Part 5

MULTIMODE HEAT TRANSFER

In the preceding chapters only a single mode of heat transfer was considered. The isolation of each mode helps us to identify the mode of heat transfer and to develop the analytical and computational skills required to estimate the heat transfer by each mode. A few cases involving both conduction and convection were considered in the chapters on conduction, convection, and heat exchangers, but the resulting equations were usually linear. When radiative heat transfer occurs in conjunction with conductive and (or) convective heat transfer, the resulting equations are nonlinear, usually requiring numerical techniques for their solutions. Most practical problems involve multimode heat transfer. We now consider such cases with emphasis on radiative heat transfer. The algorithms for the numerical solutions depend on the nature of the equations. We illustrate some of them through examples. In this chapter we Consider a few cases with heat transfer by more than one mode with emphasis on radiative heat transfer. Illustrate a few algorithms to solve the resulting equations. Give a brief introduction to solar collectors, which involve heat transfer by all three modes. 5.1 INTRODUCTION

Multimode

In the previous chapters, solutions with only one mode of heat transfer was emphasized, as an understanding of heat transfer by each mode is necessary before solving problems with more than one mode of heat transfer. However, most practical problems involve more than one mode. In a few problems involving both conduction and convection considered in the earlier chapters, the heat flux is related to the temperature differences and the resulting equations were linear: the solutions were straightforward unless the properties are strongly temperature dependent. If radiative heat transfer is one of the modes, the heat flux is usually related to the difference in the fourth powers of the absolute temperatures leading to nonlinear equations. In the majority of cases involving multimode heat transfer, the resulting equations depend on the modeling. Therefore, no universal algorithm can be suggested for the solutions to such problems. In many cases numerical methods are needed to solve the resulting equations. The solutions may also need iterative methods. We now present solutions to several problems. ___________________________________________________________________________ Example 5.1.1 Conduction, Convection, and Radiation

1.2

Advanced Heat Transfer A 20-cm long, 1-cm diameter cylindrical carbon resistance heating element is placed inside a large duct (Figure 5.1.1). Atmospheric air at 0 oC, 20 m/s flows inside the duct. The outer surface of the electrically heated element is maintained at 800 oC. The duct walls are at 20 oC. Determine (a) The heat transfer rate from the element. (b) The maximum temperature in the element. Given Material: CarbonL = 20 cm Fluid: Air Find (c) q (d) T max Assumptions (1) Steady state. (2) Air does not participate in radiation. (3) Negligible heat transfer from the heating element end-surfaces.
1.3

Figure 5.1.1 Air in cross

d = 1 cm T = 0 o C

T s = 800 o C T w = 20 o C

V = 20 m/s

Multimode

(4) Constant thermal conductivity of carbon heating element. (5) Negligible blockage effect, i.e., negligible effect of the duct surfaces on the air flow pattern. Solution (a) The heat transfer rate from the element is by both by convection to the surrounding air and by radiation to the duct surface, q = qc + qR Convective heat transfer rate: Atmospheric air properties at an approximate film temperature of 400 oC, (Table A7) are = 0.5244 kg/m3 cp = 1069 J/kg K = 3.26110-5 Ns/m2 k = 0.05015 W/m K Pr = 0.6948 Vd [1:1.1] Re d = --------- = 3217 Employing Equation (4.2.19),
1 0.62Re d 2 Pr 1 3 Nu d = 0.3 + --------------------------------------------------- = 27.61 2 3]1 4 [ 1 + ( 0.4 Pr ) q c = hdL ( T s T ) = 695.9 W

Nu d k h = ------------ = 138.4 W/m 2 o C d

Radiative heat transfer rate: To compute the radiative heat transfer rate we consider the heating element surface as one surface, completely enclosed by the much larger duct surface. The radiative

1.4

Advanced Heat Transfer heat transfer rate is given by Equation (1.5.2). From Table A10, the emissivity of carbon filament is 0.53. Therefore (with T in K),
4 4 q R = dL ( T s T w ) = 249 W q = q c + q R = 944.9 W

(b) To find the maximum temperature in the element, we consider the resistance heating as uniform internal energy generation. Assumptions (6) Constant thermal conductivity (7) Negligible heat transfer from the end-surfaces and, therefore, one-dimensional temperature distribution Solution With a total internal energy generation of 949.9 W, internal energy generation per unit volume is q 7 q''' = ------------------- = 6.015 10 W/m 3 d 2 L 4 Employing cylindrical coordinates (x = r), constant thermal conductivity, and simplifying Equation (2.2.1) to the steady state, we obtain d kr dT = q'''r dr dr

1.5

Multimode

Boundary conditions:

dT dr

= finite or T is finite
r=R

= T s = 800 o C

Integrating the equations twice and applying the boundary conditions, q'''r 2 q'''R 2 q'''R 2 r2 T = ----------- + T s + ------------ = T s + ------------ 1 ----2 4k 4k 4k R q'''R 2 T max = T r = 0 = T s + -----------4k From Table A3, k (carbon filament) = 8.49 W/m K 6.015 10 0.005 2 T max = 800 + ----------------------------------------------- = 844.3 o C 4 8.49 ___________________________________________________________________________ Example 5.1.2 Conduction, Convection, and Radiation
7

1.6

Advanced Heat Transfer Saturated steam at 200 oC flows in a thin walled, 5-cm diameter horizontal tube insulated with 5-cm thick rockwool and covered with a thin painted metal cladding ( = 0.8). The surrounding air and surfaces are at 25 oC (Figure 5.1.2). Determine the heat loss per meter length of the tube. Given Fluid: Saturated steam T sat = 200 o C Fluid: Air T = 25 o C T s = 25 o C d = 2r o = 15 cm = 0.8 2r i = 5 cm Surrounding surfaces: Tube: Insulation: Rockwool Cladding: Painted metal

Figure 5.1.2 Conductive, convective and radiative heat transfer from an insulated steam

Find q/L (heat loss per meter length of tube) Assumptions

1.7

Multimode

(8) The condensation heat transfer coefficient is large and the convective resistance on the steam side is negligible. Therefore, the tube surface is at the steam saturation temperature of 200 oC. (9) As the tube and the metal cladding are thin, their conductive resistances are negligible. (10) The room surface is much larger than the insulation outer surface. (11) Quiescent air. Solution Heat transfer is by conduction across the insulation and by convection and radiation from the outer surface to the air and surrounding surfaces, respectively, as shown in Figure 5.1.2. From an energy balance on the outer surface, qk = qc + qR 2k ins L ( T i T o ) 4 4 q k = ---------------------------------------- q c = h2r o L ( T o T ) q R = 2r o L ( T o T s ) ln ( r o r i ) Substituting the expressions for the heat transfer rates and rearranging, we obtain k ins ( T i T o ) 4 4 ------------------------------ = h ( T o T ) + ( T o T s ) r o ln ( r o r i ) [1:2.2] [1:2.1]

1.8

Advanced Heat Transfer After solving Equation [1:2.2] for T o , we obtain the heat transfer rate per meter length by conduction (or as the sum of the convective and radiative heat transfer rates from the outer surface). To solve for T o we need h. As the air is quiescent, we assume the convective heat transfer is by natural convection. The natural convective heat transfer coefficient depends on T o , which is determined by the following iteration scheme. (1) Assume a value of T o . (2) Compute h. (3) Compute from Equation [1:2.2]. (4) Using the computed value of , repeat steps 2 and 3 until two consecutive values of h are very close to each other. (1) Assume T o = 60 o C . (2) Properties of atmospheric air at the film temperature of 42.5 oC and at T , are = 1.118 kg/m 3 c p = 1007 J/kg K = 1.93 10
5

