nd generl impts on the environment ! sort of where to look guide for regultionD ut its diret use in the environmentl regultory proess hs eenD to dteD rther limitedF yne pplition for vge tht hs een suggested for regultory use is for ssessing the impts of iofuel mndtes on lnd use prtiesD in the nited ttes nd other regionsD however no regultory stndrds for lnd use hve yet een proposedF
9.2.7 Tools for Conducting LCA

portuntely numer of dtses nd toolsD in the form of omputer softwreD re ville to ssist in rrying out vgesF his is n tive re of developmentY in this setion few of the more wellEknown nd widely used tools re desriedF
9.2.7.1 The Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation Model (GREET)

qii19 is spredsheetEsed dtse developed y ergonne xtionl vortory tht links energy use to emissions on life yle sisF irly versions were limited to greenhouse gsesD ut s the model hs een re(ned mny other types of ontminnts hve een ddedF elthough it hs een widely used for ompring trnsporttion nd fuel options @hene its titleAD qii hs een used for mny other pplitions tht hve signi(nt energy omponentD inluding griultureD mteril nd produt developmentD nd strtegies for reylingF
9.2.7.2 SimaPro

imro20 ws developed y gonsultnts in the xetherlndsF st is proessEsed tool for nlyzing produts nd systems for their energy usge nd environmentl impts over their life yleF st ontins numer of dtses for simulting proessesD performing inventoriesD ssemling produts nd systemsD nlyzing resultsD nd ssessing life yle imptsD nd fetures modules for performing unertinty nd sensitivity nlysesF
9.2.7.3 Tool for the Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and Other Environmental Impacts (TRACI)

egs21 is tool for performing life yle impt nlyses developed y the FF invironmentl rotetion egenyF st uses inventory dt s input informtion to perform midEpoint impt nlysis using tegories suh s those shown in le Common Impact Categories and Their References @le WFPX gommon smpt gtegories nd heir eferenesAF e midEpoint nlysis ssesses impt sed upon results t ommon point in the risk hinD for exmpleD glol wrming potentilD euse susequent endEpoint impt ssessments require severl ssumptions nd vlue hoies tht often di'er from se to seF he vlues
19 httpXGGgreetFesFnlFgovG 20 httpXGGwwwFpreFnlGontentGsimproElEsoftwre 21 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGnrmrlGstdGsGtriG

RQS for the vrious impt tegories given in le Common Impact Categories and Their References @le WFPX gommon smpt gtegories nd heir eferenesA re midEpoint referenesF
9.2.7.4 Economic Input Output Life Cycle Assessment (EIO-LCA) EIO-LCA

@httpXGGwwwFeiolFnetG22 A tkes di'erent pproh to the development of life yle ssessE mentF sn omprison with the somewht omplited ottomEup pproh desried oveD isyEvge uses more ggregtedD mtrixEsed pproh in whih the eonomy is omposed of severl hundred setorsD eh linked to the other through series of ftorsF isy ws (rst developed in the IWSHs y ssily veontief @IWHSEIWWWA who ws wrded xoel rize in eonomis for his workF isy hs proven to e very useful tool for ntionl nd regionl eonomi plnningF he developers of isyEvge then linked the min eoE nomi model to series of environmentl imptsF isyEvge uses eonomi mesures to pertur the systemY for exmpleD if ftory seeks to inrese its output y ten perentD then the ggregted inputs ross the eonomy will hve to inrese y ten perentF yf ourse some of the inputs from some setors will inrese very little if t llD while others will er the mjor runt of the inrese in output y inresing inputF sn isyEvgeD prt of the new outputs will e inresed ontminnt lods to the environmentF isyEvge hs severl dvntges in omprison with the ottomEup pprohF here is no need to e onerned with de(ning system oundriesD iFeF the oundry is the entire eonomy of the nited ttes @or suEregionAD whih inludes ll mteril nd energy inputs nd outputsF he dt used in isyEvge reD for the most prtD lredy olleted y the federl government therey oviting the tedium of the inventory stgeF pinllyD softwre models re redily ville to rry out the nlysisF hile ottomEup vge my tke months or even yers to ompleteD isyEvge typilly tkes few hoursF yf ourseD t this level of ggregtion muh informtion is lostD espeilly on how the system tully funtionsF por exmpleD the energy setor of the eonomy inludes eletriity genertedD ut doesn9t distinguish mong nulerD fossilD or renewle souresF end if one is onerned with the funtionl resons for prtiulr resultD isyEvge will e of limited useF yften the ottomEup nd isyEvge pprohes re omined @ hyrid pprohAF
9.2.8 Conclusions

he life yle pproh is useful wy to ome to n understnding of the mteril nd energy needed to mke produt or deliver servieD see where wstes re genertedD nd estimte the susequent impts tht these wstes my hve on the environmentF st is good wy to improve produt hinD rtiulte trdeo'sD nd mke omprisons mong lterntive proesses nd produtsF sn these ontexts vge filittes deision mking y mngersD designersD nd other stkeholdersF wost importntlyD vge is wy of frming poliy options in omprehensive nd systemti wyF
9.2.9 Review Questions

sing the informtion in le Waste-to-Product Ratios for Selected Industries @le WFIX steEtoErodut tios for eleted sndustriesAD (ll in numeril vluesD per unit of produtD for the digrm in pigure Human-Designed Industry @pigure WFIAF yne digrm for eh industril setorF
Question 9.2.2 Question 9.2.3

Question 9.2.1

ht re some of the resons to use vife gyle essessmentsc

ht re the si stges of produt or servie hin tht serve s the sis for life yle ssessmentc
22 httpXGGwwwFeiolFnetG

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Question 9.2.4 Question 9.2.5 Question 9.2.6 Question 9.2.7 Question 9.2.8 Question 9.2.9

CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

ht re the steps involved in performing life yle ssessmentc xme severl hrteristi sopes of life yle ssessmentsF ht is emodied energyc

xme severl impt ssessment tegories nd the referene units typilly used to express themF xme severl life yle impt nlysis tools nd their mjor hrteristisF ht re some of the limittions of life yle ssessmentsc

Question 9.2.10

vote nd red ompleted vife gyle essessment onlineF gonsider whether widespred doption y soiety would result in mesurele lowering of environmentl imptsc sf so wht kindc ht might the ostles ec ere there ny trdeo's ssoited with doptionD iFeF some impts my e reduedD ut others might get worsecA

9.2.10 References

fohlmnnD qF wF @PHHRAF fiodegrdle pkging life yle ssessmentF Environmental Progress, PQ@RAD RWEUVF doiX IHFIHHPGepFIHHSQ proshD F 8 qllopoulosD xF @IWVWAF trtegies for wnufturingF Scientic AmericanD PTI@QAD IRREISPF vndisD eF iF @PHHUAF Environmental and Economic Impacts of Biobased ProductionF npulished dotorl disserttionD niversity of sllinois t ghigoF telD wFD grnkD wFD hornurgD FD rermnnD fFD oesD vFD rueslingD fFD et lF @PHHTD eptemerAF
Medium and long term opportunities and risks of the biotechnological production of bulk chemicals from renewable resources  The potential of white biotechnology: The BREW ProjectF

treht niversityD xetherE lndsX iuropen gommission9s qyr rogrmme @hq eserhAF FF invironmentl rotetion egenyF @PHHTAF Life cycle assessment: Principles and practiceF @ie ulition xoF ieGTHHGEHTGHTHAF ystems enlysis frnhD xtionl isk wngement eserh vortoryF gininntiD yhioF httpXGGwwwFepFgovGnrmrlGlessGpdfsGTHHrHTHTHFpdf23 F inkD iF F rFD gnoD uFFD qlssnerD hFeFD 8 qruerD FF @PHHQAF epplitions of life yle ssessment to xtureorks polyltide @veA produtionF Polymer Degradation and Stability VH@QAD RHQE RIWF doiX IHFIHITGHIRIEQWIH@HPAHHQUPES

9.3 Derivative Life Cycle Concepts

9.3.1 Sustainability Metrics and Rating Systems
9.3.1.1 Learning Objectives
24

efter reding this setionD students should e le to

understnd wht the hllenges re when mesuring sustinility e le to ompre nd ontrst some ommonly used mesures for sustinility identify the di'erent types of mesures nd their vlue within mesuring system
23 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGnrmrlGlessGpdfsGTHHrHTHTHFpdf 24 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITITGIFSGbF

RQU
9.3.1.2 Introduction

he idel method to mesure sustinility would re)et the threeElegged stool prdigm ! environmentl protetionD soil equityD nd eonomi ene(tF he metris must mke the onnetion etween wht the inditors mesure nd tul sustinilityF e useful indicator will re)et hnges over time tht show whether system is eoming more or less sustinleD nd generlly sustitutes for something else or represents severl mesures @helyD PHHS @pF RRUAAF he hllenge of studying sustinility s n ojetive siene is tht the work is vlueEloded nd soilly hrgedF sf we re wre of the purpose of the nlysis we n use multidisiplinry pproh to the prolem de(nition nd the reserh methodology @vele nd xorgrdD IWWT @pF RRUAAF

Figure 9.7: Information Pyramid

The Information Pyramid shows ways of handling data when

studying sustainability. Source: C. Klein-Banai

25

sn generlD three pprohes to sustinility mesurement nd reporting re ommonly utilizedX ounts tht use quantitative data nd onvert them to ommon unit suh s moneyD re or energyY narrative assessments tht inlude textD mpsD grphis nd tulr dtY nd indicator-based systems tht my inlude the informtion tht nrrtive ssessment hs ut they re orgnized round inditors or mesurle prts of systemF snditorEsed systems re generlly found to perform etter nd re esily mesurle nd omprle sine they re more ojetive thn nrrtive systemsD or use only individul dt points @hllEglytonD PHHP @pF RRUAAF heisionEmkers nd stkeholders need to prtiipte in the development of inditors to e sure tht their vlues nd onerns re ddressedF roweverD the system does need to e tehnilly nd sienti(lly sedF sn the next few modules we will rie)y disuss existing sustinility metris tht re generlly sed within ertin disiplines suh s eologyD eonomisD nd physisD nd how they my re)et other disiplines @see le Common Sustainability Metrics @le WFQX gommon ustinility wetrisAAF wost of these metris re desried in greter detils in the following modulesX The IPAT Equation @etion IFQAD
25 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGindyk

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CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

Biodiversity, Species Loss, and Ecosystem Function @etion RFQAD Tragedy of the Commons @etion TFPAD Environmental Valuation @etion TFRAD Evaluating Projects and Policies @etion TFSAD nd Life Cycle Assessment @etion WFPAF Common Sustainability Metrics Method Brief Description Use

gontingent vlution method @gwA

Economic

gptures the preferE enes of the puli regrding good or servie y mesuring its willingness to py lution of servies provided y nture suh s lening of wter y miroorgnisms lution of ost nd ene(ts for eh yer of projetGpoliyY luE ltion of net present vlue @xA y ggreE gting nd ompring osts nd ene(ts over the whole life of projet poliyF eights personl expenE ditures with n index of inome inequlity otl inome of the peoE ple in n eonomy less pitl onsumption or depreition wodi(tion of ove to ount for loss of ntuE rl resoure pitl sntensity of disturne required to move system to new regime

qood or servie

iosystem servies vlE ution

qood or servie

gost fene(t enlysis @gfeA

rojet or poliy

sndex of ionomi @siA

ustinle elfre

egionl welfre

xet ntionl produt @xxA

egionl welfre

qreen xx

egionl welfre

esiliene
Ecological

iosystem

continued on next page

RQW grrying pityX wximum sustinle yield @wA 8 se he mximum mount of resoure extrtion while not depleting the resoure from one hrE vest to the next otl re of produtive lnd nd wter eosysE tems needed to produe resoures nd ssimilte wste of given populE tion he mount of solr enE ergy tht hs een used diretly or indiretly to mke good or servie he mximum work tht n e extrted from system when it moves towrds thermoE dynmi equilirium with referene stte iosystem

iologil @ipA

footprint

sndividulD instituE tionlD regionl

Physical

imergy

qood or servie

ixergy

oliyD evlution of enE ergy systems

Table 9.3X le lists ommon sustinility metrisF

9.3.1.3 Ecological Measures

Source: C. Klein-Banai

26

iologil mesures of sustinility re used for nturl systemsF hese mesures inlude resiliene nd severl onstruts tht re derivtives from rrying pityF Resilience is the time needed for system tht provides desirle ecosystem goods and services to go k to de(ned dynmi regime fter disturneF esiliene stresses the hnging nture of ecosystemsD rther thn seeing them s stti nd providing ontinuous nd onstnt mount of nturl resouresF Carrying capacity estimtes soiety9s totl use of the resoure stoks nd )ows provided y n eosystem reltive to the remining resoures needed y the eosystem for stility nd regenertionF Maximum sustainable yield (MSY) is n outgrowth of rrying pity nd the gol is to reh the mximum mount of resoure extrtion while not depleting the resoure from one hrvest to the nextF ustinilityD in this ontextD n e understood s the point when the rte of resoure extrtion or hrvest @wA equls the mount produed y the eosystemF reviously disussed methods re types of mesures of sustinility suh s se @see wodule The IPAT Equation @etion IFQAA whih ounts for the e'et of soiety on the mount of resoures used when looking t rrying pityF his type of mesure looks t whether the impt of humn soiety is inresing or deresing over time nd n e used to ompre impts etween soieties of di'erene sizes or 1uene levelsF pootprinting @see wodule Footprinting: Carbon, Ecological and Water @etion WFQFPAA is often used s mesure of sustinility tht n e understood intuitively nd isD thereforeD useful when tlking to the generl puliF he eologil footprintD whih lso represents the rrying pity of the erthD is de(ned s the totl re of produtive lnd nd wter eosystems required to produe the resoures tht the popultion onsumes nd ssimilte the wstes tht the popultion produesD wherever on irth tht lnd nd wter my e loted @ees nd kerngelD IWWT @pF RRUAAF his results in n evlution of the demnd nd supply of nturl pitl of given popultion @individul to plnetA or produtGservieF
26 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGindyk

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CHAPTER 9.

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vifeEyle ssessment @vgeAD strutured methodology tht n e utilized to evlute the environmentl impts of produtsD proessesD projetsD or servies throughout their life yles from rdle to grve @see wodule Life Cycle Assessment @etion WFPAA my e onsidered n eologil metriF e greenhouse gs emissions inventory is n exmple of this methodology @see Case Study: Greenhouse Gases and Climate Change @etion VFQAAF
9.3.1.4 Economic Measures

ionomi mesures ple monetry vlue on sustinilityF ionomists use the following mesures of sustinilityX eosystem vlutionD ontingent vlutionD nd net ntionl produtD whih re disussed in ghpter Environmental and Resource Economics @etion TFIAF tndrd eonomi methods n e used to evlute environmentl projetsF sndies tht re used on ntionl nd interntionl level y orgniztions like the nited xtions my e used to exmine the eonomi nd soil welfre of regionF he sndex of ustinle ionomi elfre @siA27 nd other relted frmeworks tht ount for sustinle development hve een oneived to provide n lterntive to the qross homesti rodut28 D whih does not pture humn welfre in its lultionsF his system weights personl expenditures within popultion with n index of inome inequlity nd set of ftors re then dded or sutrted to this monetry vlueF wonetry nlysis of sustinility does not vlue the vriety of sustinility issues espeilly those tht nnot e mesured s produt or servie in tody9s mrkets @qsprtosD et lFD PHHV @pF RRUAAF
9.3.1.5 Physical Measures

hysil mesures of sustinility use thermodynmi onepts in their lultionsF wo physil pE prohes to mesuring sustinility re exergy nd emergyF hese onepts re derived from the seond lw of thermodynmis whih sttes tht losed system with onstnt mss nd no energy inputs tends towrd higher entropy or disorderF por instneD piee of wood tht is the produt of mny yers of omE plex tree growth releses energy @light nd het in the )meA when urnedD nd eomes ron shD smokeD gsesD nd wter vporF his mens tht s properties within system suh s mssD energyD nd hemil onentrtions degrde @deomposeA over time or urnD they lso mke ville useful energy @exergyA for workF iosystems nd humn eonomies funtion under this seond lwD ut they n use externl energy @the sunA to mintin or inrese energy suppliesF Emergy is the mount of energy of one kind @solrA tht hs een used diretly or indiretly @through trnsformtion proessA to mke servie or produt of one type nd it is expressed in units of @solr energyA emjouleF st n e thought of s mesure of ll the entropy tht hs een produed over the whole proess of reting given produt or servie @frown nd lgitiD PHHP @pF RRUAAF en exmple is the proess of fossil fuel retionX solr energy ws used y plnts to grow nd is stored in the omplex moleulr strutures tht held the plnts togetherD when those plnts died they deomposed nd were uried over time under the hnging erthD nd the energy ws onentrted into fossil fuelsF ixergyD thusD llows us to ount for ll the environmentl support needed y humn nd eoEsystems or inputsF wesures of energy inputs re trnsformed to emergy y use of ftor tht represents the mount of environmentl work needed to produe produt or provide servieF he emergy )ows within system inE lude renewle resoures @sunlightD rinD windD griulturl produtionD timer hrvestD etFAD nonErenewle prodution @fossil fuelsD metlsD minerlsD soilsAD nd importsGexportsF e sustinle system would hve net positive @or zeroA emergy )ow ross its oundry @wyerD et lFD PHHR @pF RRUAAF imergy evlutions hve een usedD for instneD to quntittively demonstrte tht renewle energy plnts hd higher sustinility ompred to therml plnts @frown nd glitiD PHHP @pF RRUAAF Exergy n e de(ned s the mximum work tht n e extrted from system s it moves to thermodynmi equilirium with referene stteD s in the exmple of urned wood oveF st hs een used to study e0ieny of hemil nd therml proessesF his represents n entropyEfree form of energy
27 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGsndexofustinleionomielfre 28 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGqrossdomestiprodut

RRI tht is mesure of its usefulnessD qulity or potentil to mke hngeF ixergy ounting provides insights into the metolism of system nd its e'et on the environment using ommon denomintorF st n ddress energy utiliztionD e used for design nd nlysis of energy systems nd to quntify wste nd energy losses re)eting resoure useF ixergy n ount for n eonomi omponentD lor inputD nd impt of emissions on humn helth @qsprtosD et lFD PHHV @pF RRUAY ydumD IWWT @pF RRUAAF
9.3.1.6 Comparison of Measures

o fr we highlighted three tegories for mesures of sustinility ! eologilD eonomiD nd physil ! nd provided few exmplesF ustinility mesures is n evolving (eld of study nd the metris re innumerleF iologil mesures inlude inditors tht try to mesure the sustinility of the eosystem s wholeF ionomi metris use monetry mesures nd try to put prie on the environment nd its serviesF hey re vlued sed on urrenyD whih is n nthropoentri vlueD mening it is signi(nt only to humnsF hey ount only for humn welfre to the extent tht it depends on nture to surviveF hey do not ount for the e'et on n eosystem s wholeD inluding plnts nd nimlsF hysil metris re losely tied to thermodynmis nd energyD nd re generlly expressed in units of energyF ustinility inditors re needed to improve our understnding of the nture of humn demnds on eosystems nd the extent to whih these n e modi(edF oiety uses resoures for physil nd soil infrstruture nd ontinully inreses its needs due to popultion growth whih is mde possile y hnging the wy we grow nd produe foodD thus mnipulting the food weF ome of these eonomi metris re losely tied to soil sustinility metris s well nd try to ount for the soil welfre of popultionF yverllD while physil tools n pture ertin environmentl nd eonomi issuesD tooD they do not ddress eonomi issues from the sme perspetive s onventionl eonomi nlysisF woreoverD they do not pture most soil issuesF ionomi mrkets do not usully diretly vlue goods nd servies tht eologil systems provide to humn eonomies nd soietiesF hese eosystem servies inlude the uptke of ron dioxide y plnts nd treesD puri(tion of wter y miroorgnismsD enrihment of soil through degrdtion of plnt nd niml mterilsD nd rinfll tht provides irrigtion @see gonstnzD et lFD IWWU @pF RRUAAF elso eonomists do not gree on the degree of sustitutility etween nturl nd mnEmde pitlF his onept of sustitutility mens tht nturl pitl suh s IHH yer old @old forestA trees used to uild homes nd furniture n e repled y replnting fstEgrowing trees nd provide the sme vlue @ereD IWWQ @pF RRUAAF ehnology lso trnsforms the use of resoures for instne y mking them more redily ville nd more eonomiF en exmple of this is the use of frking to produe nturl gs from soures tht were di0ult to extrt from dede go @see wodule Environmental Challenges in Energy, Carbon Dioxide, Air and Water @etion VFPAAF
9.3.1.7 Sustainability Indicators and Composite Indices

here is no single indicator tht n pture ll spets of sustinility within omplex systemsF hen we spek of systemsD we re referring to institutionsD itiesD regionsD or ntionsF roweverD group of inditors ould e seleted nd nlyzed under ertin riteri tht will etter represent this type of systemF en inditor represents prtiulr opertionl ttriute of system suh s overll energy redutionD qrq gs emissions inventoryD wht perentge of people ommute y puli trnsitD or perentge of people with ollege degreeF hese re mesured or oserved t di'erent timesD lotionsD popultions or omintions thereofF he pigure Information Pyramid @pigure WFUA represents the reltionship etween ll these mesuresF e group of inditors n then e evluted using omposite inditorGindex @gsA or rtingF gss stnd t the top of n informtion pyrmid where primry dt lies t the seD followed y nlyzed dtD then inditorsD nd topped y indiesF e omposite inditor is formed y the ompiltion of vrious individul inditors into one index sed on n underlying modelF @xrdoD et lFD PHHS @pF RRUAAF en exmple is the vedership in inergy nd invironmentl hesign @viihA29 whih is green uilding erti(tion system
29 httpXGGwwwFusgForgGhisplygeFspxcgwgeshaIWVV

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CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

developed y the FF qreen fuilding gounil @qfgA30 F st ounts for lrge vriety of uilding ttriutes tht ontriute to uilding eing onsidered sustinle suh s uilding mterilsD lotionD lndspeD energy usgeD ess to lterntive trnsporttion nd so onF he (nl result is numeril rting for the uilding tht is then ssoited with ertin erti(tion level @gerti(edD ilverD qoldD ltinumAF his kind of system is most widely epted nd vlued when peerEreview is onduted to determine wht weights should e given to eh ttriuteF hen the qfg deided to updte its rting system euse it did not urtely re)et the vlues of its memersD it underwent review through its vrious ommittees31 F ometimesD when you hve lot of di'erent mesures tht use di'erent units you do not wnt to gE gregte them together into one numerF sn this seD multiEriteri ssessment @wgeA n e used where onstituent inditors re not ggregted into single indexF wultiEriteri nlysis @similr nmeD di'erent ontextA n e used s tool to estlish weights for severl riteriD without requiring tht ll dt e onverted into the sme units @rermnnD PHHU @pF RRUAAF here re severl multiEriteri evlution methods tht n e used for thisF hese methods my either e dtEdriven @ottomEupA when highEqulity dt is ville or theory driven @topEdownA when dt is ville for only one of the spetsF e roder review of this n e found in qsprtosD et lF @PHHVA @pF RRUAF wny industry setors re developing frmeworks or rting systems tht provide wys to report nd mesure sustinilityF wo exmples re disussed hereF he qlol eporting snititive @qsA32 provides system for orgniztions to pulish their sustinility performneF sts purpose is to provide trnspreny nd ountility for stkeholders nd to e omprle mong orgniztionsF st is developed in n interntionlD multiEstkeholder proess nd it is ontinuously improvedF en orgniztion determines whih inditors from mong those proposed it will reportF roweverD no overll index or sores re reportedF here is lso usully nrrtive portion to the report @qlol eporting snititiveAF he inditors re roken down in environmentlD eonomi nd soil performne inditorsF ih re hs ore inditors with some dditionl inditors tht my e used sed on the orgniztion9s hoieF he emerin essoition of righer idution @eeriA33 D is the led orgniztion in xorth emeri for sustinility in olleges nd universitiesF yne of their mjor projets hs een the development of the ustinility rkingD essessment nd ting ystem @eA34 F his is voluntryD selfEreporting frmework tht is to e used to mesure reltive progress of universities nd olleges s they work towrd sustinilityF e ws developed using ollortive proess tht involved input from mny instituE tionsF sn PHHVD pilot study of TT institutions ws onduted to test the viility of the system nd e version IFH ws relesed in tnury PHIH with mny shools reporting y tnury PHIIF he redits re given in three tegories of equl weight ! edution nd reserhY opertionsY plnningD dministrtion nd enggementF ih redit is given weight sed on the extent to whih the redit ontriutes to imE proved environmentlD (nnil nd soil imptsD nd whether there re edutionl ene(ts ssoited with the hievement of this redit nd the redth of tht imptF he result is omposite inditorD with trnsprent individul soringF hools prtiipting in e will use n onEline reporting tool whih mkes the results pulily villeF hepending on the totl points hievedD level of hievement is e ssignedF he e rting will e good for three yers ut shool my hoose to updte nnullyF ee gse tudyX gompring qreenhouse qs imissionsD iologil pootprint nd ustinility ting of niversity @etion WFQFQA for n exmple of this reportingF
9.3.1.8 Examples of How an Index is Developed

urjn nd qlvi @PHHSA @pF RRUA developed omposite sustinle development index @sCSD A to trk eonomiD environmentl nd soil performne of ompnyF ionomiD environmentlD nd soil suE indies were lulted from normlized inditors within eh setorF o lulte normlized inditorsD
30 httpXGGwwwFusgForgGhisplygeFspxcgwgeshaIWVV 31 httpXGGwwwFusgForgGhisplygeFspxcgwgeshaIUSH 32 httpXGGwwwFglolreportingForgGeportingprmeworkGeportingprmeworkyverviewG 33 httpXGGwwwFsheForgG 34 httpXGGwwwFsheForgGstrs

RRQ the inditors for eh setorD whih typilly hve di'erent unitsD were divided y the vlue in time @yerA with its verge vlue of ll the time in the yers mesuredF elterntivelyD they n e normlized y using mximum nd minimum vlues or trget vluesF he enlyti rierrhy roess35 ws used to determine the weights of the environmentl inditorsF his is multiEttriute deision modelF he steps reX IF etting the prolem s hierrhy with the top eing the ojetive of the deision nd lower levels onsist of the riteri used t rriving t the deisionF PF irEwise omprisons etween two inditorsF QF se of onsisteny rtio to hek the onsisteny of eh judgmentF RF tepEyEstep proedure of grouping vrious si inditors into the sustinility suEindexF SF uEindies re omined into the omposite sustinle development indexF he eonomiD environmentl nd soil mesures tht were used in this model re s followsX
Economic Environmental Social

les yperting pro(t snvestment pitl 8 expendiE tures xet ernings eserh 8 development osts xumer of employees

otl energy onsumption ter onsumption rodution mss gron dioxideD nitrous oxidesD sulfur dioxide 8 dust emissions stewter ste for disposl eyling rzrdous wste

xoF of ouptionl idents xoF of nonEpro(t projets xoF of odor omplins xoF of noise omplints xoF of dust omplints xoF of neighor omplints

Table 9.4
en nlytil toolD lled gywvswixD ws developed to provide detiled informtion on the overll environmentl impt of usiness @rermnnD PHHU @pF RRUAAF his tool integrtes the onepts of life yle ssessmentD multiEriteri nlysis nd environmentl performne inditorsF he omintions of environmentl performne inditors used depend on the orgniztion nd re)et the relevnt prts of the prodution trinF he method inludes setting system oundriesD dt olletionD lultion of potentil environmentl impts nd their normliztionD ggregtion of impts using multiEriteri nlysisD the weights per impt tegory re multiplied y normliztion potentil impts nd the results n e dded up for eh perspetiveF he system oundry strives to e rdleEtoEgrve @from extrtion of resoures to disposlA lthough it my e rdleEtoEgte @from extrtion of resoures to ompletion of produtionA nlysisF edoption of ny single group of tools mens tht ertin perspetive will e more highly represented in the sustinility ssessmentF he need to ddress the multitude of environmentlD soilD eonomi issuesD together with intergenertionl nd intrgenertionl equity onerns @qsprtosD et lFD PHHV @pF RRUAD pF QHTA produes prolems tht none of the disiplinry pprohes n solve seprtelyF gomining the outputs of iophysil nd monetry tools will result in more omprehensive sustinility perspetiveF he result is tht the hoie of metris nd tools must e mde sed on the ontext nd hrteristis tht re desired y the nlysts @qsprtosD et lFD PHHV @pF RRUAAF sing omposite inditor or set of individul inditors presented together n overome the prolem of using single metri to mesure sustinilityF
35 httpXGGwwwFokuFFtGmiGhpGhptutorilFpdf

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CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

ixisting inditorEsed sustinility ssessments vry in the numer of susystems or ssessment resD the numer of levels etween susystem nd inditorD nd whether they result in n index @ompound inditorA of the stte of the system nd susystemsF hese would inlude the eosystem or environmentD people or eonomy nd soietyD nd possily institutionsF he more susystems ssignedD the lower the weight given to the environmentl portionF es more inditor systems re developed they eome inresingly omplexD yet there is demnd for simple presenttion tht does not erse the omplexityF e single inditor with true signi(ne is not hievleD ut y omining inditors into indies the results re more meningfulF
9.3.1.9 Representing Results for Multi-Criteria Assessment

ine mesuring sustinility does not ome down to simple metri or few it is useful to use visuliztion tehniques to disply the resultsF yne wy to depit sustinility performne is to use grphil view of progressD s shown in pigure Visualizing Results of Sustainability @pF RRRA elow for the qs for universitiesF por eh tegory mpping of the sores ws retedF his ppers s hexgon inditing progress in eh re for whih points re hievedF

RRS

Figure 9.8: Visualizing Results of Sustainability Assessments

sentation of the Environmental Dimension of the GRI for universities. Fredman adapted from Lozano (2006) (p. 447).

Hypothetical graphical repreThe red numbers indicate the

percentage of points achieved within each sub-category within the category of environment. Source: D.

enother exmple of visulizing sustinility is seen in frmework developed for universities to use @roshinetz et lFD PHHU @pF RRUAAF eginD multidimensionl sustinility inditorsD eh hving n eoE nomiD environmentl nd soil omponent re usedF he tegories re listed in pigure Sustainability Indicator Triangle @pigure WFWAF ih inditor ws exmined using sustinility inditor tringle where eh orner is delineted s eonomiD environmentl or soil nd the inditors re pled within to the tringle to re)et how well eh mesures those spetsF

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CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

Figure 9.9: Sustainability Indicator Triangle

economic. Source: C. Klein-Banai

The thirteen sustainability indicators are placed environmental, societal and

according to how well each measures a dimension of sustainability, i.e.

36

adapted from Troschinetz, et al. (2007) (p. 447).

9.3.1.10 Conclusion

wesuring sustinility is di0ult euse of the interdisiplinry nture nd omplexity of the issues tht this onern representsF wethods hve een developed out of the di'erent disiplines tht re sed in the eologilD eonomiD physil nd soil sienesF hen pprohing mesure of sustinility it is importnt to understnd wht you will use the results of tht mesure forD wht the mjor onerns you wnt to ddress reD nd the limits of the system you hooseF yften it is more meningful to mesure progress of the entity you re exmining ! is it more sustinle thn it ws eforec st is di0ult to ompre similr entities @ountriesD ompniesD institutionsD even produtsA due to the omplexity nd vriility in the dtF sing visuliztion to represent the dt is helpful wy to show the stte of sustinility rther thn trying to express it in one numer or in tle of numersF
9.3.1.11 Review Questions Question 9.3.1.1 Question 9.3.1.2 Question 9.3.1.3

ht is the di'erene etween dt nd n indexc ht is the mjor hllenge in mesuring sustinilityc

qive three generl tegories of inditors tht re used for mesuring sustinility nd provide one exmple of ehF
Question 9.3.1.4

hy is it importnt to hve experts provide input to rting systemsc

36 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGindyk

RRU

9.3.1.12 References

frownD wFF 8 lgitiD F @PHHPAF imergy evlutions nd environmentl loding of eletriity prodution systemsF Journal of Cleaner ProductionD 10D QPIEQQRF doiXIHFIHITGHWSWETSPT@HIAHHHRQEW gonstnzD .D d9ergeD FD de qrootD FD prerD FD qrssoD FD rnnonD fFD et lF @IWWUAF he vlue of the world9s eosystem servies nd nturl pitlF NatureD 387D PSQ!PTHF hllEglytonD fF 8 fssD F @PHHPAF Sustainable development strategies: A resource bookF vondonX irthsn ulitions vtdF qsprtosD eFD ilErrmD wFD 8 rornerD wF @PHHVAF e ritil review of redutionist pprohes for ssessing the progress towrds sustinilityF Environmental Impact Assessment ReviewD 28D PVTEQIIF doiXIHFIHITGjFeirFPHHUFHWFHHP37 rmmondD eFD edrinseD eFD odenurgD iFD fryntD hFD 8 oodwrdD F @IWWSAF invironmenE tl inditorsX systemti pproh to mesuring nd reporting on environmentl poliy performne in the ontext of sustinle developmentF World Resources InstituteF etrieved wrh UD PHIID from httpXGGpdfFwriForgGenvironmentlinditorswFpdf38 F rermnnD fFqFD uroezeD gFD 8 twjitD F @PHHUAF essessing environmentl performne y omining life yle ssessmentD multiEriteri nlysis nd environmentl performne inditorsF Journal of Cleaner 39 ProductionD 15D IVUVEIUWTF doiXIHFIHITGjFjleproFPHHTFHRFHHR urjnD hF 8 qlviD F @PHHSAF e model for integrted ssessment of sustinle developmentF Resources Conservation & RecyclingD 43D IVWEPHQF veleD F 8 xorgdD FfF @IWWTD eprilAF ustinility nd the sientist9s urdenF Conservation Biology, 10D QSREQTSF doi IHFIHRTGjFISPQEIUQWFIWWTFIHHPHQSRFx voznoD F @PHHTAF e tool for grphil ssessment of sustinility in universitiesF Journal of Cleaner ProductionD 14D WTQEWUPF doiX IHFIHITGjFjleproFPHHSFIIFHRI wyerD eFvFD hurstonD rFF 8 wlowskiD gFF @PHHRAF he multidisiplinry in)uE ene of ommon sustinility indiesF Ecological EnvironmentD 2D RIWERPTF doiXIHFIVWHGISRHE WPWS@PHHRAHHPHRIWXwsygPFHFgyYP xrdoD wFD isnD wFD ltelliD eD rntol FD ro'mnD eF 8 qiovnniniD iF @PHHSAF rndook on onE struting omposite inditorsX wethodology nd user guide @hGhyg @PHHSAQAF Paris: OECD Statistics 40 DirectorateF etrieved perury PTD PHIID from httpXGGwwwFoedForgGdtoedGQUGRPGRPRWSURSFpdf ydumD rFF @IWWTAF Environmental Accounting, Emergy, and Environmental Decision MakingF xew orkX tohn iley 8 onsD snF ereD hFF 8 qFhF etkinson @IWWQAF gpitl theory nd the mesurement of sustinle developmentX n inditor of wek sustinilityF Ecological economicsD 8D IHQEIHVF eesD FiF 8 kerngelD wF @IWWTAF rn eologil footprintsX why ities nnot e sustinle nd why they re key to sustinilityF Enviromental Impact Assessment ReviewD 16D PPQEPRVF eporting prmework yverviewF @nFdFAF Global Reporting InitiativeF etrieved eugust PID PHIID from httpXGGwwwFglolreportingForgGeportingprmeworkGeportingprmeworkyverviewG41 helyD rFFD uennedyD gFeF 8 edmsD fFtF @PHHSAF heveloping sustinility riteri for urn infrsE truture systemsF Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering,32D UPEVSF doiX IHFIIQWGlHREHUP roshinetzD eFwFD wiheliD tFFD 8 frdofD uFvF @PHHUAF heveloping ustinility snditors for niversity gmpusF International Journal of Engineering EducationD 23D PQIEPRIF
37 httpXGGdxFdoiForgGIHFIHITGjFeirFPHHUFHWFHHP 38 httpXGGpdfFwriForgGenvironmentlinditorswFpdf 39 httpXGGdxFdoiForgGIHFIHITGjFjleproFPHHTFHRFHHR 40 httpXGGwwwFoedForgGdtoedGQUGRPGRPRWSURSFpdf 41 httpXGGwwwFglolreportingForgGeportingprmeworkGeportingprmeworkyverviewG

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CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

9.3.2 Footprinting: Carbon, Ecological and Water

9.3.2.1 Footprinting: Carbon, Ecological and Water 9.3.2.1.1 Learning Objectives

42

efter reding this setionD students should e le to

understnd wht n environmentl footprint is nd its limittions ondut some si footprinting lultions lulte nd explin their own footprint
9.3.2.1.2 Basic Concepts of Footprinting

ht is ommon mesure of the impt of n individulD institutionD region or ntionc his n e done y mesuring the footprint of tht entityF hen disussing limte hnge nd sustinility the onepts of ron footprint nd eologil footprint re often usedF nderstnding how these footprints re derived is importnt to the disourse s not ll lultions re equlF hese footprints n e lulted t the individul or household levelD the institutionl level @orportionD universityD nd genyAD muniipl levelD suEntionlD ntionl or glolF hey re derived from the onsumption of nturl resoures suh s rw mterilsD fuelD wterD nd power expressed in quntities or eonomi vlueF he quntity onsumed is trnslted into the footprint y using onversion ftors generlly sed in sienti( or eonomi vluesF
note:

here re mny personl lultors ville on the internetF rere re few to tryX

ie rousehold imissions glultor43 iologil pootprint44 irth hy xetwork pootprint45 gool glimte xetwork @g ferkeleyA46 gron pootprint47

his hpter will disuss three types of footprints ! eologilD ron nd wter ! nd the methodologies ehind themF elthough e'orts hve een mde to stndrdize the lultions omprisons must e pE prohed with utionF gompring individulD institutionl or ntionl footprints tht re lulted y the sme method n e helpful in mesuring hnge over time nd understnding the ftors tht ontriute to the di'erenes in footprintsF
9.3.2.1.3 Ecological Footprint 9.3.2.1.3.1 Concept

he werrimEester hitionry de(nes footprint48 sX IF n impression of the foot on surfeY PF the re on surfe overed y something
42 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITISGIFRGbF 43 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGlimtehngeGemissionsGindlultorFhtml 44 httpXGGwwwFmyfootprintForgG 45 httpXGG(lesFerthdyFnetGfootprintGindexFhtml 46 httpXGGoollimteFerkeleyFeduG 47 httpXGGwwwFronfootprintFomG 48 httpXGGwwwFmerrimEwesterFomGditionryGfootprint

RRW imilrlyD the ecological footprint @ipA represents the re of lnd on erth tht provides for resoures onsumed nd tht ssimiltes the wste produed y given entity or regionF st is omposite index @see wodule ustinility wetris nd ting ystems @etion WFQFIAA tht represents the mount of iologilly produtive lnd nd wter re required to support the demnds of the popultion in tht entity or region he ip is ene(il euse it provides single vlue @equl to lnd re requiredA tht re)ets resoure use ptterns @gostnzD PHHH @pF RTPAAF he use of ip in omintion with soil nd eonomi impt ssessment n provide mesure of sustinility9s triple bottom line @hweD et lFD PHHR @pF RTPAAF st n help (nd some of the hidden environmentl osts of onsumption tht re not ptured y tehniques suh s ostEene(t nlysis nd environmentl impt @enetoulisD PHHI @pF RTPAAF sing the eologil footprintD n ssessment n e mde of from where the lrgest impt omes @plintD PHHI @pF RTPAAF xextD we will disuss the how n ip is lultedF
9.3.2.1.3.2 Methodology

he eologil footprint methodology ws developed y illim ees nd wthis kerngel @pF RTPA @IWWTA @pF RTPAD nd onsists of two methodologiesX IF gompound lultion49 is typilly used for lultions involving lrge regions nd ntions nd is shown in pigure gompound glultion teps for iologil pootprint enlysis @pF RRWAF pirstD it involves onsumption nlysis of over TH ioti resoures inluding metD diry produeD fruitD vegetlesD pulsesD grinsD tooD o'eeD nd wood produtsF ht onsumption is then divided y ioti produtivity @glol vergeA for the type of lnd @rleD pstureD forestD or se resA nd the result represents the re needed to sustin tht tivityF he seond prt of the lultion inludes energy generted nd energy emodied in trded goodsF his is expressed in the re of forested lnd needed to sequester gy2 emissions from oth types of energyF pinllyD equivlene ftors re used to weight the six eologil tegories sed on their produtivity @rleD pstureD forestD seD energyD uiltEup lndAF he results re reported s glol hetres @ghA where eh unit is equl to one hetre of iologilly produtive lnd sed on the world9s verge produtivityF e derive suEntionl footprints sed on pportioning the totl ntionl footprint etween suEntionl popultionsF he dvntge of this method is tht it ptures mny indiret of e'ets of onsumption so the overll footprint is more urteF PF gomponentEsed lultion50 resemles lifeEyle nlysis in tht it exmines individul produts nd servies for their cradle-to-grave resoure use nd wsteD nd results in ftor for ertin unit or tivityF he footprint is typilly roken down into tegories tht inlude energyD trnsporttionD wterD mterils nd wsteD uiltEup lndD nd foodF his method is etter for individuls or institutions sine it ounts for spei( onsumption within tht entityF roweverD it proly underEounts s not ll tivities nd produts ould prtilly e mesured or inludedF st lso my douleEount sine there my e overlp etween produts nd serviesF
49 httpXGGwwwFunesoForgGedutionGtlsfGmodsGthemeGpopupsGmodHWtHSsHIFhtml 50 httpXGGwwwFfootprintnetworkForgGenGindexFphpGqpxGpgeGglossryG5onsumptionomponents

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CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

Figure 9.10: Compound Calculation Steps for Ecological Footprint Analysis Figure shows the
compound calculation steps for ecological footprint analysis. Source: C. Klein-Banai

51

9.3.2.1.3.3 What the Results Show

hen looking t the suEntionl levelD it is useful to e le to exmine di'erent tivities tht ontriute to the footprint suh s energyD trnsporttionD wterD wsteD nd foodF sn oth types of lultionsD there is representtion of the energy eologil footprintF e utilize onversion ftors tht ount for diret lnd use for mining the energy soure nd the lnd required to sequester ny ron emitted during omustionD onstrutionD or mintenne of the power soureF st should e noted tht no tul omponentEsed lultions hve een done for nuler powerF he prtie hs een to onsider it the sme s ol so s to ount for it in some wyF e disussion of the merits of this method n e found in kerngel et lF @PHHSA @pF RTPAF rnsporttion is nother tivity tht n e exmined t the suEntionl levelF he trnsporttion footprint mye onsidered prt of the energy footprintD or seprtelyD ut is silly sed on the energy onsumption for trnsporttionF st my lso inlude some portion of the uiltEup lndF he hydroprintD or wterEsed footprintD mesures the mount of wter onsumed in omprison to the mount of wter in the lnd thment system for the geogrphil re eing footprintedF st n represent whether the entity is withdrwing more or less wter thn is nturlly supplied to the re from rinfllF
51 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGindyk

RSI he wsteprintD or wsteEsed footprintD is lulted using ommonly used omponentEsed ftors tht hve een lulted nd ompiled in numer of pulitions nd ooksF pood prodution requires energy to growD proess nd trnsportD s well s lnd for growing nd grzingF he ftors re derived using the ompound lultion for ertin geogrphil reF ee gse tudyX gompring qreenhouse qs imissionsD iologil pootprint nd ustinility ting of niversity @etion WFQFQA for n exmple of this kind of eologil footprint nlysisF his kind of nlysis n show us how ntionD regionD orgniztionD or individul uses the plnets resoures to support its opertion or life styleD s well s wht tivities re the primry ontriutors to the footprintF sn the next setionD we will look t some ntionl footprintsF
9.3.2.1.3.4 Ecological Footprint Comparisons

Figure 9.11: Ecological Footprints of Select Nations

the bar represents the dierent types of land. Source: Living Planet Report, 2010

Graph shows the ecological footprints of

select nations. The bars show average EF in global hectares per person for each nation. Each color on

53

, gure under CC BY-SA 3.0 License

2010 WWF (panda.org). Some rights reserved.

52

54

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CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

he viving lnet eport55 prepred y the orld ildlife pund56 D the snstitute of oology57 in vondonD nd kerngel9s qlol pootprint xetwork58 reports on the footprints of vrious ntionsF pigure iologil pootprints of elet xtions @pigure WFIIA displys the footprint of severl ntions s shown in the reportF he rs show verge ip in glol hetres per person for eh ntionF ih olor on the r represents the di'erent types of lndF rere we see tht the nited er imirtes hs the lrgest footprint of IHFP gh per personD with the mjority of its footprint due to ron @sme s energy lnd desried oveAF heres vtvi hs the lowest footprint displyed t TFH gh per personD with the mjority of its footprint due to forestlndF

Figure 9.12: United States' Ecological Footprint

Footprint compared to the global average. Source: Living Planet Report, 2010

60

, gure under CC BY-SA 3.0 License

Figure shows the United States' Ecological

2010 WWF (panda.org). Some rights reserved.

59

61

52 httpXGGwwfFpndForgGoutourerthGllpulitionsGlivingplnetreportGPHIHlprG 53 httpXGGwwfFpndForgGoutourerthGllpulitionsGlivingplnetreportGPHIHlprG 54 httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyEsGQFHG 55 httpXGGwwfFpndForgGoutourerthGllpulitionsGlivingplnetreportGPHIHlprG 56 httpXGGwwwFworldwildlifeForgGhomeEfullFhtml 57 httpXGGwwwFzslForgGsieneG 58 httpXGGwwwFfootprintnetworkForgGenGindexFphpGqpxGpgeGglossryG 59 httpXGGwwfFpndForgGoutourerthGllpulitionsGlivingplnetreportGPHIHlprG 60 httpXGGwwfFpndForgGoutourerthGllpulitionsGlivingplnetreportGPHIHlprG 61 httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyEsGQFHG

RSQ pigure nited ttes9 iologil pootprint @pF RSPA shows the ntionl footprint in PHHU of the nited ttes s UFWW gh per person oth with r disply nd with spei( metris on the right tht show the ext footprint nd the nited ttes9 rnking mong ll ntions in the report @eFgF ron is SFSU gh nd rnks Qrd lrgest overllAF he r to the left expresses the world vergeF he nited ttes9 footprint of UFWW gh stnds in ontrst to the erth9s glol iopity of IFV gh per personF qlollyD the totl popultion9s footprint ws IV illion ghD or PFU gh per personF roweverD the erth9s iopity ws only IIFW illion ghD or IFV gh per personF his represents n eologil demnd of SH perent more thn the erth n mngeF sn other wordsD it would tke IFS yers for the irth to regenerte the renewle resoures tht people used in PHHU nd sor gy2 wsteF husD erth9s popultion used the equivlent of IFS plnets in PHHU to support their livesF
9.3.2.1.4 Carbon Footprint

ine limte hnge @see ghpter glimte nd qlol ghngeA is one of the mjor fouses of the sustinE ility movementD mesurement of greenhouse gses or ron footprint is key metri when ddressing this prolemF e greenhouse gs emissions @qrqA inventory is type of ron footprintF uh n inventory evlutes the emissions generted from the diret nd indiret tivities of the entity s expressed in rE on dioxide equivlents @see elowAF ine you nnot mnge wht you nnot mesureD qrq redutions nnot our without estlishing seline metrisF here is inresing demnd for regultory nd volunE try reporting of qrq emissions suh s ixeutive yrder IQSIR62 D requiring federl genies to redue qrq emissionsD the ie9s wndtory qrq eporting ule63 for industryD the eurities nd ixhnge gommission9s limte hnge dislosure guidne64 D emerin gollege nd niversity residents9 glimte gommitment65 @egggA for universitiesD sgvis66 for lol governmentsD the gliforni glimte etion egistryD nd numerous orporte sustinility reporting inititivesF
9.3.2.1.4.1 Scoping the Inventory

he (rst step in mesuring ron footprints is onduting n inventory is to determine the sope of the inventoryF he orld fusiness gounil for ustinle hevelopment67 @fghA nd the orld esoure snstitute68 @sA de(ned set of ounting stndrds tht form the qreenhouse qs rotool @qrq rotoolAF his protool is the most widely used interntionl ounting tool to understndD quntifyD nd mnge greenhouse gs emissionsF elmost every qrq stndrd nd progrm in the world uses this frmework s well s hundreds of qrq inventories prepred y individul ompnies nd institutionsF sn xorth emeriD the most widely used protool ws developed y he glimte egistry69 F he qrq rotool lso o'ers developing ountries n interntionlly epted mngement tool to help their usinesses to ompete in the glol mrketple nd their governments to mke informed deisions out limte hngeF sn generlD tools re either setorEspei( @eFgF luminumD ementD etFA or rossE setor tools for pplition to mny di'erent setors @eFgF sttionry omustion or moile omustionAF
62 httpXGGwwwFfedenterFgovGfookmrksGindexFfmcidaIQTRI 63 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGlimtehngeGemissionsGghgrulemkingFhtml 64 httpXGGwwwFseFgovGrulesGinterpGPHIHGQQEWIHTFpdf 65 httpXGGwwwFpresidentslimteommitmentForgGoutGommitment 66 httpXGGwwwFileiForgG 67 httpXGGwwwFwsdForgGtempltesGempltefghSGlyoutFspctypeap8wenusdaxj8doypenaI8glikwenuaveftwenu 68 httpXGGwwwFwriForgG 69 httpXGGwwwFthelimteregistryForgG

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CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

Figure 9.13: Scopes of a Greenhouse Gas Emissions Inventory Figure shows the three scopes of a
greenhouse gas emissions inventory. Source: New Zealand Business Council for Sustainable Development, The challenges of greenhouse gas emissions: The why and how of accounting and reporting for GHG emissions (2002, August), gure 3, p. 10

70

he s protool ddresses the sope y whih reporting entities n set oundries @see pigure opes of qreenhouse qs imissions snventory @pigure WFIQAAF hese stndrds re sed on the soure of emissions in order to prevent ounting emissions or redits twieF he three sopes re desried elowX
Scope 1: snludes qrq emissions from diret soures owned or ontrolled y the institution ! produE tion of eletriityD het or stemD trnsporttion or mterilsD produtsD wsteD nd fugitive emissionsF pugitive emissions re due to intentionl or unintentionl relese of qrqs inluding lekge of refrigE ernts from ir onditioning equipment nd methne releses from frm nimlsF Scope 2: snludes qrq emissions from imports @purhsesA of eletriityD het or stem ! generlly those ssoited with the genertion tht energyF Scope 3: snludes ll other indiret soures of qrq emissions tht my result from the tivities of the institution ut our from soures owned or ontrolled y nother ompnyD suh s usiness trvelY outsoured tivities nd ontrtsY emissions from wste generted y the institution when the qrq emissions our t fility ontrolled y nother ompnyD eFgF methne emissions from lnd(lled wsteY nd the ommuting hits of ommunity memersF

hepending on the purpose of the inventory the sope my vryF por instneD the ie mndtory reporting requirements for lrge ron dioxide soures require reporting of only ope I emissions from sttionry souresF roweverD mny voluntry reporting systems require ounting for ll three sopesD suh s the eggg reportingF xumerous lultor tools hve een developedD some pulily ville nd some proprietryF por instne mny universities use tool lled the gmpus gron glultor71 developed y glen eirEgool lnet72 D whih is endorsed y the egggF xumerous northestern universities olE lorted to develop the gmpus gron glultor nd the lultor hs een used t more thn PHH
70 httpXGGwwwFnzsdForgFnzGlimtehngeGglimteghngequideFpdf 71 httpXGGwwwFlenirEoolplnetForgGtoolkitGinvElultorFphp 72 httpXGGwwwFlenirEoolplnetForgGtoolkitGinvElultorFphp

RSS mpuses in xorth emeriF st utilizes n eletroni wirosoft ixel workook tht lultes estimted qrq emissions from the dt olletedF
9.3.2.1.4.2 Methodology

qrq emissions lultions re generlly lulted for the time period of one yerF pigure teps for repring qrq imissions eport @pigure WFIRA shows the steps for reporting qrq emissionsF st is neessry to determine wht the seline yer is for lultionF his is the yer tht is generlly used to ompre future inreses or dereses in emissionsD when setting qrq redution golF he uyoto rotool73 proposes ounting for greenhouse gs emissions from seline yer of IWWHF ometimes lultions my e mde for the urrent yer or k to the erliest yer tht dt is villeF

Figure 9.14: Steps for Preparing a GHG Emissions Report

Figure shows the required steps to

take when preparing a GHG emissions report. Source: C. Klein-Banai

74

xextD the institutionl or geogrphi oundries need to e de(nedF elsoD the gses tht re eing reported should e de(nedF here re six greenhouse gses de(ned y the uyoto rotoolF ome greenhouse gsesD suh s ron dioxideD our nturlly nd re emitted to the tmosphere through nturl nd anthropogenic proessesF yther greenhouse gses @eFgF )uorinted gsesA re reted nd emitted solely
73 httpXGGeFeuropFeuGlimGpoliiesGriefGeuGindexenFhtm 74 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGindyk

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CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

through humn tivitiesF he prinipl greenhouse gses tht enter the tmosphere euse of humn tivities reX

gron hioxide @gyPA75 X gron dioxide is relesed to the tmosphere through the omustion of fossil fuels @oilD nturl gsD nd olAD solid wsteD trees nd wood produtsD nd lso s result of nonEomustion retions @eFgF mnufture of ementAF gron dioxide is sequestered when plnts sor it s prt of the iologil ron yleF wethne @grRA76 X wethne is emitted during the prodution nd trnsport of olD nturl gsD nd oilF wethne emissions lso ome from frm nimls nd other griulturl prties nd the degrdtion of orgni wste in muniipl solid wste lnd(llsF xitrous yxide @xPyA77 X xitrous oxide is emitted during griulturl nd industril tivitiesD nd omustion of fossil fuels nd solid wsteF pluorinted qses78 X rydro)uororonsD per)uororonsD nd sulfur hex)uoride re synthetiD powerful greenhouse gses tht re emitted from vriety of industril proessesF pluorinted gses re sometimes used s sustitutes for ozoneEdepleting sustnes79 @iFeF ghloro)uororons @gpgsAD hydrohloro)uororon @rgpgsAD nd hlonsAF gpgs nd rgpgs re gses omprised of hlorideD )uorideD hydrogenD nd ronF rlons re elementl gses tht inlude hlorineD romineD nd )uorineF hese gses re typilly emitted in smller quntitiesD ut euse they re potent greenhouse gsesD they re sometimes referred to s righ Global Warming Potential gses @righ q gsesAF
ih gsD sed on its tmospheri hemistryD ptures di'erent mounts of re)eted het thus ontriuting di'erently to the greenhouse e'etD whih is known s its glol wrming potentilF gron dioxideD the lest pture e0ient of these gsesD ts s the referene gs with glol wrming potentil of IF le qlol rming otentils @le WFSX qlol rming otentilsA shows the glol wrming potentil for the vrious qrqsF
75 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGlimtehngeGemissionsGoPFhtml 76 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGmethneGsouresFhtml 77 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGnitrousoxideGsouresFhtml 78 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGhighgwpGsouresFhtml 79 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGozoneG

RSU
Global Warming Potentials Gas GWP

gyP grR xPy rpgEPQ rpgEQP rpgEIPS rpgEIQR rpgEIRQ rpgEISP rpgEPPUe rpgEPQTf rpgERQIHmee gpR gPpT gRpIH gTpIR pT

I PI QIH IIDUHH TSH PDVHH IDQHH QDVHH IRH PDWHH TDQHH IDQHH TDSHH WDPHH UDHHH UDRHH PQDWHH

Table 9.5X

Source:

C. Klein-Banai

80

created table using data from Climate Change 2007: The Physical

Science Basis: Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, section 2.10.2

81

qrq emissions nnot e esily mesured sine they ome from oth moile nd sttionry souresF hereforeD emissions must e lultedF imissions re usully lulted using the formulX

A Fg = E

@WFIA

where e is the qunti(tion of n tivity in units tht n e omined with emission ftor of greenhouse gs g @pg A to otin the resulting emissions for tht gs @ig AF ixmples of tivity units inlude mmtu @million fritish herml nitsA of nturl gsD gllons of heting oilD kilowtt hours of eletriityD nd miles trveledF otl qrq emissions n e expressed s the sum of the emissions for eh gs multiplied y its glol wrming potentil @qAF qrq emissions re usully reported in metri tons of ron dioxide equivlents @metri tons gy2 EeAX qrq =
g

Eg qg @WFPA

ig is usully estimted from the quntity of fuel urned using ntionl nd regionl verge emissions ftorsD suh s those provided y the heprtment of inergy9s inergy snformtion edministrtion82 F
80 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGindyk 81 httpXGGwwwFipFhGpulitionsnddtGrRGwgIGenGhPsPEIHEPFhtml 82 httpXGGwwwFeiFdoeFgovGenvironmentG

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CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

imission ftors n e sed on government douments nd softwre from the FF heprtment of rnsE porttion83 D the FF invironmentl rotetion egeny @ieA84 D nd the FF heprtment of inergy85 D or from spei( hrteristis of the fuel used ! suh s higher heting vlue nd ron ontentF ope Q emissions tht re sed on wsteD mterilsD nd ommuting re more omplex to lulteF rious luE ltors use di'erent inputs to do this nd the proedures re less stndrdizedF ee gse tudyX gompring qreenhouse qs imissionsD iologil pootprint nd ustinility ting of niversity @etion WFQFQA for n exmple of these kinds of lultionsF qreenhouse gs emissions inventories re sed on stndrdized prtie nd inlude the steps of sopingD lultingD nd reportingF hey re not sed on tul mesurements of emissionsD rther on lultions sed on onsumption of greenhouse gs generting mterils suh s fossil fuels for provision of energy nd trnsporttion or emissions from wste disposlF hey n e onduted for uildingsD institutionsD itiesD regionsD nd ntionsF
9.3.2.1.4.3 Carbon Footprint Comparisons

gomprison of ron footprints revel interesting di'erenes etween ountriesD prtiulrly when ompred to their eonomi tivityF he orld fnk86 trks dt on ountries nd regions throughout the world s prt of their mission to (ght poverty. . .nd to help people help themselves nd their environment @orld fnkD PHII @pF RTPAAF le qross homesti rodut @qhA nd imissions for elet egionsD PHHU @le WFTX qross homesti rodut @qhA nd imissions for elet egionsD PHHUA shows the results for qrq emissions nd gross domestic product for vrious regions of the worldF st is interesting to note tht the nited ttes9 emissions per pit @IWFQR mt eEgy2 A re more thn four times the world vergeF he nited ttes9 eonomy mkes up one fourth of the world qhF
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Emissions for Select Regions, 2007 Country Name CO2 emissions (metric ton) CO2 emissions (metric tons per capita) GDP (current US$ millions) GDP per capita (current US$)

ist esi 8 E i( @ll inome levelsA iurope 8 gentrl esi @ll inome levelsA vtin emeri 8 grien @ll inE ome levelsA vtin emeri 8 grien @develE oping onlyA

IHDPRIDPPW

RFUT

6IIDVUPDIRV

6SDSIR

TDVHIDVQV

UFUP

6PHDQHWDRTV

6PQDHSU

IDTPPDVHW

PFVU

6QDVUPDQPR

6TDVRH

IDSQVDHSW

PFUS

6QDUHHDQPH

6TDTIH

continued on next page

83 httpXGGwwwFdotFgovG 84 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGozoneG 85 httpXGGenergyFgovG 86 httpXGGweFworldnkForgG

RSW vest developed ountriesX x lssi(tion widdle ist 8 xorth efri @ll inome levelsA outh esi uEhrn efri @ll inome levelsA nited ttes orld IVSDVVW HFPQ 6RRPDQQT 6SSQ

IDWWPDUWS

SFRW

6IDWPRDRUH

6SDQHR

IDVPVDWRI TVRDQSW

IFPH HFVT

6IDSHVDTQS 6VVIDSRU

6WWI 6IDIHP

SDVQPDIWR QHDTRWDQTH

IWFQR RFTQ

6IRDHTIDVHH 6SSDVSQDPVV

6RTDTPU 6VDRQT
Source: C. Klein-Banai

Table 9.6X le shows the qh nd emissions for selet regions in PHHUF

88 created table using data from The World Bank, "World Development Indicators"

87

9.3.2.1.5 Water Footprint

he wter footprint of prodution is the volume of freshwter used y people to produe goodsD mesured over the full supply hinD s well s the wter used in households nd industryD spei(ed geogrphilly nd temporllyF his is slightly di'erent from the hydroprint desried ove whih simply ompres the onsumption of wter y geogrphi entity to the wter tht flls within its wtershedF sf you look t the hydrologi yle @see module ter gyle nd presh ter upply @etion SFPAAD wter moves through the environment in vrious wysF he wter footprint onsiders the soure of the wter s three omponentsX

qreen wter footprintX he volume of rinwter tht evportes during the prodution of goodsY for griulturl produtsD this is the rinwter stored in soil tht evportes from rop (eldsF flue wter footprintX he volume of freshwter withdrwn from surfe or groundwter soures tht is used y people nd not returnedY in griulturl produts this is minly ounted for y evportion of irrigtion wter from (eldsD if freshwter is eing drwnF qrey wter footprintX the volume of wter required to dilute pollutnts relesed in prodution proesses to suh n extent tht the qulity of the mient wter remins ove greed wter qulity stndrdsF
he wter footprint of n individul is sed on the diret nd indiret wter use of onsumerF hiret wter use is from onsumption t home for drinkingD wshingD nd wteringF sndiret wter use results from the freshwter tht is used to produe goods nd servies purhsed y the onsumerF imilrlyD the wter footprint of usiness or institution is lulted from the diret nd indiret wter onsumptionF
87 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGindyk 88 httpXGGdtFworldnkForgGinditorcdisplyadefult

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Figure 9.15: Water Footprint of Production of Select Countries Graph shows the water footprint
of production of select countries. Source: Planet Report, 2010

90

, gure under CC BY-SA 3.0 License

2010 WWF (panda.org). Some rights reserved.

89

91

Living

pigure ter pootprint of rodution of elet gountries @pigure WFISA shows the wter footprint of prodution for severl ountries s wholeF sn this reportD due to lk of dtD one unit of return )ow is ssumed to pollute one unit of freshwterF qiven the negligile volume of wter tht evportes during domesti nd industril proessesD s opposed to griultureD only the grey wter footprint for households nd industry ws inludedF his (gure does not ount for imports nd exports it is only sed on the ountry in whih the tivities ourred not where they were onsumedF sn ontrstD the wter footprint of ntion ounts for ll the freshwter used to produe the goods nd servies onsumed y the inhitnts of the ountryF rditionllyD wter demnd @iFeF totl wter withdrwl for the vrious setors of eonomyA is used to demonstrte wter demnd for prodution within ntionF he internl wter footprint is the volume of wter used from domesti wter resouresY the externl wter footprint is the volume of wter used in other ountries to produe goods nd servies imported nd onsumed y the inhitnts of the ountryF he verge wter footprint for the nited ttes ws lulted to e PRVHm3 GpGyrD while ghin hs n verge footprint of UHHm3 GpGyrF he glol verge wter footprint is IPRHm3 GpGyrF es for eologil footprints there re severl mjor ftors tht determine the wter footprint of ountry inluding the volume of onsumption @relted to the gross ntionl inomeAY onsumption pttern @eFgF high versus low met onsumptionAY limte @growth onditionsAY nd griulturl prtie @wter use e0ienyA @roekstr 8 ghpginD PHHU @pF RTPAAF
89 httpXGGwwwFpndForgGlprGgwter 90 httpXGGwwwFpndForgGlprGgwter 91 httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyEsGQFHG

RTI sing verge wter onsumption for eh stge of growth nd proessing of te or o'eeD the virtul wter ontent of up n e lulted @le irtul ter gontent of gup of e or go'ee @le WFUX irtul ter gontent of gup of e or go'eeAAF wuh of the wter used is from rinfll tht might otherwise not e utilized to grow rop nd the revenue from the produt ontriutes to the eonomy of tht ountryF et the sme timeD the result is tht mny ountries re importing wter to support the produts they onsumeF
Virtual Water Content of a Cup of Tea or Coee Drink Preparation Virtual (l/cup) water content

tndrd up of o'ee go'ee trong o'ee snstnt o'ee e tndrd up of te ek te

IRH PHH VH QR IU
Source: C. Klein-Banai

Table 9.7X le shows the virtul wter ontent for up of te or o'eeF

created table using data from Chapagain and Hoekstra (2007)

92

@pF RTPAF lta4irtul ter gontent of gup of e or go'ee4 longdesa4le shows the virtul wter ontent for up of te or o'eeF4

o lern more out other ountries9 wter footprintsD visit this intertive grph93 F o lulte your own wter footprintD visit the ter pootprint glultor94 F he wter footprint revels tht muh more wter is onsumed to mke produt thn ppers in using simple lultionF st is not just the wter ontent of the produt ut inludes ll wter used in the proess to mke it nd to mnge the wste generted from tht proessF
9.3.2.1.6 Summary

pootprinting tools n e useful wys to present nd ompre environmentl imptF hey re useful euse they n omine impts from vrious tivities into one mesureF roweverD they hve limittionsF por instneD in ron footprint or greenhouse gs emissions inventoryD mny of the onventionl environE mentl impts suh s hzrdous wsteD wstewterD wter onsumptionD stormwterD nd toxi emissions re not ounted forD nor re the impts of resoure onsumption suh s pperD foodD nd wter generlly mesuredF erhps most importntlyD ertin lowEron fuel soures @eFgF nuler powerA tht hve other environmentl impts @eFgF nuler wsteA re negletedF pinllyD the sope of the emissions inventory does not inlude upstrem emissions from the mnufture or trnsport of energy or mterilsF his suggests tht there is need to go eyond just qrq emissions nlyses when evluting sustinility nd inlude ll forms of energy nd their onsequenesF he eologil footprint n e misleding when it is looked t in isoltionD for instne with n urn reD the resoures needed to support it will not e provided y the tul geogrphi re sine food must e imported nd ron o'set y nturl growth tht does not (t in ityF roweverD ities hve mny other e0ienies nd dvntges tht re not reognized in n eologil footprintF hen looked t on ntionl level it n represent the inequities tht exist etween ountriesF st is interesting to ontrst the wter nd eologil footprintsD s wellF he wter footprint expliitly onsiders the tul lotion of the wter useD wheres the eologil footprint does not onsider the ple of lnd useF herefore it mesures the volumes of wter use t the vrious lotions where the wter
92 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGindyk 93 httpXGGwwwFpndForgGlprGgwter 94 httpXGGwwwFwterfootprintForgG

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CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

is ppropritedD while the eologil footprint is lulted sed on glol verge lnd requirement per onsumption tegoryF hen the onnetion is mde etween ple of onsumption nd lotions of resoure useD the onsumer9s responsiility for the impts of prodution t distnt lotions is mde evidentF
9.3.2.1.7 Review Questions Question 9.3.2.1

ghoose lultor from the ox nd lulte your own footprintF row does it ompre to the ntionl or glol vergec ht n you do to redue your footprintc
Question 9.3.2.2

hisuss wht kind of inequities the vrious footprints represent etween ntions nd the types of inequitiesF
Question 9.3.2.3

row might the food print of vegetrin di'er from rnivorec

9.3.2.1.8 References

ghmersD xFD immonsD gF 8 kerngelD wF @PHHHAF Sharing Nature's Interest: Ecological Footprints as vondonX irthsn ulitions vtdF ghpginD eFuF 8 roekstrD eFF @PHHUAF he wter footprint of o'ee nd te onsumption in the xetherlndsF Ecological Economics, 64D IHWEIIVF gonstnzD F @PHHHAF he dynmis of the eologil footprint oneptF Ecological Economics,32D QRIE QRSF hweD qFpFwFD etterD eF 8 wrtinF F @PHHRAF en overview of eologil footprinting nd other tools nd their pplition to the development of sustinility proessF International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 4D QRHEQUIF plintD uF @PHHIAF snstitutionl eologil footprint nlysisX e se study of the niversity of xewstleD eustrliF International Journal of Sustainability in Higher EducationD 2D RVETPF roekstrDF 8 ghpginD eF uF @PHHUAF ter footprints of ntionsX ter use y people s funtion of their onsumption ptternF Water Resour Manage, 21D QSERVF uleinEfniD gF @PHHUAF qreenhouse gs inventory for the niversity of slliE nois t ghigoF UIC GHG InventoryDetrieved xovemer PID PHHW from httpXGGwwwFuiFeduGsustinilityGreportsGeppendix7PHT7PHqrqimissionspPHHSEPHHTFpdf95 eesD FiF nd kernglD wF @IWWTAF rn eologil footprints nd why ities nnot e sustinle ! nd why they re key to sustinilityF Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 16D PPQEPRVF enetoulisD tF @PHHIAF essessing the eologil impt of universityX he eologil footprint for the niversity of edlndsF International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 2D IVHEIWTF kerngelD wFD wonfredD gFD wornD hFD ermerD FD qold(ngerD FD heumlingD hFD 8 wurryD wF @PHHSD wy PSAF xtionl footprint nd iopity ounts PHHSX he unE derlying lultion methodF Global Footprint NetworkF etrieved wrh PD PHIH from httpXGGwwwFfootprintnetworkForgGdownlodFphpcidaS96 F orld fnk @PHIIAF eout sF etrieved eptemer PHD PHII from httpXGGgoFworldnkForgGQPIqxrH97 F
an Indicator of SustainabilityF

95 httpXGGwwwFuiFeduGsustinilityGreportsGeppendix7PHT7PHqrqimissionspPHHSEPHHTFpdf 96 httpXGGwwwFfootprintnetworkForgGdownlodFphpcidaS 97 httpXGGgoFworldnkForgGQPIqxrH

RTQ
9.3.3 Case Study: Comparing Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Ecological Footprint 98 and Sustainability Rating of a University
9.3.3.1 Case Study: Comparing Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Ecological Footprint and Sustainability Rating of a University

row do di'erent mesures of sustinility ompre when looking t one institutionc his se study ompres these di'erent mesures for the niversity of sllinois t ghigo @sgAF voted just southwest of downtown ghigoD sg hs IQ olleges serving PUDHHH students nd IPDHHH employeesD with over IHH uildings on PRH res @WU hetresA of lndF he tivities of the fultyD st' nd students nd the uildings nd grounds hve n impt on the sustinility of the institutionF his se study will look t the results of the greenhouse gs emission inventoryD eology footprintD nd sustinility rtingF

Figure 9.16: Greenhouse Gas Emissions Inventory

UIC's Greenhouse gas emissions prole for

FY2004-2010, using the regional mix for purchased electricity. Source: C. Klein-Banai

99

pigure qreenhouse qs imissions snventory @pigure WFITA displys sg9s qrq emissions pro(le for seven yersF he emissions were lulted using the gmpus gron glultor100 developed y the notE forEpro(t orgniztionD glen eirEgool lnetF hile this tool hs numer of limittions it hs een used y mny of the over TUH olleges nd universities who re signtory to the emerin gollege nd niversity residents glimte gommitment101 @egggA to simplify the emissions inventory pro(leF he tool is lso reommended y the eggg s stndrd method of emissions lultion for nited ttes universitiesF st is sed on the orld esoures snstitute @sA nd orld fusiness gounil for ustinle hevelopment @fghA qreenhouse qs @qrqA rotool snititive102 tht developed qrq emissions inventory stndrdsF sg9s emissions were lulted using the regionl verge eletriity soures for the eletri grid serviing
98 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITHSGIFQGbF 99 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGindyk 100 httpXGGwwwFlenirEoolplnetForgGtoolkitGinvElultorFphp 101 httpXGGwwwFpresidentslimteommitmentForgGoutGommitment 102 httpXGGwwwFghgprotoolForgG

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CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

the ghigo reF roweverD until eugust of PHHWD sg purhsed eletriity from gommonwelth idison whih hs muh lower greenhouse gs emissions ftor due to the high perentge of nuler power in the ghigo regionF sg opertes two omined het nd power plntsF roweverD the university hs inresingly lowered its prodution of eletriity from nturl gs y purhsing more eletriity through lok purhses @for de(ned mounts of eletriity for ertin period of timeA due to the reltively low ost of purhsing eletriity s ompred to selfEgenertingF his strtegy hs inresed sg9s emissions s the regionl mix hs fir mount of olEpowered plnts providing eletriityF xeverthlessD downwrd trend in emissions is eginning in spite of the inresed eletriity purhses etween PHHW nd PHIHF his my e due to overll redution in energy onsumption on mpusD whih is reduing the qrq emissionsF pigure frekdown of sg9s qreenhouse qs imissions @pigure WFIUA illustrtes the reltive ontriution to sg9s PHIH emissions pro(leD with UU perent of emissions oming from uildings @power plntsD purhsed eletriityD nd other onEmpus sttionryD iFeF nturl gs supply to the uildingsAD PH perent due to trnsporttion @mpus )eet D ommuting to mpusD nd ir trvelAD nd less thn one perent for emissions due to wste sent to the lnd(ll @whih genertes methneAF

Figure 9.17: Breakdown of UIC's Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Figure shows the breakdown

of UIC's greenhouse gas emissions inventory for the scal year 2010, in metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalents (mt CO2 -e). Total emissions: 354,758 mt CO2 -e. Source: C. Klein-Banai

103

sg9s totl emissions for (sl yer PHIH were QSRDUSV mt gy2 EeD whih mounts to IQFIR mt gy2 Ee per fullEtime equivlent student enrolledF le gomprison of qrq imissions @le WFVX gomprison of qrq imissionsA ompres sg9s emissions to those of the ity of ghigoD stte of sllinoisD nd the nited ttesF
103 httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITHSGltestG httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGindyk

RTS
Comparison of GHG Emissions Entity GHG emissions, million MT CO 2 -e Most Recent Year Reported

sllinois ghigo sg

TDTQQFPH PURFW QTFP HFR

PHHW PHHQ PHHS PHIH

Table 9.8X

Sources: C. Klein-Banai

104 created table using data from UIC Climate Action Plan, Chicago
Climate Action Plan, U.S. EPAF

en iologil pootprint enlysis @ipeA ws onduted using dt from (sl yer PHHVD inluding muh of the sme dt used for the qrq emissions inventoryF sn dditionD wterD foodD reylingD nd uiltEup lnd dt were used to lulte the numer of glol hetres required to provide the resoures nd sor the wste nd qrq emissions produed to support sg9s tivitiesF he results re displyed in le sg9s iologil pootprint sing pPHHV ht @le WFWX sg9s iologil pootprint sing pPHHV htAF he totl footprint ws WUDTHI glol hetresD on per pit sis this is equivlent to PFTT ghGpersonF his is in ontrst to out VFHH ghGperson ntionlly in the nited ttesD lthough one must use ution in mking omprisons euse the sope nd methodology of the nlysis di'erF
UIC's Ecological Footprint Using FY2008 Data Category Global Hectares Percent

inergy rnsporttion ter wterils nd wste fuiltEup lnd pood

TOTAL, Global Hectares

UHDWIT IPDPWQ IQW IIDSRU IUP PDSQQ

97,601

UPFU7 IPFT7 HFI7 IIFV7 HFP7 PFT7

100.0%
Source: C.

Table 9.9X gomposite snditorX ustinility rkingD essessment nd ting ystemF

Klein-Banai

105 F

he e system @see module ustinility wetris nd ting ystems @etion WFQFIAA ws used to rte sgF he university reeived QWFI pointsD for fronze rtingF he points rek down into the tegories shown in le e oints eeived y sg y gtegory @le WFIHX e oints eeived y sg y gtegoryAF here re three min tegories of points ! idution 8 eserhY ypertionsY nd lnningD edministrtion 8 inggementF ithin eh of the tegories there re suEtegories suh s gurriulumD glimteD nd goordintion 8 lnningF ithin those suEtegories there re spei( strtegies tht ddress themD with vrying mounts of points tht depend on the ssessed weight of eh strtegyF ih tegory9s individul perentge sore is weighted eqully to the othersF sn dditionD four innovtion strtegies re ville for whih n institution n reeive one pointF hese points re not ttriuted to prtiulr tegoryF
104 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGindyk 105 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGindyk

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CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

STARS Points Received by UIC by Category Points Received Possible % Per Category Weight

idution 8 eserh goEgurriulr idution gurriulum eserh ypertions fuildings glimte hining ervies inergy qrounds urhsing rnsporttion ste ter lnningD edministrtion 8 inggement goordintion nd lnning hiversity nd e'ordility rumn esoures snvestment uli inggement snnovtion ISFHH IQFSH IWFUS HFHH TFTT HFHH IVFHH IQFUS IWFUS ITFUS QIFUS RFHH HFPQ IFUS IFPS QFRR IFHH IFUT SFUI TFVW IFUS IQFHH ITFSH VFSH ITFSH QFPS UFSH IPFHH IPFSH IHFPS IIFUS IVFVW UFWU IVFHH SSFHH PUFHH

QVFTI7

QQFQQGIHH

PQFUV7

QQFQQGIHH

SRFWI7

QQFQQGIHH

Table 9.10X

Source: C. Klein-Banai

106 with data from STARS107

his reporting system shows tht sg9s strengths lie in the res outside of opertionsD whih re wht is mesured with n ipe or qrq emissions inventoryF wost points were gined for lnningD edministrtion 8 inggementF his rting system n e used to identify spei( res tht n e trgeted for dvning sustinility inititives in muh roder relm thn the other two metri llowF his se study demonE strtes the di'erent types of informtion nd sustinility trking tht n e done using di'erent types of mesures of sustinilityF hether you use one mesure or severl depends on the purpose nd sope of the sustinility reportingF
9.3.3.1.1 References

uleinEfniD gD heisD FvFD freheisenD FeF 8 fniD eF @PHIHAF e qreenhouse qs snventory s wesure of ustinility for n rn uli eserh niversityD Environmental PracticeD 12D PSERUF uleinEfniD g 8 heisD FvF @PHIIAF en urn university9s eologil footprint nd the e'et of limte hngeD Ecological IndicatorsD 11D VSU!VTHF
106 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGindyk 107 httpsXGGstrsFsheForgGinstitutionsGuniversityEofEillinoisEhigoEilGreportGPHIIEHIEQIG

RTU sg y0e of ustinilityF

Chicago

etrieved httpXGGwwwFuiFeduGsustinilityGreportsGsgFereportFPHIHFpdf108 F
sity of Illinois at Biennial

ReportF

@PHIIAF

State

of

Sustainability

Univer-

wy

QHD

PHII

from

9.3.4 Food Miles

9.3.4.1 Food Miles

109

9.3.4.1.1 Learning Objectives

efter reding this setionD students should e le toX

understnd wht food miles re nd why they re usedF ompre the strengths nd limittions of the use of food milesF explore the implitions of food miles in deisionEmking strtegiesF
9.3.4.1.2 Introduction

i'orts to explore the impts of the items on our dinner tles led to the rod onept of food miles @the distne food trvels from prodution to onsumptionA s eing quik nd onvenient wy to omE pre produtsF ith inresing gloliztionD our pltes hve progressively inluded food items from other ontinentsF reviously it would hve een too expensive to trnsport these produtsF roweverD hnges to griulturl prtiesD trnsporttion infrstrutureD nd distriution methods now men tht people in the nited ttes n strt the dy with o'ee from frzilD hve pst lunh topped with stlin heesesD snk on hoolte from gte d9svoireD nd end with dinner of wediterrnen lue(n tun nd hi rieF rowE everD the gloliztion tht hs led to inresed vilility of these produts omes with ssoited ostsD suh s the emission of greenhouse gses nd other pollutntsD inresed tr0 ongestionD lk of support for lol eonomiesD less fresh foodD nd deresed food securityF hereforeD the onept of mesuring food miles ws ment to provide n esy omprison of the reltive impts of our food hoiesF wny individulsD groupsD nd usinesses tody mesure or lulte food milesF futD when endre xtonD FuFEsed environmentl tivistD oined the term in the IWWHs the onept of food miles ws intended to enompss more thn simply distneF he point ws to roden wreness tht our food hoies hve onsequenes tht re often not pprentF gonsumers frequently do not know the histories eE hind their food purhsesD nd mrkets often nnot supply the informtion euse of the mny prodution proesses nd distriution methods usedF hile the distne food trvels does determine some of the environmentlD soilD nd eonomi imptsD there n e other hidden onsequenes not so esily mesuredF ixplortion of the utility of food miles in the generl sense of knowing the impts of our purhsing deisions hs resulted in rodening wreness of the omplexity of gloliztionF elthough onsumers n use the esyEtoEompre numers representing food milesD tht metri nnot re)et ll of the impts of food purhsing deisionsF
9.3.4.1.3 Calculating Food Miles

sn some ses it is esy to use food milesD suh s ompring two wtermelons grown using the sme methods nd oth trnsported y truk to your storeF roweverD mny of our food produts ontin omponents with di'erent originsF sn tht seD food miles re lulted s weighted verge to rete single numer tht tkes into onsidertion the weight nd distne of eh itemF por exmpleD to lulte the food miles for simple fruit sld tht ontins only pplesD nnsD nd honeyD you need to know the distne tht eh ingredient trveled to reh your mrket nd the reltive mount of eh produtF pigure pood wiles for pruit ld @pigure WFIVA illustrtes the food miles for this simple fruit sldF
108 httpXGGwwwFuiFeduGsustinilityGreportsGsgFereportFPHIHFpdf 109 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVTVHGIFQGbF

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PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

Figure 9.18: Food Miles for Fruit Salad

dierent distances to Illinois' supermarkets. Fir0002

The various ingredients in this simple fruit salad travel D. Ruez adapated from TUBS

112

, and Abrahami

113

Source.

110

, akarlovic

111

wost of our food from supermrkets is mrked with ountry or stte of originF ht lone is usully enough to get n estimte of the distneD espeilly if the lotion n e nrrowed down y (nding out the prt of the ountry or stte tht most ommonly produes the produtF sf the fruit sld in pigure pood wiles for pruit ld @pigure WFIVA is eing mde in ghigoD sllinoisD nd the pples re from the stte of shingtonD the likely origin is in the enter prt of the stteF he trvel distne is pproximtely PDHHH miles @QDPIW kmAF fnns from gost i trveled out PDRHH miles @QDVTP kmA to ghigoD nd there re honey produers only ITH miles @PSU kmA from ghigoF e simple verge of the miles the ingredients trveled would not tke into ount tht the fruit sld proly would not ontin equl mounts of the three itemsF sf the reipe lled for P pounds @FW kgA of pplesD P pounds @FW kgA of nnsD nd pound @FI kgA of honeyD the miles would e weighted towrd the distnes trveled y the fruitX PHVH food miles per pound of fruit sld @or QDQRU kmGkg of fruit sldAF
110 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXfvexuinxorthemeri7PVEminimpErivers7PWFsvg 111 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXwedusukrloviIFjpg 112 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXfnnswhitekgroundFjpg 113 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXgortlndpplesFjpg

RTW
9.3.4.1.4 Benets

he ene(ts of using food miles in evluting food hoies mth the three min tegories tht represent sustinilityX environmentlD soilD nd eonomiF ell methods of trnsporting food over long distnesD nd most methods used to trnsport over short distnesD involve fossil fuelsF furning of fossil fuels retes greenhouse gsesD whih ontriute to limte hngeF sing fossil fuels lso results in the emission of other gses nd prtiultes tht degrde ir qulityF vonger trnsporttion distnes intensify tr0 ongestionD resulting in lost produtivityD nd inrese the need for more extensive infrstruture @suh s more highwysA tht negtively impt the environment y inresing the mount of impervious over nd y requiring more nturl resouresF snresed rodwys lso enourge sprwlD leding to more ine0ient development ptternsF pinllyD tr0 ongestion nd ir pollution from driving ontriute to n estimted WHHDHHH ftlities per yer worldwideF se of food miles is often tied to locavore movementsD whih emphsizes onsumption of lollyEgrown food produtsF vol food is usully fresherD with hrvesting witing until produe is ripeD nd hs less proessing nd fewer preservtivesF wny people think lollyEgrown food tstes etterD ut others hose to e lovore euse it strengthens lol ulturl identity or euse the sfety of the food is eing ontrolled y people who lso onsume the produts themselvesF iting lol foods lso promotes food seurity euse vilility nd prie of imported foods is more dependent on )ututing fuel osts nd soiopolitil on)its elsewhereF he prodution of food in developing ountriesD nd the susequent exporting of those produtsD hs severl types of imptsF he environmentl urden of soil degrdtionD wter depletionD nd othersD re imposed on developing ountriesD while more prosperous ountries enjoy the ene(tsF his n e espeilly prolemti euse some developing ountries do not hve the poliies to requireD or the resoures to implementD more environmentllyEfriendly food prodution prtiesF sn prtiulrD the low pries pid to food produers in developing ountries do not inlude su0ient fundsD or requirementsD for prties to preserve or restore eosystem qulityF woreoverD developing ountries disproportiontely su'er mlnutritionD yet the suess of lrgeEsle trnsport of food enourges ultivtion of produts to e exported insted of plnting nutritious foods to e selfEsustiningF ome usinesses re emring the si onepts of food miles euse trnsporting food over shorter distnes uses less fuelD nd is therefore heperF edditionllyD food tht overs longer distnes usully requires more pkgingD whih dds to the ostF fy fousing on lol foodsD lol eonomies re supportedF his hs led to lerer leling of food produtsD giving onsumers the ility to mke more informed deisions out their purhsesF
9.3.4.1.5 Criticism

elthough the onept of food miles is usefulD it hs een hevily ritiized for eing too simplistiF por exmpleD ll miles re not reted equllyF he onsumption of fuel vries y the mode of trnsporttion nd the mount eing movedF sf you ompre the onsumption required to move one pound of produtD oen freighters re the most e0ient of the ommon methodsD followed y trinsD truksD nd (nlly plnesF hen omintion of trnsporttion methods is usedD mking omprison with food miles eomes even more omplexF his is espeilly prolem euse most of us drive personl vehile to get our groeriesF ht mens tht it my e more e0ient @from totl fuel onsumption perspetiveA to drive I mile @IFT kmA to lol supermrket who imports eef from eustrliD thn to drive RH miles @TR kmA to visit mrket selling lollyEprodued eefF pood miles lso do not tke into onsidertion the vriles of prodution efore the produts re trnsE portedF qrowing outdoors requires di'erent mounts of energy input thn greenhousesF e ommonly ited exmple is tht of tomtoesY heting greenhouses to grow tomtoes in the nited uingdom onsumes muh more energy thn growing tomtoes in wrm pin nd importing themF se of hemil fertilizers nd pestiides 'et environmentl qulity nd prodution levels di'erently thn orgni frmingF feuse soil qulity vriesD lollyEgrown foodsD in some sesD require more of the hemil dditivesF ome res my hve newer equipmentD etter limteD inresed ess to wterD or other ftors tht determine the overll

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CHAPTER 9.

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e0ieny of food produtionF qrowing rie in deserts or ornges in the erti would hve more environmenE tl impts thn the trnsporttion of those produts from loles where they n e grown more e0iently @from oth n environmentl nd eonomi perspetiveAF nderstnding these prodution vriles is ritil euse severl reent studies hve suggested tht s muh s VH7 of greenhouseEgs genertion from food onsumption omes from the prodution phseF ee eferenes @etion WFQFRFIFWX eferenesA for further redingF here re lso ene(ts to gloliztion nd inresed trnsport of foodF here is now more widespred ess to roder rnge of food produtsF his n led to inresed ppreition for other ultures nd greter interntionl oopertionF vongEdistne trnsport of food produts n lso provide jos to developing ntions y giving them ess to lrgerD more prosperous mrkets interntionllyF tos nd eonomi inentives from food prodution re some of the few widespred opportunities for developing ountriesD nd these my led to growth in other eonomi resF gritiism of the use of food miles n e unfirly dispproving of produts tht trvel long distnesF roweverD simple lultions of food miles hve lso een sid to underrepresent the importne of trvel distnesF wost food is trnsported with some pkgingD nd tht pkging lso requires energy input for its prodution nd trnsportF feuse produts tht move shorter distnes usully hve less pkgingD the di'erene in lulted food miles my underestimte the tul environmentl imptF vol foods lso require less energy nd resoure onsumption euse of redued need for trnsporttion infrstrutureD hemil dditives nd preservtivesD nd refrigertionF he impts during the prodution phse lso vry etween types of foodsD whih n lso result in underestimtes of the imptsF rodution of metsD espeilly red metsD requires lrge mounts of lnd to generte the rops needed for niml feedF feuse not ll energy is pssed from feed to the nimlD using mets for our food is ine0ient from n energy perspetiveF st tkes over V pounds of grin to feed ow enough to generte I pound of weight ginF ht grin must e grown on lnd tht n long longer produe food diretly for humn onsumptionF he mount of lnd required to produe niml feed is known s ghost acresF qhost res lso extend to the res required to provide the fuelD wterD nd other resoures needed for niml feedD nd for the overll support of nimls114 F hile some other mets suh s porkD poultryD nd espeilly (shD use proportionlly less feedD there re other onerns out the environmentl impts of diets with lrge mounts of metF Conned animal feeding operations (CAFOs)D highEdensity niml frmsD hve eome the primry soure of livestok for met in the FFD iuropeD nd mny other ountriesF he tehnologil innovtions employed in these opertions hve inresed the speed nd volume of met produtionD ut hve rised helth onernsF entiiotis nd hormones used inresingly on nimls in gepys my e pssed on to humns during onsumptionD even though there is urrently no wy of knowing sfe level of those sustnes in our dietsF he overuse of ntiiotis in gepys lso results in ntiiotiEresistnt pthogensF sn ddition to the impts from the ghost resD there re other eologil impts suh s pollution from mssive mounts of onentrted mnureF elthough the distne met is trnsported hs n environmentl imptD the other onerns re more signi(ntF
114 sn other environmentl ontextsD ghost res refer more rodly to ll lnd res eing used indiretly to support humn tivity nd res not usle due to other humn in)uenes

RUI

Figure 9.19: Conned Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs)This

cattle. Source: eutrophication&hypoxia

image shows a CAFO for

CAFOs have raised health concerns for human consumption of the meat produced in them.

115

9.3.4.1.6 Implementation

he ongoing investigtions of food miles hve 'eted usinessesD groupsD nd individuls in vrious wysF es mentioned oveD pying loser ttention to the distne food trvels n e good usiness strtegy euse fuel osts moneyF gentrliztion of proessing nd distriution enters in the nited ttes hs resulted in reltive frequent ourrene of shipping produe thousnds of miles only to end up in supermrkets k ner its originF sn mny ses the initil svings from uilding fewer entrlized filities is exeeded in the longEterm y the ontinul shipping ostsF es resultD some retilers re enourging outside srutiny of their hitsD euse it n result in inresed pro(tsF et the other extremeD the rise in food miles in some ses is driven entirely y moneyF pish ught o'shore xorwy nd the nited uingdomD for exmpleD is sent to ghin for heper proessing efore eing returned to iuropen mrketsF en wreness of the impt of food miles hs led to mny groups dvoting lol foodsF vol frmers9 mrkets hve ppered nd expnded round the nited ttes nd elsewhereD providing inresed ess to fresh foodsF Community-supported agriculture progrms rete shreEholders out of onsumersD
115 httpXGGwwwF)ikrFomGphotosGRVUPPWURdxHUGSPRWRPHHPIGinGphotostremG

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CHAPTER 9.

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mking them more personlly invested in the suess of lol eonomiesD while frmers gin some (nnil seurityF gmpigns y ommunity groups re in)uening retilers nd resturnts y srutinizing the foodE purhsing deisionsF he reiprol is lso true s retilers nd resturnts dvertise their sustinility e'ortsF ee esoures @etion WFQFRFIFIHX esoures for loting frmers9 mrkets in sllinoisXA for exmples of lol frmers9 mrkets in sllinoisF

Figure 9.20: Illinois Farmer's Market

Maycomb Paynes

116

Colorful produce at an Illinois farmer's market.

