Unit 4 Down-Hole and Up-Hole Techniques

The up-hole and down-hole techniques are a more economical alternative to the cross-holetechnique; only one borehole is needed. In the down-hole technique, the impulse source of energy isgenerated at the ground surface near the top of the borehole, in which one or multiple geophones arelowered at predetermined depths, whereas in the up-hole test, waves are generated at various depths inthe borehole and receivers are located along the ground surface. Figure 5, shows schematics of the up-hole and down-hole tests. Travel time of the body waves (S- an P-waves) between each geophone andthe source are recorded. Recorded travel time is then plotted versus depth as in the seismic refractiontest. These plots are then used to determine the maximum compression and shear wave velocities; Vcmax and Vsmax of all soil layers (SWAJA, 1972; Woods, 1994; Gazetas, 1991).

If both Vc a n d V s are measured, the soils Poissons ratio ( ) can be determined using equations (1), (2),and the following relationship between E and G (SW-AJA, 1972): G = E / 2(1+ ) (3)

By means of substitution, we obtain: = (2-Vc2 / Vs2) / 2(1 - Vc2 / Vs2) (4)

In the seismic down-hole test, low velocity layers can be detected even if they are between highvelocity layers if geophone spacing is sufficiently close. Sources of S-wave used in seismic refraction canbe used for the seismic up- and down-hole testing. Depending on the depth of the soil layers investigated, the source of seismic waves will vary from hand generated sources to the use of large mechanical equipment. In addition, in the seismic up-hole and down-hole tests, the difficulty of picking up the firstarrival of shear waves from compression waves is resolved, by reversing the polarity of the sourcegenerating the wave pattern. The wave pattern is measured twice, using a horizontally directed sledgehammer blow on a firmly embedded post, which is struck in a direction parallel to the ground surface atfirst, then struck 180 degrees out of phase a second time (in the opposite direction). Reversing thedirection of the energy blow, allows for the shear wave pattern to be recorded in the reverse directionwhile the compression wave pattern is essentially unchanged. In this manner, the shear wave patternsare distinguished from compression wave patterns. However, in the up-hole test, it is more

difficult to generate selected shear waves. P-waves tend to be predominant within the source generated (SWAJA,1972; Woods, 1994; Gazetas, 1991). (a) Geophones Energy SourceGeophoneEnergy Source Figure 5 - Schematic of (a) Up-Hole Test and (b) Down Hole Test. (b)

Cross-Hole Technique:
The cross-hole technique is one of the best methods used for determining the variation with depth of low strain shear wave velocity. In this test, a source of seismic energy (mainly S-waves) is generated in or at the bottom of one borehole and the time for that energy to travel to another borehole through the soil layer is measured. From the borehole spacing and travel time, the velocity of the seismic wave is computed. Both body waves P-waves, and S-waves can be utilized in this test (Woods, 1978, 1994). Atleast two boreholes are required, one for the impulse and one or more for receivers as shown in Figure 4.The shear wave velocity is then used to compute the soil's shear modulus using equation (2). For the success of a cross-hole test there are several requirements. (1) Although a minimum of two boreholes is sufficient to perform the test, three or more boreholes improve the capabilities of the cross-hole method. (2) The energy source should be rich in shearing energy (S-waves) and poor incompressional energy (P-waves) such that the arrival of S-waves can be detected easily. (3) Geophones in the receiver boreholes should have proper frequency response and be oriented in the direction of particle motion. The geophones should also be in contact with the soil, either directly in case of cohesive soils, or indirectly in case of granular soils. Finally, the coupling between geophone transducers and vertical wall should be accomplished with specially designed packers. (4) Travel time measurement of shear waves should be measured accurately using direct or indirect resolution techniques. Often a direct time measurement is made by dual channel oscilloscopes or by digital oscilloscopes. Indirect timeresolution involves cross-correlation functions generated from wave trains recorded at two receiverboreholes, and automated frequency domain techniques, which calculate travel time based on the cross spectral density function of wave trains obtained at the receiver borehole(s) (Gazetas, 1991; Woods, 1978, 1994)