Ns/m 2 K 1

k = 0.0268 W/m K Pr = 0.7248

1.9

= 3.354 10

Multimode

g 2 ( T o T )d 3 Pr 6 Ra d = ----------------------------------------------- = 9.461 10 Employing Equation (4.4.20), 2

1 0.387Ra d 6 Nu d = 0.6 + -------------------------------------------------------------- = 27.88 [ 1 + ( 0.559 Pr ) 9 16 ] 8 27 Nu d k h = ------------ = 4.98 W/m 2 K d (3) Compute T o from Equation [1:2.2]. With kins for rockwool (Table A3) = 0.04 W/m K 2

k ins ( T i T o ) 4 4 ------------------------------ = h ( T o T ) + ( T o T s ) T o = 33.11 o C r o ln ( r o r i ) As the computed value of T o is much lower than the value used for computing h, recompute the values starting with 33.1 oC for T o . The results are h = 3.28 W/m 2 K T o = 34.6 o C

One more iteration starting with T o = 34.6 o C for computing h, yields a value of 34.5 oC for T o , which is very close to the starting value for this step. Employing T o = 34.5 o C , h = 3.4 W/m 2 o C

1.10

Advanced Heat Transfer qc ---- = h2r o ( T o T ) = 15.4 W/m L 2k ( T i T o ) qk ---- = ------------------------------ = 37.9 W/m L ln ( r o r i ) Comments (1) Note that the radiative heat transfer rate is greater than the convective heat transfer rate. (2) The solution to Equation [1:2.2] can also be obtained by employing the radiative heat transfer coefficient. ___________________________________________________________________________ Example 5.1.3 Conduction, Convection, and Radiation qR 4 4 ----- = 2r o ( T o T s ) = 22.5 W L qc qR ---- + ----- = 37.9 W/m L L

1.11

Multimode

Reconsider Example 7.4.7. The furnace arch is constructed with 40-cm thick firebricks and there is no radiation shield (Figure 5.1.3). The inside surface temperature of the furnace is 1000 oC. Surrounding air and wall surfaces are at 35 oC. Modeling the arch as a 6-m wide, 20m long rectangular surface with an emissivity of 0.9, determine the heat transfer rate from the arch to the surroundings (3) If convection is neglected. (4) If convection is included. Given Figure 5.1.3 A furnace arch heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation Material: L = 0.4 m T 1 = 1000 o C Firebrick Width = 6 m

Length = 20 m = 0.9 T = T s = 35 o C

Find (a) q neglecting convection

1.12

Advanced Heat Transfer (b) q including convection Assumptions (5) Steady state. (6) Air does not participate in radiation. (7) Constant properties. (8) One-dimensional temperature distribution in the arch. (9) Surrounding surface area is much larger than the furnace top surface area.

1.13

Multimode

Solution Heat transfer is by conduction across the arch and by convection and radiation from the outer surface to the air and surrounding surfaces respectively (Figure 5.1.3). Denoting the thermal conductivity of firebrick by kb From an energy balance on the outer surface, qk = qc + qR [1:3.1]

kb A ( T1 T2 ) 4 4 q k = ------------------------------- q c = hA ( T 2 T ) q R = A ( T 2 T s ) L where A is the cross-sectional (also surface) area. Substituting the expressions for the heat transfer rates and rearranging, we obtain kb ( T1 T2 ) 4 4 --------------------------- = h ( T 2 T ) + ( T 2 T s ) L [1:3.2]

After solving Equation [1:3.2] for T 2 , we obtain the heat transfer rate by conduction (or as the sum of the convective and radiative heat transfer rate from the outer surface). To solve for T 2 we need h. As the air is quiescent, we assume the convective heat transfer is by natural convection. The natural convective heat transfer coefficient depends on T 2 , which is determined by the following iteration scheme. (1) Assume a value of T 2 . (2) Compute h. 1.14 Compute T from Equation [1:3.2].Using the computed value of T , repeat steps 2 and 3 until two consecutive values (3) 2 2

Advanced Heat Transfer kb ( T1 T2 ) 4 4 --------------------------- = ( T 2 T s ) L

4 T 2

[1:3.3] [1:3.4]

kb kb 4 --------- T 2 --------- T 1 T s = 0 + L L

Equation [1:3.4] can be solved for T 2 directly [see Spiegel (1968)] or by numerical methods. Here, we solve it by the bisection method. To solve Equation [1:3.4], as T 2 cannot be higher than T 1 or lower than T s , we set T H = T 1 and T L = T s . From Table A3, for firebricks, kb = 1 W/m K. Substituting the values into Equation [1:3.4], and dividing it by 108, we obtain T2 T2 4 -------- + 48.99 -------- 714 = 0 100 100 [1:3.5]

Setting T H = 1273.2 K and T L = 308.2 K , we get a sequence of values, some of which are given below. T L 100 T H 100 T 100 K K K 3.082 12.732 7.907 f ( TL ) -473 f(T) 3582 f ( TL ) f ( T ) <0
1.15

Multimode

T L 100 T H 100 T 100 K K K 3.082 3.082 4.288 4.691 4.691 transfer rate is given by 7.907 5.494 5.494 4.693 4.692 5.494 4.288 4.891 4.692 4.6915

f ( TL ) -473 -473 -166 -0.047 -0.047

f(T) 466 -166 97 0.42 0.18

f ( TL ) f ( T ) <0 >0 <0 <0 <0

From the table it is clear that the value of T 2 is close to 469.1 K. From Equation [1:3.1] the heat T1 T2 1273.2 469.1 q = k b A ----------------- = 1 6 20 ----------------------------------- = 241 200 W L 0.4 An alternate method of finding T 2 is to recast Equation [1:3.4] in the form x = [ 714 48.99 ( x ) ] 1 4 x = T 2 100 [1:3.6]

1.16

Advanced Heat Transfer Starting with any reasonable value of x on the right-hand side, a new value of x is computed. This is then used on the right-hand side again and the process repeated. When the absolute value of the difference between two successive values of x is within a pre-assigned convergence value, a good approximation to the correct value is obtained. Starting with T 2 = 1273 K or x = 12.73, the following sequence of values is obtained. 12.73, 3.083, 4.871, 4.669, 4.693, 4.691, 4.691 In this case a rapidly converging solution is obtained. There is no assurance that the convergence would be as rapid in all cases or even that convergence would be attained. For example, if instead of casting Equation [1:3.4] in the form of Equation [1:3.6] it is cast as x = ( 714 x 4 ) 48.99 , a diverging sequence of values is obtained. (b) Including convection, simplifying Equation [1:3.2], kb k b T 1 hT h4 + --------- + ----- T ---------- + --------- + T 4 = 0 T2 L 2 L Equation [1:3.7] is solved for T 2 by recasting it in the form, T2 = kb k b T 1 + hT + T 4 --------- + ----- T ---------- --------- h- 2 L L
14

[1:3.7]

[1:3.8]