Source:

etD there re hllenges to the implementtion of food miles s oneptF uppliersD suh s individul frmersD might opt for the relile nnul purhse from mssEdistriutorF gonsumers might mke deisions solely on the stiker prieD not knowing the other imptsD or onsumers might know the impts ut hoose the immedite eonomi inentiveF ome of these hllenges n e ddressed y edutionF his n inlude e'orts suh s eoEleling ! lelsD often y third prtiesD tht independently ttest to the environmentl lims of produtsF his n in)uene some onsumersD ut lrger uyers like shool systems nd resturnt hins my require other inentives to hnge purhsing prtiesF he soure of these inentivesD or lterntivelyD regultionsD might ome from government geniesD espeilly those with desires to support lol eonomiesF roweverD there is no onsensus regrding who should e evluting nd monitoring food milesF
116 httpXGGwwwF)ikrFomGphotosGPRUQHWRSdxHQGSHPSPQRIIVG

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9.3.4.1.7 Summary

he ritiisms of food miles re vlidD nd work is ontinully eing done inorporte the mny ftors tht more ompletely show the environmentl impts of trnsporting foodF his n e time onsuming proessD nd the mny vriles re usully not redily ville to onsumersF e frozen pizz might ontin mny types of ingredients from vrious res tht re trnsported to individul proessing plnts efore eing ssemled in nother lotion nd forwrded to distriution enters efore eing shipped to storesF iven if this proess is eventully simpli(edD eting deisions should not e mde solely on the sis of food milesD whih nnot ount for the vritions in trnsporttion nd prodution methods or the soil nd eonomi imptsF his does not men tht food miles re never useful toolF hen ompring similr produts @eFgFD onions to onionsA with other similr externlities @eFgFD prodution nd trnsporttion methodsAD food miles provide onvenient wy for onsumers to egin to mke informed deisions out their purhsesF iven though food trnsporttion is reltively smll portion of the overll impt of our food onsumptionD hnges to ny phse of the proess n hve positive dditive e'et nd mke rel ontriution to environmentl helthF woreoverD most of the ene(ts for using food miles n likewise pply to mny of our nonEfood purhsesD with llownes for some of the sme drwksF edditionllyD the disussion ould e expnded to inlude other kinds of deisionsD suh s where to live in reltion to lotion of joD nd where to tke vtionF sn generlD the onept of food miles re)ets the need to understnd how hidden in)uenes generte environmentlD soilD nd eonomi imptsF
9.3.4.1.8 Review Questions Question 9.3.4.1

ht re some of the prolems with ompring food miles for heeseurger to those for vegetrin sldc
Question 9.3.4.2

hy might food produers in isolted ut prosperous res @like rwii or xew elndA rgue ginst the use of food milesc
Question 9.3.4.3

ho you think inresed reline on food miles is good or d for rurl res in developing ountriesc ixplin your deisionF

9.3.4.1.9 References

glevelndD hF eFD dkD gF xFD wullerD xF wFD tsonD F hFD eksteinD xF tFD rightD rF F wFD et lF @PHIIAF i'et of lolizing fruit nd vegetle onsumption on greenhouse gs emissions nd nutritionD nt frr gountyF Environmental Science & Technology, RSDRSSSERSTPF doiX IHFIHPIGesIHRHQIU undersD gFD frerD eFD 8 ylorD qF @PHHTAF pood miles ! omprtive energyGemissions performne of xew elnd9s egriulture sndustryF Lincoln University Agribusiness & Economics Research Unit Research ReportD PVSD IEIHSF eerD gF vFD 8 wtthewsD rF F @PHHVAF poodEmiles nd the reltive limte impts of food hoies in the nited ttesF Environmental Science & TechnologyD RPD QSHVEQSIQF doiX IHFIHPIGesUHPWTWf
9.3.4.1.10 Resources for locating farmers' markets in Illinois:

vol rrvest httpXGGwwwFlolhrvestForg117 sllinois tewrdship elline httpXGGwwwFilstewrdsForg118

117 httpXGGwwwFlolhrvestForgG 118 httpXGGwwwFilstewrdsForgG

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low pood ghigo httpXGGwwwFslowfoodhigoForg119 sllinois prmers wrketsD sllinois heprtment of egriulture httpXGGwwwFgrFstteFilFusGmrketsGfrmersG120
9.3.5 Environmental Performance Indicators
9.3.5.1 Environmental Performance Indicators 9.3.5.1.1 Learning Objectives
121

efter reding this setionD students should e le to

understnd the dt inluded in reting n environmentl performne inditor e le to stte some generl strengths nd weknesses of the environmentl sustinility index nd emergy performne index know the di'erenes etween some of the mjor environmentl performne inditors
9.3.5.1.2 Introduction

feuse there re so mny types of environmentl prolemsD there re mny projets designed to ddress these onerns nd likewise mny methods to ssess themF golletivelyD the methods for ssessing environE mentl imptsnd the uses of nturl resoures @oth living nd nonElivingA re lled environmental performance indicatorsF qenerllyD performne inditors re used in (elds rnging from mrketing nd eonomis to edution nd legl studies to mesure projet9s progress ndGor suessF ome inditors n evlute the tions of single individulD while others re rod enough to re)et the e'orts of entire ntions or even the gloeF pei(llyD environmental performance indicators (EPIs) exmine enviE ronmentl issues suh s pollutionD iodiversityD limteD energyD erosionD eosystem serviesD environmentl edutionD nd mny othersF ithout these issD the suess or filure of even the most wellEintentioned tions n remin hiddenF feuse of the diversity of oservtionl sles nd topisD not ll iss re useful in ll senriosF roweverD ll iss should indite whether the stte of the environment is hnged positively or negtivelyD nd they should provide mesure of tht hngeF en is is lso more meningful if it n quntify the results to filitte omprison etween di'erent types of tivitiesF fut efore n is is seletedD trgets nd selines must e lerly rtiultedF gue trgets re di0ult to evluteD nd the results my e uninformtiveF he is seleted must use inditors tht re de(nitively linked to the trgetsD re relile nd repetleD nd n e generted in ost nd time e0ient mnnerF o evlute n tivityD n is needs to inlude informtion from up to four types of inditorsX inputsD outputsD outcomesD nd impactsF snputs re the nturl resoures or eosystem servies eing usedF yutputs re the goods or servies tht result from tht tivityF hile outputs n often e qunti(edD outomes typilly nnot e nd insted represent environmentlD soilD nd eonomi dimensions of wellE eingF sn some ses it is useful to think of outomes s why n output ws soughtY howeverD outomes n lso e unntiipted or unwnted e'ets of n outputF smpts refer to the longerEterm nd more extensive results of the outomes nd outputsD nd n inlude the intertion of the ltter two inditorsF por exmpleD ol n e n input for n eletriityEgenerting plnt euse we need the output @eleE triityA to turn on lights in our homesF wo outomes would inlude the ility to red t night euse of the eletriity nd the visile ir pollution from the power plnt smoke stksF en impt of eing le to red more n e etterEeduted personD while n impt of the greenhouse gs emissions from urning ol is inresed potentil for glol limte hngeF his is simplisti exmple whih does not inlude the mjority of relevnt inditors @inputsD outputsD outomesD nd imptsA for omplete nd more meningful nlysisF
119 httpXGGwwwFslowfoodhigoForgG 120 httpXGGwwwFgrFstteFilFusGmrketsGfrmersG 121 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVVUUGIFRGbF

RUS e n then evlute eh of the inditorsF ss the input @olA n pproprite hoiec ss there enough for the prtie of urning it to ontinuec ere there prolemsD suh s politil instility tht ould interrupt ontinued essc hoes the output @eletriityA su0iently ddress the prolem @in this seD energy for turning on lightsAc ss the output produed nd delivered in timely mnnerc ss it provided to the pproprite onsumers nd in quntity tht is lrge enoughc hoes the output rete the desired outome @eing le to red t nightAc hoes it lso result in unwnted outomes @ir pollutionAc ho the outomes result in longEterm impts @suh s lifeElong lerning or dedeElong limte hngeA tht re widespredc xote tht outomes nd impts n e either positive or negtiveF he strength of n is lies in its ility to look t the igger piture nd inlude multiple vriles ! prtiulrly with regrd to the imptsF roweverD whether n impt is onsidered meningful depends on the vlues nd perspetives of the individuls nd groups involvedF tudgment plys role euse of the di0ulty in ompring ompletely di'erent imptsF row do you ompre lifeElong lerning nd limte hnge in the ove exmple out the use of olc
9.3.5.1.3 Uses

wonitoring the impts of oth shortEterm nd longEterm tivities with iss llows deision mkers to mke hnges tht result in performne with lesser environmentl imptsF sn some sesD hnges n e mde to ongoing projetsD or the results of n is n e used for puliity if the performne dt indite the tivity is environmentllyEsoundF sn other sesD the is estlishes performne enhmrk ginst whih other projets re mesuredD or the results re used in the strtegi plnning phse while projets re in developmentF sn this wyD pst suesses nd filures n oth e inorported into future plnsF se of iss requires prodution of multiple dt pointsF e single pplition of n is does not men muh until pled into lrger ontextF por exmpleD n is might evlute the impt of your ity9s reyling e'orts @see pigure wuniipl olid ste eyling tes @pigure WFPIAAD ut tht result n e di0ult to interpret without dditionl dt tht n e presented in multiple wysX

esolute vluesX ss the impt greter or less thn tht of other itiesc row does the totl ost of the reyling progrm omprec xormlized vluesX row does the per person impt ompre to nother ityD ountryD usinessD etFc ht is the mount of luminum reyled per dollr spent on reylingc rendsX ss your ity improvingD or is the progress your ity sees in reyling etter thn tht tht of other itiesc his ould e sked of either solute or normlized dtX ss the totl mount of luminum reyled in your ity inresingc ss the perEperson mount of luminum reyled in your ity inresingc

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CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

Figure 9.21: Municipal Solid Waste Recycling Rates Municipal solid waste recycling rates in the
United States from 1960-2007. Source: EPA

122

9.3.5.1.4 Major EPI Areas

wost iss fous on one or few tegories of environmentl prolems nd do not ttempt to e llEinlusive methods of evluting sustinilityF e few of the more ommon tegories re rie)y desried elowF fiodiversity is the numer nd vriety of forms of lifeD nd n e lulted for prtiulr treeD n eosystemD ntionD or even the plnetF poodD fuelD reretionD nd other eosystem servies re dependent on mintining iodiversityF roweverD iodiversity is thretened y overuse nd hitt destrution @see pigure indngered enimls @pigure WFPPAAF feuse the tul numer of speies live is not knownD iodiversity inditors often use proxy dtF hese inlude ptterns of hitt preservtion nd resoure useD euse they re the primry ftors in)uening iodiversityF he etterEknown groups of orgnismsD suh s irds nd mmmlsD re lso monitored for diret ount of iodiversityD ut vertertes re tiny proportion of life nd nnot urtely re)et hnges in ll speiesF
122 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXiePHHUwreylingrtesFgif

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Figure 9.22: Endangered Animals

Illustration shows the number of endangered animals in each

country of the world. Source: World Atlas of Biodiversity

123

ood is hrvested for timer nd fuelD ut forests re lso lered for griulturl (elds nd housing developmentsF uh deforesttion frequently leds to rpid soil erosion nd extintionsF gutting of forests lso results in hnges to the wter yleD ltering preipittion ptterns nd rtesD nd nutrient ylesD suh s the relese of ron dioxide into the tmosphereF et the sme time s deforesttion tkes its toll in plesD trees re eing plnted elsewhereF heveloped ountries re inresing their forested resD ut this is ommonly eing done t the expense of developing ountriesD whih re exporting their wood @see pigure heforesttion t the ritiGhominin epuli forder @pigure WFPQAAF porestry inditors in iss inlude the nnul hnge in forested resD ut n e roken down into the types of forests euse eh hs di'erent environmentl imptsF enother inditor is the use of nonEsustinle wood resouresF ree frms nd some hrvesting methods provide renewle supplies of woodD while lerEutting tropil forests does notF srresponsile wood hrvesting produes negtive results for eosystem helthF
123 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXispeeswmmiferesweneesfrFsvg

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Figure 9.23: Deforestation at the Haiti/Dominican Republic Border

Satellite photograph

show deforestation of Haiti (on the left) at the border with the Dominican Republic (on the right). Deforestation on the Haitian side of the border is much more severe. Source: NASA

124

eirD wterD nd lnd pollution diretlyD nd dverselyD impts humn nd eosystem helthF st lso hs eonomi onsequenes from the dmge of nturl resoures nd humn struturesF sn mny ses the level of pollutnts n e mesured either in the environment or t the point of emissionsF edditionl inditors inlude whether pollution monitoring even oursD to wht extent legl mximum levels re enforedD nd whether regultions re in ple to len up the dmgeF isit the ie9s wyinvironment125 pplition to lern more out environmentl issues in your reF qreenhouse gs emissions nd ozone depletion re results of ir pollutionD ut re frequently pled in seprte tegory euse they hve glol impts regrdless of the soure of the prolemF vevels of greenhouse gses nd ozoneEdepleting sustnes in the tmosphere n e mesured diretlyD or their impts n e mesured y looking t temperture hnge nd the size of the ozone holeF roweverD those methods re rrely prt of iss euse they do not ssign prtiulr soureF snstedD iss inlude the tul emissions y prtiulr proess or reF
124 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXritideforesttionFjpg 125 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGmyenvironmentG

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9.3.5.1.5 Examples of EPIs

here re dozens of iss tht n e used to evlute sustinilityF felow re two exmples of multiE omponent methods tht llow omprisons t ntionl levelD whih is neessry for promoting mny types of systemi hngeF
9.3.5.1.5.1 Environmental Sustainability Index

he environmental sustainability index (ESI) ws reted s joint e'ort of le nd golumi universities in order to hve wy to ompre the sustinility e'orts nd ilities of ountriesF isit the is wesite126 for more informtion suh s mps nd dtF pirst presented in PHHH t the orld ionomi porumD the is hs quikly gined populrity euse it ids deisionEmking y providing ler omprisons of environmentl sttistisF he si ssumption of the is is tht sustinle developmentD the use of resoures in wy to meet soietlD eonomiD nd environmentl demnds for the longEtermD requires multiEfeted pprohF pei(llyD the is uses UT vriles to rete PI inditors of sustinilityF he inditors over (ve tegoriesD with eh desription elow inditing the ondition tht is more sustinleX environmentl systems ! mintining nd improving eosystem helth reduing environmentl stress ! reduing nthropogeni stress on the environment reduing humn vulnerility ! hving fewer negtive impts on people from the environment pity to respond to environmentl hllenges ! fostering soil infrstrutures tht estlish ility nd desire to respond e'etively to environmentl hllenges glol stewrdship e'orts ! ooperting with other ountries to ddress environmentl prolemsF

he is sores rnge from HD lest sustinleD to IHHD most sustinleD nd is n equllyEweighted verge of the PI individul inditorsF he highestErnked ountries in PHHS @pinlndD xorwyD ruguyD wedenD nd selndA ll hd in ommon undnt nturl resoures nd low humnEpopultion densitiesF et the other extremeD the lowestErnked ountries @xorth uoreD srqD iwnD urkmenistnD nd zekistnA hd fewer nturl resouresD prtiulrly when ompred per pitD nd hve mde poliy deisions often ginst their own longEterm est interestsF roweverD it is importnt to note tht most ountries do not exelD or filD with regrd to ll PI inditorsY every ntion hs room for improvementF ih ountry will lso hve its own environmentl prioritiesD ttitudesD opportunitiesD nd hllengesF por exmpleD the nited ttes sores high in the pity to respond to environmentl hllengesD ut low in tully reduing environmentl stressF is sores hve sprked some helthy ompetition etween ntionsY no one wnts to e seen s underE performing ompred to their peersF efter the pilot is rnkings in PHHH nd the (rst full is rnkings in PHHPD felgiumD wexioD the hilippinesD outh uoreD nd the nited er imirtesD ll initited mjor internl reviews tht resulted in the initition of e'orts to improve environmentl sustinilityF feuse is dt re presented not only s n overll verge ut lso s PI independent inditorsD ountries n fous their e'orts where most improvement ould e mdeF gountries disstis(ed with their rnkings hve lso egun to mke more of their environmentl dt essileF snitil rnkings y is sore hd missing or estimted dt in mny sesD ut y mking more dt villeD more urte overll ssessments re possileF por exmpleD the qlol invironmentl wonitoring ystem ter rogrmD n importnt soure of wter qulity informtionD hd dt ontriutions inrese from less thn RH ountries to over IHH s result of the isF everl similr rnking methodologies hve emerged from the isF hey vry in the numer nd type of vriles inluded nd inditors produedF ome lso lulte n overll verge y weighting some inditors more thn othersF roweverD they ll shre the sme HEIHH sle nd hve individul inditors tht llow trgeted improvement of the overll soresF
126 httpXGGsedFiesinFolumiFeduGesGesiG

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9.3.5.1.5.2 Emergy Performance Index

yne drwk of the is is tht the inditors mesure items s di'erent s perentge of endngered nimlsD reyling rtesD government orruptionD nd hild mortlity rtesF he sope of the vriles hs een ritiized euse they my not e omprle in importneD nd mny others ould e ddedF he termD emergyD is ontrtion of iwodied eniqF he emergy performance index (EMPI) di'ers in omitting the soil vrilesD nd insted retes single unit tht n e used to desrie the prodution nd use of ny nturl or nthropogeni resoureF he (rst step of lulting iws is to inventory ll mteril nd energy inputs nd outputs for ll proesses nd serviesF ivery proess nd servie is then onverted to its equivlent in emergyF he mounts of emergy of eh type re summedF here re severl possile wys to group emergy y type nd to omine the dtD ut generlly the gol is to rete either mesure of emergy renewility @s n inditor of stress on the environmentA or emergy sustinility @whih omines renewility with the totl produtivity nd onsumption or emergyAF glulting the emergy equivlents of mterils nd energy n e done esily with onversion tleD ut reting the tle n e hllengeF furning ol releses n mount of energy tht is esy to mesure nd esy to onvert to emergyF roweverD determining the mount of energy required to rete ol is nerly impossileF imilrlyD how n you quntify the emergy onversion ftor for ojets like luminum or for eosystem servies like rinfllc st is di0ultD ut possileD to ple dollr vlue on those ojets nd serviesD ut ssigning n energy equivlent is even more tenuousF hile onverting everything to ommon unitD emergyD simpli(es omprisons of diverse tivities nd proesses like soil erosion nd tourismD there re onerns out the ury of those onversionsF
9.3.5.1.6 Comparisons

here re no perfet mesures of sustinilityD nd di'erent inditors n sometimes give on)iting resultsF sn prtiulr this hppens when perspetives on the most importnt omponents of sustinilityD nd the methods to ddress themD di'erF hereforeD it is often useful to exmine the min hrteristis of severl invironmentl erformne snditors to (nd the one most pproprite for prtiulr studyF es n exmpleD issD iwssD nd eologil footprinting @disussed in previous setionA re ompred elowF iologil footprinting @ipA hs units tht re the esiest to understnd ! re of lndF foth ip nd iws employ only single type of unitD llowing for use of solute vriles nd permitting quntittive omprisonsF roweverD ip does not use multiple inditors to llow for foused ttention on imptsF iws n lso e used s sled vlues @suh s the proportion of emergy from renewle souresAD in the sme mnner s isF roweverD is omines multiple units of mesurementsD whih n provide more holisti perspetiveD ut t the sme time leds to onerns out omining those dtF yf the threeD is nd iws tke into ount wstefulness nd reylingD nd only is inludes the e'ets of ll emissionsF fut while is inludes the most vrilesD it is the most omplex to lulteY the simplest to lulte is ipF feuse is inludes soil nd eonomi inditorsD it n only ompre ntions @or in some sesD sttes or other levels of governmentsAF ip nd iws re e'etive t ompring ountriesD ut n lso e used t sles from glol down to individul produtsF ell three of the iss ompred here n e usefulD ut eh hs their limittionsF edditionllyD there re senrios where none of these re usefulF pei( environmentl edution projetsD for exmpleD would require di'erent types of performne inditorsF
9.3.5.1.7 Review Questions Question 9.3.5.1 Question 9.3.5.2

ht is the di'erene etween energy nd emergyc sn wht wy@sA is is etter method of ssessing sustinility thn ip nd iwsc

RVI
Question 9.3.5.3

he is retes inditors in (ve resF sn whih of the res do you think the inditors re the lest relilec
Question 9.3.5.4

hy do iss require multiple dt points to e usefulc

9.3.5.1.8 Additional Resources

invironmentl ustinility sndex @httpXGGsedFiesinFolumiFeduGesGesiG127 A ie wyinvironment @httpXGGwwwFepFgovGmyenvironmentG128 A

9.3.6 Case Study: UN Millennium Development Goals Indicator
9.3.6.1 Case Study: UN Millennium Development Goals Indicator
129

sn PHHH the nited xtions reted the willennium hevelopment qols @whqsA130 to monitor nd improve humn onditions y the yer PHISF his frmework ws endorsed y ll x memer ntions nd inludes gols in eight resX hungerGpovertyD universl primry edutionD gender equityD infnt mortlityD mternl helthD diseseD glol prtnershipsD nd environmentl sustinilityF ih of the whqs on si humn rights hs one or more trgetsD with eh trget hving spei( inditors for ssessmentF wost of the trgets hve seline yer of IWWH nd speify n hievement rteF por exmpleD one trget is to hlve the proportion of people su'ering from hungerF fy speifying proportionD trgets n e monitored seprtely t ntionlD regionlD nd glol levelsF isit the intertive mp t whqwonitor131 to trk nd monitor progress of the willennium hevelopment qolsF he underlying priniple of the whqs is tht the world hs su0ient knowledge nd resoures to imE plement sustinle prties to improve the life of everyoneF ennul progress reports suggest tht this priniple my e relisti only for some trgetsF he trgets within environmentl sustinility re the implementtion of ntionl poliies of sustinle developmentD inresed ess to sfe drinking wterD nd improvements to urn housingF here re suess storiesX e'orts to inrese vilility of len wter hve resulted in improvements fster thn expetedF roweverD not ll inditors re showing improvementF smpts of limte hnge re elertingD nd risks of physil nd eonomi hrm from nturl dissters re inresingF woreoverD these impts nd risks re onentrted in poorer ountries ! those lest le to hndle the thretsF yverllD results re mixedF he worldwide rte of deforesttion is still high ut hs slowedF vrgeEsle e'orts to plnt trees in ghinD sndiD nd iet xm hve resulted in omined nnul inreses of out R million hetres of forests sine PHHHF nfortuntelyD tht is out the sme rte of forest loss in outh emeri nd efri ehF qlollyD the net loss of forest from PHHH to PHIH ws SFP million hetres per yerD down y third from the IWWHsF he world will likely meet the trget of hlving the proportion of people without ess to len wterD with the mjority of progress mde in rurl resF fy PHHV most regions exeeded or nerly met the trget levelsF he exeptions were yeni nd suEhrn efriD whih hd only SH7 nd TH7 respetively of their popultions with ess to improved wter souresF hose regions will lmost ertinly miss the trgetF heyD nd most other developing regionsD will lso miss the trget of hlving the proportion of the popultion lking improved snittion filitiesF sn ftD the totl numer of people without suh ess is expeted to grow until t lest PHISF
127 httpXGGsedFiesinFolumiFeduGesGesiG 128 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGmyenvironmentG 129 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITHPGIFPGbF 130 httpXGGwwwFunForgGmillenniumgolsG 131 httpXGGwwwFmdgmonitorForgGmpFfmcgola8inditora8d

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prom IWWH to PHHUD emissions of ron dioxide rose in developed regions y II7Y in developing regionsD whih hve muh higher rtes of popultion growthD emissions inresed y IIH7F hile most inditors hve shown either progress or miniml dditionl hrmD ron dioxide emissions stnd out s one of the signi(nt filures in hieving glol sustinilityF i'orts to preserve iodiversity hve mde only miniml progressF yne trget ws to hve IH7 of eh of the world9s terrestril eosystem types proteted y PHIHY only hlf wereF he proportion of key iodiversity res proteted stgnted in the PHHHsD fter showing fster improvements in the IWUHsEIWWHsF es resultD the numer of irds nd mmmls expeted to go extint in the ner future hs inresedF he environmentl sustinility trget for urn housing ws ment to signi(ntly improve the lives of IHH million slumEdwellers y PHPHF his trget di'ered from most others not only y using lter dte of PHPHD ut y lking spei(ed proportion of the popultionF etting trget s n solute vlue for the entire gloe osures the progress in individul ountriesD so this riterion my e revisitedF prom IWWH to PHIHD the proportion of slumEdwellers deresed from RT7 to QQ7F roweverD during the sme timeD the numer of people living in slums inresed from TSU million to VPV millionF yver PHH million slumEdwellers hieved ess to len wter nd improved snittion filitiesD so the trget ws metF roweverD it is widely knowledged tht the trget ws set too lowF iven s we ontinue to strive towrd the whqs PHIS trget dteD it is lso neessry to think eyond themF ghnging demogrphis will drive shifts in the glol eonomy nd the use of resouresF snresed e'ets of limte hnge will result in greter voltilityD while tehnologil developments n open new opportunitiesF sn light of these hngesD evlution of the whqs must ssess their utility fter PHISF hould the generl frmework sty in pleD should it e modi(ed with new pprohesD or should it e repled with something fundmentlly di'erentc

9.4 Sustainability and Business

9.4.1 Learning Objectives

132

efter reding this setionD students should e le to

understnd how usinesses inorporte sustinility into their plnsD the sis of sustinle produt hinsD nd ftors tht need to e onsidered in mesuring nd ssessing sustinle performne
9.4.2 Introduction

hroughout this text the integrtive nture of environmentlD soilD nd eonomi sustinility hs een stressedF sn this hpterD vrious wys of frming the sustinility prdigm nd mesuring progress towrd its hievement hve een presentedF his setion fouses more diretly on usinessesD nd how they ttempt to inorporte sustinility into their deisions nd plnsF he usiness setorD ontinully seeking wys to rete ompetitive dvntgesD hs eome utely wre of the generl vlue of djusting vrious usiness models to ommodte onsumers9 desires for sustinle produts nd serviesF tillD the rod de(nition of sustinle development provided y the frundtlnd report is di0ult one to mke opertionlF he orld fusiness gounil for ustinle hevelopment133 hs dpted frundtlnd to view more understndle to usiness interestsD fousing on living within the interest of nturl systems nd eing utious out drwing down the prinipl @iFeF degrding nturl eosystemsAD ut there remin sustntil di'erenes on preisely how to mesure progress towrd the gols of the sustinility prdigmF st is ommon prtie for usinesses to refer to the triple bottom lineD referene to the vlue of usiness going eyond dollr pro(tility to inlude soil nd environmentl osts nd ene(ts s wellF sndeedD mny of the tools nd indies outlined in wodule Life Cycle Assessment @etion WFPA nd wodule Sustainability Metrics and Rating Systems @etion WFQFIA re widely used y usinesses to mesure
132 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRPPUQGIFPGbF 133 httpXGGwwwFwsdForgG

RVQ progress towrd orporte golsF roweverD there is no greed upon wy of using these toolsD nd mny usinesses hve developed their own methods for ssessing progressF his hsD inevitly perhpsD led to lims nd ounterElims y vrious prties out the sustinility of their produts or serviesF uh lims usully (nd their wy into orporte rohures nd dvertising so thtD often without sustntive king or very sujetive nlysisD the impression of signi(nt orporte sustinility is retedD prties known generlly s greenwashingF qreenwshing is onern euse these kinds of dvertising messges n misled onsumers out the the environmentl prties of ompny or the environmentl ene(ts of produt or servie @qreenpeeD PHII @pF RVTAAF xeverthelessD usinesses must ultimtely generte pro(ts to remin vileD nd inresingly they re eing held to ount for their impts on ll spets of usiness opertionsD however di0ult it my e to ssign vlue to deisions mde under onditions of onsiderle unertintyF he intergenertionl mndte of frundtlnd nd the nture of modern environmentl prolems fing soiety sk tht usiness plns extend fr eyond the usul (ve to ten yer rngeF
9.4.3 Tools for Assessing Sustainability in Business

yne useful orgniztionl frmework for envisioning di'erent kinds of osts nd ene(ts tht usinesses enounter is referred to s otl gost essessment @geAF ge ssigns levels of unertinty to the types of osts ssoited with vrious spets of usiness tivitiesF ypilly (ve suh types re reognizedX

ype s @hiret gostsA ! gosts ssoited with diret opertion of the mnufturing or servie enterprise tht n e redily ttriuted to spei( tivityF vorD medilD mterilsD lndD nd energy re exmples of this type of ostF ype ss @sndiret gostsA ! gosts similr to ype s tht re not esily ssigned to spei( tivity nd thus re orn more generlly y the ompnyF hese inlude vrious kinds of overhed ostsD outsoured servies nd suontrts @eFgF omponent sussemliesD jnitoril needsAD nd generl support tivities suh s entrl o0es for purhsingD humn resouresD etF ype sss @gontingent viility gostsA ! hese re osts ssoited with environmentl lenupD nonE ompline (nesD produt or servie liilityD ivil suitsD nd identsF ype s @snternl sntngile gostsGfene(tsA ! hese re osts nd ene(ts tht rue to usiness tht re onneted to vriety of intngiles suh s worker morleD onsumer loyltyD orporte imgeD nd rnding of produts nd serviesF ype @ixternl gostsA ! ut simplyD ype osts re those ssoited with environmentl degrE dtionF hey re externl in the sense tht norml (nnil ounting does not inlude themY the dmge is orn in generl sense y soiety t lrgeF invironmentl protetion requirements tht re enforele y vrious lws @see setion qovernment nd vws on the invironmentAD nd mnE dted mrket or txtion mehnismsD re poliy deisions ment to internlize these ostsD foring the genertor of the pollution to either py for the dmge or prevent dmge in the (rst pleF
ken s wholeD these ostGene(t types inlude ll three of the si elements of the sustinility prdigmF rowever ype s nd osts re often di0ult to ssign dollr vlue toY indeed even if this n e doneD projeting their vlue into the future is n unertin sieneF vife yle ssessment @vgeA n lso e used to visulize nd orgnize sustinility model for usiE nesses @ee wodule Life Cycle Assessment @etion WFPA for more informtionAF ell tht vge grew out of industry9s needs to understnd how produt mnufturing systems ehveD nd to develop workle models tht ould e used to ontrol nd optimize mteril nd energy )owsD ensure produt qulityD mnge environmentl imptsD nd minimize osts @these funtions re olletively referred to s the supply hinAF en expnded use of vge inorportes the omplete product chainD exmining onsumer usesD ene(ts nd ostsD nd the postEonsumer disposition of the produtF his hs led to produt oneptuliztion nd developmentD nd in some ses regultory reformD tht inorporte usiness prties nd plns uilt upon the onept of eco-eciencyD nd extended product/producer responsibility @iAF ioEe0ieny is n evolutionry usiness model in whih more goods nd servies re reted with less use of resouresD nd fewer emissions of wste nd pollutionF ixtended produtGproduer responsiility involves the retion

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CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

of (nnil inentivesD nd legl disinentivesD to enourge mnufturers to mke more environmentlly friendly produts tht inorporte end-of-life costs into produt design nd usiness plnsF por exmE ple one usiness model tht is onduive to i is leseEndEtkeEk model in whih produts must eventully ome k to the mnufturer or retilerD who then must rekon with the est wy to minimize endEofElife ostsF emnufturingD reylingD nd reuse of mterils re the intended results of iD ut ordinry disposlD inluding lnd(lling or ininertionD n lso e n optionF pigure vge prmework epplied to rodut hevelopment @pigure WFPRAD illustrtes in generl wy how the vge frmework n e strutured for understnding how produt development n ene(t from the vrious mteril nd informtion trnsfers nd feedk loops long the produt hinF uh (gure illustrtes the omplexities involved in retingD mrketingD nd diserning the impts of produt or servieD nd rises the generl onept of wht is often referred to s product stewardshipD n pproh in whih produts re oneivedD designedD mnufturedD nd mrketed within systems thinking ontextF st is wy of frming environmentl prolems tht reognizes the three prts of the sustinility prdigmD nd inorportes the onepts of sustinle mnufturingD mrketingD utilityEtoEsoietyD impts of the use of the produtD nd endEofElife disposition of the produtF

Figure 9.24: LCA Framework Applied to Product Development.

Theis

Generalized view of the life

cycle product chain, showing major material and information transfers and feedback loops. Source: Tom

134

9.4.4 Creating Uniformity

he prolem of lk of uniformity in mesuringD ssessingD nd vluing usiness tions tken t lest in prt for the ske of sustinility might e delt with more e'etively through the development of uniform stndrds nd metris tht re pplied y n greed upon uthority who uses trnsprent methodologies nd reporting tehniques so tht other ompniesD nd onsumersD n mke more ojetive judgments out omprtive performnesF prom wht hs een presented in this setion this my pper to e nerE impossile tskF et ttempts in this diretion re eing mdeD for exmple y the forementioned orld
134 httpXGGnxForgGmemerpro(leGtheist

RVS fusiness gounil for ustinle hevelopmentD the yrgniztion for ionomi goopertion nd hevelopE ment135 D nd the nited xtions willennium hevelopment qols136 F yne of the more populr pprohes for mesuring nd rnking orporte sustinility hs een developed y the how tones gorportion @htgAD through its ustinility sndex137 @htsAF st my seem ironi tht suh stion of the free mrket eonE omy hs put together system for mesuring nd ssessing orporte sustinilityD yet the size nd generl eptility of htg y orportions nd investors work in fvor of the estlishment of n ojetive nd trnsprent indexF he hts itself ws reted in IWWW in response to the needD rtiulted from mny seE tors inluding onsumersD for wy to ssess progress towrd sustinle orporte responsiilityF he index ontins three generl evlutive setors ! eonomiD soilD nd environmentl ! tht re)et the frundtlnd de(nitionF ih setor is omposedD in turnD of spei( tegories s followsX
Economic

godes of gondutGgomplineGgorruption nd friery gorporte qovernne isk nd grisis wngement sndustryEspei( griteri

Social

gorporte gitizenship nd hilnthropy vor rtie snditors rumn gpitl hevelopment oil eporting lent ettrtion nd etention sndustryEspei( griteri

Environmental

invironmentl erformne @ioEe0ienyA invironmentl eporting sndustryEspei( griteri

ih of these tegories is omposed of quntittive mesures nd ssigned spei(D nd onstntD weightE ingF prom the dt gtheredD estEinElss @iFeF industry lssA rnking is pulished nnullyF he index hs engendered onsiderle orporte ompetition suh tht mere ttinment of the previous yer9s sttistisD for given ompnyD usully results in drop in rnkF yf ourse one n rgue with the hoie of tegoriesD or the dt tht re gthered nd the wy tegories re prmeterizedD or with the weighting sheme usedD ut the importnt spets of hts @nd other sustinility rnkingsA is its omprehensivenessD uniformityD nd trnsprenyF
9.4.5 Summary

sn the (nl nlysisD no eonomy n move in the diretion of sustinility without the tive prtiiption of the usiness setorF sn other wordsD signi(nt progress nnot e hieved through government or individul tions loneF es noted oveD this retes di0ulties nd on)its for usinessesF es they ontinue to work together in the futureD usinesses nd sustinility experts fe mny questions suh sX ht re the est mesures of sustinility nd how should usinesses develop nd pln for delivering more sustinle produts nd serviesc ss reline on eoEe0ieny enough to redue the impts of inresing onsumptionc hould usinesses ply more signi(nt role in eduting onsumers on the ftors tht 'et sustinle developmentc row n usinesses dpt to unertinties tht lie eyond the ner termc ht is the role of government in overseeing or regulting usiness tivities tht ontriute to sustinilityc
135 httpXGGwwwFoedForgG 136 httpXGGwwwFunForgGmillenniumgolsGenvironFshtml 137 httpXGGwwwFsustinilityEindexFomG

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9.4.6 Review Questions
Question 9.4.1

CHAPTER 9.

PROBLEM-SOLVING, METRICS, AND TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

pind produt hin for the mnufture of mjor onsumer item suh s )t sreen televisionD omputerD or n utomoile nd st the stges of the hin in life yle form s shown in pigure vge prmework epplied to rodut hevelopment @pigure WFPRAF es prt of your nswerD de(ne the vrious informtion trnsfers nd feedk loops involvedF
Question 9.4.2

gonsider the vrious types of osts in the totl ost ounting frmeworkF sn proeeding from ype s to ype D give resons why unertinties usully inrese t eh levelc
Question 9.4.3

ht re the min ttriutes of sound index for mesuring progress towrd sustinility of produts nd serviesc

9.4.7 Resources

he orld fusiness gounil for ustinle hevelopment138

9.4.8 References

qreenpee @PHIIAF qreenwshingF httpXGGstopgreenwshForgG139

GreenpeaceF

etrieved

heemer

IUD

PHII

from

138 httpXGGwwwFwsdForgGhomeFspx 139 httpXGGstopgreenwshForgG

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CHAPTER 10.

SUSTAINABILITY: ETHICS, CULTURE, AND HISTORY

Chapter 10
Sustainability: Ethics, Culture, and History

10.1 The Human Dimensions of Sustainability: Ethics

1

History, Culture,

10.1.1 Chapter Introduction: The Human Dimensions of Sustainability: History, Culture, Ethics

Figure 10.1:

Source: Earth Day Network

1 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQWQUVGIFRGbF

RVW yne we egin tlking out sustinilityD it9s hrd to stopF ht9s euse sustinility is truly the siene of everythingD from tehnil strtegies for repowering our homes nd rsD to the eologil study of iodiversity in forests nd oensD to how we think nd t s humn eingsF his ltter tegory"the humn dimensions of sustinility"is the fous of this hpterF wuh sustinility disourse fouses on sienti(D tehnil nd regultory issuesD ut there is inresing wreness tht without hnges in people9s ttitudes nd ptterns of ehviorD nd how these ttitudes re re)eted in puli poliymking prioritiesD meningful reform towrd more sustinle mngement of nturl resoures will e impossileF yne key to this prolem is tht we re ustomed to thinking of the environment s remote issueF iven the words environment nd nture themselves suggest the hitul view we tke of ourselves s somehow independent of or superior to the plnet9s mteril resoures nd proessesF he truth is di'erentF rumnity is ut thred of nture9s weD leit n originl nd rillint thredF o rillint indeed tht we re now shping the evolution of the we itselfD to our shortEterm dvntgeD ut in wys tht nnot e sustinedF yne exmple of the entrlity of the humn dimensions omponent of sustinility studies is the ft tht sustinle tehnologies of food nd energy prodution re inresingly villeD ut hve yet to e dpted on the neessry sle to mke di'erene to humnity9s overll environmentl footprint on the plnetF wny look to tehnology for nswers to our myrid environmentl prolemsD ut the ft tht even the limited tehnologil innovtions tht exist lk support nd hve een indequtely deployed is omplex humn issueD touhing n essentil resistne to hnge in our eonomi nd politil struturesD our lifestyles nd ulture ndD t the miroElevelD si humn psyhology nd ehviorF his hpter will explore these humn dimensions of the sustinility hllengeD with n emphsis on the historil nd ulturl ftors tht hve pled us on our dngerously unsustinle pthD nd whih mke hnging ourse so hllengingF ustinility in humn terms isD (rst nd foremostD ommonsense golX to ensure tht onditions on erth ontinue to support the projet of humn iviliztionD tht widely diverse popultions of the glol ommunity not slip into protrted risis on ount of deteriorting environmentl onditions nd depleted resouresF his preventive dimension of sustinility disourse inevitly involves doom projetionsF heE spite the populrity of polyptiD endEofEtheEworld senrios in rollywood moviesD siene (tionD nd some orners of the logosphereD the iologil end of the humn re remins srely imginle"we will ontinue onD in some formF fut in the emerging perfet storm of food stok delinesD wter srityD limte disruptionD nd energy shortfllsD there now exist mesurle glolEsle threts to soil order nd si living stndrds tht re the mteril edrok of ivi soiety s we reognize itF he drmti environmentl hnges underwy on erth re lredy impting humn soil systemsF hroughtsD )oodsD nd rising se levels re tking livesD dmging infrstrutureD reduing rop yields nd reting new glol underlss of environmentl refugeesF he question is how muh more serious will these impts eome nd how soonc here re no ressuring nswers if we ontinue on usinessEsEusul pthF yne thing out sustinility in the twentyE(rst entury is ertinX individul ntions nd the interntionl ommunity together will need to oth mitigate the projeted delines of the plnet9s eosystemsD nd t the sme time adapt to those tht re irreversileF es one populr sustinility poliy mntr hs itX we must strive to void the unmngeleD while mnging the unvoidleF he environmentl historin ing ghew sees in the luster of environmentl rises of the erly PIst entury the hllmrks of potentil new hrk egeD tht isD period of on)itD resoure srity nd ulturl impoverishment suh s hs 1ited the glol humn ommunity only few times over the pst (ve millenniF he gol of sustinilityD in these termsD is ler nd nonEontroversilX to void new nd sledEup hrk ege in whih the spirtions of illions of peopleD oth living nd yet unornD fe rutl onstrintsF he implitions of sustinilityD in this senseD extend well eyond wht might ordinrily onsidered green issuesD suh s preserving rinforests or sving whlesF ustinility is humn nd soil issue s muh s it is environmentlF ustinility is out peopleD the hitts we depend on for servies vitl to usD nd our ility to mintin ulturlly rih ivi soieties free from perennil rises in foodD wterD nd energy suppliesF
2 httpXGGdnFerthdyFdvomtiFomGsitesGdefultG(lesGimgeheGfrontpgeslideGmrqueeEednHFjpg

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CHAPTER 10.

SUSTAINABILITY: ETHICS, CULTURE, AND HISTORY

10.2 It's Not Easy Being Green: Anti-Environmental Discourse, Behavior, and Ideology
3

10.2.1 It's Not Easy Being Green: Anti-Environmental Discourse, Behavior, and Ideology
10.2.1.1 Learning Objectives

efter reding this setionD students should e le to

understnd the omplex onnetions tht tie our modern lifestyles nd the onsumption of goods to humn nd environmentl impts ross the world relte our hits of onsumption to the long history of humn soil development on evolutionry time sles pply the working distintion etween soiety nd ulture outlined in this setion to explin the di'erent nd often on)itul ttitudes towrd the environment tht exist tody
10.2.1.2 Introduction

he onsensus view mong sientists nd professionl elites in the erly twentyE(rst enturyD s it hs een mong environmentl tivists for muh longer timeD is tht our glolized industril world system is on n unsustinle pthF snherent in this view is stern judgment of the reent pstX we hve not dpted wellD s speiesD to the fruits of our own rillint tehnologil omplishmentsD in prtiulrD to the hrnessing of fossil fuels to power trnsport nd industryF king the long view of humn evolutionD it is not surprising to (nd tht we re imperfetly dpted to our modern industrilized world of rsD omputersD nd teeming itiesD or tht humn soieties orgnized for so mny millenni round the prolem of srity should tret sudden undne of resoures with the glee of kid in ndy storeF sn evolutionry termsD we hve simply not hd su0ient time to dpt to the windfll of hngeF hough rpid dvnes in the iophysil sienes in reent dedes men tht we mostly understndour mldpttion to industriliztion nd the gret dngers it posesD our politil deisionEmking nd onsumption ptterns hve rely hnged on the sis of this understndingF his soering ft tells us thtD t this moment in humn historyD soil ehvior nd politil deisionEmking re not eing driven y knowledgeD ut rther y entrenhed ttitudes tht perpetute n unsustinle drwdown of erth9s resouresF sn shortD humn deision mking nd onsumption of mteril goods in our fossilEfuel ge ontinues to lrgely tke ple outside of n wreness of the strined nd (nite nture of our plnet9s eosystem serviesF st is the hrter of modern onsumer soiety to promote the ide tht nothing is onnetedD tht the jens we werD or the food we etD re mtters of personl hoie without ny greter ontext eyond onern for immedite plesure nd peer pprovlF ustinilityD y ontrstD tehes tht everything is onnetedF ht fvorite pir of jensD for instneD is dependent on hep lor in developing ountriesD on hevily fertilized otton plnttionsD nd enormous volumes of wter expended throughout the jens9 lifeyleD from the irrigtion to grow the otton to the wshing mhine tht lens themF yr let9s tke tht hep fst food lunh from yesterdyX it most likely ontined proessed soyens from reently lered streth of the emzon rinforestD nd rti(il sweeteners mde from orn whose enormous prodution quots re susidized y government tx revenuesF he ornEsed sweetenerD in turnD turns out to e prinipl use of the ntionl oesity epidemiD key ontriutor to spirling helth re ostsF hus the vlue mel turns out not to e so eonomil fter llD one the systemsEwide e'ets re ftored inF e twenty minute videoD he tory of tu'4 D tells the omplited story of how our 4stu'4 moves from extrtion to sle to disposlF
3 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIHTUGIFQGbF 4 httpXGGwwwFyoutueFomGstoryofstu'projet5pGuGPPGWqorqroigqw

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Figure 10.2: Fast Food Industry's Environmental Impact?

Here's food for thought.

Though

we are accustomed to measuring the impact of a fast food diet on our physical health, there is much less readily available information on the global network of agricultural providers that supports the fast food industry, and on its environmental impacts on land use, water resources, and human communities. Source: Created by CrazyRob926

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10.2.1.3 Connectivity

CHAPTER 10.