Cross-Hole Technique

CYCLIC PLATE LOAD TEST:

Equipment Suitable arrangement for providing reaction of adequate magnitude depending upon size of plate employed should be used. The load mechanism shoulohave facility to apply and remove the loads quickly1A hydraulic jack or any other suitable equipment may be used. Test Procedure The equipment for the test shall be assembled according to the details given in IS 1888:1982. The plate shall be located at a depth equal to the: depth of the proposed foundation in a pit excavated1as given in IS 1888:1982. After the set-up has been arranged the initial readings of the dial gauges should be noted an the first increment of static load should be applied to the plate. This load shall be maintained constantthroughout for a period till no further settlement occurs or the rate of settlement becomes negligible. The final readings of the dial gauges should then be recorded. The entire load is then removed quickly but gradually and the plate allowed rebound. When no further rebound occurs or the rate of rebound becomes negligible, the readings of the dial gauges should be again noted. The load shall then be increased gradually till its magnitude acquires a value equal to the proposed next higher stage of loading, which shall be maintained constant and the final dial gauge readings should be noted

as mentioned earlier. The entire, load should then be reduced to zero and final dial gauge readings recorded when the rate of rebound becomes negligible. The cycles of loading, unloading and reloading are continued till the estimated ultimate load has-been reached, the final values of dial gauge readings being noted each time.

The magnitude of the load increment should be such that the ultimate load is reached in five to six increments. The initial loading and unloading cycles up to the safe bearing capacity of the soil should be with smaller increments in load. The duration of each loading and unloading cycle upon the type of soil under investigation.

Coefficient of Elastic Uniform Compression from Cyclic Plate Load Test From the data obtained during cyclic plate load test, the elastic rebound of the plate corresponding to each intensity of loading shall be obtained as shown inFig. 6. The load intensity versus elastic rebound shall be plotted as shown in Fig. 7. The value of Cu, shall be calculated from the equation given below: Cu =P/Se kgf/cm3e Where P=Corresponding load intensity kg/cm2, and Se,= Elastic rebound corresponding to P in cm

Block vibration test:

A test pit of suitable size depending upon size of block should be made. For block size as in 5.2, the size of the pit may be 3 m x 6 m at the bottom and a depth preferably equal to proposed depth of foundations. The test should be conducted above theground water table. In case of rock, the test maybe performed on the surface of rock bed itself. Thebottom of the pit should be level and horizontal and the size of the pit should be at stable slope and may be kept vertical where possible. Test Block A plain cement concrete block of M-15 concrete should be constructed in the test pit as shown in Fig. 1. The size of the block should be selected depending upon the sub-soil conditions. In ordinary soils it may be 1 m x 1 m x 1.5

m and in dense soils it may be 0.75 m x 0.75 m x 1 m. In boulder deposits the height may be increased suitably. The block size should be so adjusted that the mass ratio Bz= [(1-e/4 *m/Pro^3)] is always more than unity The concrete block should be cured for at least 15days before testing. Foundation bolts should be embedded into the concrete block at the time of testing for fixing the oscillator assembly. Details of the test block are shown in Fig.1

Test Set-up Vibration exciter should be fixed on the coilcreteblock and suitable connection between power supplies, speed control unit, should be made as shown in Fig. 2. Any suitable electronic instrumentation maybe used to measure the frequency and amplitude ofvibrations.5.4 Forced Vibration Test 5.4.1 Vertical Vibration Test The Vibration pick-ups should be fixed at the top of the block as shown in Fig.1, such that it senses vertical motion of the block. The vibration exciter should be mounted on the block such that it generates purely vertical sinusoidal vibrations and line of action of vibrating force passes through the centre of gravity of the block. The exciter is operated at a constant frequency. The signal of the vibration pick-ups are fed into suitable electronic circulatory to measure frequency and amplitude of vibration. The frequency of the exciter is increased in steps of small values, (l-4 cycles/set) up to maximum frequency of the exciter and the signals measured. The same procedure should be repeated if necessary for different excitation levels. The dynamic force should never exceed 20 percent of the total mass of the block and exciter assembly. Amplitude versus frequency curve shall be plotted for each excitation level to obtain the natural frequency of the soil and the foundation block tested. A typical plot is shown in Fig. 3