1.17

Multimode

The convective heat transfer coefficient, which depends on the T 2 is found by the same algorithm as in part (a). Start computation with an assumed value of T 2 = 100 o C . Find h by natural convection from a horizontal surface with the heated surface facing up, employing Equation (4.4.12) or Equation (4.4.13). Properties of atmospheric air at the reference temperature of [ T 2 0.25 ( T 2 T ) ] = 83.8 o C and at [ T + 0.25 ( T 2 T ) ] = 324.5 K , are = 0.9891 kg/m 3 k = 0.02979 W/m K = 2.112 5 Ns/m 2 = 3.082 10
3

c p = 1008 J/kg K Pr = 0.7146

K 1

With W (width) as the characteristic dimension for computing Ra and Nu, g 2 ( T 2 T )W 3 Pr 11 Ra W = ------------------------------------------------- = 6.652 10 2 The value of Ra W is greater than the upper limit for Equation (4.4.13). However, we will use the correlation with the assumption that correlation was developed with experimental values of up to Ra W = 10 11 , that it is valid even at Ra W = 6.652 10 approximation to the actual value.
11

and that the value of h is a good

1.18

Advanced Heat Transfer Nu W k h = ------------- = 5.64 W/m 2 K W Employing Equation [1:3.8], the value of T 2 after the first iteration is 189.8 oC. Repeating the
1 Nu W = 0.13Ra W 3 = 1135

computations with T 2 = 189.8 o C and continuing the iteration process we obtain, T 2 = 157.6 o C, h = 6.61 W/m 2 K . The heat transfer rates are
4 4 q c = hA ( T 2 T ) = 97247 W q R = A ( T 2 T s ) = 155665 W

q = q c + q R = 252913 W Comments (1) With the inclusion of convection the surface temperature goes down from 469.1 K to 430.8 K but the heat transfer rate increases slightly from 241 200 W to 252 913 W, an increase of 4.9%. (2) The radiative heat transfer rate is greater than the convective heat transfer rate. (3) Natural convection correlation for still air is used, but with a furnace there will be some air movement and the actual heat transfer coefficient will be higher than the one obtained. If the convective heat transfer coefficient is 12 W/m2 oC, the values are T 2 = 135 o C and q = 258 770 W. Thus with an increase in the convective heat transfer coefficient there is a decrease in the outer surface temperature but a slightly higher (2.3%) heat transfer rate.
1.19

Multimode

(4) Because of the simultaneous changes in h and T 2 while iterating Equation [1:3.8], the number of iterations is significantly greater than the number of iterations with Equation [1:3.6] without convection. _____________________________________________________________________________ Example 5.1.4 Conduction, Convection, and Radiation The temperature of air flowing in a duct is measured by a thermocouple. The thermocouple junction is attached to the bottom surface of the thermometer well (Figure 5.1.4). The brass thermocouple well is a hollow cylinder with inner and outer diameters of 2.5 mm and 5 mm, respectively, and a length of 4 cm. The air flows with a velocity of 10 m/s at a pressure of 400 kPa. The thermocouple indicates a temperature of 395 K. The temperature of the well at the duct wall ( T B ) is 375 K. Estimate the true

Figure 5.1.4 Thermocouple in a well to measure air temperature temperature of the air.

1.20

Advanced Heat Transfer Given Fluid: Air U = 10 m/s Thermometer well: Brass L = 40 mm

p = 400 kPa d i = 2.5 mm

d o = 5 mm T B = 375 K

T A = 395 K

Find Fluid temperature T Assumptions (1) Negligible heat transfer from the inner surface of the well. (2) Duct wall is at the same temperature as the air, i.e., T w = T . (3) Duct surface is much larger than the well surface. (4) The thermocouple junction is at the same temperature as the end surface of the well. (5) One-dimensional temperature distribution in the well. Solution The temperature of the end-surface T A , is less than the air temperature due to conduction along the wall of the. The temperature distribution in the wall is found from an energy balance on an element shown shaded in the figure. q x q x + x q s = 0 [1:4.1]
1.21

Multimode

where q s = q c + q R , is the sum of the convective and radiative heat transfer rates to the air and the duct walls, respectively. q c = h c P ( T T ) x P = d o The duct surface is much larger than the well surface; the radiative heat transfer rate is given by
4 q R = P ( T 4 T ) x

Substitutingh c P ( T T ) x + P ( T 4 into Equation [1:4.1], dividing it by x and taking the limit as x 0 , we obtain dq x 4 h c P ( T T ) P ( T 4 T ) = 0 dx Boundary conditions: T
x=0

[1:4.2]

= TA

x=L

= TB

[1:4.3]

To solve the nonlinear Equation [1:4.2], linearize it by employing the radiative heat transfer 2 coefficient, h R = ( T 2 + T ) ( T + T ) . Denoting h = hc + hR, = T - T and m2 = hP/kAx, Equation [1:4.2] and the associated boundary condtions are

1.22

Advanced Heat Transfer d m2 = 0 2 dx

x=0 2

[1:4.4]
x=L

= A = TA T

= B = TB T

[1:4.5]

The solution to Equation [1:4.4] with the associated boundary conditions given by Equation [1:4.5] is B A cosh ( mL ) = A cosh ( mx ) + ------------------------------------------ sinh ( mx ) sinh ( mL ) [1:4.6]

Equation [1:4.6] contains the unknown fluid temperature T We ned an additional condition to determine it. Such a condition is obtained from an energy balance on the surface at x = 0. k d dx = h
x=0 x=0
or

B A cosh ( mL ) ------------------------------------------ = h A km sinh ( mL ) Solving for Tf in Equation [1:3.7]

[1:4.7]

1.23

Multimode

[ h sinh ( mL ) km + cosh ( mL ) ]T A T B T = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------cosh ( mL ) 1 + h sinh ( mL ) km

[1:4.8]

Both h and m (which depends on h) on the right hand side of Equation [1:3.8] depend on the value of Tf, which is found by the following iteration scheme. (1) Assume a reasonable value of T. (2) Determine hc, hR, and h. (3) Determine T from Equation [1:4.8]. Employing the computed value of T, repeat steps 2 and 3 until two consecutive values are sufficiently close to each other (1) Assume T = 400 K = 126.8 o C (2) Both h c and h R depend on the wall surface temperature, which varies from 395 K at x = 0 to 375 K at x = L. We will evaluate them at the mean surface temperature Tm = 385 K. The properties of air at 400 kPa and the film temperature of 392.5 K are = 3.551 kg/m 3 k = 0.03231 W/m K c p = 1012 J/kg K Pr = 0.7075 = 2.261 10
5

Ns/m 2

Ud o Re d = ------------- = 7852

1.24

Advanced Heat Transfer Employing Equation (4.2.19) 1 0.62Re d 2 Pr 1 3 Nu d k --------------------------------------------------- = 43.3 Nu d = 0.3 + h c = ------------ = 279.8 W/m 2 K do [ 1 + ( 0.4 Pr ) 2 3 ] 1 4 From Table A1 the thermal conductivity of brass kb is 110 W/m K and from Table A9, the emissivity of oxidized brass is 0.66. The value of h R at a surface temperature of 385 K and a duct wall temperature of 400 K is
2 h R = ( T 2 + T ) ( T + T ) = 9.055 W/m 2 K

h = h c + h R = 288.9 W/m 2 K Employing the thermal conductivity of brass 288.9 0.005 m = ( hP k b A x ) 1 2 = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 52.93 m 1 2 0.0025 2 ) 4 110 ( 0.005 mL = 52.93 0.04 = 2.117 (3) Substituting the values into Equation [1:4.8], we obtain T = 400.8 K . As the new value of T is almost equal to the assumed value, no further is needed. Therefore, the correct value is T = 400.8 K
1.25