SUSTAINABILITY: ETHICS, CULTURE, AND HISTORY

o think out sustinility in these terms my sound exhustingF fut euse we live in world hrE terized y connectivity, tht isD yomplex hins linking our everydy lives to distnt strngers nd eosystems in fr )ung regions of the erthD we hve no hoieF sn the endD we must dpt our thinking to omplexD onneted model of the world nd our ple in itF ersisting with only simpleD onsumerist frmes of understnding"s look gret3 his tstes deliious3"for omplex world of remote impts nd (nite resoures renders us inresingly vulnerle to episodes of wht eologists ll system ollpseD tht isD to the sudden rekdown of eosystem servies we rely upon for our life9s stple provisionsF sn the erly twentyE(rst enturyD vulnerility to these system ollpses vries gretly ording to where one livesF e longEterm drought in sndi might ring the relity of quifer depletion or limte hnge home to tens of thousnds of people driven from their lndD while the life of suurn emerin teenger is not oviously 'eted y ny resoure risisF fut this gp will nrrow in the oming yersF yverwhelming sienti( evidene points to rpidly inresing strins this entury on our systems of foodD wterD nd energy provision s well s on the sesonle wether to whih we hve dpted our griulturl nd urn regionsF sn timeD no one will enjoy the luxury of remining olivious to the hllenges of sustinilityF hroughtD for exmpleD is one of the primry indies of glol eosystem stressD nd rguly the most importnt to humnsF eording to the nited xtions pood nd egriulture yrgniztionD without wholesle reformtion of wter mngement prties on glol sleD twoEthirds of the world9s popultion will fe wter shortges y PHPSD inluding densely populted regions of the nited ttesF o how did we rrive t this pointc ithout you or s ever onsiously hoosing to live unsustinlyD how hs it nevertheless ome out tht we fe environmentl rises of glol sleD irumstnes tht will so deisively shpe our lives nd those of our hildrenc rere9s one explntory nrrtiveD frmed y the long view of humn evolutionF ine the emergene of the (rst protoEhumn ommunities in efri millions of yers goD we hve spent over WW7 of evolutionry time s nomdi hunters nd gtherersF e frtion of the lne of our time on erth spns the IHDHHH yers of humn griultureD sine the end of the lst se egeF sn turnD only third of tht frtionl period hs witnessed the emergene of the institutions nd tehnologies"writingD moneyD mthemtisD etF"tht we ssoite with humn iviliztionF end lstlyD t the very tip of the evolutionry timelineD no more thn link of humn speies historyD we (nd the development of the modern industrilized soiety we inhitF vook round youF yserve for moment ll tht is fmilir in your immedite surroundingsX the streetspe nd uildings visile through the windowD the plsti furnishings in the roomD nd the linking gdgets within rm9s length of where you sitF ell of it is profoundly new to humn eingsY to ll ut hndful of the tens of thousnds of genertions of humn eings tht hve preeded usD this everydy sene would pper 1ing nd frighteningD s if from nother plnetF
10.2.1.4 Normalization

sn this senseD the rel mirle of humn evolution is tht rsD omputersD nd ities pper so norml to usD even sometimes oring nd monotonous3 yur pereption of the extrordinryD rpid hnges in humn soieties in the pst two enturies"even the pst hlfEentury"is dedened y virtue of wht is our gretest evolutionry quirementD nmely normalizationD n dptive survivl strtegy fundmentl to humn suess over the millenniF he ility to eptD nlyzeD nd dpt to often )ututing irumstnes is our gret strength s speiesF fut t this point in humn history it is lso grve weknessD whtD in the lnguge of qreek trgedy might e lled ftl )wF o o'er n nlogyD for mny enturies slvery ppered norml to most people ross the world"until the lte eighteenth enturyD when hndful of humnitrin tivists in fritin egn the long nd di0ult proess of deEnormlizing humn ondge in the eyes of their omptriotsF he tsk of sustinility ethis is nlogousD nd no less di0ultD in tht it lys out the rgument for wholesle nd disruptive ttitude djustment nd ehvior hnge in the generl popultionF qiven the longEterm dpttion of the humn speies to the impertives of hunterEgtheringD our deisionEmking priorities nd onsumption drives still
5 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXqeneripstfoodFjpg

RWQ tend towrd the simple neessitiesD sed on the presumption of reltive nd sesonl srityD nd with little emotionl or soil rewrd for restrint in the fe of plentyD for viewing our hoies in glol termsD or for mesuring their impts on future genertionsF e working distintion etween the historil evolution of humn society nd humn culture is useful to understnding the soil nd psyhologil ostles to hieving sustinilityF es oth individuls nd soietiesD we work hrd to insulte ourselves from unplesnt surprisesD shoksD nd disorderF e rve seurityD nd our legl nd eonomi institutions ordingly hve evolved over the millenni to form u'er ginst wht hkespere9s rmlet lled the thousnd nturl shoks tht )esh is heir toF por instneD the lw protets us from violent physil hrm @idellyAD while insurne poliies sfegurd us from (nnil ruin in the event of n unexpeted lmityF sn one senseD this seurity priority hs determined the si evolution of humn soietiesD prtiulrly the deisive trnsition IHDHHH yers go from the vrile nd risky life of nomdi hunter ommunities to sedentry frming sed on n ntiipted stility of sesonl yieldsF yf ourseD the shift to griulture only prtilly stis(ed the humn desire for seurity s frming ommunities remined vulnerle to hnging limti onditions nd territoril wrfreF qlol industriliztionD howeverD while it hs rendered vst popultions mrginl nd vulnerleD hs o'ered its ene(iries the most seure insultion yet enjoyed y humns ginst the slings nd rrows of outrgeous fortuneF his suess hs een douleEedged swordD howeverD not lest euse the industrilized ooon of our modern onsumer lifestyles relentlessly promotes the notion tht we hve trnsended our dependene on the erth9s si resouresF es it stndsD we look t our highly omplexD industrilized worldD nd dpt our expettions nd desires to its rewrdsF st is never our (rst instint to sk whether the system of rewrds itself might e unsustinle nd ollpse t some future time s result of our eger prtiiptionF
10.2.1.5 Sustainability Obstacles and Support

sn terms of the evolutionry rgument s m outlining hereD our ility to grsp the sustinility impertive fes two serious ostlesF he (rst is psyhologilD nmely the inherited mentl frmeworks tht rewrd us for the normliztion nd simpli(tion of omplex relitiesF he seond is soilD nmely our eonomi nd institutionl rrngements designed to protet us from mteril wntsD s well s from riskD shokD disorder nd violent hngeF foth these psyhologil nd soil fetures of our lives militte ginst n eologilD systemsEsed worldviewF vukilyD our cultural institutions hve evolved to o'er ounterweight to the ompleny nd inerti enourged y the other simpleD seurityEfoused priniples governing our livesF sf soiety is founded upon the priniple of seurityD nd promotes our omplent feeling of independene from the nturl worldD we might think of ulture s the onsiene of soietyF ht ulture doesD prtiulrly in the rts nd sienesD is remind us of our frilty s humn eingsD our vulnerility to shoks nd sudden hngesD nd our onnetedness to the erth9s nturl systemsF sn this senseD the rts nd sienesD though we onventionlly view them s oppositesD in ft perform the sme soil funtionX they remind us of wht lies eyond the dominnt seurity prdigm of our soieties"whih tends to simpli(ed nd inry view of humn eing nd nture"y ringing us loser to omplexD systemi understnding of how the nturl world works nd our emeddedness within itF hether y mens of n essy on plnt iologyD or stge ply out fmily rekdown @like HamletAD the rts nd sienes model omplex worlds nd the systemi interreltions tht shpe our livesF hey expose omplexities nd onnetivities in our worldD nd emphsize the mteril onsequenes of our tions to whih we might otherwise remin oliviousF he lose reltion etween the rts nd sienes in the estern world is evidened y the ft tht their onerns hve lrgely mirrored eh other over timeD from the orderedD hierrhil worldview in the lssil nd erly modern periodsD to the postEmodern fous on onnetivityD hosD nd emergeneF vife in the preEmodern worldD in the memorle words of the inglish philosopher homs roesD ws mostly nstyD rutishD nd shortF fy ontrstD soil nd eonomi evolution hs estowed the inhitnts of the twentyE(rst entury industrilized world with lifestyle uniquely @though of ourse not whollyA insulted from physil hrdshipD infetious diseseD nd hroni violeneF his insultion hs ome t ostD howeverD nmely our disonnetion from the si support systems of lifeX foodD wter nd energyF his is very

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CHAPTER 10.

SUSTAINABILITY: ETHICS, CULTURE, AND HISTORY

reent developmentF et the eginning of the PHth enturyD for exmpleD lmost hlf of emerins grew up on frmsF xowD fewer thn two perent doF e experiene the stples of life only t their servie endpointsX the supermrketD the fuetD the gs sttionF sn this ontextD the relEworld soures of foodD wterD nd energy do not seem importntD while supplies pper limitlessF e re not prepred for the inevitle shortges of the futureF yn the positive sideD it is possile to imgine tht the itizens of the developed world might rpidly reonnet to systems view of nturl resouresF yne produt of our long speies evolution s hunters nd griulturl lnd mngers is n dptive trit the eologist iF yF ilson hs lled iophiliD tht isD love for the nturl world tht provides for usF sn the few enturies of our fossil fuel modernityD this iophili hs eome inresingly esthetiized nd ommodi(ed"s lndspe rtD or nture tourism" nd onsequently mrginlized from ore soil nd eonomi deision struturesF sn the emerging ge of environmentl deline nd resoure srityD howeverD our inherited iophili will ply key role in energizing the reform of industrilized soieties towrd sustinleD renewle resoure nd energy futureF
10.2.1.6 Review Questions

row hs the humn pity for normalization oth helped nd hindered soil developmentD nd wht re its implitions for sustinle reform of our industriesD infrstrutureD nd wy of lifec
Question 10.2.2

Question 10.2.1

ke n everydy onsumer item"running shoesD or up of o'ee"nd rie)y hrt its ourse through the glol onsumer eonomy from the prodution of its mterils to its disposlF ht re its environmentl imptsD nd how might they e reduedc

10.3 The Industrialization of Nature: A Modern History (1500 to the present)

6

10.3.1 The Industrialization of Nature: A Modern History (1500 to the present)

10.3.1.1 Learning Objectives

efter reding this setionD students should e le to

reprodue si timeline of glol eonomi development sine ISHHD nd outline the historil wes of trde linking soures of mjor rw mterils"eFgF spiesD ottonD oil"to their onsumer mrkets on world mp de(ne the historil development of ore nd periphery ntions in the world eonomy understnd the onept of externalization of environmentl ostsD nd its role s priniple driver of unsustinle industril development
10.3.1.2 Introduction

st is mesure of our powers of normliztion tht we in the developed world tke the existene of hep energyD len wterD undnt foodD nd interntionl trvel so muh for grntedD when they re suh reent endowments for humnityD nd even now re t the disposl of onsiderly less thn hlf the glol popultionF st is onstnt surprise to us tht sitution so norml ould e hving suh norml e'ets on the iosphere"degrding lndD wterD irD nd the vitl eosystems hosting nimls nd (shF row did we get herec row n we squre suh pprent plenty with wrnings of ollpsec
6 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRHVPIGIFRGbF

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Figure 10.3: Population Growth

Graph showing the rapid increase in human population since the

beginning of the Industrial Age, with exponential rise since the mid-twentieth century. Source: IGBP synthesis: Global Change and the Earth System, Steen et al 2004

w (gures t lest sketh the proportions of glol hnge over the lst SHH yersF sn ISHHD even fter severl enturies of rpid popultion growthD the glol popultion ws no more thn SHH millionD or less thn hlf the popultion of sndi todyF st is now fourteen times s lrgeD lmost U illionF yver the sme periodD glol eonomi output hs inresed IPH timesD most of tht growth ourring sine IVPHD nd with the gretest elertion sine IWSHF his omintion of rmpnt popultion nd eonomi growth sine ISHH hs nturlly hd mjor impts on the erth9s nturl resoures nd eosystem helthF eording to the nited xtions willennium iosystem essessmentD y the eginning of the PIst enturyD IS of the world9s PR eosystemsD from rinforests to quifers to (sheriesD were rted in serious delineF
10.3.1.3 Economic Development

pundmentl to signi(nt hnges in humn history hs een soil retion to resoure srityF fy ISHHD iuropensD the (rst engineers of glol growthD hd signi(ntly lered their forestsD settled their most produtive griulturl lndsD nd negotited their internl ordersF end yet even with lrgeEsle internl developmentD iurope struggled to feed itselfD let lone to mth the welth of the then dominnt glol empiresD nmely ghin nd the wughl ttes tht strethed from the pie sslnds of outhest esi to
7 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXopultiongrowthFjpg

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CHAPTER 10.

SUSTAINABILITY: ETHICS, CULTURE, AND HISTORY

the usy ports of the istern wediterrnenF es onsequene of resoure srityD iuropen sttes egn to sponsor explortions rodD in quest initilly for goldD silverD nd other preious metls to (ll up their tresuriesF ynly over time did iuropens egin to pereive in the xew orld the opportunities for remote griulturl prodution s soure of inomeF pullEsle olonil settlement ws n even lter ideF he new frontiers of iuropen eonomi development in the immedite preEindustril period ISHHEIVHH inluded tropil regions for plnttion ropsD suh s sugrD tooD ottonD rieD indigoD nd opiumD nd temperte zones for the ultivtion nd export of grinsF he segoing merhnts of ortuglD prneD pinD fritin nd the xetherlnds trwled the islnds of the ist sndies for pepper nd timerY estlished ports in sndi for ommere in silkD otton nd indigoY exhnged silver for ghinese te nd porelinY trded sugrD tooD furs nd rie in the emerisY nd siled to est efri for slves nd goldF he slve trde nd plnttion eonomies of the emeris helped shift the enter of glol ommere from esi to the etlntiD while the new oengoing infrstruture lso llowed for the development of (sheriesD prtiulrly the lurtive whle industryF ell these ommeril developments preipitted signi(nt hnges in their respetive eosystems ross the gloe"deforesttion nd soil erosion in prtiulr"leit on fr smller sle ompred with wht ws to ome with the hrnessing of fossil fuel energy fter IVHHF he IWth entury witnessed the most rpid glol eonomi growth seen efore or mostly sineD uilt on the twin trks of ontinued griulturl expnsion nd the new vertil frontiers of fossil fuel nd minerl extrtion tht truly unleshed the trnsformtive power of industriliztion on the glol ommunity nd its diverse hittsF por the (rst time sine the humn trnsition to griulture more thn IHDHHH yers eforeD stte9s welth did not depend on griulturl yields from ontiguous lndsD ut )owed rther from vriety of glol souresD nd derived from the industriliztion of primry produtsD suh s otton textilesD minerls nd timerF huring this periodD inryD inequitle struture of interntionl reltions egn to tke shpeD with core of industrilizing ntions in the northern hemisphere inresingly exploiting the nturl resoures of undeveloped periphery ntions for the purposes of welth retionF

Figure 10.4: Trade Map, Late 20th Century

This map shows the core industrialized nations of

the northern hemisphere, and the periphery nations of the tropics and south dependent on subsistence agriculture and natural resource extraction. This unequal relationship is the product of hundreds of years of trade and economic globalization Source: Created by Naboc1, based on a list in Christopher ChaseDunn, Yukio Kawano and Benjamin Brewer, Trade Globalization since 1795, American Sociological Review, 2000 February, Vol. 65

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10.3.1.4 The Great Acceleration

hespite the impt of the world wrs nd eonomi depression on glol growth in the erly PHth enturyD the new tehnologil infrstruture of the omustion engine nd olEpowered eletriity sponsored inresed produtivity nd the snitiztion of growing urn entersF snfetious disesesD the sourge of humnity for thousnds of yersD retretedD more thn ompensting for losses in wrD nd the world9s popultion ontinued to inrese drmtillyD douling from I to P illion in SH yersD nd with it the eologil footprint of our single speiesF xothingD howeverD is to e ompred with the multiplying environmentl impts of humn tivities sine IWSHD period dued y historins s he qret eelertionF sn the words of the nited xtions willennium iosystem essessmentD over the pst SH yersD humns hve hnged eosystems more rpidly nd extensively thn in ny omprle period of time in humn historyD lrgely to meet rpidly growing demnds for foodD fresh wterD timerD (erD nd fuelF his hs resulted in sustntil nd lrgely irreversile loss in the diversity of life on irthF he postEss glol eonomi order promoted lierl nd elerted trdeD pitl investmentD nd tehnologil innovtion tethered to onsumer mrketsD mostly free of environmentl impt onsidertionsF he resultnt eonomi growthD nd the orresponding drwdown of nturl resouresD re nonlinear in hrterD whih isD exhiiting n unpreditle nd exponentil rte of inreseF ell systemsD humn nd nturlD re hrterized y nonliner hngeF e re hituted to viewing our history s legile story of progressD governed y simple useEndEe'et nd ented y morl gentsD with the nturl world s kdrop to senes of humn triumph nd trgedyF fut historyD from sustinility viewpointD is eologil rther thn drmti or morlY tht isD humn events exhiit the sme ptterns of systems onnetivityD omplexityD nd nonEliner trnsformtion tht we oserve in the orgni worldD from the geneti mkeup of viruses to ontinentl wether systemsF he history of the world sine IWSH is one suh exmpleD when ertin preEexisting onditions"petroleumEsed energy systemsD tehnologil infrstrutureD dvned knowledgeEsed institutions nd prtiesD nd popultion inrese"synergized to rete period of inredile glol growth nd trnsformtion tht ould not hve een predited t the outset sed upon those onditions loneF his unforeseen qret eelertion hs rought illions of humn eings into the worldD nd reted welth nd prosperity for mnyF fut nonliner hnges re for the d s well s the goodD nd the negtive impts of the humn triumph of postwr growth hve een felt ross the iosphereF s will rie)y detil the humn uses of the followingD itself only seletive listX soil degrdtionD deforesttionD wetlnds dringe nd dmmingD ir pollution nd limte hngeF
10.3.1.4.1 Soil Degradation

ine the trnsition to griulture IHDHHH yers goD humn ommunities hve struggled ginst the relity tht soil su'ers nutrient depletion through onstnt plowing nd hrvesting @mostly nitrogen lossAF he speter of signi(nt dieEo' in humn popultion owing to stgnnt rop yields ws verted in the IWUHs y the soElled qreen evolutionD whihD through the engineering of new rop vrietiesD lrgeEsle irrigtion projetsD nd the mssive pplition of petroleumEsed fertilizers to supplement nitrogenD inresed stple rop prodution with suh suess tht the numers su'ering mlnutrition tully delined worldwide in the lst two dedes of the PHth enturyD from IFW to IFR illionD even s the world9s popultion inresed t IHH times kground rtesD to T illionF he prospets for expnding those gins in the new entury re nevertheless thretened y the suess of industril griulture itselfF oil depletionD delining wter resouresD nd the diminishing returns of fertilizer tehnology"ll the produts of hlfEentury of industril griulture"hve seen inreses in rop yields level o'F et the sme timeD growing popultions in developing ountries hve seen inresing lerne of frgile nd mrginl griulturl lnds to house the rurl poorF st hs een estimted tht industril fertilizers hve inresed the plnet9s humn rrying pity y two illion peopleF nfortuntelyD most of the hemil fertilizer pplied to soils does not nourish the rop s intendedD ut rther enters the hydrologil systemD polluting quifersD stremsD nd ultimtely the oens with n oversupply of nutrientsD nd ultimtely drining the oxygen neessry to support quti lifeF es
8 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXorldtrdempFxq

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CHAPTER 10.

SUSTAINABILITY: ETHICS, CULTURE, AND HISTORY

for the impt of fertilizers on soil produtivityD this diminishes over timeD requiring the pplition of ever greter quntities in order to mintin yieldsF
10.3.1.4.2 Deforestation

erguly the iggest losers from PHth entury eonomi growth were the forests of the world9s tropil regions nd their nonEhumn inhitntsF eross efriD esiD nd the emerisD pproximtely oneEthird of forest over hs een lostF feuse out hlf of the world9s speies inhits tropil rinforestsD these lernes hve hd devstting impt on biodiversityD with extinction rtes now greter thn they hve een sine the end of the dinosur erD TS million yers goF wuh of the lered lnd ws onverted to griultureD so tht the mount of irrigted soils inresed (vefold over the enturyD from SH to PSHm hetresF pully RH7 of the terrestril erth9s totl orgni output is urrently ommitted to humn useF fut we re now rehing the eiling of produtive lnd expnsionD in terms of sheer reD while the ontinued produtivity of rle lnd is thretened y slinityD idity nd toxi metl levels tht hve now degrded soils ross one third of the erth9s surfeD some of them irreversilyF

Figure 10.5: Global Forest Map

Since the middle of the twentieth century, the global logging

industry, and hence large-scale deforestation, has shifted from the North Atlantic countries to the forests of tropical regions such as Indonesia and the Amazon Basin in Latin America. This tropical green belt is now rapidly diminishing, with devastating consequences for local ecosystems, water resources, and global climate. Source: NASA

10.3.1.4.3 Wetlands Drainage and Damming

wenwhileD the worlds9 vitl wetlndsD until reently viewed s useless swmpsD hve een ruthlessly drined"IS7 worldwideD ut over hlf in iurope nd xorth emeriF he drining of wetlnds hs gone hnd in hnd with lrgeEsle hydroEengineering projets tht proliferted through the lst enturyD suh
9 httpXGGerthoservtoryFnsFgovGsyhGviewFphpcidaVTPP

RWW tht now some twoEthirds of the world9s fresh wter psses through dm systemsD while rivers hve een lokedD hnneledD nd reErouted to provide energyD irrigtion for frmingD nd wter for urn developE mentF he longEterm impts of these projets were rrely onsidered in the plnning stgesD nd olletively they onstitute wholesle reEengineering of the plnet9s hydrologil system in wys tht will e di0ult to dpt to the popultion growth demnds nd hnging limti onditions of the PIst enturyF es for the world9s oensD these inresingly show signs of idi(tion due to ron emissionsD thretening the quti food hin nd (sh stoks for humn onsumptionD while on the surfeD the oens now serve s glol onveyor elt for olossl mounts of nonEdegrdle plsti derisF

Figure 10.6: Mississippi Watershed Map The catchment area of the Mississippi River covers almost
40% of the U.S. continental landmass, collecting freshwater from 32 states. Included in the runo that feeds the river system are large quantities of agricultural fertilizer and other chemicals that eventually drain into the Gulf of Mexico, creating an ever-growing dead zone. Source: Environmental Protection Agency

10

10.3.1.4.4 Air Pollution

sn mny prts of the worldD pollution of the ir y industril prtiles is now less prolem thn it ws entury goD when newsppers lmented the lk snow over ghigoF his is due to onerted e'orts y len ir uus of interntionl sope tht rose in the IWRHs nd gined signi(nt politil in)uene with the emergene of the environmentl movement in the IWUHsF he impt of the postEUHs environmentl movement on the qulity of ir nd wterD mostly in the estD ut lso developing ountries suh s sndiD is the most hopeful preedent we hve tht the sustinility issues fing the world in the new entury might yet e overomeD given politil will nd orgniztion equl to the tskF
10 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXwississippiiversinFjpg

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CHAPTER 10.

SUSTAINABILITY: ETHICS, CULTURE, AND HISTORY

10.3.1.4.5 Climate Change

eir pollution is still mjor prolem in the megities of the developing worldD howeverD while glol hnge in ir hemistry"n inrese of RH7 in the ron lod of the tmosphere sine industriliztion" is ushering in n er of elerted limte hngeF his er will e hrterized y inresed droughts nd )oodsD higher se levelsD nd extreme wether eventsD unevenly nd unpreditly distriuted ross the gloeD with the highest initil impt in regions thtD in eonomi nd infrstruturl termsD n lest support limte disruption @for exmpleD suEhrn efriAF he environmentl historin tF F wxeil estimtes tht etween PS nd RH million people died from ir pollution in the PHth enturyF he deth toll rising from limte hnge in the PIst entury is di0ult to preditD ut given the sle of the disruption to wether systems on whih espeilly mrginl sttes dependD it is likely to e on muh lrger sleF prom the ortuguese se merhnts of the ITth entury in quest of silver nd spies from esiD to the multintionl oil ompnies of tody seeking to drill in ever more remote nd frgile underse regionsD the dominnt view driving glol eonomi growth over the lst hlf millennium hs een instrumentalistD tht isD of the world9s eosystems s lterntely soure of rw mterils @foodsD energyD minerlsA nd dump for the wstes produed y the industriliztion nd onsumption of those mterilsF he instrumentlist eonomi elief system of the modern erD nd prtiulrly the sndustril egeD is sed on models of perennil growthD nd mesures the vlue of eosystems ording to their prodution of resoures mximized for e0ieny nd hene pro(tF sn this previling systemD the ost of resoure extrtion to the eosystem itself is trditionlly not ftored into the produt nd shreholder vlues of the industryF hese osts reD in eonomi termsD externalizedF e future eonomis of sustinilityD y ontrstD would prioritize the mngement of eosystems for resiliene rther thn pure pitl e0ienyD nd would inorporte the ost of eosystem mngement into the priing of goodsF sn the view of mny sustinility theoristsD dismntling the system of unnturl susidiztion of onsumer goods tht hs developed over the lst entury in prtiulr is the key to sustinle futureF ynly reformed eonomi system of nturl priingD wherey environmentl osts re re)eted in the prie of produts in the glol supermrketD will lter onsumer ehvior t the sle neessry to ensure eonomi nd environmentl ojetives re in stle lignmentD rther thn in onstnt on)itF es lwys in the sustinility prdigmD there re trdeo'sF e future eonomy uilt on the priniple of resiliene would e very di'erent from tht prevlent in the eonomi world system of the lst SHH yers in tht its mngers would ept redued produtivity nd e0ieny in exhnge for the longEterm vitlity of the resoure systems on whih it dependsF
10.3.1.6 Review Questions Question 10.3.1 10.3.1.5 Summary

ht re the mjor tehnologil nd eonomi developments sine ISHH tht hve pled n inresed strin on the plnet9s eosystem serviesc ht is the role of ronEsed energy systems in tht historyc ht is the soElled qret eelertion of the PHth enturyc ht were its prinipl soil fetures nd environmentl imptsc
Question 10.3.3 Question 10.3.2

ht is the qreen evolutionc ht were its suessesD nd wht prolems hs it retedc

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10.4 Sustainability Studies: A Systems Literacy Approach

10.4.1 Sustainability Studies: A Systems Literacy Approach
10.4.1.1 Learning Objectives

11

efter reding this setionD students should e le to

de(ne systems literyD how it is tilored spei(lly to the understnding nd remedy of environmentl prolemsD nd the wys in whih it di'ers from trditionl disiplinry pprohes to demi lerning de(ne ioEomplexity s sienti( prinipleD nd its importne s onept nd method for students in the environmentl humnities nd soil sienes identify potentil reserh projet tht would emre pplitions of one or more of the following sustinility key termsX resiliene nd vulnerilityD produt loops nd lifeylesD nd ron neutrlity
10.4.1.2 Introduction

rnsition to sustinle resoure eonomy is duntingly lrge nd omplex projetD nd will inresingly drive reserh nd poliy gends ross demiD governmentD nd industry through the twentyE(rst enE turyF o theorize sustinilityD in n demi settingD is not to diminish or mrginlize itF yn the ontrryD the stkes for sustinility edution ould not e higherF he reltive suess or filure of sustinility edution in the oming dedesD nd its in)uene on government nd industry prties worldwideD will e felt in the dily lives of illions of people oth living nd not yet ornF he ore of sustinility studiesD in the demi senseD is systems literacy" simple de(nitionD ut with omplex implitionsF wultiple inditors tell us tht the glol resoure oom is now rehing reking pointF he simple ethos of eonomi growth"more is etter"is not sustinle in world of omplex foodD wter nd energy systems su'ering delineF he grnd hllenge of sustinility is to integrte our deisionEmking nd onsumption ptterns"long with the need for eonomi viility" within sustinle worldviewF his will not hppen y dum lukF st will requireD (rst nd foremostD proper edutionF sn the nineteenth nd twentieth enturiesD universl litery"reding nd writing"ws the thEry of edution reformersF sn the twentyE(rst enturyD new glol litery mpign is neededD this time systems literyD to promote si understnding of the omplex interdependeny of humn nd nturl systemsF rere s will ly out the historil sis for this de(nition of sustinility in terms of systems literyD nd o'er spei( exmples of how to pproh issues of sustinility from systemsEsed viewpointF ystems literyD s fundmentl gol of higher edutionD represents the nturl evolution of interdisciplinarityD whih enourges students to explore onnetions etween trditionlly isolted disiplines nd hs een reformist edutionl priority for severl dedes in the nited ttesF ystems litery is n evolved form of rossEdisiplinry prtieD lling for intelletul ompetene @not neessrily ommndA in vriety of (elds in order to etter ddress spei( relEworld environmentl prolemsF por instneD student9s reserh into deforesttion of the emzon under sustinility studies prdigm would require investigtion in vriety of (elds not normlly rought together under the trE ditionl disiplinry regimeF hese (elds might inlude plnt iologyD hydrologyD nd limtologyD longside eonomisD soiologyD nd the history nd literture of postEolonil frzilF ystems literyD in nutshellD omines the study of soil history nd ulturl disourses with tehnil understnding of eosystem proessesF ynly this omintion o'ers omprehensive view of relEworld environmentl hllenges s they re unfolding in the twentyE(rst enturyF prom the viewpoint of systems litery sustinility studies works on two plnes t oneF tudents of sustinility oth knowledge the solute interdependene of humn nd nturl systems"indeed tht humn eings nd ll their works re nothing if not nturl"while t the sme time reognizing tht to solve our environmentl prolems we must often spek of the nturl world nd humn soieties s if they were
11 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIHQWGIFRGbF

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CHAPTER 10.

SUSTAINABILITY: ETHICS, CULTURE, AND HISTORY

seprte entities governed y di'erent rulesF por instneD it is very useful to exmine spets of our humn system s diachronic"s progressively evolving over historil time"while viewing nturl systems more ording to synchronic ptterns of repetition nd equiliriumF he dihroni fetures of humn soil evolution sine ISHH would inlude the history of trde nd (nneD oloniztion nd frontier developmentD nd tehnology nd urniztionD while exmples of nture9s synhroniity would e exempli(ed in the migrtory ptterns of irdsD plnt nd niml reprodutionD or the miroil eology of lke or riverF e dihroni view looks t the hnges in system over timeD while the synhroni view exmines the interrelted prts of the system t ny given momentD ssuming stle stteF hile the distintion etween dihroni nd synhroni systems is in some sense rti(ilD it does highlight the struturl inevitility of dysfuntion when the two interloked systems operte on di'erent timelines nd priniplesF he erly twentieth entury ppetite for ruer to servie the emerging utomoE ile industryD for instneD mrks n importnt hpter in the heroi history of humn tehnologyD while signifying very di'erent trnsition in the history of forest eosystems in esi nd vtin emeriF rumn history sine the griulturl trnsition IHDHHH yers goD nd on muh more drmti sle in the lst two hundred yersD is full of suh exmples of new humn tehnologies reting suddenD overwhelming demnd for nturl resoure previously ignoredD nd reshping entire eosystems over lrge res in order to extrtD trnsport nd industrilize the newly ommodi(ed mterilF
10.4.1.3 Biocomplexity

por students in the humnities nd soil sienesD sustinility studies requires doption of new oneptul voulry drwn from the eologil sienesF emong the most importnt of these onepts is complexityF Biocomplexity"the hotilly vrile intertion of orgni elements on multiple sles"is the de(ning hrteristi of ll eosystemsD inlusive of humnsF fioomplexity siene seeks to understnd this nonliner funtioning of elements ross multiple sles of time nd speD from the moleulr to the interontinentlD from the miroseond to millenni nd deep timeF uh n pproh hsn9t een possile until very reentlyF por exmpleD only sine the development of @'ordleA genomi sequening in the lst dede hve iologists egun to investigte how environments regulte gene funtionsD nd how hnges in iophysil onditions ple pressure on speies seletion nd drive evolutionF

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Figure 10.7: The Biocomplexity Spiral The biocomplexity spiral illustrates the concept of biocomplexity, the chaotically variable interaction of organic elements on multiple scales. Source: U.S. National Science Foundation

12

row is the onept of omplexity importnt to sustinility studiesc o o'er one exmpleD ioomE plexity prdigm o'ers the opportunity to etter understnd nd defend biodiversityD ore environmentl onernF iven with the rpid inrese in knowledge in the iophysil sienes in reent dedesD vst gps exist in our understnding of nturl proesses nd humn impts upon themF urprisingly little is knownD for exmpleD out the suseptiilities of speies popultions to environmentl hnge orD onverselyD how preserving iodiversity might enhne the resiliene of n eosystemF sn ontrst to the lrgely redutionist prties of twentiethEentury sieneD whih hve osured these interreltionshipsD the new ioomplexE ity siene egins with presumptions of ignorneD nd from there goes on to mp omplexityD mesure environmentl imptsD quntify risk nd resilieneD nd o'er quntittive rguments for the importne of iodiversityF uh rgumentsD s sienti( supplement to more onventionlD emotive ppels for the protetion of wildlifeD might then form the sis for progressive sustinility poliyF fut suh dtEgthering projets re lso rethtking in the demnds they ple on nlysisF he informtion umulted is onstnt nd overwhelming in volumeD nd the methods y whih to proess nd opertionlize the dt towrd sustinle prties hve either not yet een devised or re imperfetly integrted within demi reserh strutures nd the poliyEmking engines of government nd industryF
12 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXfioomplexityspirlFjpg

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CHAPTER 10.

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o elorte those methods requires humnisti s well s sienti( visionD need to understnd omplex intertions from the moleulr to the institutionl nd soietl levelF e prtil exmple of ioomplexity s the frme for studies in environmentl sustinility re the sutle linkges etween the hypoxi ded zone in the qulf of wexio nd frming prties in the wississippi iver wtershedF o understnd the impt of hydroEengineered irrigtionD nitrogen fertilizerD dringeD nd deforesttion in the widwest on the (sheries of the qulf is lssi ioomplexity prolemD requiring dt merging etween host of sienti( speilistsD from hydrologists to hemistsD otnistsD geologistsD zoologists nd engineersF iven t the onlusion of suh studyD howeverD the humn dimension remins to e exploredD spei(llyD how industryD poliyD ulture nd the lw hve intertedD on dedl timeEslesD to degrde the tightly oupled riverineEoen system of the wississippi qulfF e quntittive pproh only goes so frF et key moment in the proessD ft umultion must give wy to the work of nrrtiveD to the humnisti desription of desiresD historiesD nd disourses s they hve governedD in this instneD lnd nd wter use in the wississippi qulf regionF o omplexity should e dded the terms resilience nd vulnerabilityD s ore onepts of sustinility studiesF he resiliene of system"let9s tke for exmpleD the wildlife of the erti girle"refers to the selfErenewing stility of tht systemD its ility to reound from shoks nd threts within the rnge of nturl vriilityF he vulnerility of erti wildlifeD onverselyD refers to the point t whih resiliene is eroded to reking pointF rming tempertures in the ertiD mny times the glol vergeD now threten the hitts of polr er nd wlrusesD nd re ltering the reeding nd migrtory hits of lmost ll northern wildlife popultionsF he humn ommunities of the erti re likewise experiening the threshold of their resiliene through rising se levels nd ostl erosionF intire villges fe evution nd the trumti prospet of life s environmentl refugeesF es mentioned erlierD we hve grown ustomed to speking of nture or the environment s if they were somehow seprte from usD something tht might ditte our hoie of holidy destintion or wll lendrD ut nothing elseF e useful ounterEmetphor for sustinility studiesD to o'set this hitul viewD is to think of humn nd nturl systems in metabolic termsF vike the humn odyD modern ityD for exmpleD is n energyEdependent system involving inputs nd outputsF ivery dyD millions of tons of nturl resoures @rw mterilsD onsumer goodsD foodD wterD energyA re pumped into the world9s itiesD whih turn them out in the form of wste @lnd(llD e1uentD ron emissionsD etFAF nlike the humn odyD howeverD the metabolism of modern ities is not losed nd selfEsustining systemF gities re onsuming resoures t rte tht would require plnet one nd hlf times the size of irth to sustinD nd re ejeting wstes into the lndD wterD nd ir tht re further degrding the plnet9s ility to renew its vitl reservesF rereD nother ody metphor"the environmentl  footprint" hs eome populr mens for imgining su0ieny nd exess in our onsumption of resouresF he footprint metphor is useful euse it provides us n imge mesurement of oth our own onsumption volume nd the environmentl impt of the goods nd servies we useF fy mking sure to onsume lessD nd to utilize only those goods nd servies with responsily low footprintD we in turn redue our own footprint on the plnetF sn importnt wysD the prolem of unsustinility is prolem of wsteF prom purely instrumentlist or onsumerist viewpointD wste is inidentl or irrelevnt to the vlue of produtF e metoli view of systemsD y ontrstD promotes sustinility onepts suh s closed loops nd carbon neutrality for the things we mnufture nd onsumeD wherey there re no toxi reminders through the entire lifecycle of produtF sn this senseD systems litery is s muh hit or style of oserving the everydy world s it is n demi priniple for the lssroomF feuse in the endD the fte of the world9s eosystems will depend not on wht we lern in the lssroom ut on the extent to whih we integrte tht lerning in our lives eyond itX in our professionl prtie nd reersD nd the lifestyle nd onsumer hoies we mke over the oming yers nd dedesF sf systems litery trnsltes into worldview nd wy of lifeD then sustinility is possileF
10.4.1.4 Review Questions Question 10.4.1

ht re

synchronic nd diachronic

views of timeD nd how does the distintion help us to underE

SHS stnd the reltion etween humn nd nturl systemsD nd to potentilly rewrite history from n environmentl point of viewc row is bio-complex view of the reltions etween humn nd nturl systems entrl to sustinE ilityD in oth theory nd prtiec
Question 10.4.2

10.5 The Vulnerability of Industrialized Resource Systems: Two Case Studies

13

10.5.1 The Vulnerability of Industrialized Resource Systems: Two Case Studies

10.5.1.1 Introduction

ustinility is est viewed through spei( exmplesD or se studiesF yne wy of oneiving sustinility is to think of it s mp tht shows us onnetions etween pprently unrelted domins or sequenes of eventsF o ite n erlier exmpleD wht do the orn(elds of sllinois hve to do with the deline of (sheries in the qulf of wexioc o the uneduted eyeD there is no reltionship etween two res so remote from eh otherD ut sustinle systems nlysis will show the eologil hin linking the use of hemil fertilizers in the widwestD with toxi runo' into the wississippi fsinD with hnges in the hemil omposition in the qulf of wexio @spei(lly oxygen depletionAD to redued (sh popultionsD nd (nlly to eonomi nd soil stress on qulf (shing ommunitiesF rereD s will look t two se studies in greter detilD s model for the systems nlysis pproh to sustinility studies in the humnitiesF he (rst onerns the lrming worldwide deline of ee popultions14 sine PHHTD owing to new 1ition nmed golony gollpse hisorder @gghAF he seond se study exmines the f oil disster in the qulf of wexio15 in PHIHD onsidered in the lrger historil ontext of glol oil dependenyF
10.5.1.2 Our Faustian Bargain

fefore the emergene of ol nd lter oil s highly e0ient nd dptle energy souresD humn eings relied on mostly renewle soures of energyD priniplly their own musle powerD supplemented to vrying degrees y the lor of domestited frm nimlsD wood nd pet for fuelD nd the hrnessing of wind nd wter for milling nd silingF en extrordinry nd rpid trnsformtion ourred with the extrtion of ltent solr power from nient orgni deposits in the erthF yn the eve of industriliztionD round IVHHD the rw musle power of humn eings ws responsile for proly UH7 of humn energy expenditureD while slvery" rutl system for the onentrtion of tht energy"funtioned s ornerstone of glol eonomi growthF sn the ISHHEIVHH periodD in ddition to the ten million or more efrins trnsported to slve olonies in the emerisD severl times s mny sndin nd ghinese lorersD under vrious regimes of servitudeD migrted ross the gloe to nswer lor shortges within the glolizing etlnti eonomyF fut tehnil improvements in the stem engine revolutionized this longstnding energy equtionF elE redy y IVHHD single engine ould produe power the equivlent of two hundred menF odyD single workerD emedded within tehnologizedD ronEdriven industryD tkes week to produe wht n IVth entury lorer would tke four yers to doD while the verge middleElss household in the industrilized world onsumes goods nd energy t rte equivlent to hving IHH slves t their disposl roundEtheElokF sn the fmous medievl story of pustD sholr who dles in lk mgi sells his soul in exhnge for extrordinry powers to stisfy his every desireF he pust story provides n exellent nlogy for our PHHEyer love 'ir with hep fossil fuel energyF yur plnetry ron endowment hs provided us with extrordinry powers to end spe nd time to the shpe of our desires nd onvenieneD nd (ll it with ool
13 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIHTVGIFQGbF 14 httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIHTVGltestGsestudyIIFSFI 15 httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIHTVGltestGsestudyIIFSFP

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CHAPTER 10.

SUSTAINABILITY: ETHICS, CULTURE, AND HISTORY

stu'F fut petroleum nd ol re (nite resouresD nd suh is the environmentl impt of our ronEsed pustin lifestyle tht sientists hve now wrded our industril periodD mere link in geologil timeD its own title in the R illion yer history of the plnetX the AnthropoceneF e re no longer simply iologil returesD one speies mong thousndsD ut iophysil gentsD reshping the eology of the entire plnetD nd shping the ftes of ll speiesF

Figure 10.8: Faust and Mephistopheles

Mephistopheles, the devil gure in Goethe's play Faust,

tempts Faust with the exhilaration of ight. From the air, it is easy for Faust to imagine himself lord of the earth, with no limits to his powers. Source: Public Domain. Illustration by Alphonse de Neuville

16

sn shortD we re ll pusts nowD not the insigni(ntD powerless retures we sometime feel ourselves to eD ut rtherD the lords of the plnetF row this me to pss is n ojet lesson in omplex dihroni evolutionF ithout ny single person deidingD or ny lw pssedD or mendment mde to the onstitutionD we hve trnsformed ourselves over ut few enturies from one struggling speies mong ll the restD to eing plnetry mngersD now pprently exempted from the evolutionry struggle for survivl with other speiesD with the fte of nimlsD irdsD (shD plntsD the tmosphereD nd entire eosystems in our hndsF his pustin power signls oth our strength nd vulnerilityF e re dependent on the very eosystems we dominteF ht isD we hve eome ronEdependent y hoieD ut we re eosystemEdependent y
16 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXpustetmephistophelesFjpg

SHU neessityF e my ll e supermen nd wonderwomen reltive to the poor powers of our foreersD ut we still require foodD len wterD nd len irF he illion or more people on erth urrently not plugged into the ron energy gridD nd hene living in dire povertyD need no reminding of this ftF wny of us in the developed world doD howeverF yur iviliztion nd lifestyles s humn eings hve hnged eyond reognitionD ut our iologil needs re no di'erent from our speies nestors on the ist efrin svnnh million yers goF sn sumD the lesson of the pust story is hurisF e re not exempt from nturl lwsD s pust reklessly hopedF o understnd the impt of our fossil fuel sedD industrilized soiety on the plnet we inhit requires we think on dul time slesF he (rst is esy enoughD nmelyD the humn sle of dys nd yersF por exmpleD onsider the time it tkes for liquid petroleum to e extrted from the erthD re(nedD trnsported to gs sttionD nd purhsed y you in order to drive to shool or the shopping wllF yr the time it tkes for tht sweter you uy t the mll to e mnuftured in ghin or sndonesi nd trnsported thousnds of miles to the shelf you gr it fromF his is n oilEdependent proess from eginning to endX from the petroleumEsed fertilizers tht mximized the produtive e0ieny of the otton plnttionD to powering the mhinery in the ftoryD to the mssive goods ship trnsporting your sweter ross the oensD to the lights in the store tht illuminte your sweter t the preise ngle for it to th your eyeF xow onsider the seond time sleD to whih we re usully olivious"the thousnds or millions of yers it hs tken for terrestril ron to form those reserves of liquid petroleum tht rought you your sweterF his is proess desrile only on geologil time sleD the osts of the disruption to whih hve een wholly omitted from the stiker prie of the sweterF ht re the environmentlD nd ultimtely humn osts tht hve een externlizedc sn powering our modern soieties through the trnsferene of the erth9s ron reserves from longEterm storge nd depositing it in the tmosphere nd oensD we hve signi(ntly ltered nd destilized the erth9s ron yleF here is now RH7 more ron in the tmosphere nd oens thn in IVHHD t the outset of the industril geF he erth9s limte system is reting ordinglyD to ommodte the inresed nonterrestril ron lodF he result is ltered wether ptternsD inresing temperturesD glil meltD nd shrp inreses in droughtsD )oodsD nd wild(resF he ost to the glol eonomy of these limte disruptions this entury hs een projeted in the trillions of dollrsD even efore we onsider the humn osts of limte hnge in mortlityD homelessnessD impoverishmentD nd soil instilityF ixtrting ron from the erthD nd trnsforming it into energyD fertilizersD nd produts hs enled n lmost mgil trnsformtion of humn lives on erthD s ompred to those of our premodern nestorsF he house you live inD the lothes you werD the food you etD the gdgets you useD nd ll the drems you drem for your futureD re ronEsed dremsF hese mzing fossilEfuel energy soures"oilD olD gs" hve reted modernity itselfX rest of popultion growthD eonomi developmentD prosperityD helth nd longevityD pulling millions out of povertyD nd promotingD lifeD liertyD nd hppinessF his modernity is truly thing of wonderD involving the highEspeed mss trnsport of peopleD goodsD nd informtion ross the gloeD dy fter dyF egrdless of the sesonD it rings us pples from xew elndD vodoes from wexioD nd tomtoes tht hve trveled n verge of PHHH miles to reh the fresh produe setion of our supermrketsF rving ought our groeries for the weekD we jump in our r nd drive homeF feuse our speies nestors were oth nomds nd settlersD we love our rs nd homes with equl pssionF e vlue oth moility nd rootednessF hone with roming for the dyD we herish our indoor lives in tmospherilly ontrolled environmentsX ool when hot outsideD tosty when oldD light when drkD with digitl devies plugged in nd ville PRGUF e mirulous lifestyle when one sits k to re)etD nd ll the result of ongoing ronEintensive investments in humn omfort nd onvenieneF fut it is lso PHHEyer hemistry experimentD with our plnet s the lortoryF e re ron eings in our own moleulr iologyY we touh nd smell itY we trdeD trnsportD nd spill itY we onsume nd dispose of it in the erth nd irF sntensifying het nd storms nd idifying oens re ron9s elementl nswer to the questions we hve posed to the erth system9s resilieneF wother xture is hving her syD ting ording to her ntureD nd prompting us now to t ording to our own mostly forgotten ntures"s eings dependent on our eosystem hitt of sunD rinD soilD plntsD nd nimlsD with no speil llowne eyond the sudden responsiility of reformed stewrdship nd mngementF

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CHAPTER 10.

SUSTAINABILITY: ETHICS, CULTURE, AND HISTORY

he PHIH f oil spill in the qulf of wexio17 ws spetulr wrning tht the PHHEyer er of hep fossil fuel energy is drwing to loseF ith vile oil reserves likely to e exhusted in the next dede or soD nd the dngers to glol limte ssoited with ontinued reline on ol nd nturl gsD the trnsition to sustinleD lowEron glol eonomy"y mens tht do not impoverish illions of people in the proess"looms s nothing less thn the qret guse of the PIst enturyD nd without dout the gretest hllenge humnity hs fed in its long residene on erthF he stkes ould not e higher for this tskD whih is of unpreedented sope nd omplexityF sf enormous humn nd (nnil resoures were expended in meeting the gretest hllenges fed y the interntionl ommunity in the PHth entury"the defet of fsismD nd the hrdEerned progress mde ginst poverty nd infetious diseses"then the lowE ron sustinility revolution of our entury will require the sme sle of resoures nd moreF et presentD howeverD only tiny frtion of those resoures hve een ommittedF

10.6 Case Study: Agriculture and the Global Bee Colony Collapse
10.6.1 Case Study: Agriculture and the Global Bee Colony Collapse

18

wo thousnd yers goD t the height of the omn impireD the poet irgil wrote lovingly out the prtie of eekeepingD of ultivting the eril honey nd mrosil dews he lled gifts of heven @Georgics sX IEP19 AF fees represent gift to humnity even greter tht irgil knewF sn ddition to stisfying the humn ppetite for honeyD the stlin honeyeeD Apis mellioraD is the world9s most tive pollintorD responsile for over VH of the world9s most ommon nongrin ropsD inluding pplesD erriesD lmondsD mdmisD pumpkinsD melonsD nolD vodoesD nd lso o'ee ensD rooli nd lettueF iven the prodution hin of the enormous met nd otton industries relies t ruil points on the ministrtions of the humle honeyeeF e depend on pollinted fruitsD nuts nd seeds for third of our lori intkeD nd for vitl vitminsD minerls nd ntioxidnts in our dietF sn totlD round VH7 of the foods we et re to some degree the produts of ee pollintionD representing one third of totl griulturl outputF qiven the 6I trillion vlue of pollinted produeD ny thret to the helth of honey ees represents serious thret to the humn food hin" lssi sustinility issueF ith the industriliztion of the glol griulturl system over the lst SH yers"inluding rop monoulture nd mss fertiliztion"ees hve indeed fed series of threts to their nient roleD the most reent of whihD soElled golony gollpse hisorderD is the most serious yetF
17 httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIHTVGltestGsestudyIIFSFP 18 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIHSSGIFRGbF 19 httpXGGwwwFtheoiFomGextGirgilqeorgisPFhtml5R

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Figure 10.9: Busy Bee Hive

Ken Thomas

A forager honeybee comes in for landing at a healthy hive, her legs

dusted with pollen. Colony Collapse Disorder has devastated tens of thousands of such hives. Source:

20

sn his poeti primer on eekeepingD irgil inludes moving desription of ee olony su'ering mysteE rious delineX
Observe the symptoms when they fall away

And languish with insensible decay.

They change their hue; with haggard eyes they stare . . .

The sick, for air, before the portal gasp,

Their feeble legs within each other clasp,

Or idle in their empty hives remain,

20 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXroneyeesEPUSPUEPFjpg

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CHAPTER 10.