5.4.2 Determination of Coefficient of Elastic UniformCompressti bf Soil The coefficient of elastic uniform compression (Cu) of soil is given by the following equation: c =4x2 f& M A Where f

Z = Natural frequency;= Mass of the block, exciter and motor; and A= Contact area of the block with the soil. From the value of CU obtained for the test block of contact area A the value of CU, for the foundation having contact area A, may be obtained from theequation:C, = CU d NOTE -

This relation is valid for small variations in base area of the foundations and may be used for area up to 10m2.For actual foundation areas larger than 10 m2, the value ofC, obtained for 10 mz may be used. 54.3 Determination of Damping Coefficient of Soil In case of vertical vibration test, the value of damping coefficient E of soil is given by the following equation: E = f2 fi2fm where f,, f, =Two frequencies at which the amplitude is equal to X, x, =f =r Maximum amplitude; and Frequency at which amplitude is maximum(resonant frequency). This is shown in Fig. 4. 5.5 Free Vibration Tests The block shall be excited into free vertical vibrations by the impact of sledge hammer or any suitable device, as near to the centre of the top face of the block as possible. The vibrations shall be recorded on open recorder or suitable device to measure the frequency and amplitude of vibration. The test maybe repeated three or four times. In case of free vertical vibrations tests, the value of CU shall be obtained from the natural frequency of free vertical vibration using equation given at 5.4.2.The damping coefficient may be obtained from free vibration tests using the following equation: XE =$log,-fmtl

For X,,, and Xm+,are as explained in Fig. 5.5.6 Evaluation of Coeffuzient of Attenuation The test set up is same as that for the block resonance

Unit 6th: Block foundation:

DEGREES OF FREEDOM OF BLOCK FOUNDATION: A typical concrete block is regarded as rigid as compared to the soil over which it rests. Therefore, it may be assumed that it undergoes only rigid-body displacements and rotations. Under the action of unbalanced forces, the rigid block may thus undergo displacements and oscillations as follow (Fig) 1. Translation along Z axis 2. Translation along X axis 3. Translation along Y axis 4. Rotation about Z axis 5. Rotation about X axis 6. Rotation about Y axis Any rigid-body displacement of the block can be resolved into these six independent displacements. Hence, the rigid block has six degrees of freedom and six natural frequencies. Of six types of motion, translation along the Z axis and rotation about the Z axis can occur independently of any other motion. However, translation about the X axis (or Y axis) and rotation about the Y axis (or X axis) are coupled motions. Therefore, in the Analysis of a block, we have to concern ourselves with four types of motions. Two motions are independent and two are coupled. For determination of the natural frequencies, in coupled modes, the natural frequencies of the system in pure translation and pure rocking need to be determined. Also, the states of stress below the block in all four modes of vibrations are quite different. Therefore, the corresponding soil-spring constants need to be defined before any analysis of the foundations can be undertaken.

Figure .Modes of vibration of a rigid block foundation

METHODS OF ANALYSIS:
The analysis of machine foundation is usually performed by idealizing it as a simple system as explained here. Figure 5 shows a schematic sketch of a rigid concrete block resting on the ground surface and supporting a machine. Let us assume that the operation of the machine produces a vertical unbalanced force which passes through the combined centre of gravity of the machine-foundation system. Under this condition, the foundation will vibrate only in the vertical direction about its mean position of static equilibrium. The vibration of the foundation results in transmission of waves through the soil. These waves carry energy with them. This loss of energy is termed geometrical damping. The soil below the