Multimode

Comments (1) There is a 5.8 K difference between the indicated value and the true value of T . Although many simplifying assumptions were made in the solution, the computed value is much closer to the true value than the indicated value. (2) With forced convection the radiative heat transfer coefficient is much less than the convective heat transfer coefficient. Therefore, in this case, neglecting the radiative heat transfer rate will give a very good approximation to the true value of T , 407.7 K. ___________________________________________________________________________ Example 5.1.5 Conduction and Convection Cooling water enters a steam condenser (Figure 5.1.5) at 20 oC with a flow rate of 0.1 kg/s. Saturated steam at 100 oC condenses on the outer surface of the tube. To measure the temperature of the cooling water at inlet, a thermocouple is attached to the outer surface of the 9-mm I.D., 12.5-mm O.D. copper tube. The outer surface of the thermocouple junction is insulated. If the thermocouple is placed too close to the inlet flange of the condenser, the indicated temperature will be affected by heat transfer along the tube from the steam. How far away from the inlet flange should the thermocouple be placed if the indicated temperature is to be within 0.1 oC of the cooling water inlet temperature? Given Cooling water inlet temperature = 20 oC

1.26

Advanced Heat Transfer Tube material: Copper Fluid inside tube: Water Find The distance xo so that the temperature To should not be greater than 20.1 oC. Assumptions (1) The temperature of the tube at the flange is affected by the temperature of the condensing steam in the condenser. Because of the high heat transfer coefficient expected with condensing steam, we assume that the temperature of the tube at the flange equals the saturation temperature of the steam, i.e., T base = 100 o C . (2) The air side convective heat transfer coefficient is much less than the convective heat transfer coefficient on the water side. Compared with the expected much higher heat transfer rate to the water, the heat transfer rate to the air is negligible. d i = 0.009 m m = 0.1 kg/s d o = 0.0125 m

1.27

Multimode

(3) One-dimensional temperature distribution in the tube.

Figure 5.1.5 Thermocouple attached to cooling water inlet tube of a condenser (4) Water temperature is uniform in the tube up to the flange. This means that the heat transfer rate from the tube to the cooling water (outside the condenser) is negligible so far as the cooling water temperature is concerned but is significant in determining the temperature distribution in the tube. (5) The tube is an infinite fin with its base at 100 oC. Solution For an infinite fin, the temperature distribution = T T f is given by = b e mx [1:5.1]

1.28

Advanced Heat Transfer m = hP kA x =

2 4hd o [ k cu ( d o d i2 ) ]

b = Tb Tf

where k cu is the thermal conductivity of the copper tube and Tb is the temperature of the flange. To find the value of xo where the temperature is 20.1 oC, i.e., o b = 0.1 80 we need the value of m. To find the value of h w on the water side, from Table A5 the properties of water at 20 oC = 998.2 kg/m 2 k = 0.5984 W/m K Employing Equation (4.3.5) Nu d =
0.8 0.023Re d Pr 0.4

= 1.002 10 Pr = 7.006

Ns/m 2

c p = 4183 J/kg K 4m Re d = ----------- = 14117 d i

= 104.6

Nu d k h = ------------ = 6958 W/m 2 K di

From Table A1, the thermal conductivity of copper, k cu = 401 W/m K . m =

2 4hd o [ k cu ( d o d i2 ) ] = 106.7 m 1

From Equation [1:5.1],

1.29

Multimode

1 0 1 -----x o = --- ln ---- = ------------ ln 0.1 = 0.062 m = 6.2 cm m b 106.7 80 The thermocouple junction must be located at a minimum distance of 6.2 cm from the flange. Considering the uncertainty in the value of the convective heat transfer coefficient, to assure satisfying the requirement, it may be placed 10 cm from the flange. One of the assumptions made in the analysis was that the bulk temperature of the water was not affected by the heat transfer from the tube to the water before it reaches the flange. The heat transfer rate from the tube to the incoming water is given by q = k cu A x d dx = kA x m b = 202.3 W
x=0

Denoting the temperature of the incoming water by T f and the water temperature at the flange by T x = 0 , we have q = m c p ( T x = 0 T f ) T x = 0 = 20.5 o C . The temperature of the water increases from 20 oC to 20.5 oC, a change, which is negligible. Comments (1) The tube surface temperature at the flange will be less than 100 oC due to the heat transfer from the tube to the incoming water. The assumption that the tube surface at the flange is at 100 oC will lead to a value of x slightly higher than the actual value.

1.30

Advanced Heat Transfer (2) Computing the total convective heat transfer coefficient, h, by assuming that h a has a range of values from 4 W/m2 oC to 12 W/m2 oC, has a negligible effect on the value of x. _____________________________________________________________________________ Example 5.1.6 Conduction, Convection, and Radiation The roof of a small shed is inclined at 45o to the vertical plane (Figure 5.1.6). It is modeled as a 10-mm thick plywood sheet with an emissivity of 0.9. The solar insolation is 800 W/m2 and the ambient air is at 40 oC. The attic space is well ventilated and the attic air is also at 40 oC. The outside convective heat transfer coefficient is 10 W/m2 oC. The equivalent surrounding temperature Te, is 20 oC. Determine (a) The temperature of the surface of the roof exposed to the sun. (b) The heat flux across the roof. Given Roof: 10-mm thick plywood sheet inclined at = 45o to the horizontal, = 0.9 G = 800 W/m 2 T = 40 o C h 1 = 10 W/m 2 o C T e = 20 o C Find (a) T 1 (b) q''
1.31

Multimode

Solution From an energy balance on the upper surface of the roof,

'' '' '' G q 1c q 1R = q k

[1:6.1]

Assume that the area of the attic surfaces other than surface exposed to the sun is much greater. From an energy balance on the lower surface, '' '' '' [1:6.2] q k = q 2c + q 2R
'' 4 4 '' '' q 1R = ( T 1 T e ) q 1c = h 1 ( T 1 T ) qk = kw ( T1 T2 ) t 4 = h2 ( T2 T ( T 2 T T s2 is the temperature of the inner surfaces of the attic, which are not directly affected by the solar

radiation. Substituting the expressions for the heat fluxes into Equations [1:6.2] [1:6.1] and [1:6.2] we obtain
4 4 G h 1 ( T 1 T ) ( T 1 T e ) = k w ( T 1 T 2 ) t 4 4 k w ( T 1 T 2 ) t = h 2 ( T 2 T ) + ( T 2 T s2 ) '' Solutions to Equations [1:6.3] and [1:6.4] will give the values of T 1 , T 2 and q k .