SUSTAINABILITY: ETHICS, CULTURE, AND HISTORY

Benumbed with cold, and listless of their gain. (368-78)

feekeepers worldwide fed n even worse prediment in lte PHHTX the mysterious dispperne of entire hives of eesF yver the winterD honeyees enter form of survivl hierntionF heir popultions su'er inevitle lossesD ut these re replenished y the ueen9s renewed lying of eggs one winter thwsF sn the spring of PHHUD howeverD hundreds of thousnds of olonies in the nited ttes did not survive the winterF e full QH7 of ll honeyee olonies diedF ih spring sine hs witnessed even worse delinesF imilr losses 1ited iurope nd esiF orldwideD millions of olonies nd illions of ees hve perished sine PHHT on ount of the new ee plgueF feuse the glol ommeril vlue of ee pollintion is so enormousD wellEfunded reserh into olony ollpse egn immeditelyF e numer of theoriesD some redileD some notD were quikly dvnedF everl studies pointed to new or enhned virl strinsD while others suggested the toxi e'et of industril fertilE iztionF till others limed tht moile phone towers were interfering with the ees9 nvigtions systemsF feuse the honeyee is hrismti reture nd fetures so prominently in our ulturl lore"we dmire their industriousnessD fer their stingsD ll our loved ones honeyD nd tlk muh of ueen fees"the story of olony ollpse ws quikly tken up y the mediF e )urry of news stories nnouned ggh s n epi disster nd profound mysteryD whih ws true in simple termsD ut whih st ee deline s new nd sudden lmity for whih some single ulprit must e responsileF he truthD s it is now unfoldingD is more omplexD nd shows the importne of viewing the intertions etween humn nd nturl eologies in systemi termsF sn stritly pthogeni termsD ggh is used y the omintion of virus @lled Iridoviridae or ssA nd mirosporidin fungus lled NosemaF he spei( intertion etween the pthogensD nd why they use ees in their millions to vte their hivesD is not understoodF ht is eoming lerD howeverD is the inresing urden eing pled on ees y the humn griulturl systemD urden tht hs rendered ees inresingly vulnerle to epidemi infetionF rumns hve een keeping ees for eight thousnd yersD nd iuropen ees were t the vngurd of the suessful rop oloniztion of the emerisF fut the numers of ees in the nited ttes hd lredy delined y third sine IWSH efore the rrivl of gghD owing to vrious virl nd mite infesttionsD nd the lrge sle hnges in ee hitt nd lifestyleF fefore the industriliztion of frmingD ees me from neighoring wildlnds to pollinte the diverse rnge of rops ville to them on smll plotsF fut the onversionD for eonomi resonsD of rle lnd into enormous monorop properties in the lst sixty yersD nd hene the diminishment of proximte wild)ower hittsD hs neessitted di'erent systemD wherey ees re truked round the ountry to servie one rop t timeD e it peppers in ploridD lueerries in wineD or lmonds in gliforniF et the height of the reent lmond oomD the gliforni rop required lmost the entire ee popultion of the nited ttes to e fully pollintedF holesle suurniztion is lso to lme for the destrution of the ees9 nturl wild)ower hittsF fe it thousnd re orn(eld or suurn street of wellEtended green lwnsD to ees9 eyesD our modern lndspeD engineered to humn needsD is mostly desertF tudies tht hve not identi(ed spei( ulprits for ggh hve nevertheless shown the extent of the longE term deline in ee helth wrought y their onsription to industril griultureF por instneD reserhers found no fewer thn IUH di'erent pestiides in smples of emerin honeyeesD while other studies found tht even ees not su'ering ggh hitully rry multiple virl strins in their systemsF he omined toxi nd virl lod for the verge honeyee is enormousF sn the words of plorid9s stte piristD s9m surprised honey ees re live t llF @tosenD PHHVD pF IQU @pF SIIAA e further study showed deline in the immune systems of ees owing to lk of diverse nutritionF ollinting only lmonds for weeks on endD then trvelling on )ted truk for hundreds of miles in order to servie nother single ropD is not the lifestyle ees hve dpted to over the ner VH million yers of their existeneF es irgil wrnedD pirstD for thy ees quiet sttion (ndF he lives of modern ees hve een nything ut quietD nd the enormous hnges in their hitt nd lifestyle hve redued their speies9 resilieneF he most importnt lesson of reent reserh into ggh is not the identi(tion of ss nd Nosema s the spei( ontriutorsD ut the lrger piture it hs provided of system under multiple longEterm stressesF gomplex systemsD suh s ee pollintion nd olony mintenneD re not hrterized y liner developmentD ut rther y suddenD nonliner hnges of stte lled tipping pointsF ggh is n exmple

SII of potentil tipping point in nturl system on whih humns dependD in whih sudden deteriortion overtkes popultion eyond its ility to reoundF iverything seems (neD until it isn9tF yne dy we hve lmondsD erriesD melonD nd o'ee on our rekfst menuF he next dy there9s ritil shortgeD nd we n9t 'ord themF sn sustinility termsD ee olony ollpse is lssi humn dimensions issueF ggh will not e solved simply y the development of new ntiEvirl drug or pestiide trgeting the spei( pthogens responsileF rt of wht hs used ggh is the immunosuppressive e'ets of genertions of pestiides developed to ounter previous threts to ee popultionsD e they miroes or mitesF yur hemil intervention in the lifeyle of ees hsD in evolutionry termsD seleted for more vulnerle eeF ht isD ees9 urrent lk of resiliene is systemi prolem in our historil reltionship to eesD whih dtes k thousnds of yersD ut whih hs ltered drmtilly in the lst (fty yers in wys tht now threten ollpseF end this is to sy nothing of the impt of ee olony ollpse on other pollintionEdependent nimls nd irdsD whih would indeed e tstrophi in iodiversity termsF ht we hve dpted to eesD nd they to usD is deep ulturl nd historil truthD not simply sudden disster requiring the sienti( solution of mysteryF sn the light of sustinility systems nlysisD the ee risis ppers entirely preditle nd the prolem ler utF he di0ulty rises in rfting strtegies for how nother omplex system on mssive sleD nmely glol griultureD n e reformed in order to prevent its ollpse s one )owEon e'et of the glol risis of the vitl honey eeF he inentive for suh reform ould not e more powerfulF he prospet of future humn diet without fruitsD nuts nd o'ee is lek enough for itizens of the developed world nd potentilly ftl for millions of others in the long termF
10.6.2 Review Questions
Question 10.6.1

ht is the long history of the humn reltionship to eesD nd wht rdil hnges in tht reltionship hve ourred over the lst (fty yers to ring it to the point of ollpsec ht re the implitions of ee olony ollpse for the glol food systemc

10.6.3 References

tosenD F @PHHVAF pruitless pllX he gollpse of the roney fee nd the goming egriulturl grisisF xew orkX floomsury

10.7 Case Study: Energy and the BP Oil Disaster

10.7.1 Case Study: Energy and the BP Oil Disaster

21

yn the night of epril PHD PHIHD the heepwter rorizon oil rigD one of hundreds operting in the qulf of wexioD explodedD killing eleven menD nd pling one of the most rih nd diverse ostl regions on erth in imminent dnger of petroleum poisoningF f hd een drilling in wters mile deepD nd in the next two dysD s the rig slowly snkD it tore gsh in the pipe leding to the oil well on the oen )oorF yver the next three monthsD two hundred million gllons of rude oil poured into the qulfD efore the tehnologil mens ould e found to sel the underse wellF st ws the worst environmentl disster in emerin historyD nd the lrgest peetime oil spill everF
21 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIHTTGIFRGbF

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CHAPTER 10.

SUSTAINABILITY: ETHICS, CULTURE, AND HISTORY

Figure 10.10: The Deepwater Horizon Oil Rig on Fire

Source: Public Domain U.S. Coast Guard

The Deepwater Horizon oil rig on re,

April, 2010. It would later sink, precipitating the worst environmental disaster in United States history.

22

he f oil disster used untold shortE nd longEterm dmge to the regionF he initil impt on the qulf"the oil wshing up on ehes from exs to ploridD nd eonomi hrdship used y the losing down of qulf (shing"ws overed losely y the news mediF he longer term impts of the oil spill on wetlnds erosionD nd (sh nd wildlife popultionsD howeverD will not likely reeive s muh ttentionF wuh puli dete over the spill hs foused on the spei( uses of the spill itselfD nd in pportioning responsiilityF es with the exmple of ee olony ollpseD howeverD the serh for simpleD de(nitive uses n e frustrtingD euse the rekdown is essentilly systemiF edvned industries suh s rop pollintion nd oil extrtion involve highly omplex intertions mong tehnologilD governmentlD eonomiD nd nturl resoure systemsF ith tht omplexity omes vulnerilityF he more omplex systemD the more points t whih its resilieny my e suddenly exposedF sn the se of the heepwter rorizon rigD multiple tehnologil sfegurds simply did not workD while poor nd sometimes orrupt government oversight of the rig9s opertion lso mpli(ed the vulnerility of the overll system" se of governmentl system filure mking tehnologil filure in industry more likelyD with n environmentl disster s the resultF sn hindsightD looking t ll the weknesses in the qulf oil drilling systemD the f spill ppers inevitleF
22 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXheepwterrorizono'shoredrillinguniton(rePHIHFjpg

SIQ fut prediting the spei( vulnerilities within lrgeD omplex systems hed of time n e next to impossile euse of the quntity of vriles t workF yil extrtion tkes ple within ulture of pro(t mximiztion nd the normliztion of riskD ut in the endD the lesson of f oil disster is more thn utionry tle of orporte reklessness nd lx government oversightF he very ft tht f ws drilling under suh risky onditions" mile underwterD in quest of oil nother three miles under the oen )oor"is n expression of the glol demnd for oilD the world9s most vlule energy resoureF o understnd tht demndD nd the lengths to whih the glol energy industry will go to meet itD regrdless of environmentl riskD requires the longer view of our modern history s fossilEfueled speiesF
10.7.1.1 Review Questions Question 10.7.1

sn wht wys is the f yil hisster of PHIH n exmple of omplex humn systems filureD nd wht re its longer hins of ustion in the history of humn industriliztionc

10.8 Sustainability Ethics

10.8.1 Sustainability Ethics
10.8.1.1 Learning Objectives

23

efter reding this setionD students should e le to

understnd the priniple of the intergenerational social contract t the ore of sustinility ethis de(ne the glol terms of responsiility for tion on sustinilityD oth the remote responsibilities pplile to you s n individul onsumerD nd the historillyEsed onept of shared but dierentiated responsibilities driving negotitions etween ntions in di'erent hemispheres
10.8.1.2 Developing an Ethics of Sustainability

he IWVU nited xtions frundtlnd de(nition of sustinility24 emodies n intergenerational contractX to provide for our present needsD while not ompromising the ility of future genertions to meet their needsF st9s modest enough proposl on the fe of itD ut it hllenges our urrent expettions of the intergenerE tionl ontrtX we expet eh new genertion to e etter o' thn their prentsF hedes of tehnologil dvnement nd eonomi growth hve reted mindset not stis(ed with mere sustinilityF e might ll it turoEmterilism or cornucopian worldviewX nmely tht the erth9s ountyD dpted to our use y humn ingenuityD gurntees perpetul growth in goods nd serviesF et the root of the ornuopin worldview lies rnd of tehnologil triumphlismD n unshkele on(dene in tehnologil innovtion to solve ll soil nd environmentl prolemsD e it world hungerD limte hngeD or delining oil reservesF sn sustinility disourseD there is wide spetrum of opinion from the extremes of ornuopin optimism on one side nd to the doomEndEgloom senrios tht suggest it is lredy too lte to vert new hrk ege of resoure srity nd hroni on)it on the otherF
23 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIHTWGIFQGbF 24 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGyurgommonputure @`httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGyurgommonputurebA

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CHAPTER 10.

SUSTAINABILITY: ETHICS, CULTURE, AND HISTORY

Figure 10.11: California, the Cornucopia of the World

Cover of an 1885 promotional book

prepared by the California Immigration Commission. Source: The California State Library

25

por every genertion entering hrk egeD there were prents who enjoyed etter lifeD ut who somehow filed to pss long their prosperityF xo one wnts to fil their hildren in this wyF o this extentD iology dittes multigenertionl thinking nd ethisF hough it might not lwys e oviousD we re ll lredy the ene(iries of multiEgenertionl plnningF he worldEleding emerin higher edution systemD for exmpleD depends upon n intergenertionl struture nd logi" (nnil nd humn investment in the future ommitted to y multiple genertions of emerins going k to the IWth enturyF fut onverselyD in terms of vulnerilityD just s higher edution in the nited ttes is neither neessrily permnent nor universlD ut soil institution uilt on n unwritten ontrt etween genertionsD so the lifestyle ene(ts of dvned soiety s we know it will not simply perpetute themselves without strenuous e'orts to ple them on sustinle footingF yur urrent prolem lies in the ft tht multigenertionl thinking is so little rewrdedF yur eonomi nd politil systems s they hve evolved in the sndustril ege rewrd monoEgenertionl mindset driven
25 httpXGGwwwFlirryFFgovGlhistG

SIS y shortEterm pro(ts nd eletion ylesF sn the estD for exmpleD there is no signi(nt politil philosophyD regultory systemD or ody of lw tht enshrines the ide tht we t under oligtion to future genertionsD despite widely held views tht we nturlly mustF yne hllenge of sustinility is to hnnel our nturl iologil interest in the future into new ethis nd politis sed on multigenertionl priniplesF wny indigenous ommunities in the worldD mrginlized or destroyed y olonilism nd industriliztionD hve long reognized the importne of sustinility in priniples of governneD nd provide inspiring modelsF he qret vw of the sroquois gonfederyD for exmpleD sttes tht ll deisions mde y its elders should e onsidered in light of their impt seven genertions into the futureF o emre n ethis of sustinility is to ept tht our rpid industriliztion hs pled us in the role of plnetry mngersD responsile for the helthD or ruinous delineD of mny of the gloe9s vitl eosystemsF his ethis requires we tivteD in the populr senseD oth sides of our rinF ht isD we must toggle etween rtionl onsidertion of our environmentl footprint nd prtil issues surrounding the reinvention of our systems of resoure mngementD nd more humleD intuitive sense of our dependene nd emeddness within the we of lifeF foth reson nd emotion ome into plyF ithout emotionD there n e no motivtion for hngeF vikewiseD without n intelletul foundtion for sustinilityD our desire for hnge will e unfoused nd ine'etiveF e re ple of dpting to omplex world nd reversing rodE sed eosystem delineF fut to do so will require tehnil knowledge wedded to n ethil imgintionF e need to extend to the nturl world the sme morl sense we intuitively pply to the soil world nd our reltions with other peopleF ustinility ethis thus does not need to e invented from whole lothF st representsD in some senseD nturl extension of the ethil priniples dominnt in the progressive politil movements of the PHth enturyD whih emphsized the rights of historilly disenfrnhised ommunitiesD suh s womenD efrinEemerinsD nd the glol poorF tust s we hve een pressed to spek for dispossessed peoples who lk politil voieD so we must lern the lnguge of the nonhumn niml nd orgni worldD of ntureD nd to spek for itF xot simply for hrity9s skeD or out of sel)ess onernD ut for our own ske s resoureEdependent eingsF
10.8.1.3 Remote Responsibilities

ht distinguishes n ethis of sustinility from generl ethil priniples is its emphsis on remote responsibilitiesD tht isD our morl oligtion to onsider the impt of our tions on people nd ples fr removed from usF his distne my e mesured in oth spe nd timeF pirstD in sptil termsD weD s onsumers in the developed worldD re emedded in glol we of ommereD with n ethil responsiility towrd those who extrt nd mnufture the goods we uyD whether it e polo shirt from sndonesiD or rre metls in our omputer extrted from mines in efriF he eonomi nd medi dimensions of our onsumer soiety do not emphsize these onnetionsY in ftD it is in the interests of onsumer on(dene @ mjor eonomi indexA to downply the disprities in living stndrds etween the mrkets of the developed world nd the mnufturing ountries of the glol south @efriD esiD vtin emeriAD whih serve s the ftories of the worldF eondD s for sustinility ethis onsidered in temporl termsD the morl imgintion required to understnd our remote responsiilities poses n even greter hllengeF es we hve seenD the lndmrk nited xtions frundtlnd eport26 estlishes n ethil ontrt etween the living nd those yet to e ornF por n industril iviliztion founded on the noElimits extrtion of nturl resoures nd on mximizing eonomi growth in the short termD this is tully profoundly di0ult hllenge to meetF wore thn thtD the prtil ethil dilemms it poses to us in the present re omplexF rowD for instneD re we to lne the ojetives of eonomi development in poorer ntions"the need to lift the world9s ottom illion out of poverty"with the responsiility to onserve resoures for future genertionsD while t the sme time mking the di0ult trnsition from industrilized fossil fuels to lowEron glol eonomyc he issue of firness with regrd to individul ntions9 ron emissions redution mndtes is spei( exmple of how ethil issues n ompliteD or even derilD negotited treties on environmentl sustinE
26 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGyurgommonputure

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CHAPTER 10.

SUSTAINABILITY: ETHICS, CULTURE, AND HISTORY

ilityD even when the prties gree on the end golF sn the view of the developing ountries of the glol southD mny of them one sujet to olonil regimes of the northD the dvned industrilized ountriesD suh s the nited ttes nd iuropeD should er hevier urden in tkling limte hnge through selfE imposed restrints on ron onsumptionF hey fter ll hve eenD over the lst PHH yersD the prinipl ene(iries of ronEdriven moderniztionD nd thus the soure of the ulk of dmging emissionsF por them now to require developing ntions to ur their own ronEsed moderniztion for the ene(t of the glol ommunity reeks of neoEolonil hyporisyF heveloping ntions suh s sndi thus spek of common but dierentiated responsibilities s the ethil frmework from whih to justly shre the urden of trnsition to lowEron glol eonomyF prom the point of view of the rihD industrilized ntionsD y ontrstD whtever the pperne of historil injustie in ron tretyD ll ntions will su'er signi(ntD even ruinous ontrtions of growth if n ggressive mitigtion greement mong ll prties is not rehedF ome ommenttors in the est hve further rgued tht the sheer sle nd omplexity of the limte hnge prolem mens it nnot e'etively e ddressed through onventionl rightsEsed nd environmentl justie pprohF o this degree t lestD the sustinility issue distinguishes itself s di'erent in degree nd kind from the lndmrk soil progressive movements of the PHth enturyD suh s women9s emniptionD ivil rightsD nd multiulturlismD to whih it hs often een ompredF hisputes over the omplex set of trdeo's etween environmentl onservtion nd eonomi developE ment hve dominted environmentl poliy nd trety disussions t the interntionl level for the lst hlf enturyD nd ontinue to stymie progress on issues suh s limte hngeD deforesttionD nd iofuelsF hese prolems demonstrte tht t the ore of sustinility ethis lies lssi tragedy of the commonsD nmelyD the intrtle prolem of persuding individulsD or individul ntionsD to tke spei( responsiility for resoures tht hve few or no ntionl oundries @the tmosphereD the oensAD or whih the glol eonE omy llows to e extrted from frwy ountriesD the environmentl osts of whih re thus externlized @foodD fossil fuelsD etAF row the interntionl ommunity settles the prolem of shred ountility for rpidly depleting glol ommonsD nd lnes the ompeting ojetives of eonomi development nd environmentl sustinilityD will to lrge extent determine the degree of deline of the plnet9s nturl pitl this enturyF yne trgi prospet loomsX sf there is no interntionl ommitmentD however pthE workD to protet the glol resoure ommonsD then the gins in eonomi prosperityD poverty llevition nd puli helth in the developing world so hrd won y interntionl genies over the seond hlf of the PHth enturyD will quikly e lostF

SIU

Figure 10.12: Tragedy of Commons

Nations

The tragedy of the commons is evident in many areas of our

lives, particularly in the environment. The over-shing of our oceans that causes some marine life to be in danger of extinction is a good example. Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

27

10.8.1.4 Precautionary Principle

he precautionary principle is likewise entrl to sustinility ethisF he mrgins of unertinty re lrge ross mny (elds of the iophysil sienesF imply putD there is gret del we do not know out the spei( impts of humn tivities on the nturl resoures of lndD irD nd wterF sn generlD howeverD though we might not hve known where the spei( thresholds of resiliene lie in given system"sy in the srdine popultion of gliforni9s ostl wters"the vulnerility of eosystems to humn resoure extrtion is onstnt lesson of environmentl historyF e prosperous nd vitl eonomi engineD the glifornin srdine (shery ollpsed suddenly in the IWRHs due to over(shingF he preutionry priniple underlying sustinility dittes tht in the fe of high risk or insu0ient dtD the priority should lie with eosystem preservtion rther thn on industril development nd mrket growthF
27 httpXGGwwwFfoForgGdorepGHHQGUSUWiGxUSUWeHSFgif

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CHAPTER 10.

SUSTAINABILITY: ETHICS, CULTURE, AND HISTORY

Figure 10.13: Great Fish Market by Jan Brueghel

environmental history. Source: Public Domain

Though we might not have known where

the specic thresholds of resilience lie in a given systemsay in the sardine population of California's coastal watersthe vulnerability of ecosystems to human resource extraction is a constant lesson of

28

ustinilityD in instnes suh s theseD is not sexy oneptF st9s hrd sellF st is philosophy of limits in world governed y drems of in(nite growth nd possiilityF ustinility dittes tht we re onstrined y erth9s resoures s to the soiety nd lifestyle we n hveF yn the other hndD sustinility is wonderfulD inspiring oneptD quintessentilly humn ideF he experiene of our own limits need not e negtiveF sn ftD wht more primitive nd rel enounter etween ourselves nd the world thn to feel our essentil dependene on the iospheri elements tht surround usD tht emeddedness with the irD the lightD the wrmth or hill on our skinsD nd the stu' of erth we et or uy to propel ourselves over immense distnes t speed unimginle to the vst rmies of humnity who me efore usF ustinility studies is driven y n ethis of the futureF he word itselfD sustinilityD points to proofs tht n only e projeted forwrd in timeF o e sustinle isD y de(nitionD to e ttentive to wht is to omeF o sustinility requires imgintionD ut sustinility studies is lso profoundly historil modeD ommitted toreonstrution of the longD nonliner evolutions of our dominnt extrtivist nd instrumentlist views of the nturl worldD nd of the mindEforg9d mnles of usge nd ideology tht ontinue to limit our eologil understnding nd inhiit minstrem eptne of the sustinility impertiveF ustinility studies thus ssumes the omplex hrter of its sujetD multislr in time nd speD nd dynmilly gile nd dptive in its modesF ustinility tehes tht the environment is not sideshowD or seni kdrop to our livesF e few more or less speiesF e eutiful mountin rnge here or thereF yur reltion to our nturl resoures is the key to our survivlF ht9s why it9s lled sustinilityF
28 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGpileXenfruegheltheilderEqretpishmrketFjpg

SIW st9s the grounds of possiility for everything elseF nsustinilityD onverselyD mens humn possiilities nd qulity of life inresingly tken wy from us nd the genertions to omeF
10.8.1.5 Review Questions Question 10.8.1

ht does it men to sy tht glol environmentl prolems suh s limte hnge nd oen idi(tion represent trgedy of the ommonsc row re glol solutions to e tied to lol trnsitions towrd sustinle soietyc
Question 10.8.2

row does sustinility imply n ethis of the futurec end in wht wys does sustinility ethis oth orrow nd diverge from the priniples tht drove the mjor progressive soil movements of the PHth enturyc

SPH

CHAPTER 10.

SUSTAINABILITY: ETHICS, CULTURE, AND HISTORY

Chapter 11
Sustainable Infrastructure

11.1 Sustainable Transportation: rived Demand

1

Accessibility, Mobility, and De-

11.1.1 Learning Objectives

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to explin

how the utomoileEsed system of trnsporttion is unsustinle in terms of inputsD outputsD nd soil impts how trnsporttion is derived demnd nd how mking trnsporttion sustinle depends on lnd use s well s vehiles nd infrstruture the di'erene etween essiility nd moilityD how they re urrently treted y our trnsporttion systemD nd how more sustinle system might tret them

11.1.2 What is Sustainable Transportation?

rnsporttion is triky thing to nlyze in the ontext of sustinilityF st onsists in prt of the uilt environmentX the physil infrstruture of rodsD runwysD irportsD ridgesD nd ril lines tht mkes it possile for us to get roundF st lso onsists in prt of individul hoiesX wht mode we use to get round @rD usD ikeD plneD etFAD wht time of dy we trvelD how mny people we trvel withD etF pinllyD it lso is mde up of institutionsX federl nd stte geniesD oil ompniesD utomoile mnufturersD nd trnsit uthoritiesD ll of whom hve their own gols nd their own wys of shping the hoies we mkeF wost importntlyD trnsporttion is omplited euse it9s wht is lled derived demandF ith the exeption of joyriding or tking wlk or iyle ride for exeriseD very rrely re we trveling just for the ske of movingF e9re lmost lwys going from oint e to oint fF ht those points re"homeD workD shoolD shopping"nd where they9re loted"downtownD in shopping mllD ner freewy exit"in)uene how fst we need to trvelD how muh we n spendD wht mode we9re likely to tkeD etF he demand for trnsporttion is derived from otherD nonEtrnsporttion tivitiesF o in order to understnd trnsporttion sustinilityD we hve to understnd the sptil reltionship etween where we reD where we wnt to goD nd the infrstruture nd vehiles tht n help get us thereF ss our urrent trnsporttion system in the FF sustinlec sn other wordsD n we keep doing wht we9re doing inde(nitelyc he nswer is lerly noD ording to professionl plnners nd demis likeF here re three min limittionsX energy inputD emissionsD nd soil impts @flkD PHIH @pF SQHAAF
1 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRPUIUGIFIGbF

SPI

SPP
11.1.2.1 Energy Inputs

CHAPTER 11.

SUSTAINABLE INFRASTRUCTURE

he (rst reson tht our urrent trnsporttion system is unsustinle is tht the nturl resoures tht power it re (niteF he theory of pek oil developed y geologist wF uing ruert suggests tht euse the mount of oil in the ground is limitedD t some point in time there will e mximum mount of oil eing produed @he'eyesD PHHP @pF SQHAAF efter we reh tht pekD there will still e oil to drillD ut the ost will grdully rise s it eomes more nd more vlule ommodityF he most relile estimtes of the dte of pek oil rnge from PHHS to PHISD mening tht we9ve proly lredy pssed the point of no returnF xew tehnologies do mke it possile to inrese the mount of oil we n extrtD nd new reservesD suh s the oil shle of ennsylvni nd the oky wountinsD n supply us for some yers to ome @leving side the potentil for environmentl nd soil dmge from fully developing these sitesAF roweverD this does not men we n inde(nitely ontinue to drive gsolineEpowered vehiles s muh s we urrently doF ientists re working on the development of lterntive fuels suh s iofuels or hydrogenD ut these hve their own limittionsF por exmpleD signi(nt mount of lnd re is required to produe rops for iofuelsY if we onverted every single re of orn grown in the FF to ethnolD it would provide IH7 of our trnsporttion energy needsF purthermoreD growing rops for fuel rther thn food hs lredy sprked prie inreses nd protests in lessEdeveloped ountries round the world @swpD PHIH @pF SQHAAF ss it fir to sk someone living on less then two dollrs dy to py hlf gin s muh for their food so we n drive wherever nd whenever we wntc
11.1.2.2 Emissions or Outputs

he engine of the typil utomoile or truk emits ll sorts of noxious outputsF ome of themD inluding sulfur dioxidesD ron monoxideD nd prtiulte mtterD re diretly hrmful to humnsY they irritte our lungs nd mke it hrd for us to retheF @lnts re dmged in muh the sme wyAF hese emissions ome from either impure fuel or inomplete urning of fuel within n engineF yther noxious outputs use hrm indiretlyF xitrous oxides @the stu' tht mkes smog look rownA from exhustD for exmpleD intert with oxygen in the presene of sunlight @whih is why smog is worse in vos engeles nd roustonAD nd ozone lso dmges our lungsF gron dioxideD nother emission tht uses hrm indiretlyD is the most prevlent greenhouse gs @qrqAD nd trnsporttion ounts for PQ7 of the gy2 generted in the FF his is more thn residentilD ommerilD or industril usersD ehind only eletril power genertion @hyiD PHHW @pF SQHAAF yf ourseD s ws explined oveD trnsporttion is derived demndD so to sy tht trnsporttion itself is generting ron emissions is somewht misledingF he distne etween tivitiesD the modes we hoose to get etween themD nd the mount of stu' we onsume nd where it is mnufturedD ll ontriute to tht derived demnd nd must e ddressed in order to redue qrq emissions from trnsporttionF
11.1.2.3 Social Impacts

sf the de(nition of sustinility inludes meeting the needs of the present popultion s well s the futureD our urrent trnsporttion system is filureF ithin most of the FFD lk of ess to personl utomoile mens gretly redued trvel or none t llF por people who re too youngD too oldD or physilly unle to driveD this mens sking others for ridesD relying hevily on underEfunded puli trnsit systemsD or simply not trvelingF gonsiderD for exmpleD how hildren in the FF trvel to nd from shoolF sn IWUHD out SH7 of shoolEged hildren wlked or iked to shoolD ut y PHHID tht numer hd dropped to IS7 @eppleyrdD PHHS @pF SQHAAF et the sme time tht hildhood oesity nd dietes re risingD hildren re getting less nd less exeriseD even something s simple s wlking to shoolF purthermoreD prents dropping o' their hildren t shool n inrese tr0 levels y PH to PS7D not just t the shool itselfD ut lso throughout the town in question @eppleyrdD PHHS @pF SQHAAF et the other end of the ge spetrumD elderly people my e funtionlly trpped in their homes if they re unle to drive nd lk nother mens of getting to shoppingD helth reD soil tivitiesD etF pinllyD rurrine utrin mde it ler tht ess to r n tully e mtter of life or dethX the evution of xew yrlens worked very well for people with rsD ut hundreds died euse they didn9t hve the ility to drive wyF

SPQ enother serious soil impt of our trnsporttion system is tr0 identsF od idents nd ftlities re epted s prt of lifeD even though RPDHHH people die every yer on the rod in the FF his mens tht rs re responsile for more deths thn either gunsD drugsD or lohol @u et lFD PHIH @pF SQIAAF yn the right sideD there hs een stedy redution in rod ftlities over the lst few dedesD thnks to omintion of more sfety fetures in vehiles nd striter enforement nd penlties for drunk or distrted driversF xeverthelessD in mny other ountries round the worldD tr0 idents re in the top ten or even top (ve uses of dethD leding the orld relth yrgniztion to onsider tr0 idents puli helth prolemF en dditionl prolem with our urrent unsustinle trnsporttion system is tht muh of the rest of the world is trying to emulte itF he FF mrket for rs is sturtedD mening tht silly everyone who n 'ord or is likely to own r lredy hs oneF his is why utomoile mnufturers vie so (erely with their dvertisingD euse they know they re ompeting with eh other for piees of pie tht9s not getting ny iggerF sn other ountries suh s ghin nd sndiD thoughD there re literlly illions of people who do not own rsF xow tht smllerD heper vehiles like the t re entering these mrketsD rtes of r ownership re rising drmtillyF hile the sme prolems with resouresD emissionsD nd soil impts re strting to our in the developing worldD there re lso unique prolemsF hese inlude lk of infrstrutureD whih leds to monumentl tr0 jmsY need for shring the rod with pedestrins nd nimlsY nd insu0ient regultion to keep led nd other hrmful dditives out of gsoline nd thus the irF
11.1.3 What Would Make Transportation Sustainable?

he irulr nswer to the question is to meet our urrent trnsporttion needs without preventing future genertions from meeting theirsF e n strt y using fewer resoures or using the ones we hve more e0ientlyF yne wy to do this is y inresing the e0ieny of new vehiles s they re mnufturedF ine IWVID utomotive engineers hve (gured out how to inrese horsepower in the verge emerin lightEduty vehile @rs nd sA y TH7D ut they hven9t mnged to improve miles per gllon t ll @see pigure orld yil rodution E ristory nd rojetions @pF SPQAAF es gs pries ontinue to rise on the downside of the oil pekD onsumers re lredy demnding more fuelEe0ient rsD nd federl legisltion is moving in this diretion to rise the gorporte everge puel ionomy @gepiA stndrdsF

SPR

CHAPTER 11.

SUSTAINABLE INFRASTRUCTURE

Figure 11.1: World Oil Production - History and Projections Historical production of oil (grey)
and forecasts of future production (colors). According to the "peak oil" hypothesis, world oil production will peak and then decline. Estimates of future production vary widely as there is disagreement about the magnitude of undiscovered reserves. If most of the extractable oil has been discovered, we may have already reached peak oil (orange curve). If signicant undiscovered reserves remain, peak oil may not arrive until 2030 or 2040. Source: Released to public domain by Tom Ruen, via Wikimedia Commons

roweverD simply produing more fuelEe0ient vehiles is not su0ient when we onsider the embodied of the r itselfF st tkes lot of energy to mke rD espeilly in the modern 4glol ssemly lineD4 where prts ome from multiple ountries for (nl ssemlyD nd tht energy eomes 4emodied4 in the metlD plstiD nd eletronis of the rF e study in iurope found tht unless r is over PH yers oldD it does not mke sense to trde it in for more e0ient one euse of this emodied energy @sn et lFD PHII @pF SQIAAF wost emerins trde in their rs fter out third of tht timeF e relted onept is true for eletri rsF sn their dily usgeD they generte zero ron emissionsD ut we should lso onsider the soure of power used to rehrge the vehileF sn most prts of the FFD this is olD nd therefore the emissions svings re only out QH7 over trditionl vehile @wrshD PHII @pF SQHAAF sf trnsporttion is derived demndD nother wy to meet our urrent trnsporttion needs is y hnging the demndF here re two relted spets to thisF pirstD there is ler usl link etween hving more trnsporttion infrstruture nd more miles trveled on tht infrstrutureD nd greter eonomi growthF his is true etween regions of the worldD etween individul ountriesD nd etween people nd regions within ountriesF his usl onnetion hs een used s reson to (nne trnsporttion projets
energy
2 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXltimtereserveoilprojetionsFgif

SPS in hundreds of di'erent ontextsD perhps most reently in the emerin einvestment nd eovery et tht distriuted federl funds to sttes nd lolities to uild infrstruture in the hopes tht it would rete josF oliymkersD usinesspeopleD nd itizens therefore ll ssume tht we need more trnsporttion to inrese eonomi growthF roweverD it is lso true tht more trnsporttion does not automatically men more eonomi growthX witness the stte of est irginiD with dedes9 worth of highEqulity rod infrstruture estowed upon it y its former entor oert fyrdD ut still t the ottom of eonomi rnkings of sttesF purthermoreD t some point ountry or region gins no signi(nt improvements from dditionl infrstrutureY they hve to fous on mking etter use of wht they lredy hve instedF e therefore need to decouple eonomi growth from trnsporttion growth @fnister nd ferehmnD PHHI @pF SQHAAF e n sustitute teleommunition for trvelD work t homeD or shop online insted of trveling to store @lthough the goods still hve to trvel to our homesD this is more e0ient thn eh of us getting in our own rsAF e n produe the goods we use lolly insted of shipping them hlfwy round the worldD reting jos t home s well s reduing resoure use nd emissionsF ell of these options for deoupling re wys to redue the demnd for trnsporttion without lso reduing the ene(ts from the tivities tht rete tht demndF he other wy to think out hnging the derived demnd of trnsporttion is vi the onepts of accessibility nd mobilityF woility is simply the ility to move or to get roundF e n think of ertin ples s hving high essiilityX t mjor intersetion or freewy exitD trin sttionD etF gompny hedqurtersD shopping mllsD smller usinesses like deide where to lote sed on this prinipleD from the gs sttions next to freewy exit to the o'ee shop next to ommuter ril sttionF et points of high essiilityD lnd tends to ost more euse it9s esier for people to get there nd therefore more usinesses or o0es wnt to e thereF his lso mens lnd uses re usully denserX uildings hve more storiesD people prk in multiElevel grges insted of surfe lotsD etF e n lso de(ne essiility s our own ility to get to the ples we wntX where we shopD workD worshipD visit friends or fmilyD see movieD or tke lssesF sn either seD essiility is prtilly sed on wht the lndspe looks like"width of the rodsD vilility of prkingD height of uildingsD etF"nd prtilly on the mode of trnsporttion tht people hve ess toF sf person lives on usy fourElne rod without sidewlks nd owns rD most ples re essile to himF enother person who lives on tht sme rod nd doesn9t hve r or n9t drive might e literlly trpped t homeF sf her o0e is downtown nd she lives ner ommuter ril lineD she n ess her workple y trinF sf her o0e is t mjor freewy intersetion with no or little trnsit servieD she hs to drive or e drivenF

SPT

CHAPTER 11.

SUSTAINABLE INFRASTRUCTURE

Figure 11.2: Subdivision

is low. Wikimedia Commons

A modern subdivision near Markham, Ontario. The suburb is residential Source: IDuke (English Wikipedia) [ CC-BY-SA-2.5 ], via

only, and cars are the only visible means of transport; accessibility for those without personal vehicles Photo by IDuke, November 2005.

nfortuntelyD in the FF we hve on)ted essiility with moilityF o get from work to the dotor9s o0e to shopping to homeD we might hve to mke trips of severl miles etween eh lotionF sf those trips re y usD we might e witing for severl minutes t eh stop or mking mny trnsfers to get where we wnt to goD ssuming ll lotions re essile y trnsitF sf those trips re y rD we re using the vehile for multiple short tripsD whih ontriutes more to ir pollution thn single trip of the sme lengthF feuse of our lnd use regultionsD whih often segregte residentilD retilD o0eD nd helthre uses to ompletely di'erent prts of ityD we hve no hoie ut to e highly moile if we wnt to ess these destintionsF tohn rry hs termed this automobilityD the soil nd eonomi system tht hs mde living without r lmost impossile in ountries like the nd the u @PHHR @pF SQHAAF o how ould we inrese essiility without inresing moilityc e ould mke it possile for mixed uses to exist on the sme street or in the sme uildingD rther thn lustering ll similr lnd uses in one pleF por exmpleD efore new groery store opened in the student neighorhood djent to the niversity of sllinois mpus in ghmpignD people living there hd to either tke the usD driveD or get friend to drive them to more distnt groery storeF esidents of gmpustown hd their essiility to fresh produe nd
3 httpXGGwwwFretiveommonsForgGliensesGyEsGPFS 4 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXwrkhmEsuursFidFjpgFjpg

SPU other produts inrese when the new groery store openedD lthough their moility my hve tully gone downF sn lrgerEsle exmpleD the vos engeles wetropolitn rnsit euthority @weA ws sued in the IWWHs for disriminting ginst minorities y pouring fr more resoures into ommuter ril thn into usesF gommuter ril ws used minly y white suurnites who lredy hd high levels of essiilityD while the us system ws the only mens of moility for mny efrinEemerin nd rispni ity residentsD who hd orrespondingly less essiility to josD shoppingD nd personl tripsF he ourts ruled tht the trnsit uthority ws guilty of ril disrimintion euse they were providing more essiility for people who lredy hd it t the expense of those who lked itF he we ws ordered to provide moreD lener usesD inrese servie to mjor jo entersD nd improve sfety nd seurityF wore sustinle trnsporttion mens ensuring equitle essiility " not moility " for everyone now nd in the futureF
11.1.4 Making Transportation Sustainable

row do we go out mking trnsporttion more sustinlec here re three min pprohesX inventing new tehnologiesD hrging people the full osts of trvelD nd plnning etter so we inrese essiility ut not moilityF
11.1.4.1 New Technology

his is the hrdest tegory to rely on for solutionD euse we simply n9t predit wht might e invented in the next (ve to (fty yers tht ould trnsform how we trvelF he jet engine totlly hnged ir trvelD mking lrger plnes possile nd inresing the distne those plnes ould reh without refuelingD leding to the replement of trin nd ship trvel over long distnesF roweverD the jet engine hs not relly hnged sine the IWTHsF ss there some new tehnology tht ould provide more propulsion with fewer inputs nd emissionsc st9s possileF fut t the sme timeD it would e unresonle to ount on future inventions mgilly removing our sustinility prolems rther thn working with wht we lredy hveF ehnology is more thn just mhines nd omputersD of ourseY it lso depends on how people use itF hen the utomoile ws (rst inventedD it ws seen s vehile for leisure trips into the ountryD not wy to get round every dyF es people reshped the lndspe to ommodte rs with widerD pved rods nd lrge prking lotsD more people mde use of the r to go to work or shoppingD nd it eme integrted into dily lifeF he unintended onsequenes of tehnology re therefore nother reson to e wry out relying on new tehnology to sustin our urrent systemF
11.1.4.2 Charge Full Costs

he eonomist enthony howns hs written tht tr0 jms during rush hour re good thingD euse they indite tht infrstruture is useful nd lot of people re using it @hownsD IWWP @pF SQHAAF re lso notes tht uilding more lnes on highwy is not solution to ongestionD euse people who were stying wy from the rod during rush hour @y trveling t di'erent timesD long di'erent routesD or y di'erent modeA will now strt to use the wider rodD nd it will eome just s ongested s it ws efore it ws widenedF ris point is tht the rod itself is resoureD nd when people re using it for freeD they will overuse itF sf instedD vrile tolls were hrged depending on how rowded the rod ws"in other wordsD how muh empty pvement is ville"people would hoose to either py the toll @whih ould then e invested in lterntive routes or modesA or sty o' the rod during ongested timesF he point is tht every r on the rod is tking up spe tht they ren9t pying for nd therefore slowing down the other people round themY hrging smll mount for tht spe is one wy of reovering ostsF

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CHAPTER 11.

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Figure 11.3: Freeway Trac Typical congested trac on an urban freeway  I-80 in Berkeley, California. Residents of U.S. cities typically require automobiles to experience mobility. Note the externalities that the drivers are imposing on others such as air pollution and congestion. The left lane is for carpooling  as marked by the white diamond  an attempt to address the congestion externality. Source:

r0 ongestion is n exmple of wht eonomists ll externalitiesD the osts of n tivity tht ren9t pid y the person doing the tivityF uurnites who drive into the ity every dy don9t rethe the polluted ir produed y their rsY urn residents su'er tht externlityF eople round the ountry who use gsoline derived from oil wells in the qulf of wexio didn9t experiene oil wshing up on their ehes fter the f disster in PHIHF fy hrging the full ost of trvel vi txes on gs or insurneD we ouldD for exmpleD py for hildren9s hospitliztion for sthm used y the rs speeding pst their neighorhoodsF yr we ould purhse nd preserve wetlnd res tht n sor the )oodwters tht run o' of pved streets nd prking lotsD keeping people9s sements nd yrds drierF xot only would this help to del with some of the externlities tht urrently existD ut the higher ost of gs would proly led us to fous on essiility rther thn moilityD reduing overll demndF
11.1.4.3 Planning Better for Accessibility

he other wy we n produe more sustinle trnsporttion is to pln for essiilityD not moilityF wny trnsporttion plnners sy tht we9ve een using the predict and provide model for too longF his mens we ssume nothing will hnge in terms of the wy we trvelD so we simply predit how muh more tr0 there is going to e in the future nd provide rods ordinglyF snstedD we should tke deliberate

SPW pprohD ringing in more people into the plnning proess nd o'ering di'erent options esides more of the smeF ome of the deisions we n mke to try nd hnge trvel ptterns inlude instlling ike lnes insted of more prkingD loting retil development next to housing so people n wlk for up of o'ee or few groeriesD or investing in trnsit insted of highwysF
and decide

Figure 11.4: Traditional Plaza

A traditional city center in Piran, Slovenia. The region around the

square is mixed use, with buidlings serving both residential and commercial functions. highly accessible to residents. Source: Plamen Agov studiolemontree.com .

The square is

por exmpleD the shool distrit in ghmpignD sllinoisD is onsidering losing the existing high shool next to downtownD to whih mny students wlk or tke puli trnsitD nd repling it with muh lrger fility on the edge of townD to whih everyone would hve to drive or e drivenF he new site would require more moility on the prt of nerly everyoneD while mny students nd tehers would see their essiility dereseF es gs pries ontinue to riseD it will ost the shool distrit nd prents more nd more to trnsport students to nd from shoolD nd students will e more likely to drive themselves if they hve ess to r nd driver9s lienseF utting the new shool in more essile lotion or expnding the existing one would keep the shool trnsporttion system from eoming less sustinleF ou my hve notied tht these proposed hnges to inrese trnsporttion sustinility ren9t relly things tht one person n doF e n ertinly mke individul hoies to drive less nd wlk or ike moreD
5 httpXGGstudiolemontreeFomG

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CHAPTER 11.