footing experiences cyclic deformations and absorbs some energy which is termed material damping. The material damping is generally small compared to the geometrical damping and may be neglected in most cases. However, material damping may also become important in some cases of machine foundation vibrations. The problem of a rigid block foundation resting on the ground surface, (Fig. 5a) may therefore be represented in a reasonable manner by a spring-mass-dashpot system shown in Fig. 5b. The spring in this figure is the equivalent soil spring which represents the elastic resistance of the soil below the base of the foundation. The dashpot represents the energy loss or the damping effect. The mass in Fig. 5b is the mass of the foundation block and the machine. If damping is neglected, a spring-mass system shown in Fig. 5c may be used to represent the problem defined in Fig. 5a. Single degree of freedom models shown in Fig. 5 b and c may in fact be used to represent the problem of machine foundation vibration in any mode of vibration if appropriate values of equivalent soil spring and damping constants are used. For coupled modes of vibration, as for combined rocking and sliding, two degree-of-freedom model is used as discussed later in the paper. All foundations in practice are placed at a certain depth below the ground surface. As a result of this embedment, the soil resistance to vibration develops not only below the base of the foundation but also along the embedded portion of the sides of the foundation. Similarly the energy loss due to radiation damping will occur not only below the foundation base but also along the sides of the foundation. The type of models shown in Fig. 5 b and c may be used to calculate the response of embedded foundations if the equivalent soil spring and damping values are suitably modified by taking into account the behavior of the soil below the base and on the sides of the foundation. Several methods are available for analysis of vibration characteristics of machine foundations. The commonly used methods are 1 Linear elastic spring method, 2 Elastic half-space analogs method, and 3 The impedance function method.

1. The Linear Elastic Spring method (Barkan, 1962) treats the problem of foundation vibrations as spring- mass model, neglecting damping in the soil. The soil damping can be included if desired. 2. The Elastic Half Space Analogs: The elastic half space theory can be used to determine the values of equivalent soil springs and damping then make use of theory of vibrations to determine the response of the foundation. These are known as the the elastic half space analogs. They can be used for surface as well as embedded foundations. It may be mentioned here that the equivalent soil spring and damping values depend upon the; (i) Type of soil and its properties, (ii) Geometry and layout of the foundation, and (iii) Nature of the foundation vibrations occasioned by unbalanced dynamic loads. 3. The Impedance Function Method: They also provide vales of soil spring and damping for surface and embedded foundations. The solutions based on the elastic half space analog are commonly used for machine foundation design and are discussed first followed by the impedance function method.

Unit 8th Vibration Isolation:

Introduction The purpose of vibration isolation is to control unwanted vibration so that its adverse effects are kept within acceptable limits. Vibrations originating from machines or other sources are transmitted to a support structure such as a facility floor, causing a detrimental environment and unwanted levels of vibration. If the equipment requiring isolation is the source of unwanted vibration, the purpose of isolation is to reduce the vibration transmitted from the source to the support structure. Conversely, if the equipment requiring isolation is a recipient of unwanted vibration, the purpose of isolation is to reduce the vibration transmitted from the support structure to the recipient. An isolator is a resilient support which decouples an object from steady state or forced vibration. To reduce the transmitted vibration, isolators in the form of springs are used. Common springs used are pneumatic, steel coil, rubber (elastomeric) and other pad materials. Natural frequency and

damping are the basic properties of an isolator which determine the transmissibility of a system designed to provide vibration and/or shock isolation. Additionally, other important factors must be considered in the selection of an isolator/isolation material.