[1:6.3] [1:6.4]

1.32

Advanced Heat Transfer As the attic is well insulated, the temperatures of the air and the surfaces not exposed to the sun are assumed to be a little higher than T , i.e., T s2 = T i = 45 C . Assuming that the convective heat transfer from the inner surface of the roof is by natural convection, find h 2 for an inclined surface. Thus, the only parameter required for the solution is h 2, which depends on the yet unknown T 2 . T 2 and h 2 are determined by iteration. From Table A3, for plywood, kw = 0.115 W/m K. Start with an assumed value of T 2 = 60 o C = 333.2 K . The characteristic length for determining the Rayleigh and Nusselt number is L = 4 cos 45 o = 5.66 m . With T i = 45 C Properties of atmospheric air at T f = ( T 2 + T i ) 2 = 52.5 o C are = 1.084 kg/m 3 = 1.974 10
5 o o

Ns/m 2 c p = 1006 J/kg K

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Multimode

k = 0.0275 W/m K

(at T = 45 o C) = 3.143 10
i

K 1

Figure 5.1.6 Heat transfer by different Pr = 0.721 For a downward facing heated surface from Equation (4.4.4) with g replaced by g cos , g cos ( ) 2 ( T 2 T )L 3 Pr 11 Ra L = ----------------------------------------------------------------- = 1.287 10 2
1 0.387Ra L 6 Nu L = 0.825 + -------------------------------------------------------------- = 581 [ 1 + ( 0.437 Pr ) 9 16 ] 8 27 2

1.34

Advanced Heat Transfer Nu L k h 2c = ------------ = 2.83 W/m 2 K L Substituting the known values into Equations [1:6.3] and [1:6.4] and solving for T 1 and T 2 by a numerical method or by linearizing the radiative heat transfer terms with radiative heat transfer coefficient, we obtain T 1 = 343.4 K T 2 = 331.8 K (58.6 o C ) The assumed value of T 2 = 333.2 K is slightly higher than the computed value of 331.8 K. No further iteration is needed. Thus, we obtain the correct values of T1, T2, and q as kw ( T1 T2 ) '' = ---------------------------- = 134 W/m 2 T 1 = 343.4 K T 2 = 331.8 K qk t ___________________________________________________________________________ 5.2 SOLAR COLLECTORS
A solar collector is a good example of the application of the principles of heat transfer involving multimode heat transfer and therefore, it is considered in some detail in this section. Here, we consider one type of solar collector, the flat plate collector, utilized extensively for residential use for space heating and hot water supply. The sun is a star in our galaxy. It is considered a sphere of hot gases. Some of the data on the sun are given in Table 5.2.1. Table 5.2.1 Some data of the sun

Diameter of the sun

1.39109 m
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Multimode
Table 5.2.1 Some data of the sun

Mean distance between the sun and the earth Effective blackbody surface temperature of the sun Ratio of the mass of the sun to the mass of the earth Total power emitted by the sun

1.49510 11 m 5777 K 332 488

3.831026 W Solar power intercepted by the earth 1.71017 W Solar constant 1367 W/ m2

m - 4 m and 94% in the band 0.2 m - 2 m. Nomenclature: In this section the following terms are used.
of the earth. About 99% of the solar energy is in the wave band of 0.2

The solar constant is the rate of incident solar energy flux on a surface perpendicular to the solar beam in the outer reaches of the atmosphere. As the solar energy passes through the atmosphere, it is attenuated by scattering by the air molecules (Raleigh scattering), absorption by dust, water vapor, carbon dioxide, and ozone; and reflection and absorption in cloud layers. The extent of the attenuation depends on the height above the sea level, the position of the sun (time of day and time of the year), and dust and gas concentrations in the atmosphere. On a clear day approximately 70% of the of the solar constant, 1000 W/m2, reaches the surface

Gs

Incident solar energy flux (W/m2)

1.36

Advanced Heat Transfer G s Spectral solar insolation per unit area per unit wavelength (W/m2 m) E bs Blackbody emissive power at the temperature of the sun, 5777 K (W/m2) E b Blackbody monochromatic emissive power at s the temperature of the sun, 5777 K (W/m2 m) s s Solar absorptivity (absorptivity for solar radiation) Infrared emissivity - emissivity in the range 300 K - 400 K Cover plate (glass) transmissivity for solar radiation Cover plate infrared transmissivity in the range 300 K - 400

A solar collector is a heat exchanger in which a fluid is heated by a surface that absorbs incident solar energy. A tube, exposed to the sun, in which a fluid is circulated, is a collector in its simplest form. In a flat plate collector, a flat surface is used to absorb solar energy and transmit it to a fluid adjacent to it. There are two types of solar collectors - the concentrating collector and the flat plate collector. In a concentrating collector the solar beam is focussed on a much smaller area by suitably shaped mirrors or lenses. There is no such concentration in a flat plate collector. Two types of flat plate collectors for space heating, with air or water as the working fluid, are shown in Figure 5.2.1. A flat plate collector consists of an absorber plate covered with one or more glass cover plates and an insulated frame. The absorber plate is heated by the absorbed solar energy. The plate transfers a

1.37

Multimode
part of the energy to air flowing between the plate and the adjacent glass cover plate (Figure 5.2.1a) or to water flowing in tubes attached to the plate (Figure 5.2.1b). Most of the solar energy is transmitted through the glass plates which are essentially transparent to the incident solar energy.

Figure 5.2.1 Two types of flat plate collectors (a) However, the glass plates are almost opaque to infrared radiation. Therefore, the radiant energy emitted by the absorber plate, usually maintained at around 350 K - 380 K, is blocked.
The space between the glass cover plates is occupied by air, which is essentially stagnant and serves to reduce the heat loss from the collector to the surroundings.

1.38

Advanced Heat Transfer

Figure 5.2.2 shows a simple system for the supply of hot water to a residential building. Water is circulated through the collector mounted on the roof. The heated water passes through a coil in the holding tank and heats the cold water from the main cold water line. The cooled water from the coil is forced back into the collector. The warm water from the holding tank is fed into a hot water heater, where the water is further heated as needed, before being supplied to the various consuming points. To analyze the operation of a collector, a knowledge of the radiation characteristics of the absorber plate and the glass cover plates is needed. A brief discussion of some of the characteristics follows. Solar absorptivity and infrared emissivity The collector plate receives solar energy from the sun radiating as a black body at 5777 K. It generally operates at temperatures less than 400 K. A good absorber plate should absorb all the incident solar energy but should emit very little energy. Therefore, the absorber plate should have a high absorptivity at short wavelengths (99% of the solar energy is in the 0.2 m - 4 m range) and low infrared emissivity. The solar absorptivity is defined by Equation (8.1.15). As the spectral distribution of solar energy is fixed, the solar absorptivity has a unique value for each surface except for minor variation due to the temperature dependence of the spectral absorptivity. Similarly, the infrared emissivity is defined by Equation (8.1.10) with the monochromatic blackbody emissive power in the 300 K - 400 K temperate range. Even if the spectral emissivity of a surface is temperature independent, its total infrared emissivity is temperature dependent, as the monochromatic emissive power depends on the temperature. However, if the temperature range is not large, the variation of the infrared emissivity is small. When an infrared emissivity value is given without indicating the temperature at which it is evaluated, it is usually in the 300 K - 400 K range. The solar absorptivities and infrared emissivities of a few special surfaces [Howll et al. (1982)] are given in Table 5.2.2. Table 5.2.2 Solar absorptivity and infrared emissivities of a few special surfaces

Figure 5.2.2 Schem

Surface Black nickel Copper oxide Lead sulfide (crystals)

0.07-0.12 0.11-0.17 0.20

0.87-0.96 0.81-0.93 0.89

7.3-13.7 4.8-8.5 4.45

1.39

Multimode
Table 5.2.2 Solar absorptivity and infrared emissivities of a few special surfaces

Surface Black paints Black chrome Example 5.2.1

0.90-0.98 0.15-0.25

0.90-0.98 0.90-0.95

~1 3.6-6.3

A special opaque surface has an emissivity of 0.9 for 0 <

< 3 m and 0.1 for > 3 m. Compute its

(a) Solar absorptivity. (b) Infrared emissivities at 300 K, 400 K, and 500 K. Given 0 < < 3 m = 0.9 3 m < = 0.1 Find (a) s (b) at 300 K, 400 K, and 500 K Solution (a) From Kirchoffs law the spectral emissivity equals the spectral absorptivity. Denoting the quantities in the wave band 0 to 3 m by subscript 1 and those in the wave band 3 m to by subscript 2, from Equation (8.1.15) the solar absorptivity is given by