SUSTAINABLE INFRASTRUCTURE

to uy more fuelEe0ient rD or to use teleommunitions insted of trnsporttionF sn order to mke signi(nt hnges tht n redue overll energy usge nd emissions produtionD howeverD the system itself hs to hngeF his mens getting involved in how trnsporttion poliy is mdeD mye y ttending puli meetings or writing to ity or stte o0ils out spei( projetF st mens ontting your gongressionl representtives to demnd tht trnsporttion udgets inlude more money for sustinle trnsporttion modes nd infrstrutureF st mens dvoting for those who re disdvntged under the urrent systemF sn mens rememering tht trnsporttion is onneted to other tivitiesD nd tht fousing on how the demnd for trnsporttion is derived is the key to mking nd keeping it sustinleF
11.1.5 Review Questions
Question 11.1.1

ixplin the onept of derived demnd nd how it ounts for the onnetions etween trnsE porttion nd lnd use plnningF
Question 11.1.2

ht is the onept of emodied energyc hy does it suggest tht swithing to eletri rs is not sure(re wy to mke trnsporttion more sustinlec
Question 11.1.3

qive n exmple in your dily life tht ould e used to explin the di'erene etween essiility nd moilityF

11.1.6 References

eppleyrdD fF F PHHSF vivle treets for hool ghildrenX row fe outes to hool progrms n improve street nd ommunity livility for hildrenF xtionl gentre for fiyling nd lking porumD ville onlineX httpXGGwwwFikewlkForgGpdfsGforumrhHQHSFpdf6 fnisterD hF nd ferehmnD F PHHIF rnsport investment nd the promotion of eonomi growthF Journal of Transport Geography WXQD PHWEPIVF flkD F PHIHF ustinle rnsporttionX rolems nd olutionsF xew orkX quilford ressF he'eyesD uF PHHPF ruert9s ekX he smpending orld yil hortgeF rinetonD xtX rineton niversity ressF hyi @heprtment of inergyAF PHHWF imissions of greenhouse gses reportF hyiGiseEHSUQD ville onlineX httpXGGwwwFeiFdoeFgovGoifGITHSGggrptGronFhtml7 hownsD eF IWWPF tuk in r0X goping ith ekErour r0 gongestionF shingtonD hgX frookE ings snstitution ressF swp @snterntionl wonetry pundAF PHIHF smpt of high food nd fuel pries on developing ountriesF eville onlineX httpXGGwwwFimfForgGexternlGnpGexrGfqG'pfqsFhtm8 wringD qF PHHUF urfe trnsporttion funding issues nd optionsF resenttion to the xtionl urfe rnsporttion snfrstruture pinning gommissionF eville onlineX httpXGG(nneommissionFdotFgovGhoumentsGurfe7PHrnsporttion7PHpunding7PHsssues7PHnd7PHyptionsqry7 wrshD fF PHIIF uilowtts vsF qllonsF New York TimesD wy PVF eville onlineX httpXGGwwwFnytimesFomGintertiveGPHIIGHSGPWGweekinreviewGvoltEgrphiFhtmlcrefaweekinreview10 s @nited ress snterntionlAF PHIIF qlol iofuel lnd re estimtedF evilE le onlineX httpXGGwwwFupiFomGienexewsGPHIIGHIGIHGqlolEiofuelElndEreEestimtedGsE WUQHIPWRUHUHVVG11
6 httpXGGwwwFikewlkForgGpdfsGforumrhHQHSFpdf 7 httpXGGwwwFeiFdoeFgovGoifGITHSGggrptGronFhtml 8 httpXGGwwwFimfForgGexternlGnpGexrGfqG'pfqsFhtm 9 httpXGG(nneommissionFdotFgovGhoumentsGurfe7PHrnsporttion7PHpunding7PHsssues7PHnd7PHyptionsqry7PHwringFppt 10 httpXGGwwwFnytimesFomGintertiveGPHIIGHSGPWGweekinreviewGvoltEgrphiFhtmlcrefaweekinreview 11 httpXGGwwwFupiFomGienexewsGPHIIGHIGIHGqlolEiofuelElndEreEestimtedGsEWUQHIPWRUHUHVVG

SQI rryD tDF PHHRF he 9ystem9 of eutomoilityF Theory Culture and Society PIXRESD PSEQWF snD eFeFD gpillD eFFD friinD sFFD rpelliniD F nd stresD iFvF PHIIF inergy e0ieny in trnsport nd moility for n eoEe0ieny viewpointF Energy QTXRD IWITEPQF uD tFD uohnekD uFD wurphyD FD nd ejdEerD fF PHIHF hethsX pinl ht for PHHUF xtionl itl ttistis eportsD SVXIWD ville onlineX httpXGGwwwFdFgovGxgrGdtGnvsrGnvsrSVGnvsrSVIWFpdf12

11.2 Sustainable Stormwater Management

11.2.1 Learning Objectives

13

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to understnd

how stormwter runo' 'ets wter qulity in urn wtersheds how stormwter is urrently mnged in the nited ttes some of the onventionl nd innovtive tehniques tht hve een developed to ddress the wter pollution nd )ood risks ssoited with urn stormwter runo'

11.2.2 Introduction

his module reviews some of the omplex issues of urn stormwter mngementF st (rst exmines the hydrologil issues 'eting the dishrge of stormwter runo' to our urn rivers nd stremsD nd then provides n overview of how urn stormwter is mnged under the glen ter etF efter desriing the onventionl pprohes to urn stormwter mngementD the (nl setion provides n overview of vrious 4sustinle4 strtegiesD espeilly the use of 4green infrstrutureD4 tht n e onsidered to redue the wter pollution nd )ooding risks generted y urn stormwter runo'F
11.2.3 The Hydrological Context of Urban Stormwater

@or overlnd )owA is the portion of preipittion rehing the ground tht does not in(ltrte into soilsD is not tken up nd trnspirted y plntsD nor is it evported into the tmosphereF st is n espeilly importnt omponent of the hydrologil yle in urn resD sine it n use oth pollution nd )ooding risks to nery wterwys nd their djent ommunitiesF st should lso e noted tht mny of the urrent models of glol limte hnge predit hnges in the hydrologil yle in the futureF hey predit mny more severe storms likely in prts of the widwest s result of the moisture nd energy in the tmosphere inresing over the next entury euse of inresingly higher onentrtions of greenhouse gsesF righer frequenies of more severe storms re likely to further inrese the pollution nd )ooding risks posed y stormwter runo'D espeilly in urn res @qgD PHHW @pF SRQAAF gurrent strtegies to mnge these risks employ the onept of watershed ! the vritions in nturl topogrphy tht use oth surfe wter nd sur(il ground wter to )ow downhill towrds lowerElying res or points of dishrgeD usully to strem or riverF tershed oundries re de(ned topogrphilly y mpping vritions in lnd elevtions round wterwys tht rete hydrologi divides etween djent wtersheds nd etween suEwtershedsF he mount of stormwter tht ends up s runo' within wterE shed not only depends on the intensity nd mount of preipittion rehing the ground in the form of rin or snowD ut lso on the hrteristis of the wtershed itselfF tte nd federl environmentl protetion genies hve developed numer of sophistited hydrologil simultion models tht enle the mount nd hrteristis of stormwter runo' @in terms of its volume nd the pollutnt lod tht would e rried y the stormwter to rivers nd strems within the wtershedA to e forestedF hey forest this sed on historil estimtes of the mount of preipittion entering the wtershedD the hrteristis of wterE shed9s terrin nd soilsD the mount nd lotion of impermele surfes ssoited with the development
Stormwater runo
12 httpXGGwwwFdFgovGxgrGdtGnvsrGnvsrSVGnvsrSVIWFpdf 13 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRPUITGIFIGbF

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CHAPTER 11.

SUSTAINABLE INFRASTRUCTURE

of the wtershedD nd the extent nd types of ground over within the wtershed9s dringe re @xg PHHVD eppendix h @pF SRPAAF e hnge in ny of these ftors will 'et the mount nd extent of )ooding nd wter pollution ttriutle to the dishrge of stormwter runo' into river or stremF ine the pttern of preipittion vries sesonlly the wter pollution nd )ooding risks posed y stormwter runo' lso tend to vry sesonllyF qenerllyD lrger )ood nd pollution risks will our in the springD when rpid snowmelt n generte lot of runo' volume @espeilly if the ground is still frozenAD whih n rry pollutnts tht hve umulted within the snow over over the winter months to nery strems nd riversF here n lso e stormErelted )ood nd pollution 4spikes4 when hevy rin strikes the ground t fster rte thn it n e in(ltrted into the soilsD or when it is prevented from in(ltrting into the soils y roofsD pvingD or other impermele surfesF his initilly high volume of stormwter runo' n rry greter mounts of ontminnts ! proess often desried s the "rst ush" phenomenonF sullyD the (rst hlfEinh of stormwter will e rrying the highest pollution lodD so its pture nd mngement eomes priority for wter qulity protetionF row some of these feturesD espeilly the mount of impervious surfe ssoited with di'erent densities of developmentD 'et the genertion of urn runo' re illustrted in pigure Degrees of Imperviousness and its Eects on Stormwater Runo @pigure IIFSAF eserh y the genter for tershed rotetion hs found tht strem qulity eomes impired when IH7 of the strem9s wtershed is impervious nd tht n urn strem9s eology is severely impted when more thn PS7 of its wtershed is imperviousF

SQQ

Figure 11.5: Degrees of Imperviousness and its Eects on Stormwater Runo

These four

images show increasing amount of stormwater runo as the area becomes developed with more impervious surfaces. Source: In Stream Corridor Restoration: Principles, Processes, and Practices (10/98) By the Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group (FISRWG) (15 Federal agencies of the U.S.)

14

hen )owing downhill within wtershedD stormwter runo' n pik up pollutnts from vrious nthroE pogeni soures nd tivitiesF st n lso ollet pollutnts from the tmospheri deposition of prtiultes nd ir pollutnts rried to the erth9s surfe y preipittionD y windlown dustD or y simply settling out of the tmosphereF rn runo' n lso dissolve or trnsport hemils tht my e found nturlly in soil or nutrients whih my hve een deliertely dded to lwnsF gommon urn pollutnts n inlude suh things s pestiides nd fertilizers pplied to residentil lwnsD prks nd golf oursesD enteri miroes from niml wsteD industril hemils tht my hve een identlly spilled on the ground or improperly storedD or oils nd greses leking from rs prked in lots or on drivewysF es stormwter runo' )ows towrds lowerElying res of the wtershedD it rries these ontminnts
14 httpXGGwwwFnrsFusdFgovGsnternetGpiwihseGnrsIRQHPRVPRFjpg

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CHAPTER 11.

SUSTAINABLE INFRASTRUCTURE

with it nd therefore ontriutes to the pollution of the stremD river or lke into whih it is dishrgingF yne it rehes river or stremD the onentrtions of pollutnts in the reeiving wters re nturlly redued s the ontminnts re rried downstrem from their souresD lrgely through dilution ut lso y settlementD y uptke y posure to sunlight nd oxygenD nd y intertions with vrious hemil nd physil proplnts nd nimls @inluding teri nd other miroorgnismsAD through degrdtion y exesses ourring within the wterwy nd its stremedF ter pollution risks within wtersheds re mnged under the federl glen ter et15 D whih requires stte environmentl protetion genies to regulte the dishrge of pollutnts into nvigle wterwys nd wterodies pursunt to federl guidelines @xgD PHHV @pF SRPAAF he glen ter et employs mximum onentrtion stndrds for ommon pollutnts tht n impir the reretionl or eologil funtions of river or stremF yne lss of polluters regulted under the glen ter et onsists of those tht re diretly dishrging pollutnts into wterwy from n industry or sewge tretment plnt through pipeD dithD outfll or ulvert ! these re lled point sourcesF oint souresre mnged under the glen ter et y the requirement tht eh diret soure hve renewle dishrge permitD lled xtionl ollution hishrge ilimintion ystem @xhiA permitF xhi permits set limits for the vrious pollutnts eing dishrged y tht soure sed on the ambient water quality of the wterwy nd its proposed use @eFgF its use s puli wter supply soureD or for (shingD or reretionl useAF he other regulted lss of polluters mnged under the glen ter et onsists of those soures tht introdue ontminnts into wterwy through overlnd or susurfe )ow ! these re lled non-point sourcesD nd inlude most of the wter pollution lods rried y urn stormwter runo'F ine the IWUHsD the prinipl pproh used y stte nd federl environmentl protetion genies to ontrol wter pollution is to try to simply redue the quntity of pollutnts eing relesed into our rivers nd strems @xgD PHHV @pF SRPAAF xhi permits ontrol the diret dishrge of ontminnts into our wterwysD while nonEpoint soures re mnged through fest wngement rties @fwsA tht re designed to limit the mount of pollutnts relesed into wtershedD where they ould lter e rried y stormwter runo' or y groundwter )ow to reeiving strem or riverF hepending on the pollutnt of onernD fws ould e s simple s requiring pet owners to len up fter their pets or s omplex s requiring tht industries using toxi mterils designD onstrut nd mnge loding nd storge res in order to keep spilled mterils from eing trnsported o'Esite y stormwter or groundwter )owF fws n even inlude enourging some industries to hnge their prodution proesses in order to redue the totl mount of toxi mterils they useD pollutnt redution strtegy known s pollution prevention @sine the fewer toxis usedD the lower the risk tht they will indvertently e relesed into the environmentAF he strtegy of simply reduing the mount of pollutnts entering the environment is omplited y the ft tht mny of the nonEpoint pollutnts re not menle to mngement through lol fwsF por exmpleD griulturl tivities re expressly exempted from the glen ter etD even though stormwter runo' from frms nd niml feedlots n rry griulturl hemilsD fertilizers nd mnure into djent wterwysD long with topsoil from freshlyEplowed (eldsF ollutnts ould lso e introdued into n urn wtershed y the deposition of ir pollutntsF eirorn prtiulte mtterD for exmpleD n e trnsported very long distnes y the windD mking most lolly dministered fws @exept possily instituting regulr streetEsweeping progrmsA ine'etive in reduing the distriution nd quntities of these types of urn stormwter pollutntsF sn response to these hllengesD the glen ter et ws mended to require stte environmentl proE tetion genies to lulte pollution udgets for the impired segments of their strems nd riversF he 4impired segments4 were those rehes of strem or river tht did not meet the wter qulity stndrds for their intended usesF wodels were used to lulte the 4totl mximum dily lod4 @whvA of pollutnts entering the wterwy through oth point nd nonEpoint soures tht would enle the strem segments
15 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGgriultureGlwFhtml

11.2.3.1 Regulating Urban Runo

SQS to hieve their highest proposed useF he glen ter et9s new whv progrm provides more soE phistited frmework for evluting the impts of nonEpoint pollution on wter qulityF roweverD given the limittions of trying to put more nd etter fws into pleD environmentl protetion genies hve egun to refous some of their ttention from reduing the totl mount of pollutnts eing relesed within wtershed to lso reduing the mount of stormwter runo'F invironmentl protetion genies hve developed strtegies for urn stormwter mngement tht involve modifying development site so tht more preipittion would e retined onEsite rther thn )owing o' of it into nery wterwys or wterodiesF hese stormwter retention strtegies initilly stressed trditionl engineering solutionsD suh s instlling stormwter olletion system tht temporrily stores the stormwter onEsite in order to redue the rte nd mount of stormwter eing relesed to wterwyF he strtegies were lter expnded to inlude vrious site modi(tionsD suh s onstruting vegetted u'er strips or swales @dithesADin order to enourge more stormwter to in(ltrte into the groundF eduing the volume of urn stormwter leving site s runo' lso o'ers n dditionl hydrologi ene(t in urn wtersheds ! reduing )ood risks @xg PHHV @pF SRPAAF fesides hving the potentil to rry pollutntsD stormwter runo' dishrge inreses the mount of wter entering into lkeD strem or riverD inresing oth the wter volume nd )ow veloity of the wterwyF e reltively lrge mount of stormwter runo' entering wterwy over reltively short time n quikly rise strem9s wter levels eyond its nksD using )ooding tht ould threten djent developmentF tormwter ontriution to river or strem n lso inrese the veloity of the strem9s )owD using inresed hnnel nd nk erosionD underutting or dmging dikesD levees nd other wter ontrol struturesD nd souring the strem or river edF trem edge or stremed erosion n impir wter qulity y inresing the loudiness @or turidityA of the wterwyD whih n lso dmge quti nd riprin hittsF tormwterEindued )ood risks re mnged y the xtionl plood snsurne et16 D where hydrologi models @djusted y historil )ood eventsA re used to forest the potentil )ooding used y IHHEyer storm @ storm tht hs one perent hne of ourring in ny given yerAF he et fores (nnil institutions to require homeowners within the designted IHHEyer )oodplins to purhse )ood insurne in order to get mortggeD with the federl government susidizing the insurne premiums if the ommunity dopts )ood mngement progrm restriting development from extremely hzrdous res nd instituting uilding ode hnges to lessen )ood dmgeF sn ssessing )ood risksD it is importnt to relize tht mnging the volume nd rte of urn stormwter eing dishrged from developed res does not 'et the totl mount of stormwter tht is eing dishrged to river or strem within wtershed ! they only 'et the timing of when storm9s preipittion will e dishrged to the wterwy @xgD PHHV @pF SRPAAF foth the onventionl nd the newerD more sustinleD wys of mnging stormwter disussed elow seek to dely the time it tkes for stormwter runo' to reh wterwy in order to redue the wter levels nd )ow veloities of the reeiving strems fter stormF lowing the rte y whih stormwter is eing ontriuted to strem spreds out the pek of the resultnt )ood levels over longer time periodD llowing mny )ood risks to e sustntilly reduedF
11.2.4 Conventional Stormwater Management

rn stormwter is trditionlly mnged y the onstrution of engineered stormwter filitiesD suh s storm sewers nd detention sinsD s prt of the lnd development proessF hese engineering proesses re spei(lly designed to modify the nturl hydrology of siteF por exmpleD when lnd is eing developedD the prel is usully grded for development nd stormwter infrstruture is instlled to hnnel the stormwter from individul lots into seprte stormwter sewer system onneted to detention sin where it is retined until it n e dishrged o'EsiteF ite preprtion lso inludes elevting uilding sites so tht they re onstruted on slightly elevted 4pds4 to enourge stormwter to )ow wy from uilding foundtions nd towrd the streetsF efter rehing the streetD stormwter is then direted to the stormwter sewers y urs nd guttersF
16 httpXGGwwwFfemFgovGlirryGvieweordFdocidaPPIT

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CHAPTER 11.

SUSTAINABLE INFRASTRUCTURE

gonventionl stormwter detention filities were historilly uilt to redue o'Esite )ood risksD nd were not expressly designed to redue o'Esite wter pollution risksF eny stormwter detention tht ws provided ws only temporryD often providing n insu0ient retention time to llow the nturl ttenution of ny pollutnts tht were rried y the runo' into the detention sin ! unlike the nturl ttenution proesses ourring in river or riprin wetlnd @where mient pollution levels re grdully redued through dilutionD oxidtionD hemilly inding to roks nd soilsD eing goled up y miroorgnismsD etFAF tormwter is usully detined onEsite fter storm only for period of hours orD t mostD dys nd then relesed to wterwyF ome of the prtiulte ontminnts in the stored runo' might settle out if they re lrge or hevy enough to do so during tht short timeD some might in(ltrte into the soils in the ottom of the detention sinD nd some pollutnts might e tken up y grss lining the sinD ut mny pollutnts still end up eing rried into the wterwy long with the relesed stormwterF ine the IWWHsD environmentl protetion genies hve egun to onsider the wter pollution impts of releses from stormwter detention filitiesD fter the glen ter et ws mended to require sttes to tret stormwter dishrges from detention sins s type of diret soure nd to require tht xhi permits e phsed in for dishrges from wuniipl eprte tormwter ewer ystems @4wR4A in ities nd urn res ove ertin popultion thresholds @xgD PHHV @pF SRPAAF he xhi permits issued under the FF invironmentl rotetion egeny9s @FF ieA wR progrm now require the wter pollution lods from stormwter detention sin dishrges to e ssessed through the retion nd doption of lol stormwter mngement plns nd tht the ontminnts rried y the stormwter runo' to the sins for lter reErelese to wterwy e etter mnged nd redued through the doption of lol fwsF wR permit regultions issued y stte environmentl protetion genies usully involve the issune of 4generl permit4 y the genyD pplying to ll pplile wuniipl eprte
11.2.4.1 Stormwater Sewer Systems Located within the State's Designated Urban Areas

e di'erent set of stormwter mngement issues rise in older urn res tht re lredy developedF wost of the nited ttes9 older ities nd suursD espeilly those estlished in the lteEIWth nd erly PHth enturiesD do not hve wuniipl eprte tormwter ewer ystemsF snstedD they hve wht re known s combined sewer systems ! sewers tht rry oth the stormwter runo' from pved streets nd the wstewter @sewgeA from homesD stores nd ftoriesF hese omined sewers trnsport the mixed wstewter nd stormwter to muniipl sewge tretment plnts where the diluted sewge is treted nd then dishrged to wterwy under n xhi permit @xgD PHHV @pF SRPAAF ter qulity prolems rise when rinstorms deposit more preipittion in the ity thn n e hndled y the sewge tretment plntF es the diluted wstewter egins to (ll up the omined sewer system t fster rte thn it n e tretedD the sewge tretment plnt opertors re fed with di0ult hoie ! they n either llow the diluted sewge to ontinue to k up in the sewersD eventully )ooding residents9 sements @ politilly unpopulr s well s unhelthy optionAD or they n llow the diluted wstewter to ypss the sewge tretment plnt nd e dishrged diretly into the wterwyD with the untreted wstewter9s pollutnt levels usully exeeding the limits set forth in the plnt9s xhi permitF wost tretment plnt opertors hoose the more politilly eptle option of relesing the wstewter in violtion of their xhi permitD reting wter pollution inidents lled combined sewer overows (CSOs)F
11.2.4.2 Strategies to Manage CSOs

gy prolems re very di0ult nd expensive to resolve in older itiesF yne pproh to mnging stormwE ter o'Esite is to ter up the ity9s streetsD digging up the old omined sewers nd repling them with seprte stormwter nd wstewter sewer systemsF he high osts of retro(tting new seprte sewer systems re often prohiitively expensiveD espeilly in these times of stressed stte nd lol udgetsF woreoverD the extensive tr0 disruptions involved in repling most streets would not mke this politilly populr hoieF

SQU e seond pproh to mnging gy issues o'Esite in developed res is to keep the omined sewer systemD ut to onstrut reservoir system lrge enough to store the diluted wstewter until it n e treted y the sewge tretment plntF his is the pproh used y oth the gity of wilwukeeD isonsin17 nd y the wetropolitn ter elmtion histrit of qreter ghigo in its unnel nd eservoir ln18 D or eF elthough most of e hs een uiltD ll of the reservoirs hve not yet een ompleted euse of federl udgetry utksF he tunnels themselves nd one reservoir re urrently le to temporrily store the omined sewge nd the runo' from only the (rst QGVEinh @FWS mA of rin flling in the wetropolitn ter elmtion histrit9s servie reF he extremely high expense of instlling suh supplementry sewge nd stormwter storge system would mke it un'ordle to most ities unless very sustntil federl nd stte grnts re providedF e third wy to ddress gy issues o'Esite is to use the streets themselves to temporrily store stormwter y instlling low speed umpElike strutures t intersetions nd y restriting the streets9 sewer intkes to the omined sewer system @ ieD PHHH @pF SRPAAF his urn retro(t strtegy would llow stormwter to )ow from lots into the streetsD whih would )ood up to their gutter tops during hevy stormsD funtioning s stormwter reservoirsF he stored stormwter would then slowly e dishrged to the omined sewers through the restrited grtes over period of hours fter the stormD reduing the mount of diluted sewge )ow to quntity tht ould e dequtely treted y sewge tretment plntsF he )ooding of streetsD impiring utomoile essD nd the possiility of stormwter over)owing the urs nd dmging prked rs nd djent property during very hevy rinstorms my not mke this politilly populr optionD thoughF
11.2.5 Managing Urban Stormwater More Sustainably

here is fourth pproh to deling with gy prolemsD whih involves interepting nd delying the disE hrge of preipittion from prel of lnd efore it )ows o'Esite to seprte or omined sewer systemD or to n djent wterwyF inourging onEsite storge or in(ltrtion redues the stormwter ontriution to omined sewer9s )ow in developed resD therey reduing the mount of diluted wstewter eing generted nd enling omined sewer systems to etter hndle their wstewter lods during rinstormsF hese deentrlized onEsite pprohes to mnging stormwter ould lso e used to redue the mount of onventionl stormwter infrstruture needed in new developments using seprte stormwter sewer sysE temsF feuse these onEsite pprohes re less resoureEintensive nd more ostEe'etive thn onventionl stormwter mngement pprohesD they re lso more sustinle investmentsF ynEsite stormwter mngement tehniques re lso often known s 4green infrstruture4 @t'e et lFD PHIH @pF SRPAAF hevelopment projets using 4green infrstruture4 for urn stormwter mngement re ommonly known s 4Low Impact DevelopmentsF4 vow smpt hevelopment projets using green infrstruture usully llow stormwter to e mnged t lower osts thn y using onventionl detention prties @ ieD PHHU @pF SRPAAF here re essentilly three strtegies for onEsite stormwter mngementX @IA tehniques tht enourge the in(ltrtion of stormwter into soils to redue its volume efore it rehes sewer systemD or whih employ more seletive grding nd the plnting of vegettion to redue its rte of )ow from the siteY @PA tehniques tht enourge the temporry storge of stormwter onEsiteD insted of trnsporting it o'Esite for entrlized detention within development projet or muniiplityY nd @QA tehniquesD suh s the onstrution of rti(il wetlndsD whih lso llow some degree of longerEterm retention nd tretment of the stormwter y nturl proesses efore it is dishrgedF sn(ltrtion tehniques might lso provide some wter tretment pilities due to the longer retention times of groundwter efore dishrgeD ut the degree of suh tretment would lrgely depend on soil hrteristisD the mount of overlying vegettion nd the depth of the soil9s unsturted zoneF
17 httpXGGvQFmmsdFomGheepunnelFspx 18 httpXGGwwwFmwrdForgGirjGportlGnonymousGtrp

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CHAPTER 11.

SUSTAINABLE INFRASTRUCTURE

11.2.6 Increasing Stormwater Inltration

ehniques to derese the volume of stormwter runo' nd to redue the rtes t whih it is dishrged inlude the use of permele pving nd the onstrution of 4rin grdens4 nd vegetted swles @see pigure Permeable Paving & Vegetated Swales @pF SQVAAF ermele pving uses mterils whih re speilly formulted to hve ir voids in their mtrixD llowing wter to )ow into nd through the pving mterils fter they re instlledF st lso inludes the more ommon instlltion of prest porous pvers tht re designed with holes through their surfesD llowing stormwter to )ow through their holes into the soils eneth themF ermele pving needs to e periodilly mintined euse its pores n e logged y (ne grins of topsoil or with other smll prtiles @suh s soot from tmospheri depositionA rried long y the runo'F wintenne inludes periodilly sweeping or vuuming the pving to ontrol the uildEup of logging prtilesF

Figure 11.6: Permeable Paving & Vegetated Swales

Source: Jae, M., et al. (2010) (p. 542), Fig. 14, p. 117.

Permeable paving drains into a vegetated

swale as part of Elmhurst College's (in Illinois) parking lot's "green" stormwater management system.

4in grdens4 n lso e used to enourge stormwter to in(ltrte into the soilsD where it n e tken up y plnts nd trnspired to the tmosphereD evported from the soilsD or llowed to in(ltrte deeper into the soils to eome groundwterF in grdens re reted in res of lowElying terrin tht re expressly designed forD or engineered withD wellEdrined soils nd re usully plnted with deepErooted native vegetation tht often n survive the drier soil onditions etween rinsF in grdens n e quite e'etive in interepting nd in(ltrting stormwter eing dishrged from roofsD with roof downspouts direting the dishrge of stormwter into rin grden insted of llowing it to )ow ross the lot nd into

SQW the street sewer systemF ome ntive vegettionD howeverD my hve speil mintenne requirementsD suh s the periodi urning needed to mnge some pririe plntsF egetted dithes or swles n lso e used to trnsport stormwter runo' to onventionl stormwter mngement systemD with the vegettion plnted in the dith slowing the rte of stormwter )ow while lso llowing portion of the runo' to e in(ltrted into the soils or tken up y plntsF sn mny sesD vegetted swles nd rin grdens n provide lessEexpensive lterntives to the instlltion of seprte stormwter sewer systemD sine it redues the need for the onstrution of street guttersD grtesD street thment sins nd sewer pipes @ ieD PHHU @pF SRPAAF sntereption of the stormwter y in(ltrtion nd plnt uptke in rin grden or vegetted swle my lso redue the mountD pity nd size of the sewers tht would hve to e uilt to mnge predited volume of stormwterD if these green infrstruture tehniques re used to supplement onventionl stormwter olletion systemF
11.2.7 Increasing Interim On-site Storage

ustinle mngement tehniques tht n temporrily store stormwter onEsite until it n e relesed o'Esite to sewer system or to onventionl stormwter detention filities inlude the use of 4green roofs4 nd rain barrels onneted to roof downspoutsF in rrels llow preipittion to e olleted nd storedD nd then used for nonEpotle purposes @lwn irrigtionD for instneA llowing the ptured stormwter to sustitute for more expensiveD treted wter @see pigure A Rain Barrel Collection System @pigure IIFUAAF

Figure 11.7: A Rain Barrel Collection System

(p. 542), Fig. 12, p. 116.

This "green" building (Ryerson Woods Welcome

Center, Lake County (Illinois) Forest Preserve District )uses both a rain barrel to collect stormwater draining from the roof, and a rain garden to help inltrate precipitation. Source: Jae, M., et al. (2010)

e green roof is )t roof surfe tht uses mended soil mterils instlled ove lyer of wterproof roo(ng mterils to llow shllowErooted plnts to e plntedF hile still eing n impermele feture

SRH

CHAPTER 11.

SUSTAINABLE INFRASTRUCTURE

of development site @euse of its wterproof lyerAD green roof n temporrily store rinwter efore it is dishrged to the ground y the roof gutters nd downspouts @see pigure A Green Roof @pF SRHAAF tust s rin rrel n store @nd reEuseA portion of the stormwter preipittion eing dishrged from impervious roofsD the soils of green roof n pture nd temporrily store stormwter preipittion s the pores etween the soil prtiles (ll up with rinwterF qreen roofs n even prtilly redue the runo'9s pollution lod through plnt uptke nd y other iologil nd physil proesses within the roofs9 soil mterils while they re sturtedF feuse of the need to oth wterEproof the roof while instlling iologil system on top of itD green roofs tend to ost more thn onventionl roofsD even ignoring the dditionl struturl engineering tht might e neessry to ommodte the weight of the green roof9s soil nd plntingsF

Figure 11.8: A Green Roof

The green roof on this police station in Village of Villa Park, Illinois

has shallow-rooted plants placed in a thin layer of growing medium installed on top of a waterproof roof membrane. Source: Jae, M. et al. (2010) (p. 542), Fig. 13, p. 116.

he stormwter mngement ene(ts of rin rrels nd green roofs depend on their storge pity reltive to the mount of impervious surfe re of the roof with whih they re ssoitedF in rrels might e le to pture only frtion of n inh of the stormwter flling on roof nd eing dishrged from downspoutD while severl inhes of mended soils on rooftop might e le to store sustntilly more preipittion efore it evportesD is tken up y the roof9s plntsD or is dishrged from the green roof vi its gutters nd downspoutsF sn oth sesD howeverD the intereption nd temporry retention of

SRI stormwter y these green tehnologies my llow onventionl stormwter mngement systems to funtion more e0iently y reduing the mount of stormwter eing dishrged into the systemsF hey would lso ertinly redue some of the 4peakiness4 of strem )ooding y eing le to temporrily store nd then relese stormwter from impermele roof surfes lter fter storm eventF
11.2.8 Treating Urban Stormwater

ome sustinle stormwter mngement pprohes hve the potentil to tully tret the wter to reE move pollutnts s well s ontrol its volume nd rte of dishrgeF hese strtegies inlude onstruting wetlnds nd plnting treesF etlnds hve proven to e very e'etive in oth temporrily storing stormwE ter runo' nd reduing )ooding risksD while lso reduing the pollutnt lod rried to the wetlnd @euse of its high iologil tivity tht n pture nd degrde the ontminntsAF es resultD the federl government hs dopted 4no net loss4 poliy with respet to proteting existing wetlndsF etion RHR of the federl glen ter et requires tht the FF ermy gorps of ingineers @under FF ie oversightA review ny proposls to (ll or dmge ny wetlnds tht re diretly hydrologilly ssoited with nvigle wterwysF eny tions 'eting existing wetlnds will need gorps RHR permit in ddition to ny lol or stte pprovlsF fesides preserving existing wetlndsD new wetlnds n lso e designedD reted nd mintined s prt of 4green4 stormwter mngement strtegy @xgD PHHV @pF SRPAAF he onstruted wetlnd n e designed nd used to intereptD temporrily store nd tret stormwter runo' efore it is relesed to strem or riverF ter ontrol strutures re lso usully instlled to ensure tht the onstruted wetlnds remin )ooded for long enough periods of time to support wetlnd vegettionF sf pproprite plnts re seletedD they n lso provide importnt hittsF etlnd mintenne involves the ontrol of invsive plnt speies @eFgF urple voosestrifeA nd the mngement of ny sediment tht n e rried y stormwter runo' into the wetlndD sine the sedimenttion of wetlnds n (ll them inD impiring their eologil nd tretment funtionsF he plnting of trees is n espeilly vlule strtegy to mnge urn stormwterD espeilly when the trees eome mtureF ree nopies rek rin veloityD reduing runo' )ow rtesD while tree roots n stilize soils ginst eing eroded y urn runo'F ree nopies redue temperturesD mitigting urn het islnd e'etsD y providing shde nd through their trnspirtion proessesF heir leves nd roots n lso pture some stormwter ontminnts nd provide ron sequestrtion to redue limte hnge imptsF woreoverD trees provide vlule soil mendment s their fllen leves dey into mulhD improving the in(ltrtion rte nd iologil tivity of surrounding soilsD while lrger roken rnhes flling into urn strems n slow strem veloities nd provide improved riprin nd quti hittF he shding of strems y riprin trees is prtiulrly importnt in ensuring tht strem9s eologil funtions remin resilient in the fe of rising tempertures used y glol limte hngeF
11.2.9 Conclusions

ell of the green infrstruture nd vow smpt hevelopment tehniques tht provide interim onEsite stormwE ter storge to redue )ood risks n lso provide some pollution removl pilitiesD s wellF he emerin oiety of givil ingineers nd FF ie mintin n snterntionl tormwter fw htse19 of deE velopment projets using green infrstrutureF his onEline resoure reviews the e'etiveness of vrious stormwter mngement prties nd mkes these sustinle tehniques more essile to lol o0ils nd muniipl puli works deprtments hrged with mnging stormwter runo' in their ommunitiesF here is inresing puli interest in using sustinle stormwter mngement tehniques to reple or supplement onventionl stormwter filitiesF he FF federl governmentD for exmpleD is now requiring tht green infrstruture e used in ll federl projets ove ertin size to mnge urn stormwter runo'F vol o0ils re lso showing greter interest in these sustinle pprohesD sine they re often less expensive to instll nd mintin over their lifeEspns thn onventionl stormwter sewer systems nd
19 httpXGGwwwFmpdtseForgG

SRP

CHAPTER 11.

SUSTAINABLE INFRASTRUCTURE

detention filitiesF pinllyD stte governments re eginning to set side money in their revolving lon funds for puli infrstruture tht is ermrked for green infrstruture projetsF st is likely tht this interest in sustinle urn stormwter mngement will ontinue to growF
11.2.10 Review Questions
Question 11.2.1

hih of the sustinle urn stormwter mngement prties n est e used in existing neighorhoodsD nd whih re est suited for new developmentc
Question 11.2.2

he performne of mny of the green infrstruture prties often depends on how well they re mintined over their lifeEspnsF ht re some e'etive strtegies tht lol o0ils n onsider in order to ensure tht the green infrstruture eing used to mnge urn stormwter in their ommunities is dequtely mintined nd ontinues to perform s designedc

11.2.11 Resources

por more informtion out theX

glen ter etD visit httpXGGwwwFepFgovGgriultureGlwFhtml20 F snterntionl tormwter fw htseD visit httpXGGwwwFmpdtseForg21 F wetropolitn ter elmtion histrit of qreter ghigoD httpXGGwwwFmwrdForgGirjGportlGnonymousGtrp22 F wilwukee wetropolitn ewerge histritD visit httpXGGvQFmmsdFomGheepunnelFspx23 F xtionl plood snsurne etD visit httpXGGwwwFfemFgovGlirryGvieweordFdocidaPPIT24 F

visit

11.2.12 References

qulliverD qFF 8 endersonD tFvF @edsFAF @PHHVAF essessment of tormwter fest wngement rtiesF Stormwater Management Practice Assessment StudyF winnepolisX niversity of winnesotF t'eD wFD ellnerD wFD winorD iFD qonzlezEwelerD wFD gotnerD vFD wsseyD hFD ehmedD rFD ilert wFD iseD FD prgueD rFD 8 willerD fF @PHIHAF Using Green Infrastructure to Manage Urban Stormwater Quality: A Review of Selected Practices and State ProgramsF pring(eldD svX sllinois invironmentl roE tetion egenyF etrieved tune PQD PHII from httpXGGwwwFepFstteFilFusGgreenEinfrstrutureGdosGpuliE tEreommendtionsFpdf25 xtionl eserh gounilF @PHHVAF Urban Stormwater Management in the United StatesF shingtonD hgX xtionl edemies ressF etrieved tune PQD PHII from httpXGGwwwFepFgovGnpdesGpusGnrstormwterreportFpdf26 FF invironmentl rotetion egenyF @PHHHD ytoerAF Street Storage for Combined Sewer Surcharge Control: Skokie and Wilmette, Illinois (Factsheet). @ie uE lition xoF ieEVRIEfEHHEHHSgAF shingtonD hFgF etrieved wy IUD PHII from httpXGGwwwFlowimptdevelopmentForgGpusGtreettorgeptsheetFpdf27
20 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGgriultureGlwFhtml 21 httpXGGwwwFmpdtseForgG 22 httpXGGwwwFmwrdForgGirjGportlGnonymousGtrp 23 httpXGGvQFmmsdFomGheepunnelFspx 24 httpXGGwwwFfemFgovGlirryGvieweordFdocidaPPIT 25 httpXGGwwwFepFstteFilFusGgreenEinfrstrutureGdosGpuliEtEreommendtionsFpdf 26 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGnpdesGpusGnrstormwterreportFpdf 27 httpXGGwwwFlowimptdevelopmentForgGpusGtreettorgeptsheetFpdf

SRQ FF
Costs

invironmentl
through Low

rotetion
Impact

egenyF

@PHHUD
(LID)

heemerAF
and

Reducing PracticesF

Stormwater

Development

Strategies

lition xoF ie VRIEpEHUEHHTAF shingtonF hFgF etrieved tune httpXGGwwwFepFgovGowowGxGlidGostsHUGdoumentsGreduingstormwterostsFpdf28 FF qlol glimte ghnge eserh rogrm @qggAF PHHWF Global Climate Change Impacts in the United StatesF gmridgeX gmridge niversity ressF etrieved wy IVD PHII from httpXGGdownlodsFglolhngeFgovGusimptsGpdfsGlimteEimptsEreportFpdf29

@ie uE PQD PHII from

28 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGowowGxGlidGostsHUGdoumentsGreduingstormwterostsFpdf 29 httpXGGdownlodsFglolhngeFgovGusimptsGpdfsGlimteEimptsEreportFpdf

SRR

GLOSSARY

Glossary

"

"First Flush" Phenomenon

he higher pollutnt onentrtions found t the eginning of storm or spring snowmeltF

"Peaky" Waterways

unvoidle euse of inresed ron lredy in the tmosphereF

additionality

he 4pekiness4 of wterwy desries the more rpid inrese nd deline in strem )ow nd the higher strem levels fter storm in urnized wtersheds ompred to the more grdul rise nd deline in strem volumes nd lower wter levels in lessEdeveloped dringe sins fter the sme storm eventD lrgely euse of the greter mounts of impervious surfes nd runo' generted within urn resF
A Absorption Chiller

he extent to whih new tion @poliyD projet etFA dds to the ene(ts or osts ssoited with existing onditionsF
Aerobic

viving systems or proesses tht requireD or re not destroyed yD the presene of oxygenF
albedo

e mesure of how re)etive surfe isF e perfetly lk surfe hs n ledo of HD while perfetly white surfe hs n ledo of IF
Allocation

tilizes het insted of mehnil energy to provide oolingF e therml ompressor @fueled y the wste het from the gr systemA is used in ple of n eletrilly powered mehnil ompressor in the refrigertion proessF
Accessibility

por hin whih produes multiple produts or serviesD the prtitioning of inventory quntities mong these oEproduts or oEserviesF
ambient standard

e minimum level of overll environmentl qulity tht must e rehedF

ambient temperature

sn trnsporttionD mesure of the ese with whih people re le to get ples they wnt or need to goF
Acid mine drainage

he temperture of the surrounding environmentF

Ambient Water Quality

urfe wter or groundwter tht is highly idi due to oxidtion of sul(de minerls t minerl mineF
Active Transportation

he onentrtion of pollutnts found within wterodies nd wterwysF

ammonication

wens of trnsporttion tht involve more physil tivityD typilly onsidered wlkingD ikingD nd use of puli trnsit @us nd rilAF
Adaptation

he relese of mmoni y deomposerswhen they rek down the omplex nitrogen ompounds in orgni mteril
Anaerobic

pouses on the need for strtegies to del with the limte hnge tht is

e living system or proess tht ours inD or is not destroyed yD the sene of oxygenF
Anthropocene

GLOSSARY

SRS
avoided cost

e term estowed y xole vurete ul grutzen to desrie the lst PHHEyer period of humn industriliztionF he pre(x nthro points to the deisive impt of humn popultion growth nd tehnologil development on the plnetry iosphere sine IVHHD s its prinipl gents of hnge supereding ll other ftorsF
anthropogenic

e type of diret method tht equtes the vlue of n environmentl improvement with ost tht n then e voidedF
Avoided Cost of Power

he mrginl ost for utility to produe one more unit of powerF

axial precession

gused or produed y humnsF

anthropogenic CO2 emissions

he movement in the xis of rottionD whih hnge in the diretion of irth9s xis of rottion reltive to the strsF
axial tilt

rumn relese of gy2 into the tmosphere y urning fossil fuels nd hnging lnd useF
Anthropogenic

elting to or resulting from the in)uene tht humns hve on the nturl worldF
aqueduct

he ngle etween plnet9s xis of rottion nd the line perpendiulr to the plne in whih it oritsF he irth9s urrent xil tilt is PQFS degreesF
B benet transfer

en quedut is wter supply or nvigle hnnel onstruted to onvey wterF sn modern engineeringD the term is used for ny system of pipesD dithesD nlsD tunnelsD nd other strutures used for this purposeF
aquifer

e method for estimting the vlue of nturl menity y pplying estimtes from omplex study of slightly di'erent @ut similrA menity to the se t hndF
Betz's Law

ok or sediment tht is ple of supplying groundwter from well t useful rteF

aquitard

he theoretil highest possile e0ieny for wind turinesD SW perentD derived in IWIW y qermn physiistD elert fetzF glik here30 for more informtionF
Bioaccumulation

irth mteril with low hydruli ondutivityF

arsenic

he inrese in onentrtion of sustne in n orgnism over timeF

Bioassay

e type of wter pollutnt tht n e ftl in lrge doses nd n use helth prolems in smll doses over long timeF
artesian well

en ssy for determining the poteny @or onentrtionA of sustne tht uses iologil hnge in experimentl nimlsF
Biocatalysis

ter well drilled into on(ned quifer where the wter level in the well moves ove the lol wter tleF
assimilation

gtlysis onduted y enzymes ! tlysis within the odyD for exmpleF

biochemical oxygen demand

equisition nd inorportion of nutrients or resoures y plnts eFgF nitrogen or ronF

30 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGfetz9lw

he mount of oxygen used y eroi @in presene of oxygenA teril deomposition of orgni mtterF
Biocomplexity

SRT e de(ning hrteristi of living things nd their reltionships to eh otherF he ioomplexity onept emphsizes the multiple dependent onnetions within eosystemsD nd etween eosystems nd humn soietiesF
Biodiesel biological nitrogen xation

GLOSSARY

here miroes onvert x2 gs in the tmosphere into mmonium tht n e sored y plntsF
Biological processes

e fuel usully mde from soyenD nolD or other vegetle oilsY niml ftsY nd reyled grese nd oilsF st n serve s sustitute for onventionl diesel or distillte fuelF
Biodiversity and Extinction

roesses of ore formtion tht involve the tion of living orgnismsF ixmples inlude the formtion of perls in oystersD s well s phosphorous ore in the fees of irds nd the ones nd teeth of (shF
Biological Treatment

hriving eosystems re hrterized y diverse plnt nd niml popultionsY there isD thereforeD strong orreltion etween urrent eosystem deline glollyD nd the rte of extintion of speiesD whih is in the order of thousnd times tht of kground rtesF his hs prompted sientists to lel the urrent period the ixth wss ixtintion in the long history of the iosphereD nd the (rst sine the end of the dinosursF
biodiversity

e tretment tehnology tht uses teri to onsume orgni frtion of muniipl solid wsteGwstewterF
Biomass

yrgniD nonEfossil mteril of iologil origin tht is renewle euse it n e quikly reEgrownD tking up the ron tht is relesed when it is urnedF
Biooxidation of minerals

wiroil enrihment of metls in solid phseF

bioremediation

he numer of di'erent speies within n eosystem @or glollyAF fiodiversity is lso onsidered metri of eosystem helthF
Biofuels

wethod of groundwter remedition involving the ddition oxygen or nutrientsF to stimulte growth of miroorgnismsD whih deompose n orgni pollutntF
Biosorption of minerals

viquid fuels nd lending omponents produed from iomss mterilsD used primrily in omintion with trnsporttion fuelsD suh s gsolineF
biogeochemical cycles

etthment of metls to ellsF

Black smoker

e onept desriing how hemil elements @eFgFD nitrogenD ronA or moleules @eFgF wterA re trnsformed nd stored y oth physil nd iologil omponents of the irth systemF
Bioleaching of minerals

hishrge of minerlErih wters up to QSH g from rks in oeni rustY these wters preipitte vriety of metlli sul(de ore minerls tht mke the wter pper lkF
bottled water

wiroil dissolution of metlsF

biological components of the earth system

ell living orgnismsD inluding plntsD nimls nd miroesF

hrinking wter pkged in plsti ottles or glss ottlesD ottled wter is not sustinle solution to the wter risis euse of the nonrenewle energy nd mteril resoures involved in mnufturing nd trnsporting itF
Building Automation System (BAS)

GLOSSARY

SRU

gontrols nd monitors uildings deleterious e'ets during lifetimeF st mehnil nd lighting systems through n e derived from xyeivD vyeivD omputerizedD intelligent network or enhmrk doseD with unertinty httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGgomputernetworking31ftors generlly pplied to re)et of eletroni deviesF limittions of the dt usedF qenerlly used in ie9s nonner helth ssessmentsF C Car Sharing e progrm tht llows for more thn one person to hve use of rF qenerllyD it works like shortEterm @hourlyA r rentl servieF grs re loted ner residenes nd work ples to filitte the ess to the vehiles nd to redue the need for individul r ownershipF
Carbon Neutrality climate

he verge of the wetherF

Closed Loops

o e ron neutrlD the ron emissions of onsumle produt or humn tivity must either not involve the onsumption of ronEsed energy @ di0ult thing to hieve under our present regimeAD or o'set tht onsumption through the drwdown of n equivlent mount of tmospheri ron during its lifeyleF
Carbon Sequestration

he sustinle reform of industril prodution nd wste mngement emphsizes the reyling of mterils k into the environment or into the industril yleD tht isD to eliminte the onept of wste entirelyF
coase theorem

he ide tht with property rights nd fritionless negotitionD privte gents will rgin to reh e0ient outomes even in the fe of externlitiesF
Combined Heat and Power (CHP)

he storge of ron dioxide underground in geologi formtions onsisting of depleted oil nd gs wellsD unminele ol edsD nd deep sline quifersF
Carcinogenicity

he(nes the ility or tendeny to produe nerF

Carpooling

en integrted systemD loted t or ner the uilding or filityD tht genertes utility grde eletriity whih stis(es t lest portion of the eletril lod of the fility nd pturesG reyles the wste het from the eletri generting equipment to provide useful therml energy to the filityF
Combined Sewer Overows (CSOs)

hen two or more people trvel to nd from proximl deprture nd rrivl destintions in the sme vehileF
Carrying Capacity

he over)ow nd dishrge of exess wstewter to surfe wters during stormsD when diluted wstewter )ows exeed the pity of omined sewer systems or sewge tretment plntF
combined sewer systems

he mximum popultion tht given environment n sustinF

Chronic Reference Dose (RfD)

en estimte @with unertinty spnning perhps n order of mgnitudeA of dily orl exposure for hroni durtion @up to lifetimeA to the humn popultion @inluding sensitive sugroupsA tht is likely to e without n ppreile risk of
31 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGgomputernetworking

e single set of underground pipes used to ollet oth sewge ndF storm wter runo' from streets for wstewter tretmentF
Combined Sewer Systems

ewer systems tht re designed to ollet stormwter runo' nd domesti nd industril wstewter within the sme sewer pipesF