Two such factors are: 1. The source and type of the dynamic disturbance causing vibration/shock. 2. The dynamic response of the isolator to the disturbance. With an understanding of its properties, the type of isolator is then chosen for the load it will support and the dynamic conditions under which it will operate. Natural Frequency (Spring Rate)

The simplest form of mechanical vibration to consider is based on a linear system. When applying linear theories, the values of displacement, velocity and have proportional relationships to the mechanical stiffness (spring rate) of the vibration isolation system. Typically, to make design and analysis easier, the response of isolators which are not truly linear (such as elastomers, cork, felt) are approximated by using linear relationships. Not all isolators whose isolation characteristics are based on mechanical deflection have a linear relationship between load and deflection. A common mistake is that Equation 1 can be used to calculate the natural frequency for all isolators if the spring rate (k) and supported mass (m) are known. Equation 1 FN = 1 k 2 m

If the spring rate (k) is not known, the equation can be rewritten (Equation 2) so that the calculated natural frequency of the isolator is a function of its static deflection. This results in a determination of the isolator's static natural frequency where (g) represents the gravitational constant. Equation 2 FN = 1 g 2 _s However, using the static, linear principles in Equations 1 and 2, the following mistakes are true: 1. Damping properties are neglected. 2. Only the static natural frequency is obtained.

3. The isolator is assumed to have a linear spring rate. The static deflection principle can only be used to determine the natural frequency of an isolator if the isolator under consideration is both linear and elastic. For example: rubber, felt, fiberglass and composite materials tend to be non-linear and exhibit a dynamic spring rate which differs from the static spring rate. Similarly the spring rate of a pneumatic isolator changes when undergoing a change from the static condition to a dynamic condition. The natural frequency as calculated based on static load vs. deflection data will give inaccurately lower natural frequencies than will be realistically experienced during dynamic vibration. Any isolator with a calculated natural frequency based on static deflections may not behave in the predicted way because the dynamic spring rate differs from the static spring rate. It is the dynamic natural frequency which has to be used in isolation calculations rather than the static.

Damping:
The essential properties of an isolator are natural frequency (developed by the spring rate or stiffness) and an energy dissipating mechanism known as damping. In some types of isolators the stiffness or natural frequency and damping properties are contained in a single element such as elastomers, cork, rubber mats, etc. Other types of isolators may have separate means of providing stiffness and damping as is the case with air springs (pneumatic isolators) and coil steel springs which are relatively undamped until used in conjunction with auxiliary damping elements such as orifice flow restrictors and viscous dampers. The purpose of damping in an isolator is to reduce or dissipate energy as rapidly as possible. Damping is also beneficial in reducing vibration amplitudes at resonance. Resonance occurs when the natural frequency of the isolator coincides with the frequency of the source vibration. The ideal isolator would have as little damping as possible in its isolation region and as much as possible at the isolator's natural frequency to reduce amplification at resonance. Damping however can also lead to a loss of isolation efficiency. (See transmissibility on the following pages).

Transmissibility:
The ratio of vibration transmitted after isolation to the disturbing vibration is described as "transmissibility" and is expressed in its basic form in Equation 3, where FD is the disturbing frequency of vibration and FN is the natural frequency of the isolator.

Equation 3

T=1 (FD / FN)2 - 1

When considering damping, the equation is rewritten (Equation 4), where _ represents the damping ratio of the isolator. Equation 4 T = 1 + (2_FD / FN)2 (1-[FD 2 / FN 2]) 2 = (2_ [FD / FN])2 Maximum transmissibility of an isolator occurs at resonance when the ratio of the disturbing frequency to the natural frequency is equal to 1 (i.e. FD / FN = 1). At resonance the transmissibility is given by Equation 5. Note that the magnitude of an isolator's amplification at resonance is a function of that isolators damping. Equation 5 T=1 2_ Figure A graphically shows the transmissibility of an isolator as a function of the frequency ratio. Several percentages of critical damping are displayed to show the effect of damping in the isolation region and the amplification region, including the maximum amplification at resonance. (FD / FN = 1) Note that as damping is increased, the curve of transmissibility is flattened, so that in the region near to resonance, the curve is reduced, but in the region where isolation is required, the curve is increased. The curves show that if there is a significant amount of damping in an isolator, its natural frequency has to be reduced to retain the desired degree of isolation at the frequency ratio of concern.