1.40

Advanced Heat Transfer 1 G s d 2 G s d 0 3 s = --------------------------- + ---------------------------- = 1 f 0 T + 2 ( 1 f 0 T ) Gs Gs 1 1 f0

1T 3

[2:1.1]

is to be evaluated at T = 5777 K. From Table 7.2.1, for

T

1 T = 3 5777 = 17331 m K f 0

= 0.9789

s = 0.9 0.9789 + 0.1 ( 1 0.9789 ) = 0.883 (b) T = 300 K For 1 T = 3 300 = 900 m K , f 0 = 0.9 8.704 10 Similarly, at
5 5 1 T

= 8.704 10 . From Equation [2:1.1]

+ 0.1 ( 1 8.704 10 ) = 0.1 = 2.134 10 , and = 0.102 = 1.285 10 , and = 0.11

2 3

T = 400 K, 1 T = 1200 m K , f 0 T = 500 K, 1 T = 1500 m K , f 0 Comment

1 1

T T

(a) For the surface, the ratio of s varies from 8.83 at 300 K to 8.0 at 500 K.
1.41

Multimode

(b) The infrared emissivities at 300 K and 400 K are almost equal but the emissivity at 500 K is slightly higher. _____________________________________________________________________________ Example 5.2.2
The solar insolation on an absorber plate attached to a space ship is 800 W/m2. The underside of the plate is perfectly insulated. The absorber plate transfers energy to a cooling fluid flowing in tubes attached to it. the Assuming a sky temperature of 0 K, determine

(a) The equilibrium temperature of the plate (without heat transfer to the cooling fluid) if the surface is (1) black and (2) black nickel. (b) The heat flux to the cooling fluid in the tubes attached to the plate for the two surfaces. The cooling fluid maintains the plate at 320 K in both cases. Given Absorber plate surface: Black or black nickel, G s = 800 W/m 2 Find (a) The equilibrium temperature with q = 0 for each case. (b) q'' for each case if T s = 320 K. Assumption Figure 5.2.3 Flat plate

1.42

Advanced Heat Transfer As the plate is located in the outer reaches of the atmosphere, the heat transfer is by radiation only. Solution From an energy balance on the surface, energy reaching the surface = energy leaving the surface or Energy reaching the surface from the sun = Reflected solar energy + emitted energy from the surface + Heat transfer to the coolant There is no heat transfer to the coolant. With the absorbed energy equal to the incident energy less the reflected energy, we have Absorbed energy flux = Emitted energy flux (emissive power) (a)
(1) For a black surface (

= = 1). Absorbed energy flux = incident energy flux, and Gs 1 4 4 T = ----- G s = T s = 344.6 K s

(2) For the black nickel surface: Absorbed energy flux =

4 s G s , Emissive power = T s To find the absorbed energy, the solar absorptivity is used. As the plate temperature is expected to be in the 300 K - 400 K range the infrared emissivity is used to find the emissive power. From Table 5.2.2, for a black nickel surface, s = 0.94 and = 0.12 .

1.43

Multimode

G s 14 0.94 800 ---= ----------------------------------------- = 8 0.12 5.67 10 (b) From the energy balance on the plate including the heat transfer to the coolant, Absorbed solar energy flux = emissive power of the surface + Heat flux to the coolant (q'')
4 q'' = Absorbed solar energy flux - emissive power of the surface = s G s T s

(1) For the black surface,

4 q '' = G s T s = 800 5.67 10 8

320 4 = 205 W/m 2

(2) For the black nickel surface with s = 0.94 and = 0.12
4 q '' = s G s T s = 0.94 800 0.12 5.67 10 8

320 4 = 681 W/m 2

Comments (1) The equilibrium temperature of the black nickel surface is 576.6 K, which is above the 300 K 400 K range for which the infrared emissivities are applicable. However, no appreciable increase in the emissivity at 576 K is expected and the computed equilibrium temperature is a good approximation. (2) Though the black surface absorbs all the energy it also emits the highest amount of energy at a given temperature. At the same temperature, the black nickel surface absorbs 94% of the incident

1.44

Advanced Heat Transfer energy but emits only 12% of the energy emitted by the black surface. Therefore, the heat flux to the coolant increases from 205 W/m2 for a black surface to 681 W/m2 for the black nickel surface. (3) If the efficiency of the collector is defined as the ratio of the heat flux to the coolant to the incident energy flux, the efficiency of the black surface is 25.7% and that of the black nickel surface is 85%. The special surface has a much higher efficiency than the black surface, but such special surfaces are expensive and many of them lose their selective properties with time. _____________________________________________________________________________
Solar Transmissivity A flat plate collector is usually provided with one or two (and rarely three) glass cover plates. The cover plates transmit most of the solar energy while reducing both the transmission of the emitted energy from the absorber surface, and the convective heat transfer from the collector to the surroundings. The transmissivity of a glass plate depends on the material, the thickness of the plate, and the orientation of the plate to the incident solar energy. When radiant energy strikes a glass plate, a part of it is absorbed, a part reflected and the rest transmitted. The reflected part is affected by the angle between the incident beam and the normal to the plate. Further, with more than one plate, there is interaction between the two plates - the reflected energy from the second plate reaching the first plate and so on. The solar transmissivity (

s ) and infrared transmissivity ( - evaluated at a surface temperature in the range 300 K - 400 K) of a cover plate are defined as

0 Gs d 0 Eb d s = --------------------------- = --------------------------Gs Eb
where E b and E b are evaluated at the absorber temperature of 300 K - 400 K.
Most glass plates used in solar collectors are nearly opaque for radiation in wavelengths greater than 3

(5.2.1)

m.
1.45

Multimode

_____________________________________________________________________________ Example 5.2.3

Figure 5.2.4 Typical

The spectral transmissivity of a 13-mm thick fused-silica glass is shown in Figure 5.2.4. Determine its

(a) Solar transmissivity. (b) Infrared transmissivity at 300 K and 400 K. Solution (a) The solar transmissivity is calculated from Equation (5.2.1). The spectral transmissivity given in Figure 5.2.4 is approximated as 0.17 m < < 2.5 m = 0.88

1.46

Advanced Heat Transfer < 0.17 m and > 2.5 m = 0 Equation (5.2.1) reduces to 2.5 G s d 0.17 G s d s = ------------------------------------- = 0.88 -------0 -------- 0 Gs Gs Gs With G s G s = E b E b
5777 K

0.17 0.88Gs d

2.5

= f 0 T

5777 K

,
4

= 2.5 m , f 0 T = 0.9658 , = 0.17 m , f 0 T = 2.595 10 s = 0.88 ( 0.9658 2.595 10 ) = 0.85

4

(b) The infrared transmissivity is given by Equation (5.2.1), evaluated at T s . = ----------------------Eb With = 0 for 0 < < 0.17 m and for > 2.5 m, and = 0.88 for 0.17 m < < 2.5 m = 0.88 ( f 0 K or 400 K.
2 T