SRV
command and control

GLOSSARY

egultions tht set stritD spei( guidelines to govern the ehvior of polluters nd resoure usersF
Common but Dierentiated Responsibilities

en quifer tht is ounded y quitrds elow nd oveF

conjoint analysis

en ethil frmeworkD promoted prtiulrly y developing ntionsD tht reognizes mitigtion of glol wrming s shred responsiilityD ut t the sme time rgues tht the welthyD industrilized ountries of the est tht hve een the historil ene(iries of ronEsed development should ept greter urden for oth reduing glol ron emissionsD nd providing developing ntions with the tehnology nd eonomi mens to modernize in sustinle wysF
common pool resource

e stted preferene vlution tool tht llows n nlyst to estimte the mrginl vlues of multiple ttriutes of n environmentl goodF
Connectivity

en importnt feture of omplex systemsF gonnetions exist etween even pprently remote nd disprte thingsF por exmpleD drought in eustrli might impt the prie of red in igyptD whih in turn hs reperussions for FF foreign poliyF
constructed wetland

wrsh uilt to tret ontminted wterF

consumptive water use

e resoure tht is open to ll usersD ut whih is highly rivl in useF

Community-Supported Agriculture

e ollortive system where lol food produers nd onsumers shre in the osts nd hrvests ssoited with frmingF
Compost

e soietl use of wter tht is type of o'strem use where wter does not return to the river or groundwter system immeditely fter useF
contaminant plume

e lrge ody of )owing polluted groundwterF

contingent valuation

he stleD deomposed orgni mteril resulting from the omposting proessF

condensation

ghnge in the physil stte of wter where it goes from gs to liquidF

cone of depression

e stted preferene vlution tool tht desries single environmentl good nd eliits survey responses from whih the nlyst n estimte people9s vlue for tht goodF
Conventional CHP (Topping Cycle CHP)

e lolized drop in the wter tle round pumping wellF

Conned (or concentrated) Animal Feeding Operation (CAFO)

tilizes single dedited fuel soure to sequentilly produe useful eletri nd therml powerF
Cornucopian

he prtie of rising livestok in highEdensity settings to mximize prodution speedY some of the lrgest gepys hve more thn IHHDHHH ttleD IHDHHH hogsD or IDHHHDHHH hikens t single filityY sometimes lled ftory frmingF
conned aquifer

he view tht eonomi growth nd tehnologil innovtion will ontinue to improve the onditions of humnity s they hve done for the pst SHH yersD nd tht no environmentl onstrints re importnt or permnentF
Corrosivity

GLOSSARY

SRW
denaturation

he ility to orrode metlF gorrosive wstes re wstes tht re idi nd ple of orroding metl suh s tnksD ontinersD drumsD nd rrelsF
cost eectiveness

e proess in whih proteins or nulei ids lose their tertiry struture nd seondry struture y pplition of hetF
denitrifying bacteria

he extent to whih n outome is hieved t the lowest ost possileF

cost-benet analysis

ivlution of how the overll ene(ts of projet ompre to its ostsF

cost-eective

wiroes tht onvert nitrtes to nitrous oxide or x2 gses tht re relesed k to the tmosphereF
Derived demand

es inexpensive s possileY ost minimizingF

counterfactual

hemnd for good or servie tht omes not from desire for the good or servie itselfD ut from other tivities tht it enles or desires it ful(llsF
desalination

he senrio ginst whih di'erent senrio should e ompredY in poliy nlysisD the wy the world would hve een in the sene of the poliyF
Cradle-to-Grave

emoving dissolved slt from sewter or sline groundwterF

Desiccant Dehumidication

prom retion to disposlY throughout the life yleF

cretaceous period

he period etween TS nd IRS million yers goD whih ws the (nl period of irth9s history tht inluded dinosursF
Cultural Ecosystem Services

roess tht removes moisture @ltent lodA from uilding ir strem y pssing the ir over desint wheel @normlly sili gelAF he reovered het from gr system is utilized to regenerte the desint y driving the moisture o' the desint wheel to the outsideF
Deterministic Risk Assessment

he estheti nd spiritul vlues we ple on nture s well s the edutionl nd reretionl tivities dependent on eosystemsF
cultural eutrophication

isk evlution involving the lultion nd expression of risks s single numeril vlues or 4single point4 estimtes of riskD with unertinty nd vriility disussed qulittivelyF
Diachronic/Synchronic

pid quti plnt growthD prtiulrly lgeD in surfe wter odyF

D dam

e rrier uilt ross river to ostrut the )ow of wterF

deadweight loss

e dihroni view of system exmines it evolution over timeD while synhroni view is onerned with its hrteristis t single point in timeF
diesel

eny liquid fuel used in diesel enginesF

Digestion

he extent to whih net ene(ts re lower thn they ould eF

decomposers

fteri nd fungi tht rek down rotting orgni mterilD relesing omponent elements in the proessF

he iohemil deomposition of orgni mtter of wD resulting in its prtil gsi(tionD liqueftionD nd minerliztionF
direct methods

SSH lution tools tht use dt on tul mrket trnstions to estimte the vlue of hnge in the environmentF
discharge area

GLOSSARY

en ggregted pproh to vge in whih the environmentl impts of produt or servie re determined through n nlysis of the omplete eonomyF
Economic Potential

votion on irth where groundwter leves the groundwter )ow systemF

discounting

he proess of onverting future vlues @osts or ene(tsA into n equivlent mount of money reeived todyY ontrols for humn time prefereneF
drainage basin

he tehnil potentil tht n e produed elow given ost thresholdD typilly the ost of spei(edD lolly relevnt lterntiveF
Ecosystem

qeogrphi re drined y river nd its triutriesF

E eccentricity

e dynmi omplex of plntD nimlD nd miroorgnism ommunities nd the nonliving environment interting s funtionl unitF
Ecosystem

e mesure of how muh n ellipse deprts from irulrityF

eco-eciency

ell living orgnisms nd nonEliving things tht exist nd intert in ertin re t the sme timeF
ecosystem function

en pproh tht seeks to minimize environmentl impts y mximizing mteril nd energy e0ienies of produtionF
Eco-Eciency

roesses suh s deompositionD produtionD nutrient ylingD nd )uxes of nutrients nd energy tht llow n eosystem to mintin its integrity s hittF
Ecosystem Goods and Services

en evolutionry usiness model in whih more goods nd servies re reted with less use of resouresD nd fewer emissions of wste nd pollutionF
Ecological Footprint (EF)

en essentil servie n eosystem provides tht supports life nd mkes eonomi tivity possileF por exmpleD eosystems len ir nd wter nturllyD reyle nutrients nd wste generted y humn eonomi tivityF
ecosystem services

epresents the re of lnd on erth tht provides for resoures onsumed nd ssimiltes the wste produed y given entityF
ecological services

esoures nd proesses through whih the environment gives ene(ts to humnityF

ecosystem services

iosystem funtions tht re essentil to sustining humn helth nd wellEeingF ixmples inlude provisioning servies suh s foodD (er nd wterY regulting servies suh s limteD )oodD nd disese ontrolY ulturl servies suh s spiritul nd reretionl ene(tsD nd supporting servies suh s nutrient ylingF elso lled eosystem serviesF
Economic Input Output Life Cycle Assessment (EIO-LCA)

he ene(ts humns reeive from eosystems

Ecosystem Services

he ene(ts people otin from eosystemsF

ecosystems

hynmi systems of humnD plntD nimlD nd miroorgnism ommunities nd the nonliving environment tht intert s funtionl unit
Eciency

GLOSSARY

SSI he unit of emergy or emergy jouleF sing emergyD sunlightD fuelD eletriityD nd humn servie n e put on ommon sis y expressing eh of them in the emjoules of solr energy tht is required to produe themF sf solr emergy is the selineD then the results re solr emjoules @revited setAF ometimes other selines suh s ol emjoules or eletril emjoules hve een used ut in most ses emergy dt re given in solr emjoulesF
End-of-Life Costs

he frtion of energy t the input tht is delivered to the output of devieF iletri motors n onvert inoming eletriity to rotry motion t more thn WH perent e0ienyD while gsoline engines onvert only out PS perent of the hemil energy of the fuel to motion of the wheelsF
ecient

rving the feture tht net ene(ts re mximizedF

Electricity Grid

he network of wires nd trnsformers tht delivers eletri power from genertion sttions suh s those powered y olD nturl gsD hydroeletriityD sunlight or wind to end uses suh s lightingD trnsporttionD refrigertionD omputtion or ommunitionF he eletriity grid is onventionlly divided into higher voltge trnsmission lines for long distnesD lower voltge distriution lines for short distnes nd trnsformers in susttions for onverting the voltge etween the two tegoriesF
Embodied energy

hose osts tht rise through tivities ssoited with the disposition of produt t the end of its useful lifeF hese inlude osts ssoited with disposlD reylingD reuseD nd remnufturingF
Energy Carrier

e mediumD suh s eletriityD gsoline or hydrogenD tht n move energy from one ple to notherD usully from the point of prodution @eFgF n eletril genertor or petroleum re(neryA to the point of use @eFgF n eletri light or motor or gsoline engineAF
Energy Density

he sum of ll energy used to produe goodD inluding ll of the mterilsD proessesD nd trnsporttion involvedF
Emergy (EMbodied energy)

he mount of energy ontined in given volume @sy gs tnkAF he higher the energy density of fuelD the frther the r will go on tnk of the fuelF
Energy Density

he unit of energy into whih ny resoureD produtD or proess n e onverted to simplify omprisons etween diverse itemsF
Emergy Performance Index (EMPI)

lue produed y onverting ll mterils nd proesses to mounts of energy in order to evlute renewility nd sustinilityF
Emergy

he mount of energy of one kind @solrA tht hs een used diretly or indiretly @through trnsformtion proessA to mke servie or produt s one type nd it is expressed in units of @solrA emjouleF
Emjoule

he energy ontined in volume or mss divided y the volume or mss it oupiesF righ energy density mterils pk lrge energy into smll spe or mssY low energy density mterils require more spe or mss to store the sme mount of energyF he eletril energy of tteries is t the low end of the energy density sleD the hemil energy of gsoline is t the high endD pproximtely ftor of QHESH lrger thn tteriesF
Enrichment factor

tio of the metl onentrtion needed for n eonomi ore deposit over the verge undne of tht metl in irth9s rustF

SSP
Entropy

GLOSSARY

he degree of disorder in sustneD system or proess s in the seond lw of thermodynmis tht sttes tht the mkeEup of energy tends to hnge from moreEordered stte to lessEordered stteD wherey inresing entropyF
Environmental Performance Indicators (EPI)

nd therefore restrits the totl mount of plnt growthD exmples inlude nitrogen nd phosphorousF
Exergy

he mximum work tht n e extrted from system s it moves to thermodynmi equilirium with referene stteF
Extended Product/Producer Responsibility

eny of the wys in whih environmentl outomes ndGor impts n e ssessedF

Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI)

e omposite vlue produed y inluding eologilD soilD eonomiD nd poliy dtF

Epidemiology

he retion of (nnil inentivesD nd legl disinentivesD to enourge mnufturers to mke more environmentlly friendly produts tht inorporte endEofElife osts into produt design nd usiness plnsF
Externality

he study of the distriution nd determinnts of helthErelted sttes or events in spei(ed popultionsF

eutectics

gost of n tivity not pid y the person doing the tivityF

externality tax

e omintion of two or more ompounds of either orgniD inorgni or oth whih my hve di'erent melting point to their individul nd seprte ompoundsF
eutrophication

e tx on something tht uses negtive externlitiesF

Externalization

eelerted plnt growth nd dey used y nitrogen pollutionF

evaporation

he proess y whih osts inherent to the prodution of goods"prtiulrly environmentl osts"re not inluded in the tul prie pidF
extinction

he proess wherey wter is onverted from liquid into vporD s result of soring energy @usully from solr rditionAF
evaporation

he deth of ll individuls within speiesF e speies my e funtionlly extint when low numer of surviving individuls re unle to reprodueF
extirpation

here wter hnges from liquid to gs t mient temperturesF

evapotranspiration

vol extintion of speiesY elimintion or removl of speies from the re of oservtionF

F Fermentation

ivportion from vegetted lnd tht inludes wter trnspired y plnts s well s evportion from open wter nd soilsF
excessive plant nutrient

he onversion of sugrs into lohols or hydrorons y miroesF

nned Tube

e type of wter pollutnt involving limiting plnt nutrient tht usully is present in wter t low onentrtions

ue with n extending prt on surfe to filitte oolingF

Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis

GLOSSARY

SSQ he onversion of iomss t very high temperture @IHHH ! IPHH gA in n oxygen tmosphere tht results in synthesis gs intermedite ! mixture of ron monoxide @gyA nd hydrogen @r2 AF
gasoline

he inorgni tlyti retion etween gy nd r2 @synthesis gsAD whih produes diesel nd jet fuelF
uxes

rnsformtions or )ow of mterils from one pool to nother in iogeohemil yleF

Food Miles

he distne food trvels from produer to onsumerF

Food Security

he mesure of the vilility nd ess to su0ientD sfeD nd nutritious foodF

Fossil Fuels

e toxi trnsluentD petroleumEderived liquid tht is primrily used s fuel in internl omustion enginesF he term 4gsoline4 is often shortened in olloquil usge to gsF nder norml mient onditions its mteril stte is liquidD unlike lique(ed petroleum gs or 4nturl gsF4
Genetic Eects

yilD gs nd ol produed y hemil trnsformtion of lnd plnts @olA nd mrine nimls @oil nd gsA trpped in the erth9s rust under high pressure nd temperture nd without ess to oxygenF he formtion of fossil fuels n tkeF
free rider

i'ets from some gentD like rdition tht re seen in the o'spring of the individul who reeived the gentF he gent must e enountered preEoneptionF
Genetic engineering of microbes (mineral application)

e person who does not ontriute to puli good in hopes tht they n ene(t from provision y other peopleF
Fuel Cell

greting miroorgnisms speilized in extrting metl from oreF

Geographical Potential

en exothermi eletrohemil retion tht omines hydrogen nd oxygen ions through n eletrolyte mteril to generte eletriity @hgA nd hetF
Functional Unit

he energy )ux for prtiulr renewle energy theoretilly extrtle from geogrphil res tht re onsidered suitle nd villeF
Geothermal Energy

inergy from the erthF

Geothermal Energy

he sis for ompring two or more produtsD proessesD or servies tht ssures equlity of the funtion deliveredF
G gas phase

yne of the three lssil sttes of mtterF

Gas Turbine

en internlEomustion engine onsisting essentilly of n ir ompressorD omustion hmerD nd turine wheel tht is turned y the expnding produts of omustionF
Gasication

rot wter or stem extrted from geotherml reservoirs in the erth9s rustF ter or stem extrted from geotherml reservoirs n e used for geotherml het pumpsD wter hetingD or eletriity genertionF qeotherml het or ooling my lso ome from ground soure het exhnge tking dvntge of the onstnt temperture in the ground elow the surfeF
Geothermal Plant

e power plnt in whih the prime mover is stem turineF he turine is driven either y stem produed from hot wter

SSR or y nturl stem tht het soure is found in rokF

Ghost Acres

GLOSSARY

he res of lnd needed to indiretly support humn needsD or lnd tht is unville euse of hitt degrdtionF
glacial period

glims mde y usinesses out the superior ontriutions of their produts nd servies to sustinility without sustntive king or vi very sujetive nlysisF
Gross Domestic Product

e long period of time in whih ie Esheets nd gliers re dvned in their extentF

Global Warming Potential (GWP)

ih gsD sed on its tmospheri hemistryD ptures di'erent mounts of re)eted het thus ontriuting di'erently to the greenhouse e'et ontriuting to its qF gron dioxideD the lest pture e0ient of these gsesD ts s the referene gs with glol wrming potentil of IF
graphite matrix

he sum of gross vlue dded y ll resident produers in the eonomy plus ny produt txes nd minus ny susidies not inluded in the vlue of the produtsF st is lulted without mking dedutions for depreition of frited ssets or for depletion nd degrdtion of nturl resouresF
groundwater discharge

plow of wter from elowEground into riversD lkesD or the oenF

groundwater mining

gomposite mteril with grphite eing metl @see metl mtriesAF

Great Ocean Conveyor Belt (or Termohaline Current)

e depletion in groundwter resoures used y lrge numer of wter wells tht pumped wter for long timeF
groundwater

he urrent spnning the i(D entrtiD sndin nd etlnti yens tht rries wrm surfe wter to the old deep oen nd tkes RHHEIHHH yers to omplete one yleF
Green Roof

ter loted in smll spes etween minerl grins nd frtures in susurfe rok or sedimentF
H hard water

egettion nd plnting medi instlled on rooftop in order to store nd dely stormwter runo' from the roof9s surfeF
greenhouse eect

ter with undnt lium nd mgnesiumD whih redues its ility to develop sopsuds nd enhnes sleY hrd wter does not hve negtive helth e'ets in peopleF
Heap leaching

he proess y whih the tmosphere ts to trp hetD wrming the limteF

greenhouse gases

wethod of gold mining where ynideErih wter peroltes through (nely ground gold ore nd dissolves the gold over period of monthsY eventully the wter is olleted nd treted to remove the goldF
heat

qses in irth9s tmosphere tht sor longEwve rdition nd retin hetF

greenhouse gases

e type of wter pollutnt tht uses drop in the dissolved oxygen ontentD whih n stress (shF
heat of fusion

hose gses in the tmosphere tht wrm the limteD most importntlyD wter vporD ron dioxideD methneD nd ozoneF
Greenwashing

he mount of het required to onvert unit mss of solid t its melting point into liquid without n inrese in tempertureF

GLOSSARY

SSS eletriity to run the motor is generted on ord y n lterntor powered y the internl omustion engine nd y regenertive rekingF lugEin hyrids suh s the ghevy oltD in ontrstD use the eletri motor s the min drive for the rD relying on the gsoline engine only when the ttery is low or emptyF
hydrated salt

Heat Pump

e devie tht llows het to e removed t lower temperture nd supplied t higher tempertureD for exmple n ir onditionerF
Heat, Ventilation and Air Conditioning Systems (HVAC)

ystems suh s furnes nd ir onditioners tht re ommonly used in homes nd ommeril uildingsF
heavy metal

e type of wter pollutnt involving elements suh s ledD meruryD rseniD dmiumD nd hromiumD whih n umulte through the food hinF
hedonic price analysis

e solid ompound ontining wter moleules omined in de(nite rtio s n integrl prt of rystlF
Hydraulic mining

wethod of pler mining where high pressure hoses ut into nturl lndspesF
hydrological cycle

e reveled preferene tool tht uses dt on house pries nd hrteristis to estimte the vlue of fetures of the environment tht vry mong housesF
hedonic wage analysis

e reveled preferene tool tht uses dt on wges nd risk of deth y jo type estimte willingness to py to redue the risk of dethF
High Level Radioactive Waste (HLW)

he ontinuous movement of wter onD ove nd elow the surfe of the erthF his yle is dominted y the glol equilirium in evportion nd ondenstionF
Hydrology

he rdiotive wste mteril tht results from the reproessing of spent nuler fuelD inluding liquid wste produed diretly from reproessing nd ny solid wste derived from the liquid tht ontins omintion of trnsurni nd (ssion produt nulides in quntities tht require permnent isoltionF
Hushing

he sienti( exmintion of the ourreneD distriutionD movement nd properties of wter within the nturl environmentF
Hydrothermal

yre forming proess involving hot slty wter tht dissolves metlli elements from lrge re nd then preipittes ore minerls in smller reD ommonly long rok frtures nd fultsF
Hydrotreating

etion in the presene of hydrogenF

hypoxia

wethod of pler mining developed y the nient omns where torrent of wter is sent through lndspe vi n quedutF
Hybrid Vehicle

ery low oxygen wter due to proli( growth of lgeD lgl dethD nd then deompositionD lso lled ded zoneF
I
ice sheets

e r tht ontins two drive systemsD one sed on the internl omustion engine nd one on the eletri motorF gonventionl hyridsD suh s the oyot riusD use the eletri motor only when high power is neededX strting from stopD pssingD nd going uphillF he

qliers ig enough to over ontinentF gurrentlyD ie sheets re found in entrti nd qreenlndD ut during glil periodsD ie sheets hve overed other lnd mssesD inluding xorth emeriF

SST
Igneous crystallization

GLOSSARY

yre forming proess where molten rok ools to form igneous rokF
Igneous rock

round the development of the stem engine powered y olF

inltration

porms y ooling nd solidi(tion of hot molten rokF

Ignitability

plow of wter from the lnd surfe into soils nd roksF

infrared spectrum

eility to rete (re under ertin onditionsF sgnitle wstes n rete (res under these ertin onditionsF
Impacts

he light rdition just elow the rnge of wvelengths visile to the humn eyeF elso referred to s therml rditionF
Infrastructure Compatible

vongEterm nd more widespred results of n tivityF

Incineration

gomptile with existing oil pipelinesD storge tnksD petroleum re(neriesD nd internl omustion enginesF
Inorganic Catalysis

e therml proess of omusting wF

Indicator

e vrile equl to n opertionl representtion of n ttriute of systemF

Indicator-Based Systems

olidD inorgni mterils suh s pltinum nnoprtiles deposited onto tivted ronD whih elerte the rte of hemil retions without eing onsumed in the proessF
Inputs

ystems tht use quntittive mesures of eonomi progressD soil welfreD or environmentl tivity tht n e interpreted to explin the stte of tht systemF ixmples of these re gross domesti produtD greenhouse gs emissionsD nd the unemployment rteF
Induction Generator

he spei( resoures or servies used y n tivityF

insolation

he mesure of the mount of solr rdition flling on surfeF

instream water use

gonverts the mehnil shft power from the gr prime mover to utility grde elternting gurrent owerF en indution genertor n only operte when onneted to n externl retive power soure @normlly provided y the utility gridAF
Industrial Ecology

e soietl use of wter tht does not remove it from its soureF
Instrumentalist

en pplied siene tht is onerned with mteril nd energy )ows through industril systemsF
Industrial Revolution

en ttitude to environmentl resoures hrteristi of the lst SHHEyer period of glol humn eonomi developmentD wherey eosystem provisions"wterD minerlsD oil nd gsD etF"re pereived only in terms of their use vlue to humn eingsD rther thn s integrl elements of wider nturl systemF
Integrated Waste Management

he trnsition from simple tools nd niml power for produing produts to omplex mhinery powered y the omustion of fuelsF he sndustril evolution egn in inglnd in the midEIVth gentury initilly entered

e prtie of using severl lterntive wste mngement tehniques to mnge nd dispose of wF

Interdisciplinarity

e trend in higher edution reserh nd tehing of the lst thirty yers tht emphsizes the ridging of trditionl

GLOSSARY

SSU
J
Jevons paradox

disiplinesD nd tht is n essentil frmework for sustinility studiesF

interglacial period

he wrm periods of the uternry in whih gliers nd ieEsheets retretF hese our etween the longer glil periodsF
Internal Combustion Engine

he priniple tht s tehnologil progress inreses the e0ieny of resoure utiliztionD onsumption of tht resoure will inreseF
K kWh and MWh

he omustion of fuel inside or 4internl4 to the ylinder nd moving piston whih produes motionY gsoline engines re ommon exmpleF sn ontrstD stem engines re externl omustion engines where omustion nd stem genertion re outside the ylinder ontining the moving pistonF he internl omustion engine is lighter nd more portle thn the stem engineD enling modern trnsporttion in rsD diesel powered trinsD ships nd irplnesF
Internal Combustion Engine

nits of energy used in power engineeringF kh is one kilowtt of power delivered for one hourD wh is one megwtt of power delivered for one hourF
L land use change

rumn hnge in the use of lndD eFgF deforesttion or urniztionF

Landlls

he engine tht onverts the hemil energy of gsoline into the mehnil energy of motionD y exploding smll mounts of fuel in the on(ned spe of (xed ylinder ontining moving pistonF e preise mount of fuel must e metered inD nd sprk reted t preise moment in the piston9s journey to produe the mximum explosive fore to drive the pistonF he internl omustion engine is n engineering mrvel @the word engineering elertes itA perfeted over more thn enturyF sn ontrstD the eletri motor is muh simplerD more e0ient nd less expensive for the sme power outputF
Inverter

hesignedD ontrolled nd mnged disposl sites for w spred in lyersD ompted to the smllest prtil volumeD nd overed y mteril pplied t the end of eh operting dyF
last glacial maximum

he time t whih ie sheets were t their gretest extent during the ltest glil periodF
latent heat

he het whih )ows to or from mteril without hnge to tempertureF

Leachate

stewter tht ollets ontminnts s it trikles through w disposed in lnd(llF

leaching

voss of nitrtes from soil in dringe wter

Leaching

gonverts hiret gurrent eletri power into utility grde elternting gurrent eletri powerF xormlly used with fuel ell systemsF
isotopes

sing hemils to dissolve metl from lrge volume of rushed rokF

Li-ion battery

etoms tht hve sme numer of protons ut di'erent numers of neutronsF his mens tht they re the sme element @eFgF oxygenAD hve the sme hemil propertiesD ut di'erent mssesF

e type of rehrgele ttery in whih lithium ions move from the negtive eletrode to the positive eletrode during dishrge nd from the positive eletrode to negtive eletrode during hrgeF
liability

SSV e legl onstrut mening tht n gent is held responsile y the ourts to py when tht gent does something tht imposes osts on other people in soietyF
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

GLOSSARY

e ool period in the xrD primrily in iurope from the sixteenth to the nineteenth enturyF
Locavore

e method for quntifying the mterils nd energy needed to mke or deliver produt or servie tht ssesses the wstes produed nd potentil environmentl impts ross ll or prt of the produt hinF
Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)

e person who onsumes lollyEprodued food produtsF

Low Impact Development

en pproh to lnd development @or reEdevelopmentA tht uses nturl dringe nd environmentl proesses to mnge stormwter s lose to its soure s possileF
Low-Emittance Coatings

he stge of n vge in whih the environmentl impts ssoited with the mnufture nd delivery use nd disposl of produt re lultedF
Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)

he stge of n vge in whih informtion on the use of energy nd vrious mterils used to mke produt or servie t eh prt of the mnufturing proess is olletedF
Lifecycle

wirosopilly thinD virtully invisileD metl or metlli oxide lyers deposited on window or skylight glzing surfe primrily to redue the Eftor y suppressing rdiotive het )owF
Low-Level Radioactive Waste (LLW)

diotive wste mteril tht is not highElevel rdiotive wsteD spent nuler fuelD or yprodut mteril @see rvAF
M marginal benet

sn terms of sustinilityD the entire lifeyle of produt must e mesured for its environmentl imptD not simply its point of produtionD onsumptionD or disposlF e key spet of generl sustinility edution is the understnding of where goods originteD the industril proesses required for their mnufture nd trnsportD nd their fte fter useF
Lightweighting

he dditionl ene(t of doing one more unit of somethingF

marginal cost

he dditionl ost of doing one more unit of somethingF

market failure

e ondition tht uses mrket not to yield the e0ient outomeF

Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY)

wking produt out of mterils tht weigh less thn were previously used
Lignocellulose

he nonEfood portion of plnts suh s the stlks nd leves of orn plnts @orn stoverAF
liquied petroleum gas

en outgrowth of rrying pity nd the gol is to reh the mximum mount of resoure extrtion while not depleting the resoure from one hrvest to the nextF
Mechanical Biological Treatment (MBT)

he proess tht omines sorting with form of iologil tretment suh s omposting or neroi digestionF
Medical Waste

e )mmle mixture of hydroron gses used s fuel in heting pplines nd vehilesF

little ice age

eny muniipl solid wste generted in the dignosisD tretmentD or immunistion of humn eings or nimlsF

GLOSSARY

SSW wethod of extending the minerl supply tht inludes improved e0ienyD sustitutionD redueD reuseD nd reyleF
Mineral

medieval warm period

e wrm period in the xr during the tenth nd eleventh enturiesF

mercury

e type of wter pollutnt tht ts on the entrl nervous system nd n use loss of sightD feelingD nd hering s well s nervousnessD shkinessD nd dethF
Mercury amalgamation

xturlly ourring inorgni solid with de(ned hemil omposition nd rystl strutureF
Mineral recycling

wethod of gold pnning where liquid merury is dded to gold pns euse merury n form n lloy with goldF
Metabolism and Footprint

wethod of extending the minerl supply tht involves proessing used winerls into new produts to prevent wste of potentilly useful mterilsF
Mineral reserves

wo metphorsD relted to the humn odyD for oneptulizing the reltionship etween onsumption nd wste t the soil levelF wetolism emphsizes system of inputs nd outputs dependent upon energy nd mesured ording to the helth of the wholeD while footprint is populr metri for quntifying the environmentl impts of goodsD serviesD nd lifestylesF
metal matrices

he known mount of ore in the worldF

Mineral resources

otl mount of minerl used y soiety tht is not neessrily pro(tle to wine tody ut hs some sort of eonomi potentilF
Mineral reuse

wethod of extending the minerl supply tht involves using minerl multiple timesF
Mineral substitution

gomposite mteril with t lest two onstituent prtsD one eing metlF
Metamorphic rock

porms when preexisting rok hnges the shpe or type of minerls due to intense het nd pressure deep within the irthF
Metamorphism

wethod of extending the minerl supplyY involves sustituting rre nonrenewle resoure with either more undnt nonrenewle resoure or renewle resoureF
Mitigation

roess of ore formtion tht ours deep in the erth under very high temperture nd pressure nd produes severl uilding stonesD inluding mrle nd slteD s well s some nonmetlli oreD inluding sestosD tlD nd grphiteF
milankovitch cycles

efers to the importne of reduing ron emissions so s to prevent furtherD tstrophi hnges in the limte systemF
Mobility

he ility to move or to get roundF

Monte-Carlo Method

eriodi vritions in the irth9s orit tht in)uene its limteF hese yles re nmed fter wilutin wilnkovithD mthemtiin who qunti(ed the theoryF
Mill Tailings

e repeted rndom smpling from the distriution of vlues for eh of the prmeters in generi @exposure or doseA eqution to derive n estimte of the distriution of @doses or risks inA the popultionF
morbidity

ste mteril from onventionl urnium reovery filityF

Mineral conservation

he reltive frequeny of ourrene of diseseF

STH
mortality

GLOSSARY

puels tht will e used upD irrepleleF

non-use values

he numer of deths tht our t spei( timeD in spei( groupD or from spei( useF
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)

lues people hve for nture tht do not stem from diret intertionF
Nonlinear

snludes nonEhzrdous wste generted in householdsD ommeril nd usiness estlishmentsD institutionsD nd nonEhzrdous industril proess wstesD griulturl wstes nd sewge sludgeF pei( de(nition is given in regultionsF
N Narrative Assessments

ghnges in system re nonliner when they exhiit sudden hnges in rte of inrese or delineF he popultion of prtiulr tropil frog speiesD for exmpleD my suddenly rsh s result of wrming temperturesD rther thn show grdul delineF
nonpoint source (of water pollution)

hesriptive doumenttion of progrmD plnD or projetF

Native Vegetation

edily identi(le nd reltively smll lotion where pollution soure oursF

Normalization

4ild4 plnts tht hve nturlly evolved nd suessfully dpted to region9s environmentl onditionsF
negative externality

en quired evolutionry trit hrteristi of humn eingsD wherey even rdil hnges re quikly dpted to nd represented s normlF
normative analysis

e ost tht is orne y someone who did not gree to the tivity tht used the ostF
net benets

e study of how things should eF

northwest passage

he di'erene etween totl ene(ts nd totl ostsF

net present value

e se route for ommere through the erti yen north of gndF

O obliquity

he present disounted vlue of strem of net ene(tsF

nitrication

ee exil iltF
ostream water use

e soietl use of wter tht removes it from its soureF

Oil Shocks

gonversion of mmoni into nitrtes y miroesF

nominal voltage

oltge of fully hrged ell or ttery when delivering mximum mount of energy tht n e withdrwn from ttery t spei( dishrge rteF
Non-Point Source

wo events of the IWUHs triggered y yig9s oil emrgo nd prie inreses tht used shortges of gsoline nd eventully ten fold inrese in the prie oil y IWVIF
oil spill

he term 4nonpoint soure4 is de(ned to men ny soure of wter pollution tht does not meet the legl de(nition of 4point soure4 in setion SHP@IRA of the glen ter et @see 4oint oure4 de(nition elowA
Non-Renewable Fuels

e type of orgni wter pollutnt involving the relese of liquid petroleum into the environment due to humn tivityF
Once Through

e single pss of nuler fuel through retor followed y longEterm geologi storgeF
Open-pit mine

GLOSSARY

STI hiseseEusing miroorgnismsD eFgFD virusesD teriD prsiti wormsD nd protozoD whih use vriety of intestinl diseses suh s dysenteryD typhoid feverD heptitisD nd holerF
Peak Oil / Hubbert's Peak

ype of surfe minerl mine whih ommonly involve lrge holes tht extrt reltively lowEgrde metlli oreF
opportunity cost

he ost of foregoing the next est hoie when mking deisionF

Ore deposit

votion with undnt oreF

Ore

ok with n enrihment of minerls tht n e mined for pro(tF

Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)

ses n orgniD high moleulr mss )uid with liquidEvpor phse hnge or oiling point ourring t lower temperture thn the wterEstem phse hngeF he )uid llows rnkine yle het reovery from lower temperture soures where the het is onverted into useful workD whih n then e onverted into eletriityF
Outcomes

he shortEterm results of n tivityF

Outputs

e single oil well follows pttern of inresing prodution in initil yers s its plentiful resoures re tpped to delining prodution in mture yers s its resoures re depletedF hese two trends re seprted y pek in prodution of the wellF wF uing ruert extrpolted this pttern from one well to mny nd in IWST predited tht the nited ttes9 oil prodution would pek in the midEIWUHsF elthough widely ritiized t the timeD ruert9s predition proved trueF his suess led to widespred preditions for the pek of world oil produtionF he onept of pek oil is n inevitle onsequene of using oil fster thn it n e mdeF roweverD ttempts to predit when the pek will our re notoriously di0ultF
Peak Oil

he goods nd servies eing reted y n tivityD nd the mnner nd degree in whih they re deliveredF
overconsumption

he pek in world oil prodution tht must ome out s oil onsumption surpsses the disovery of new oilF
performance standard

e longEterm result in whih the inrese in onsumption is greter thn the e0ieny improvement
oxygen-demanding waste

e regultion speifying something out the outome of privte ehviorsF

permafrost

e type of wter pollutnt involving undnt ded orgni mtterF

P Panning

oil tht hs temperture tht hs remined elow freezing @H g or QP pA for t lest two yersF
permeability

wethod of pler mining where wter in hndEheld onil metl pn swirls roundF
paran

wesure of the speed tht groundwter n )ow through rok or sedimentF

persistent organic pollutant

e whiteD odorlessD tstelessD wxy solid to store het with spei( het pity of PFIR!PFW t g1 u1 nd het of fusion of PHH!QHH t g1 F
pathogens

e group of orgni wter pollutnts tht re longElived in the environmentD umulte through the food hinD nd n e toxiF
Phantom Load or Vampire Power

efers to the eletril lod of pplines nd hrgers when they re not in use

STP ut plugged inD s they still drw power ut provide no servieF

phase change material

GLOSSARY

e mteril tht stores het in the form of ltent het of fusionF

Phase Change Materials

delivered to the pump nd (nlly to the rD where it is onverted @the point of useA to mehnil motion y the engineF imilrlyD eletriity is delivered to the ttery of n eletri r y the gridD nd onverted y the eletri motor of the r @the point of useA to mehnil motionF
Point of Use

wterils tht n sor nd deliver lrger mount of het thn ommon uilding mterils euse they n hnge their stte @solid or liquidAF
photosynthesis

he proess in whih plnts use energy from sunlight to omine gy2 from the tmosphere with wter to mke sugrsD nd in turn uild iomssF
PhotovoltaicCells

he lst step in the energy hinD where energy omplishes its intended funtionF por vehilesD this is the onversion of hemil energy in gsoline rs or eletri energy in ttery rs to motion of the wheels tht moves the r long the rodF
point source (of water pollution)

en eletroni devie onsisting of lyers of semiondutor mterils tht re produed to form djent lyers of mterils with di'erent eletroni hrteristis nd eletril ontts nd eing ple of onverting inident light diretly into eletriity @diret urrentAF
physical components of the earth system

vrge nd di'use lotion where pollution soure oursF

Point Source

xonliving ftors suh s roksD minerlsD wterD limteD irD nd energyF

Placer deposit

he(ned y etion SHP@IRA of the glen ter et s ny single identi(le nd disrete soure of pollution from whih pollutnts re dishrgedD suh s from pipeD dithD hnnelD ulvertD on(ned niml feeding opertionD or dishrged from )oting vesselF
Pollution Prevention

yre forming proess where dense gold prtiles nd dimonds re onentrted y )owing wter in rivers nd t ehesF
Placer mine

ype of surfe minerl mine whih extrts gold or dimonds from river nd ehF sediment y sooping up the sediment nd then seprting the ore y densityF
Point of Production

eduing or eliminting wste t the soure y modifying prodution proessesD promoting the use of nonEtoxi or lessEtoxi sustnesD implementing onservtion tehniquesD nd reEusing mterils rther thn putting them into the wste stremF
Pollution Prevention

he (rst @or t lest n erlyA step in the energy hinD where the energy tht ultimtely will perform funtion t the point of use is put into its working formF por gsolineEdriven rsD this is the re(nery where gsoline is produed from rude oilD for tteryEdriven rs this is the power genertion plnt were eletriity is produedF qsoline is then

he tive proess of identifying resD proessesD nd tivities whih generte exessive wste for the purpose of sustitutionD ltertionD or elimintion of the proess to prevent wste genertion in the (rst pleF
pools

emounts of mteril in iogeohemil yles tht shre some ommon hrteristi nd re reltively uniform in ntureF
pore space

GLOSSARY

STQ the kineti energy of wind efore it turns the ldes of turineF
primary producers

mll spes etween minerl grins in susurfe rok or sedimentF

porosity

erentge of pore spe in rok or sedimentF

positive analysis

e study of how things reF

positive externality

he primry entry point of ron into the iosphere"in nerly ll lnd nd quti eosystems plnts perform this role y virtue of photosynthesisF
Prime Mover

e ene(t tht rues to someone who did not gree to the tivity tht used the ene(tF
positive feedback

he term utilized to denote the gr system equipment tht onverts input fuel into mehnil shft power @reiproting engineD gs turineD stem turineD miroEturineAF
Probabilistic Risk Assessment

e runwy proess whih mpli(es the e'et of n initil hngeF

post-traumatic stress disorder

h E psyhologil ondition 'eting people who hve su'ered severe emotionl trum s result of n experiene suh s omtD rimeD or nturl dissterD nd using sleep disturnesD )shksD nxietyD tirednessD nd depressionF
Precautionary Principle

isk evlution involving the lultion nd expression of risks using multiple risk desriptors to provide the likelihood of vrious risk levelsF roilisti risk results pproximte full rnge of possile outomes nd the likelihood of ehD whih often is presented s frequeny distriution grphD thus llowing unertinty or vriility to e expressed quntittivelyF
Product Chain

he proposition tht deisionEmking should e driven y onern for the voidne of d outomesF sn environmentl termsD this mens oordinting eonomi development nd the pro(t motive with the need to mintin resilient eosystemsF
precipitation

hose stges in the oneptionD designD mnuftureD mrketingD useD nd endEofElife tht de(ne the impts of produt or servie on soietyF
Product Stewardship

he onversion of tmospheri wter from vpor into liquid @rinA or solid forms @snowD hilA tht then fll to irth9s surfeF
present discounted value

he vlue of something in presentEdy @rther thn futureA termsF

Primary Energy

he energy emodied in nturl resoures prior to undergoing ny humnEmde onversions or trnsformtionsF ixmples inlude the hemil energy in ol or the sunlight flling on solr ell efore it is onverted to eletriityD the nuler energy in the fuel of nuler retorD or

en pproh to produt development in whih produts re oneivedD designedD mnufturedD nd mrketed within systems thinking ontextF st is wy of frming environmentl prolems tht reognizes the three prts of the sustinility prdigmD nd inorportes the onepts of sustinle mnufturingD mrketingD utilityEtoEsoietyD impts of the use of the produtD nd endEofElife disposition of the produtF
Provisioning Ecosystem Services

espets of the nturl world used y us to meet our resoure needsD eFgF foodD wterD timerD nd (erF
proxy data

STR snformtion out the limte tht umultes through nturl phenomenF
public good

GLOSSARY

e good with two feturesX @iA it hs ene(t tht does not diminish with the numer of people enjoying itD nd @iiA no one n e exluded from onsuming itF
Pyrolysis

wterils suseptile to unstle onditionsF etive wstes re unstle under norml onditions nd n rete explosions nd or toxi fumesD gsesD nd vpors when mixed with wterF
recharge area

he onversion of iomss t modertely high temperture @SHH ! VHH gA in n inert tmosphere tht results in ioEoil intermediteF
Q Quantitative Data

votion on irth where surfe wter in(ltrtes into the ground rther thn runs o' into rivers or evportesF
Reciprocating Engine

e het engine tht uses one or more reiproting pistons to onvert pressure into mehnil rotting shft powerF
Reclaimed mine

snformtion tht n e qunti(ed numerilly suh s tons of wsteD gllons of gsolineD nd gllons of wstewterF
quaternary period

winerl mine restored to useful lndspeF

Recycling

he most reent geologil periodD spnning the time from PFT million yers go to todyF
R radiative forcing

eprtion physilGmehnil proess y whih seondry rw mterils @suh s pperD metlsD glssD nd plstisFA re otined from wF
Regulating Ecosystem Services

ghnge in net irrdine @n energy )uxA mesured t some oundryF por this text the oundry is typilly t the surfe of the erth or the top of tmosphereF e positive hnge indites wrming nd negtive hnge indites oolingF
Radioactive Half-Lives

roesses in the irth system tht ontrol key physil nd iologil elements of our environmentD eFgF limte regultionD )ood regultionD disese regultionD wter puri(tionF
Remote Responsibilities

he mount of time neessry to derese the rdiotivity of rdiotive mteril to oneEhlf the originl levelF
Radioactive Waste

eny wste tht emits energy s rysD wvesD or strems of energeti prtilesF
Rain Barrel

en ethil extension of systems litery nd the priniple of onnetivityX we re linked to peoples nd ples remote from us through the we of glol industril prodution nd ommereD nd thus hve responsiility towrd themF
Renewable Fuels

e isternD rrel or storge system tht ollets nd stores the rinwter or snowmelt from roofs tht would otherwise e diverted to storm drins nd strems s stormwter runo'F
rainwater harvesting

puels tht re never exhusted or n e repledF

Renewable Generation Variability

gthing nd storing rinwter for reuse efore it rehes the groundF

Reactivity

he vrition of the output of solr or wind plnt depending on wetherF olr plnts often produe only ISEPH perent of their mximum output @lso lled instlled pityA euse the sun shines only during the dy nd pssing louds n osure itY wind plnts produe PHERH perent of their mximum pity

GLOSSARY

STS e solid oherent piee of plnet irthF

S
saltwater intrusion

euse the wind speed vries with wether onditionsD often eoming lm for dys t timeF
Reprocessing

ghemilly proessing spent nuler fuel to reover the unused portionD whih is then pssed through the retor gin to produe more powerF eproessing uses greter frtion of the energy of the fuel ut lso inreses the risk of illegl diversion of nuler mteril for wepons prolifertionF
reservoir

ltwter tht enters n quifer due to overpumping of freshwter quifers ner oen ostlinesF
saturated zone

usurfe re where groundwter ompletely (lls pore spes in rok or sedimentF

Scenario

vrge rti(il lke used s soure of wterF

Resilience and Vulnerability

smportnt terms of mesurement for the impt of environmentl hngeD prtiulrly on humn ommunitiesF he gol of sustinility nlysis nd poliyD t ll levelsD is to enhne the resiliene of ommunities to hngeD in other wordsD to mitigte their vulnerilityF
Resilience

e glol development pth sed on spei( ssumptions for the eonomiD tehnologil nd soil glol ontextD prediting energy demndD energy ostD nd growth of energy tehnologiesF
Scoping

he ility of n eologil ommunity to hnge in response to disturne nd the degree or time needed for tht system tht provides desirle to go k to its originl stteF
respiration

he stge of vge in whih the rtionle for rrying out the ssessment is mde expliitD where the oundries of the system re de(nedD where the dt quntityD qulityD nd soures re spei(edD nd where ny ssumptions tht underlie the vge re sttedF
sediment

e type of wter pollutnt tht degrdes drinking wter nd n kill underwter plnts tht need sunlight for photosynthesisF
Sedimentary Processes

wetoli proess in ll orgnisms tht genertes energy nd synthesizes iomss while relesing gy2 s yEprodutF
Reuse

sing omponent of w in its originl form more thn oneF

revealed preference

roesses of ore formtion tht our in rivers nd onentrte snd nd grvel @used in onstrutionAD s well s dense gold prtiles nd dimonds tht wethered wy from edrokF
Sedimentary rock

lution tools tht use ehviors suh s jo hoieD housing hoieD nd reretionl site hoie to revel informtion out the vlues people hve for fetures of the environmentF
river discharge

porms y hrdening of lyers of sediment @loose grins suh s snd or mudA deposited t irth9s surfe or y minerl preipittionD iFeFD formtion of minerls in wter from dissolved minerl mtterF
sensible heat

olume of wter moving through river hnnel over timeF

Rock

he het energy stored in sustne s result of n inrese in its tempertureF

sensitivity analysis

STT ivlution of how sensitive the results of n nlysis re to hnges in ssumptions used in the nlysisF
septic tank system

GLOSSARY

reting ore minerls with di'erent hemils to extrt the metlF

snowball earth

en individul sewge tretment system for homes in rurl nd even some urn settingsF
Sequestered

e ondition in whih the entire plnet is overed in ieD lst thought to hve hppened TSH million yers goF
soil moisture

ter in the unsturted zoneF

solar energy

emoved from the tmosphere

sewage treatment plant

he sun9s rdition tht rehes the erthF

solar radiation

e fility tht proesses wstewter with the min gol of removing orgni mtter @oxygenEdemnding wsteA nd killing teriF
Slag

he energy emitted y the sun in the form of lightF

Solid Waste

qlssy unwnted yEprodut of smelting oreF

sludge

gonentrted orgni solid produed during primry nd seondrytretment of sewge tretmentF

Sluice box

wethod of pler mining where running wter psses through wooden ox with ri1es on the ottomF
Smart Grid

eording to the esoure gonservtion nd eovery et @geAD solid wste isX grgeY refuseY sludge from wste tretment plntD wter supply tretment plntD or ir pollution ontrol filityY nd other disrded mterilsD inluding solidD liquidD or ontined gseous mteril resulting from industrilD ommerilD miningD nd griulturl opertionsD nd from ommunity tivitiesF
solvent

he ddition of sensors to monitor power )ow nd twoEwy ommunition to trnsmit the power )ow informtion to the utility nd the ustomer in rel timeF he ddition of sensors nd ommunition to the grid enles severl new operting modesX the ustomer deide in rel time to urtil his eletriity use during pek times when rtes re high @known s demndEresponseAD the utility n identify preisely the time nd ple of power )ow filures due to wether or other eventsD nd the grid n e equipped with utomti iruit rekers @known s fult urrent limitersA nd other protetion devies tht respond immeditely to power )ow filuresD limiting dmge to the grid nd the risk of triggering sde of filuresF
Smelting

gpity of liquid suh s wter to dissolve solule minerlsF

Somatic Eects

i'ets from some gentD like rdition tht re seen in the individul who reeives the gentF
spring

iver tht emerges from underground due to n rupt intersetion of the wter tle with the lnd surfeF
stated preference

lution tools tht use survey responses to hypothetil questions rther thn dt on tul hoiesF
Steam Turbine

tilizes the nkine gyle to extrt het from stem nd trnsform the het into mehnil shft power y expnding the stem from high pressure to low pressure through the turine ldesF
Stormwater Runo

GLOSSARY

STU
Supporting Ecosystem Services

he overlnd )ow of preipittion generted y tht portion of rin nd snowmelt tht does not in(ltrte into the groundD is not tken up y plntsD nd is not evported into the tmosphereF
Strategic mineral

he iogeohemil ylesD s well s iologil nd physil proesses tht drive eosystem funtionD eFgF soil formtionD nutrient ylingD nd photosynthesisF
Surface mine

winerl onsidered essentil to ountry for some militryD industrilD or ommeril purpose ut the ountry must import the minerl to meet its needsF
streamow

winerl mine tht ours t irth9s surfeF

surface runo

plow of wter in stremsF

Strip mine

plow of wter over the lnd surfeF

surface runo

ype of surfe minerl mine whih extrts horizontl lyers of ore or rokF
strong sustainability

nhnnelized overlnd )ow of wterF

sustainable development

ell forms of pitl must e mintined intt independent of one notherF he impliit ssumption is tht di'erent forms of pitl re minly omplementryY tht isD ll forms re generlly neessry for ny form to e of vlueF rodued pitl used in hrvesting nd proessing timerD for exmpleD is of no vlue in the sene of stoks of timer to hrvestF ynly y mintining oth nturl nd produed pitl stoks intt n nonEdelining inome e ssuredF
Superconducting Cable

hevelopment tht meets the needs of the present without ompromising the ility of future genertions to meet their own needsF
Swales

qrded nd engineered lndspe fetures designed s vegettedD shllowD open hnnels or dithes tht re usully plnted with )ood tolernt nd erosion resistnt plntsF
Synchronous Generator

en underground le mde of superondutorD whih loses ll resistne to eletri urrent t low tempertureF uperonduting les mde of seondEgenertion oted ondutors sed on the opper oxide fmily of superondutors disovered in IWVT re now entering the gridF feuse superondutors ondut eletriity without produing hetD they n rry up to (ve times more power thn onventionl opper les in the sme rossEsetionl reF
superfund

gonverts the mehnil shft power from the gr prime mover to utility grde elternting gurrent owerF e synhronous genertor is selfEexiting @ontins its own soure of retive powerA nd n operte independent ofD or isolted fromD the utility gridF
Synthetic Biology

he (eld of iology in whih miroes re engineered to ontrol metoli pthwysF

Systems Literacy

e federl progrm reted in IWVH nd designed to identify nd len up the worst of the hzrdous hemil wste sites in the FF

en edutionl philosophy tht emphsizes student9s ompetene in wide vriety of disiplinesD so tht he or she might etter understnd the opertions of those omplex systemsD oth humn nd nturlD tht underpin sustinilityF
Systems Thinking

STV sn the ontext of sustinilityD systems thinking is wy of oneiving humnEreted nd nturl systems s funtionl prts of lrgerD integrted systemF
T Tailings
transpiration

GLOSSARY

voss of wter y plnts to the tmosphereF

Transuranic Radioactive Waste (TRU)

pineEgrined wste produed from proessing oreF

Technical Potential

wste ontins more thn IHH nnouries of lphEemitting trnsurni isotopesD with hlfElives greter thn twenty yersD per grm of wsteF
travel cost analysis

he geogrphil potentil fter the losses due to onversion of the primry energy )ux to seondry energy rriers or formsD suh s eletriityF
technology standard

e reveled preferene tool tht estimtes the vlues of nturl resoure menities y nlyzing dt on reretionl site hrteristis nd people9s visittion ptterns nd trvel ostsF
Triple Bottom Line

e regultion speifying wht kind of tehnology gents must or must not use in their tivitiesF
Tipping Point

e referene to the vlue of usiness going eyond dollr pro(tility to inlude soil nd environmentl osts nd ene(ts s wellF
Triple Bottom Line

he ritil moment of nonliner hnge wherey system hnges suddenly from one stte to notherF
total dissolved solids

eounting for eologil nd soil performne in ddition to (nnil performne

U U-factor

otl mount of dissolved mteril in wterD typilly reported in prts per million @ppmA unitsF
toxic chemical

e type of orgni wter pollutnt involving hemils with severe humn helth riskF
Toxicity

he rte of het loss is indited in terms of the of window ssemlyF he lower the EftorD the greter window9s resistne to het )ow nd the etter its insulting propertiesF
unconned aquifer

equifer with no quitrd ove itF

underground fuel storage tank

he degree to whih hemil sustne @or physil gentA eliits deleterious or dverse e'et upon the iologil system of n orgnism exposed to the sustne over designted time periodF
tradable permits

e type of wter pollutnt if it leksF

Underground mine

winerl mine tht involves network of tunnels to ess nd extrt the oreF
unsaturated zone

e poliy in whih the totl mount of n tivity is limitedD ut gents n trde the rights to engge in tht tivity @permitsAF
Transesterication

usurfe re where pore spes ontin only ir nd wter (lms on minerl grinsF
urban sprawl

he se tlyzed retion of plnt oil with methnol with reks the oil into long ftty id hinsD whih n e used s low qulity diesel fuelF

eny environment hrterized y @IA popultion widely dispersed in low density residentil developmentY @PA rigid seprtion of homesD shopsD nd

GLOSSARY

STW is intended to redue pollution nd onserve resouresD wste prevention should not inrese the net mount or toxiity of wstes generted throughout the life of produtF
Waste to Energy

workplesY @QA lk of distintD thriving tivity entersD suh s strong downtowns or suurn town entersY nd @RA network of rods mrked y lrge lok size nd poor ess from one ple to notherA hs een found to orrelte with inresed ody mss indexF
use values

fene(ts ssoited with diret intertion with nture nd the environmentF

V valuation

gomustion of w to generte eletril energy or het

water conservation

sing less wter nd using it more e0iently

water crisis

he proess of estimting dollr vlue for n menity or dismentityF

value of a statistical life

e sttistil onept tht n e used s the vlue of reduing the numer of deths in popultion y oneF
visible spectrum

e glol sitution where people in mny res lk ess to su0ient wter or len wter or othF
water cycle

he light rdition tht is in the rnge of wvelengths tht is visile to the humn eyeF
volatile organic compounds

he ontinuous movement of wter through wter reservoirs loted onD oveD nd elow irth9s surfeF
water pollution

@yg E n orgni ompound tht evportes t reltively low temperture nd ontriutes to ir pollutionD eFgF ethyleneD propyleneD enzeneD or styreneAF
W Waste Heat to Power (Bottoming Cycle
CHP)

gontmintion of wter y n exess mount of sustne tht n use hrm to humn eings nd the eosystemF
water reservoir (in water cycle)

qenerl lotion on irth where wter is loted inluding oensD tmosphereD gliersD groundwterD lkesD riversD nd iosphereF
water table

gptures the wste het generted y n industril or ommeril proessD utilizing the wste het s the free fuel soure for generting eletriityF
Waste Minimization

snterfe etween the unsturted zone nd sturted zoneF

water table well

wesures or tehniques tht redue the mount of wstes generted during industril prodution proessesY the term is lso pplied to reyling nd other e'orts to redue the mount of wste going into the wste mngement systemF
Waste Prevention

ter well drilled into n unon(ned quifer where the wter level in the well oinides with the wter tleF
Watershed

e geogrphi re tht nturlly drins to spei( wterwy or wterodyF

watts per square meter (W/m2)

he designD mnuftureD purhse or use of mterils or produts to redue their mount or toxiity efore they enter the muniipl solid wste stremF feuse it

inergy @toulesA per seond moving through surfe @squre meterAF e )ux of energy through surfe reF
weak sustainability

SUH ell forms of pitl re more or less sustitutes for one notherY no regrd hs to e given to the omposition of the stok of pitlF ek sustinility llows for the depletion or degrdtion of nturl resouresD so long s suh depletion is o'set y inreses in the stoks of other forms of pitl @for exmpleD y investing roylties from depleting minerl reserves in ftoriesAF
weather

GLOSSARY

e wy of expressing the onept tht there is no one solution to the hllenge of reduing greenhouse gs emissionsF ih tehnologyD tion or hnge is represented y tringulr wedge in hrt of time vsF emissionsF
welfare

frodly de(nedD welfre is wellEeingF

well-mixed gas

e desription of the short term stte of the tmosphereF

Weathering

e gs tht n e found t the sme onentrtion throughout the lower tmosphere regrdless of lotionF
willingness to accept

yre forming proess where soil wter in tropil rin forest environment onentrtes insolule elements suh s luminum @uxiteA y dissolving wy the solule elementsF
Wedge Approach

he mount of money you would hve to py someone to ompenste them for deleterious hngeF
willingness to pay

he mount of money someone is willing to py for something goodF

INDEX

SUI

Index of Keywords and Terms

re listed y the setion with tht keyword @pge numers re in prenthesesAF ueywords do not neessrily pper in the text of the pgeF hey re merely ssoited with tht setionF Ex. pplesD IFI @IA Terms re referened y the pge they pper onF Ex. pplesD I
Keywords

" (

4(rst )ush4 phenomenonD SQP @gepyAD WFQFR@RTUA sorption hillersD RHR eessiilityD IIFI@SPIAD SPS eid mine dringeD SFT@PIHAD PPP etive rnsporttionD VFRFR@QVPAD QWT dptD RVW edpttionD IHFI@RVVA edditionlityD TFS@PSPAD PSR eeroiD UFP@PTTAD PUR ledoD QFP@RVAD SR llotionD RPV emient tndrdD TFT@PSWAD PTH mient tempertureD VFT@RIHA mient temperturesD RIS emient ter ulityD IIFP@SQIAD SQR mmoni(tionD RFP@IIUAD IPP eneroiD UFP@PTTAD PUR enthropoeneD SHT nthropogeniD QFR@URAD UTD RSS nthropogeni gyP emissionsD RFP@IIUAD IIW equedutD SFP@IRWA quedutsD IUQ equiferD SFP@IRWAD ISV equitrdD SFP@IRWAD ISV erseniD SFR@IVPAD IWV ertesin wellD SFP@IRWAD ITI essessment @isyED WFP@RPPA ssimilteD IPP ssimiltionD RFP@IIUA evoided gostD TFR@PRRAD PRW evoided gost of owerD VFSFP@RHQAD RHS xil preessionD QFQ@TIA exil reessionFD UH xil tiltD QFQ@TIAD UH fene(t rnsferD TFR@PRRAD PRV fetz9s vwD VFRFIFR@QSQAD QSS

A esorption ghillerD VFSFP@RHQA

fioumultionD UFP@PTTAD PUI fiossyD UFS@PVVA iossysD PWH fiotlysisD VFRFPFP@QTRA iotlytiD QUP fiohemil oxygen demndD SFR@IVPAD IWP fioomplexityD IHFR@SHIAD SHP fiodieselD VFP@QHTAD QPR iodiversityD RFQ@IPRAD IPSD RWV fiodiversity nd ixtintionD IHFQ@RWRA fiofuelsD VFP@QHTAD QPR iogeohemil ylesD RFP@IIUAD IIU iolehingD PPR fiolehing of minerlsD SFT@PIHA iologil omponents of the erth systemD RFP@IIUAD IIU iologil nitrogen (xtionD RFP@IIUAD IPP fiologil proessesD SFT@PIHAD PIS fiologil retmentD UFP@PTTAD PUP fiomssD VFP@QHTAD QHTD QPP iooxidtionD PPR fiooxidtion of minerlsD SFT@PIHA fioremeditionD SFR@IVPAD PHU iosorptionD PPR fiosorption of minerlsD SFT@PIHA flk smokerD SFT@PIHA lk smokersD PIS fottled wterD SFR@IVPAD PHS f yil hissterD IHFU@SIIA f oil spillD IHFS@SHSA fuilding eutomtion ystem @feAD VFRFR@QVPA fuilding utomtion systemsD QWP
C gr hringD VFRFR@QVPAD QWT

B feesD IHFT@SHVA

gron xeutrlityD IHFR@SHIAD SHR gron equestrtionD VFRFIFP@QRRA grinogeniityD UFS@PVVAD PWH grpoolingD VFRFR@QVPAD QWT grrying gpityD WFQFI@RQTAD RQW ghigo glimte etion lnD VFQ@QQHA ghroni eferene hose @fhAD UFS@PVVA

SUP hroni fhD PWP limteD QFP@RVAD RWD SH glimte etion lnsD VFQ@QQHA glimte hngeD QFI@RUA glosed voopsD IHFR@SHIAD SHR gose heoremD TFT@PSWAD PSW golony gollpse hisorderD IHFS@SHSAD IHFT@SHVA gomined ret nd owerD RHQ gomined ret nd ower @grAD VFSFP@RHQA gomined ewer yver)ows @gysAD IIFP@SQIAD SQT gomined sewer systemsD SFR@IVPAD IWHD IIFP@SQIAD SQT gommnd nd gontrolD TFT@PSWA ommndEndEontrolD PTH gommon ut hi'erentitedD IHFV@SIQA ommon ut di'erentited responsiilitiesD SIT gommon ool esoureD TFP@PQPA ommonEpool resoureD PRH gommonEpool resouresD TFQ@PRIA gommunityEupported egriultureD WFQFR@RTUAD RUI omplex humn systems filureD IHFU@SIIA gompostD UFP@PTTAD PUR gondenstionD SFP@IRWAD ISI gone of depressionD SFP@IRWAD ITW gon(ned @or onentrtedA eniml peeding ypertionD WFQFR@RTUA gon(ned niml feeding opertions @gepysAD RUH gon(ned quiferD SFP@IRWAD ISW gonjoint enlysisD TFR@PRRA gonnetivityD IHFP@RWHAD RWP gonstruted wetlndD SFR@IVPA onstruted wetlndsD PHS onsumptive useD ITT gonsumptive wter useD SFP@IRWA gontminnt plumeD SFR@IVPAD PHH gontingent lutionD TFR@PRRA gonventionl grD RHR gonventionl gr @opping gyle grAD VFSFP@RHQA gornuopinD IHFV@SIQAD SIQ gorrosivityD UFP@PTTAD PTV ost e'etiveD PSU gost i'etivenessD TFS@PSPA gostEfene(t enlysisD TFS@PSPAD PST gostEi'etiveD TFP@PQPAD PQR gounterftulD TFS@PSPAD PSR

INDEX

rdleEtoEgrveD RRW greteousD TH reteous periodD QFP@RVA ulturl eosystem serviesD RFI@IISAD IIS gulturl eutrophitionD SFR@IVPAD IWQ
D hmD SFP@IRWA

dmsD IUQ hedweight vossD TFP@PQPAD PQR deomposersD RFP@IIUAD IPP heepwter rorizonD IHFU@SIIA dehumidi(tionD RHR denturtionD VFT@RIHAD RIR denitrifying teriD RFP@IIUAD IPP herived demndD IIFI@SPIAD SPI heslintionD SFP@IRWAD IUU hesint hehumidi(tionD VFSFP@RHQA desintsD RHR deterministiD PVW heterministi isk essessmentD UFS@PVVA dihroniD SHP hihroniGynhroniD IHFR@SHIA dieselD VFT@RIHAD RIV higestionD UFP@PTTAD PUR hiret wethodsD TFR@PRRAD PRW dishrgeD ISW hishrge reD SFP@IRWA hisountingD TFS@PSPAD PSS hringe sinD SFP@IRWAD ISQ eoEe0ienyD VD WFR@RVPAD RVQ eologil footprintD RRW eologil serviesD RFQ@IPRAD IQP ionomi snput yutput vife gyleD WFP@RPPA ionomi otentilD VFRFIFR@QSQAD QSU ionomisD TFI@PQIA eosystemD RFI@IISAD IISD WFQFI@RQTA eosystem funtionD RFQ@IPRAD IQI iosystem qoods nd erviesD WFQFI@RQTAD RQW eosystem serviesD IHD RFI@IISAD IISD TFR@PRRAD PRS eosystemsD IHD RQW i0ienyD VFRFIFI@QQSAD QQU i0ientD TFP@PQPAD PQQ isyEvgeD RQS iletriity qridD VFRFIFI@QQSAD QQT imodied energyD IIFI@SPIAD SPR imergyD WFQFI@RQTAD RRHD RVH imergy @iwodied energyAD WFQFS@RURA imergy erformne sndex @iwsAD

E eentriityD QFQ@TIAD UH

INDEX

SUQ possil puelsD VFI@QHIAD QHI pree iderD TFP@PQPAD PRH puel gellD VFSFP@RHQA fuel ellsD RHR puntionl nitD WFP@RPPAD RPV
G gs phseD VFT@RIHAD RIV

WFQFS@RURAD RVH imjouleD WFQFI@RQTAD RRH indEofEvife gostsD WFR@RVPAD RVR inergy grrierD VFRFPFI@QTQA energy rriersD QTQ energy denseD QUI inergy hensityD VFRFPFP@QTRAD VFSFI@QWUAD QWW inrihment ftorD SFT@PIHAD PIP intropyD WFQFI@RQTAD RRH invironmentD WFI@RPIA environmentlD QFQ@TIA invironmentl nd esoureD TFI@PQIA invironmentl hissterD IHFU@SIIA environmentl performne inditorsD RUR invironmentl erformne snditors @isAD WFQFS@RURA environmentl performne inditors @issAD RUR invironmentl ustinilityD TFP@PQPAD WFP@RPPA invironmentl ustinility sndex @isAD WFQFS@RURAD RUW ipidemiologyD UFS@PVVAD PWH eutetisD VFT@RIHAD RIP eutrophitionD RFP@IIUAD IPR evportionD RFP@IIUAD IPHD SFP@IRWAD ISI evpotrnspirtionD RFP@IIUAD IPH ixessive plnt nutrientD SFR@IVPA ixessive plnt nutrientsD IWP ixergyD WFQFI@RQTAD RRHD RRH ixtended rodutGroduer esponsiilityD WFR@RVPAD RVQ externlitiesD SPV ixternlities @ositive ndD TFP@PQPA ixternlityD IIFI@SPIA ixternlity xD TFT@PSWAD PTI ixternliztionD IHFQ@RWRA externlizedD SHH extintD IPV extintionD RFQ@IPRAD RWV extirptionD RFQ@IPRAD IQI
F pustD IHFS@SHSA

qs urineD VFSFP@RHQA gs turinesD RHR qsi(tionD VFRFPFP@QTRAD QUP gsolineD VFT@RIHAD RIV qeneti i'etsD UFP@PTTAD PUI qeneti engineering of miroesD SFT@PIHAD PPR qeogrphil otentilD VFRFIFR@QSQAD QSU qeotherml inergyD VFP@QHTAD QHTD VFRFQFI@QUQAD QUQ qeotherml lntD VFP@QHTA qeotherml plntsD QPS qhost eresD WFQFR@RTUAD RUH glil periodD QFQ@TIA glil periodsD TV qlol rming otentilD RST grphite mtrixD VFT@RIHAD RIQ qret yen gonveyor feltD VFRFIFP@QRRAD QRU qreen oofD IIFP@SQIAD SQW greenhouse e'etD QFP@RVAD SU qreenhouse qs imissionsD VFQ@QQHA greenhouse gsesD QFP@RVAD SUD TID RFP@IIUAD IIV qreenwshingD WFR@RVPAD RVQ gross domesti produtD RSV qroundwterD SFP@IRWAD ISU groundwter dishrgeD RFP@IIUAD IPH qroundwter miningD SFP@IRWAD ITW rep lehingD SFU@PPSAD PPU retD SFR@IVPAD PHH het of fusionD VFT@RIHA ret umpD VFRFQFI@QUQAD QUR retD entiltion nd eir gonditioning ystems @regAD VFRFQFI@QUQA hetingD ventiltionD ir onditioning @regAD QUV revy metlD SFR@IVPA hevy metlsD IWV redoni rie enlysisD TFR@PRRAD PRW redoni ge enlysisD TFR@PRRAD PSH righ vevel diotive ste @rvAD UFP@PTTA

H rrd wterD SFR@IVPAD PHH

permenttionD VFRFPFP@QTRAD QUP (nned tueD VFT@RIHA (nned tuesD RIQ pisherEropsh ynthesisD VFRFPFP@QTRAD QUP )uxesD RFP@IIUAD IIU pood wilesD WFQFR@RTUAD RTU pood eurityD WFQFR@RTUAD RTU footprintD SHR

SUR righElevel wsteD PTV rushingD SFU@PPSAD PPT ryrid ehileD VFSFI@QWUA hyrid vehilesD RHI hydrted sltD VFT@RIHA hydrted sltsD RIPD RIQ rydruli miningD SFU@PPSAD PPT hydrologil yleD QFR@URAD VQ rydrologyD IIFP@SQIAD SQS rydrothermlD SFT@PIHAD PIS rydrotretingD VFRFPFP@QTRAD QUI rypoxiD SFR@IVPAD IWQ
I

INDEX

ie sheetsD QFQ@TIAD TP sgneous rystlliztionD SFT@PIHAD PIS sgneous rokD SFT@PIHA sgneous roksD PIP sgnitilityD UFP@PTTAD PTV smptsD WFQFS@RURAD RUR sninertionD UFP@PTTA snditorD WFQFI@RQTAD RQUD RRI snditorEfsed ystemsD WFQFI@RQTAD RQU sndividul trdle quotD TFQ@PRIA sndution qenertorD VFSFP@RHQAD RHT industril eologyD RPQ sndustril evolutionD VFI@QHIAD QHI in(ltrtesD IPH in(ltrtionD RFP@IIUA infrred spetrumD QFP@RVAD ST snfrstruture gomptileD VFRFPFP@QTRAD QUI snorgni gtlysisD VFRFPFP@QTRAD QUQ snputsD WFQFS@RURAD RUR insoltionD QFP@RVAD SHD TI instrem useD ITT snstrem wter useD SFP@IRWA snstrumentlistD IHFQ@RWRAD SHH sntegrted ste wngementD UFP@PTTAD PTT snterdisiplinrityD IHFR@SHIAD SHI interglil periodD QFQ@TIA interglil periodsD TV snternl gomustion ingineD VFI@QHIAD QHSD QWU snventory ellotionD WFP@RPPA snverterD VFSFP@RHQAD RHT isotopesD QFQ@TIAD TQ tevons prdoxD U kh nd whD VFRFIFI@QQSA vnd(llsD UFP@PTTAD PTV

lst glil mximumD QFQ@TIAD TV ltent hetD VFT@RIHAD RIHD RII vgeAD WFP@RPPA vehteD UFP@PTTAD PUI lehingD RFP@IIUAD IPPD SFT@PIHAD PIV viEion tteryD VFT@RIHAD RIV viilityD TFT@PSWAD PTQ vife gyle essessmentD WFP@RPPA vife gyle essessment @vgeAD WFP@RPPAD RPQ vife gyle smpt enlysis @vgseAD WFP@RPPA life yle impt ssessment @vgseAD RPW life yle inventoryD RQH vife gyle snventory @vgsAD WFP@RPPA vifeyleD IHFR@SHIAD SHR vightweightingD VFRFR@QVPAD QWS vignoelluloseD VFRFPFP@QTRAD QTW liqui(ed petroleum gsD VFT@RIHA viqui(ed petroleum gsesD RIV little ie geD QFR@URAD UT vovoreD WFQFR@RTUAD RTW vow smpt hevelopmentD IIFP@SQIA vow smpt hevelopmentsD SQU vowEemittneD QWH vowEimittne gotingsD VFRFR@QVPA vowEvevel diotive ste @vvAD UFP@PTTA vowElevel wsteD PTV
M wF uing ruertD QHP

K khD QRI

L lnd use hngeD RFP@IIUAD IIW

wrginl fene(tD TFP@PQPAD PQQ wrginl gostD TFP@PQPAD PQQ wrine (sheriesD TFQ@PRIA wrket filureD TFP@PQPAD PQR wximum ustinle ield @wAD WFQFI@RQTAD RQW mehnil iologil tretmentD PUR wehnil fiologil retment @wfAD UFP@PTTA wedil steD UFP@PTTAD PTW medievl wrm periodD QFR@URAD UT weruryD SFR@IVPAD IWW werury mlgmtionD SFU@PPSAD PPT metolismD SHR wetolism nd pootprintD IHFR@SHIA metl mtriesD VFT@RIHAD RIQ wetmorphi rokD SFT@PIHA wetmorphi roksD PIP wetmorphismD SFT@PIHAD PIS milnkovith ylesD QFQ@TIAD TW will ilingsD UFP@PTTAD PTV winerlD SFT@PIHAD PIP winerl onservtionD SFT@PIHAD PPQ

INDEX

SUS yrgni nkine gyle @ygAD VFSFP@RHQA yutomesD WFQFS@RURAD RUR yutputsD WFQFS@RURAD RUR overonsumptionD V yxygenEdemnding wsteD SFR@IVPAD IWP
P nningD SFU@PPSAD PPT

winerl reylingD SFT@PIHA winerl reservesD SFT@PIHAD PIW winerl resouresD SFT@PIHAD PIHD PPP winerl reuseD SFT@PIHA winerl sustitutionD SFT@PIHA mitigteD RVW witigtionD IHFI@RVVA woilityD IIFI@SPIAD SPS wonteEgrlo wethodD UFS@PVVA wonteEgrlo simultionsD PWT moridityD PFS@QUAD RH mortlityD PFS@QUAD RH muniipl solid wsteD PTU wuniipl olid ste @wAD UFP@PTTA whD QRI
N xrrtive essessmentsD WFQFI@RQTAD RQU

xtive egettionD IIFP@SQIAD SQV negtive externlityD PQS xegtiveAD TFP@PQPA xet fene(tsD TFP@PQPAD PQQ xet resent lueD TFS@PSPAD PSS nitri(tionD RFP@IIUAD IPP nominl voltgeD VFT@RIHAD RIV xonEoint oureD IIFP@SQIA nonEpoint souresD SQR nonErenewleD QHU xonEenewle puelsD VFP@QHTA xonEse luesD TFR@PRRAD PRS nonlinerD RWU xonpoint soure @of wter pollutionAD SFR@IVPA nonpoint souresD IWH xormliztionD IHFP@RWHAD RWP normtiveD PQP xormtive enlysisD TFI@PQIA northwest pssgeD QFR@URAD WH o'strem useD ITT y'strem wter useD SFP@IRWA yil hoksD VFRFIFR@QSQAD QSR yil spillD SFR@IVPA yil spillsD IWU yne hroughD VFRFIFQ@QRWAD QSP ypenEpit mineD SFT@PIHA openEpit minesD PIV ypportunity gostD TFS@PSPAD PSP yreD SFT@PIHAD PIP yre depositD SFT@PIHA ore depositsD PIP orgni rnkine yleD RHV

O oliquityD QFQ@TIAD UH

pr0nD VFT@RIHA pr0n wxesD RIP r0nsD RIQ thogensD SFR@IVPAD IWT ek yilD VFRFPFP@QTRAD QTS ek yil G ruert9s ekD VFI@QHIA pekinessD SRI pekingD QHP erformne tndrdD TFT@PSWAD PTI permfrostD QFR@URAD WH ermeilityD SFP@IRWAD ISV ersistent orgni pollutntD SFR@IVPA persistent orgni pollutntsD IWV phntom lodD QWH hntom vod or mpire owerD VFRFR@QVPA phse hnge mterilD VFT@RIHA hse ghnge wterilsD VFRFQFI@QUQAD RIH phse hnge mterils @gwAD QUW photosynthesisD RFP@IIUAD IIV photovolti @A ellsD QPT hotovolti gellsD VFP@QHTA physil omponents of the erth systemD RFP@IIUAD IIU ler depositD SFT@PIHA pler depositsD PIS ler mineD SFT@PIHA pler minesD PIV oint of rodutionD VFSFI@QWUAD QWW oint of seD VFSFI@QWUAD QWW oint oureD IIFP@SQIA oint soure @of wter pollutionAD SFR@IVPA point souresD IWHD SQR ollution reventionD UFP@PTTAD IIFP@SQIAD SQR poolsD RFP@IIUAD IIU ore speD SFP@IRWAD ISU orosityD SFP@IRWAD ISV positive nlysesD PQP ositive enlysisD TFI@PQIA positive externlityD PQU positive feedkD QFP@RVAD SS postEtrumti stress disorderD PFS@QUAD RQ reutionry rinipleD IHFV@SIQAD SIU preipittionD RFP@IIUAD IPH resent hisounted lueD TFS@PSPAD PSS

SUT prevent pollutionD PUP rimry inergyD VFRFIFI@QQSAD QQT primry produersD RFP@IIUAD IIV rime woverD VFSFP@RHQAD RHR proilistiD PVW roilisti isk essessmentD UFS@PVVA rolemEolvingD wetrisD nd ools forD WFI@RPIA rodut ghinD WFR@RVPAD RVQ rodut tewrdshipD WFR@RVPAD RVR provisioning eosystem serviesD RFI@IISAD IIS proxy dtD QFQ@TIAD TP uli qoodD TFP@PQPAD PQW yrolysisD VFRFPFP@QTRAD QUP
Q untittive htD WFQFI@RQTAD RQU S

INDEX

quternry periodD QFQ@TIAD TP

R rditive foringD QFR@URA

diotive rlfEvivesD VFP@QHTAD QIV diotive steD UFP@PTTA rdiotive wstesD PTT in frrelD IIFP@SQIA rin rrelsD SQW inwter hrvestingD SFP@IRWAD IUU etivityD UFP@PTTAD PTV ehrge reD SFP@IRWA ehrge resD ISV eiproting ingineD VFSFP@RHQA reiproting enginesD RHR relimedD PPP elimed mineD SFT@PIHA eylingD UFP@PTTAD PTT regulting eosystem serviesD RFI@IISAD IIS emote esponsiilitiesD IHFV@SIQAD SIS renewleD QHU enewle puelsD VFP@QHTA renewle genertionD QRI enewle qenertion riilityD VFRFIFI@QQSA eproessingD VFRFIFQ@QRWAD QSP eservoirD SFP@IRWA reservoirsD ISS esilieneD WFQFI@RQTAD RQWD SHR esiliene nd ulnerilityD IHFR@SHIA respirtionD RFP@IIUAD IIV esponsiilitiesD IHFV@SIQA euseD UFP@PTTAD PUP eveled refereneD TFR@PRRAD PRW iver dishrgeD SFP@IRWAD ISP okD SFT@PIHAD PIP

ltwter intrusionD SFP@IRWAD IUP turted zoneD SFP@IRWAD ISU enrioD VFRFIFR@QSQA enriosD QSU opingD WFP@RPPAD RPU edimentD SFR@IVPAD PHH edimentry roessesD SFT@PIHAD PIS edimentry rokD SFT@PIHA edimentry roksD PIP sensile hetD VFT@RIHAD RIH ensitivity enlysisD TFS@PSPAD PST epti tnk systemD SFR@IVPAD PHP sequesteredD RST equestrtion of ron dioxideD QRV ewge tretment plntD SFR@IVPAD PHP lgD SFT@PIHAD PIV ludgeD SFR@IVPAD PHP luie oxD SFU@PPSAD PPT mrt qridD VFRFIFI@QQSAD QQW meltingD SFT@PIHAD PIV snowll erthD QFP@RVAD SS oil moistureD SFP@IRWAD ISU solr energyD VFT@RIHAD RIR solr rditionD QFP@RVAD SQ olid steD UFP@PTTA solid wstesD PTU olventD SFR@IVPAD IVT omti i'etsD UFP@PTTAD PUI pringD SFP@IRWA springsD ISW tted refereneD TFR@PRRAD PSH tem urineD VFSFP@RHQA stem turinesD RHR tormwter uno'D IIFP@SQIAD SQI trtegi minerlD SFT@PIHA strtegi minerlsD PIW strem)owD RFP@IIUAD IPH trip mineD SFT@PIHA strip minesD PIV strong sustinilityD IH uperonduting gleD VFRFIFI@QQSA uperonduting underground lesD QQV uperfundD SFS@PHUAD PHU supporting eosystem serviesD RFI@IISAD IIS urfe mineD SFT@PIHA surfe minesD PIV surfe runo'D RFP@IIUAD IPHD SFP@IRWAD ISH ustinilityD @IAD QFQ@TIAD WFI@RPIAD IHFS@SHSA sustinle developmentD R wlesD IIFP@SQIAD SQS

INDEX

SUU
V lutionD TFR@PRRAD PRS

synhroniD SHP ynhronous qenertorD VFSFP@RHQAD RHT yntheti fiologyD VFRFPFP@QTRAD QUQ ystems viteryD IHFR@SHIAD SHI ystems hinkingD WFR@RVPAD RVR
T ilingsD SFT@PIHAD PIV

lue of ttistil vifeD TFR@PRRAD PSH vmpire powerD QWH visile spetrumD QFP@RVAD ST voltile orgni ompoundsD PFS@QUAD RI vulnerilityD SHR ste ret to ower @fottoming gyle grAD VFSFP@RHQA ste winimiztionD UFP@PTTAD PUQ ste reventionD UFP@PTTAD PUP ste to inergyD UFP@PTTAD PUS ter onservtionD SFP@IRWAD IUU ter risisD SFP@IRWAD IUP ter yleD SFP@IRWAD ISH ter pollutionD SFR@IVPAD IVV ter reservoirD SFP@IRWA wter reservoirsD IRW ter tleD SFP@IRWAD ISU ter tle wellD SFP@IRWA wter tle wellsD ITI tershedD IIFP@SQIAD SQI wtts per squre meterD QFR@URAD UT wek sustinilityD IH wetherD QFP@RVAD RW etheringD SFT@PIHAD PIS edge epprohD VFRFR@QVPAD QVQ elfreD TFP@PQPAD PQQ wellEmixed gsD QFR@URAD VQ illingness to eeptD TFR@PRRAD PRV illingness to yD TFR@PRRAD PRV pirst plush henomenonD IIFP@SQIA eky terwysD IIFP@SQIA

ehnil otentilD VFRFIFR@QSQAD QSU ehnology tndrdD TFT@PSWAD PTH thermohline irultionD QRU ipping ointsD IHFT@SHVAD SIH otl dissolved solidsD SFR@IVPAD IVU oxi hemilD SFR@IVPA oxi hemilsD IWV oxiityD UFP@PTTAD PTU rdle permit shemeD TFQ@PRIA rdle ermitsD TFT@PSWAD PTP rnsesteri(tionD VFRFPFP@QTRAD QTUD QTW rnspirtionD SFP@IRWAD ISH rnsurni diotive ste @AD UFP@PTTA rnsurni wsteD PTV rvel gost enlysisD TFR@PRRAD PSH triple ottom lineD RRWD WFR@RVPAD RVP non(ned quiferD SFP@IRWAD ISW nderground fuel storge tnkD SFR@IVPA underground fuel storge tnksD PHI nderground mineD SFT@PIHA underground minesD PIV niversity glimte etion lnD VFQ@QQHA nsturted zoneD SFP@IRWAD ISU urn sprwlD PFS@QUAD QW se luesD TFR@PRRAD PRS

W ste ret to owerD RHV

U EftorD VFRFR@QVPAD QWI

SUV

ATTRIBUTIONS

Attributions
golletionX Sustainability: A Comprehensive Foundation idited yX om heis nd tonthn omkinD iditors vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGolIIQPSGIFQTG vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4refe4 fyX om heisD tonthn omkin vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITTQGIFQG geX I gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4en sntrodution to ustinilityX rumnity nd the invironment4 fyX om heis vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIIVUGIFSG geX Q gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4ht is ustinilityc4 fyX om heis vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIIVVGIFTG gesX QET gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4he se iqution4 fyX om heis vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIIWHGIFSG gesX TEU gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4rumn gonsumption tterns nd the eound i'et4 fyX om heis vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIIWIGIFTG gesX UEW gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4ghllenges for ustinility4 fyX om heis vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIIWPGIFSG gesX WEII gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG

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SUW

woduleX 4ghpter eview uestions4 fyX om heis vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIIWQGIFSG geX IP gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4he ivolution of invironmentl oliy in the nited ttes ! ghpter sntrodution4 fyX om heis vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRPIIVGIFRG geX IQ gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4he emerin gonservtion wovement4 fyX om heis vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRPIIUGIFQG gesX IREPS gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4invironmentl isk wngement4 fyX om heis vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRPIISGIFRG gesX PSEQQ gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4ustinility nd uli oliy4 fyX om heis vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRPIITGIFRG gesX QQEQT gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4uli relth nd ustinility4 fyX gindy uleinEfni vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRQQPIGIFPG gesX QUERT gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4glimte nd qlol ghnge ! ghpter sntrodution4 fyX tonthn omkin vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITTRGIFQG geX RU gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4glimte roessesY ixternl nd snternl gontrols4 fyX tonthn omkin vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVRVPGIFISG gesX RVETI gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG

SVH woduleX 4wilnkovith gyles nd the glimte of the uternry4 fyX tonthn omkin vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVSUPGIFIHG gesX TIEUR gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4wodern glimte ghnge4 fyX iri nodgrss vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRISUWGIFTG gesX UREWS gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4glimte rojetions4 fyX iri nodgrss vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRISVHGIFTG gesX WTEIIQ gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4fiosphere ! ghpter sntrodution4 fyX endrew vekey vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITIUGIFSG gesX IISEIIU gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4fiogeohemil gyles nd the plow of inergy in the irth ystem4 fyX endrew vekey vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITIVGIFSG gesX IIUEIPR gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4fiodiversityD peies vossD nd iosystem puntion4 fyX te'rey frwnD wihel rdD engel uent vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITIWGIFTG gesX IPREIQP gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4oil nd ustinility4 fyX hvid qrimley vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITPHGIFTG gesX IQQEIRS gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4hysil esouresX terD ollutionD nd winerls E ghpter sntrodution4 fyX teve eltner vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRISPQGIFQG gesX IRUEIRW gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG

ATTRIBUTIONS

ATTRIBUTIONS

SVI

woduleX 4ter gyle nd presh ter upply4 fyX teve eltner vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIQWUGIFSG gesX IRWEIUU gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4gse tudyX he erl e E qoingD qoingD qone4 fyX teve eltner vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIRHHGIFRG gesX IUUEIVI gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4ter ollution4 fyX teve eltner vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIRRIGIFUG gesX IVPEPHU gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4gse tudyX he vove gnl hisster4 fyX teve eltner vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIRRRGIFSG gesX PHUEPIH gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4winerl esouresX pormtionD winingD invironmentl smpt4 fyX teve eltner vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIRUHGIFRG gesX PIHEPPS gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4gse tudyX qoldX orth its eightc4 fyX teve eltner vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIRTUGIFRG gesX PPSEPPW gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4invironmentl nd esoure ionomis E ghpter sntrodution4 fyX emy endo vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVSWVGIFUG gesX PQIEPQP gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4rgedy of the gommons4 fyX emy endo vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVTIPGIFTG gesX PQPEPRH gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG

SVP woduleX 4gse tudyX wrine pisheries4 fyX emy endo vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVVUVGIFSG gesX PRIEPRR gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4invironmentl lution4 fyX emy endo vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVWSRGIFSG gesX PRREPSP gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4ivluting rojets nd oliies4 fyX emy endo vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVTIIGIFUG gesX PSPEPSV gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4olutionsX roperty ightsD egultionsD nd snentive oliies4 fyX emy endo vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVWSTGIFSG gesX PSWEPTR gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4wodern invironmentl wngement ! ghpter sntrodution4 fyX om heis vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRISUQGIFQG gesX PTSEPTT gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4ystems of ste wngement4 fyX urishn eddy vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRISUPGIFQG gesX PTTEPUT gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4gse tudyX iletroni ste nd ixtended roduer esponsiility4 fyX urishn eddy vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRISUIGIFQG gesX PUUEPUW gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4qovernment nd vws on the invironment4 fyX emid uhoddoust vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRISUHGIFQG gesX PUWEPVV gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG

ATTRIBUTIONS

ATTRIBUTIONS

SVQ

woduleX 4isk essessment wethodology for gonventionl nd elterntive ustinility yptions4 fyX erp irdl vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRISTTGIFQG gesX PVVEPWW gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4ustinle inergy ystems E ghpter sntrodution4 fyX qeorge grtree vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUPRGIFPG gesX QHIEQHT gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4invironmentl ghllenges in inergyD gron hioxideD eirD ter nd vnd se4 fyX gindy uleinEfni vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUPSGIFPG gesX QHTEQQH gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4gse tudyX qreenhouse qses nd glimte ghnge4 fyX gindy uleinEfni vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUPTGIFPG gesX QQHEQQS gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4iletriity4 fyX qeorge grtree vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUPVGIFPG gesX QQSEQRR gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4possil puels @gol nd qsA4 fyX qeorge grtree vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUPUGIFPG gesX QRREQRW gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4xuler inergy4 fyX qeorge grtree vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUPWGIFPG gesX QRWEQSQ gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG

SVR woduleX 4enewle inergyX olrD indD rydro nd fiomss4 fyX qeorge grtree vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUQIGIFPG gesX QSQEQTQ gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4possil puel @yilA4 fyX qeorge grtree vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUQSGIFPG gesX QTQEQTR gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4he gonversion of fiomss into fiofuels4 fyX tohn egluto vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUQTGIFPG gesX QTREQUQ gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4qeotherml reting nd gooling4 fyX ohil wurd vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUQUGIFQG gesX QUQEQVI gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4ustinle inergy rtiesX glimte etion lnning4 fyX gindy uleinEfni vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIURIGIFPG gesX QVPEQWU gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4iletri nd lugEin ryrids4 fyX qeorge grtree vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUQVGIFPG gesX QWUERHQ gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4gomined ret nd ower4 fyX tohn gutti vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIURHGIFPG gesX RHQERIH gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG

ATTRIBUTIONS

ATTRIBUTIONS

SVS

woduleX 4epplitions of hse ghnge wterils for ustinle inergy4 fyX id elErlljD iz uizilel vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIUQRGIFRG gesX RIHERPH gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4rolemEolvingD wetrisD nd ools for ustinility E ghpter sntrodution4 fyX om heis vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVTPQGIFQG gesX RPIERPP gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4vife gyle essessment4 fyX om heis vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVTRQGIFIIG gesX RPPERQT gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4ustinility wetris nd ting ystems4 fyX gindy uleinEfni vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITITGIFSG gesX RQTERRU gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4pootprintingX gronD iologil nd ter4 fyX gindy uleinEfni vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITISGIFRG gesX RRUERTP gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4gse tudyX gompring qreenhouse qs imissionsD iologil pootprint nd ustinility tE ing of niversity4 fyX gindy uleinEfni vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITHSGIFQG gesX RTPERTU gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4pood wiles4 fyX hennis uez vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVTVHGIFQG gesX RTUERUR gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG

SVT woduleX 4invironmentl erformne snditors4 fyX hennis uez vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQVVUUGIFRG gesX RURERVI gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4gse tudyX x willennium hevelopment qols snditor4 fyX hennis uez vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITHPGIFPG gesX RVIERVP gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4ustinility nd fusiness4 fyX om heis vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRPPUQGIFPG gesX RVPERVT gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4he rumn himensions of ustinilityX ristoryD gultureD ithis4 fyX qillen ood vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmQWQUVGIFRG gesX RVVERVW gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG

ATTRIBUTIONS

woduleX 4st9s xot isy feing qreenX entiEinvironmentl hisourseD fehviorD nd sdeology4 fyX qillen ood vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIHTUGIFQG gesX RWHERWR gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4he sndustriliztion of xtureX e wodern ristory @ISHH to the presentA4 fyX qillen ood vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRHVPIGIFRG gesX RWRESHH gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4ustinility tudiesX e ystems vitery epproh4 fyX qillen ood vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIHQWGIFRG gesX SHIESHS gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG

ATTRIBUTIONS

SVU

woduleX 4he ulnerility of sndustrilized esoure ystemsX wo gse tudies4 fyX qillen ood vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIHTVGIFQG gesX SHSESHV gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4gse tudyX egriulture nd the qlol fee golony gollpse4 fyX qillen ood vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIHSSGIFRG gesX SHVESII gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4gse tudyX inergy nd the f yil hisster4 fyX qillen ood vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIHTTGIFRG gesX SIIESIQ gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4ustinility ithis4 fyX qillen ood vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIHTWGIFQG gesX SIQESIW gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4ustinle rnsporttionX eessiilityD woilityD nd herived hemnd4 fyX tulie gidell vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRPUIUGIFIG gesX SPIESQI gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG woduleX 4ustinle tormwter wngement4 fyX wrtin t'e vX httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRPUITGIFIG gesX SQIESRQ gopyrightX of s ypen oure extook snititive vienseX httpXGGretiveommonsForgGliensesGyGQFHG

Sustainability: A Comprehensive Foundation

ith ustinilityX e gomprehensive poundtionD (rst nd seondEyer ollege students re introdued to this expnding new (eldD omprehensively exploring the essentil onepts from every rnh of knowldege ! inluding engineering nd the pplied rtsD nturl nd soil sienesD nd the humnitiesF es sustinility is multiEdisiplinry re of studyD the text is the produt of multiple uthors drwn from the diverse fulty of the niversity of sllinoisX eh hpter is written y reognized expert in the (eldF

About Connexions

ine IWWWD gonnexions hs een pioneering glol system where nyone n rete ourse mterils nd mke them fully essile nd esily reusle free of hrgeF e re eEsed uthoringD tehing nd lerning environment open to nyone interested in edutionD inluding studentsD tehersD professors nd lifelong lernersF e onnet ides nd filitte edutionl ommunitiesF gonnexions9s modulrD intertive ourses re in use worldwide y universitiesD ommunity ollegesD uEIP shoolsD distne lernersD nd lifelong lernersF gonnexions mterils re in mny lngugesD inluding inglishD pnishD ghineseD tpneseD stlinD ietnmeseD prenhD ortugueseD nd hiF gonnexions is prt of n exiting new informtion distriution system tht llows for Print on Demand BooksF gonnexions hs prtnered with innovtive onEdemnd pulisher yy to elerte the delivery of printed ourse mterils nd textooks into lssrooms worldwide t lower pries thn trditionl demi pulishersF