0 Eb d

f 0 T ) where 1 = 0.17 m and 2 = 2.5 m. Evaluate the expressions at 300

1

1.47

Multimode

At 300 K: f 0

T T

= 0

f0
4

= 0 = 0
1 T

At 400 K, f 0 Comment

= 3 10 f 0

= 0 0

From the calculated values, the glass has a high solar transmissivity and is practically opaque to infrared emission. _____________________________________________________________________________
Glass Cover Plates From Figure 5.2.4 we observe that fused-silica glass has a high transmissivity in the wave band of 0.17 m to 2.5 m. When more than one glass cover plate is used in a collector, the combined transmissivity is approximately given by the product of the individual transmissivities, i.e.,

= 1 2 3 n . The transmissivity of a glass plate is a function of the angle of incidence of the radiant beam, but is approximately constant G s . The absorber plate absorbs G s and the

for angles up to 60o between the normal to the surface and the beam. Most collectors operate at angles less than 60o, and the effect of the incident angle may be neglected. There is one further complication. With one cover plate, the energy flux incident on the absorber plate is balance given by

( 1 G s ) is reflected, which reaches the glass plate and the process is repeated an infinite number of times. The total absorbed energy is then G s Absorbed energy = -------------------------------- = ( ) eff G s 1 ( 1 ) d Absorbed energy ( ) eff = ------------------------------------------------- = -------------------------------Incident solar energy 1 ( 1 ) d

1.48

Advanced Heat Transfer where d is the diffuse reflectivity of the glass plate. The value of is approximately 0.9 for a single cover plate, 0.8 for two cover plates, and 0.7 for three cover plates. The infrared emissivity of glass is approximately 0.88. 5.2.1 Performance of Flat Plate Collectors
The heat transfer rate to the working fluid in a solar collector is given by

q = m cp ( Te Ti ) where m is the mass rate of flow of the fluid, and T i and T e are the inlet and exit temperatures of the fluid, respectively. The heat transfer rate and the fluid exit temperature depend on the absorber plate temperature and the convective heat transfer coefficient associated with the working fluid. The absorber temperature, in turn, depends on the absorbed radiant energy, and the heat transfer rate to the working fluid and the surroundings.
The efficiency of a collector is defined as the ratio of the heat transfer rate to the working fluid to the incident radiant energy on the absorber plate area. It is usually computed for defined values of the temperatures of the absorber plate and the surroundings.

1.49

Multimode
Consider a flat plate collector with one glass cover plate (Figure 5.2.5) with water as the working fluid. Water flows in the tubes attached to the absorber plate. The temperature of the surroundings is

T a for computing

both the convective and radiative heat transfer rates. Given the solar irradiation, the heat transfer rate to the water is to be determined. In analyzing the performance of the collector the following assumptions are made.

(1) Steady state: Although solar insolation is time dependent, on clear days, the variation is slow enough that a quasi-steadystate assumption is a good approximation. However, if rapid Figure 5.2.5 Schematic of changes occur due to changes in cloud cover, the steady-state assumption is not valid. (2) Uniform absorber plate temperature: Depending on the construction of the collector, there is some variation in the absorber plate temperature both in the direction of the flow of the water and between the tubes. Such variations are neglected. (3) Negligible temperature variation across the cover plate. (4) The glass cover plate is opaque to infrared radiation. (5) The solar absorptivity of the cover plate is negligible in so far as it affects the heat transfer to the surroundings. Solar absorptivity is significant in determining the effective transmissivity but its effect on the temperature of the plate is negligible. The effect of the infrared radiation from the absorber plate is more significant than that due to solar absorption. (6) The temperature distribution in the back insulation of the absorber plate is one-dimensional.

1.50

Advanced Heat Transfer (7) As the differences between the temperatures of the absorber plate, the glass cover plate and the surroundings are not expected to be large, the radiative heat transfer coefficient can be used to determine the radiative heat transfer rates.
From the above assumptions, the heat transfer in the collector can be analyzed by employing the thermal circuit shown in Figure 5.2.6. The nomenclature is

Tube surface area

G s Solar insolation on the cover plate h b Convective heat transfer coefficient associated with the back insulation h rb Radiative heat transfer coefficient back insulation surface h ca Convective heat transfer coefficient between the cover plate and the surrounding air

G Solar insolation absorbed by the absorber plate h Convective heat transfer coefficient associated with the cooling water

h pc Convective heat transfer coefficient between the absorber and cover plates

1.51

Multimode

h rca Radiative heat transfer coefficient cover plate and surrounding air k t m q '' q Insulation material thermal conductivity Insulation thickness Mass flow rate of water Net heat flux to the absorber plate Heat transfer rate to the working fluid

h rpc Radiative heat transfer coefficient between the cover plate and absorber plate T c Cover plate temperature Ti Working fluid inlet temperature

T e Working fluid exit temperature T p Absorber plate temperature T s Temperature of insulation surface exposed to air

1.52

Advanced Heat Transfer

Figure 5.2.6 shows the individual resistances associated with the conductive, convective, and radiative heat transfers based on unit surface area of the absorber plate. Notice that there are several resistances in parallel. Using the radiative heat transfer coefficient permits the radiative heat flux to be related to the temperature difference. (If the radiative heat flux is computed exactly, it would be related to the difference in the fourth power of the temperatures and the convective heat flux to the difference in the temperatures; in such a case a thermal circuit like the one shown cannot be used.) In Figure 5.2.6b the various resistances have been replaced by the equivalent resistances surface.

'' RT

at the top surface of the absorber plate and

'' RB

at the bottom

'' RB

'' '' R2 R3 '' = ------------------ + R 1 '' + R '' R2 3 '' '' '' '' R4 R5 R6 R7 = ------------------ + -----------------'' + R '' '' + R '' R4 5 R6 7 '' 1 RB
and

'' RT

The reciprocals of the resistances for a unit area top heat loss coefficients,

'' 1 RT

are termed the bottom and

U B and U T respectively.

Figure 5.2.6 (a) Thermal circuit for the collector

From Figure 5.2.6b, we have Tp Ta Tp Ta ( )G s = ----------------- + ----------------- + q '' '' '' RB RT Recast Equation (5.2.2) as (5.2.2)

1.53

Multimode

( )G s = ( U B + U T ) ( T p T a ) + q ''
If the temperature of the absorber plate is known,

(5.2.3)

q '' can be computed. Usually, only the inlet temperature of the working fluid and the solar insolation,

G s , are known. All other quantities are computed by iteration to satisfy the following relations with the assumption of uniform absorber surface temperature: q = m cp ( Te Ti ) hA T p T e = ( T p T i ) exp --------- m c p (5.2.4) (5.2.5)

The different convective heat transfer coefficients are evaluated from appropriate correlations. In terms of the temperatures, the radiative heat transfer coefficients are:

2 2 2 2 h rb = i ( T s + T a ) ( T s + T a ) h rca = g ( T c + T a ) ( T c + T a )

h rpc

2 2 ( Tp + Tc ) ( Tp + Tc ) = ------------------------------------------------1 p + 1 g 1

where p and g are the infrared emissivities of the absorber plate and glass cover plate respectively, and i is the emissivity of the insulation surface.

1.54

Advanced Heat Transfer

With fixed values of

Gs

and

T a , both U B and U T are dependent on only T p , although they require T c and T s , which are found by iteration.

U B and U T can be computed for different values of T p . With these values of U B and U T as functions of T p , we find q . One possible iteration
scheme is

(1) Compute h. (2) Compute U B and U T for different values of T p . (3) Guess a value of T p . (4) Find T e from Equation (5.2.5) and q from Equations (5.2.4) and (5.2.3). If the two values of q are close to each other, the values are correct. Otherwise, repeat steps 2 through step 4 with a different value of T p . The computations are illustrated in Example 10.2.4. _____________________________________________________________________________ Example 5.2.4
The specifications of a solar collector with one glass cover plate (Figure 5.2.7) are given in the following table.

Working fluid Solar insolation

Water 800 W/m2

Gap between absorber plate and glass 30 mm cover plate (L)

1.55

Multimode

Solar transmissivity of glass cover plate Absorber plate emissivity ( p ) Glass infrared emissivity ( g ) Air and surroundings Temperatures (Ta) Absorber plate temperature (Tp) Angle of tilt of collector from horizontal () Convective heat transfer coefficients ( h ca and h b ) Insulation thickness (t) Insulation Collector height (H) Insulation covering - thin metal sheet

0.88 0.9 0.9 0 oC 90 oC 50o 9 W/ m2 oC 75 mm Fiberglass 1m

1.56

Advanced Heat Transfer Find (1) The top heat loss coefficient (2) The bottom heat loss coefficient (3) The heat transfer to the water per unit area of the absorber plate.

Figure 5.2.7 Flat plate collector

Solution (a) Top Heat Loss Coefficient ( U T )

For the solution we use the thermal circuit in Figure 5.2.6.

1 11 ------ = ----------------------- + ----------------------UT h rpc + h pc h rca + h ca

[2:4.1]

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Multimode

(1) Guess a value of T c . (2) Determine the heat loss coefficient U T . (3) Compute T c from the relation U T ( T p T a ) = ( h rca + h ca ) ( T c T a ) (a) Top Heat Loss Coefficient ( U T ) (1) Assume T c = 40 o C . (2) Determine h rpc and h rc h rpc
2 2 ( Tp + Tc ) ( Tp + Tc ) = ------------------------------------------------1 p + 1 g 1

[2:4.2] T

5.67 10 ( 363.2 2 + 313.2 2 ) ( 363.2 + 313.2 ) = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 7.21 W/m 2 o C 1 0.9 + 1 0.9 1
2 2 h rca = g ( T c + T a ) ( T c + T a ) 8

= 0.9 5.67 10 ( 313.2 2 + 273.2 2 ) ( 313.2 + 273.2 ) = 5.17 W/m 2 o C

1.58

Advanced Heat Transfer Determine h pc , the convective heat transfer coefficient between the absorber plate and the glass cover plate across the 30-mm air gap inclined at 50o to the horizontal. For the inclined cavity, H L = 1 0.03 = 33.3 , cr = 70o. As H L > 12 and = cr, we employ Equation (5.1.19). Mean temperature of the two plates = T f = (90 + 40)/2 = 65 oC. Properties of atmospheric air at 65 oC are: = 1.044 kg/m 3 = 2.03 10 k = 0.02845 W/m K Pr = 0.718 (at T f ) = 1 338.2 = 2.957 10
3 5

Ns/m 2 c p = 1007 J/kg K K

g 2 ( T p T c )L 3 Pr Ra L = ---------------------------------------------- = 74425 2 Employing Equation (5.1.19); 1708 1708 [ sin ( 1.8 ) ] 1.6 a = 1 -------------------------- = 0.9643 b = 1 ---------------------------------------------------- = 0.9643 Ra L cos ( ) Ra L cos ( ) Ra L cos ( ) -------------------------1 = 5830 Nu L k Nu L = 1 + 1.44 a b + c = 2.362 h pc = ------------ = 2.239 W/m 2 K k
1.59

Multimode

11 1 1 1 ------ = ----------------------- + ----------------------- = ----------------------------- + ------------------UT h rpc + h pc h rca + h ca 7.21 + 2.239 5.17 + 9 U T = 5.67 W/m 2 o C UT ( Tp Ta ) (3) Compute T c : From Equation [2:4.2]. T c = T a + ----------------------------- = 36 o C h rca + h ca The computed value of 36 oC for T c is slightly less than the assumed value 40 oC in step 1. Recomputing the values with T c = 36 oC, we getc = 36.1 o, which is close to the assumed value. The final values are T c = 36.1 o C h rpc = 7.09 W/m 2 o C h rca = 5.06 W/m 2 o C

h pc = 2.33 W/m 2 o C U T = 5.64 W/m 2 o C (a) Bottom Heat Loss Coefficient ( U B ) As the sheet steel insulation cladding is thin, assume that its conductive resistance is negligible. From Figure 5.2.6b, 1t 1 ------ = -------- + -----------------UB k ins h b + h rb

1.60

Advanced Heat Transfer The thermal conductivity of fiberglass insulation (Table A3): k ins = 0.036 W/m 2 o C . To find h rb we need T s , which is determined by iteration [as in part (a) to find T c ] such that it satisfies the relation U B ( T p T a ) = ( h rb + h b ) ( T s T a ) Assume T s = 10 o C . Expecting the cladding to be painted, its emissivity, i = 0.81 ,
2 2 h rb = i ( T s + T a ) ( T s + T a )

[2:4.3]

= 0.81 5.67 10

( 283.2 2 + 273.2 ) ( 283.2 + 273.2 ) = 3.96 W/m 2 o C

1 t 1 ------ = -------- + ------------------ U B = 0.463 W/m 2 o C UB k ins h b + h rb From Equation [2:4.3] UB ( Tp Ta ) T s = T a + ----------------------------- = 3.22 o C h b + h rb Recomputing the values with T s = 3.22 o C , we obtain the final solution T s = 3.25 o C h rb = 3.81 W/m 2 o C U B = 0.463 W/m 2 o C (b) Heat Transfer Rate to the Working Fluid
1.61

Multimode

The heat transfer rate to the working fluid is given by Equation (5.2.3). For the collector, is approximated as the product of the transmissivity of the glass plate and the solar absorptivity of the absorber plate. From the specifications, it is assumed that the surface is gray with a solar absorptivity of 0.9 so that = 0.88 0.9 = 0.792. Thus, q'' = ( )G s ( U B + U T ) ( T p T a ) = 0.792 800 ( 0.463 + 5.64 ) ( 90 0 ) = 84.3 W/m 2 Comments (1) The efficiency of the collector is: = 84.3 800 = 10.5% . The efficiency is low as the collector operating temperature of 90 oC is fairly high. We may find the approximate efficiency at other values of T p assuming that the heat loss coefficients remain at the same value. With a collector temperature of 60 oC, q'' = 267 W/m2 and = 33%. (2) The bottom heat loss coefficient is less than the top heat loss coefficient. When solar collectors are mounted on the roof of a building, there is little clearance between the underside of the collector and the heated roof. The heat transfer rate from the collector bottom surface in those cases is likely to be negligible. _____________________________________________________________________________
An iterative method for determining the glass cover plate temperature with one cover plate is illustrated in Example 5.2.4. When more than one cover plate is used, the cover plate temperatures and the loss coefficients are determined by an extension of the iterative scheme. Such a scheme would involve double iteration of the glass temperatures in the case of two cover plates.

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The absorber temperature was assumed to be uniform. In an actual collector there is variation in the plate temperature. The non-uniformity depends on the flow pattern of the working fluid. If air is the working fluid, the temperature variation is only in the flow direction. With water flowing in tubes attached to the plates, the absorber temperature varies not only in the direction of flow of the water but also between the tubes.

___________________________________________________________________________ Example 5.2.5

To estimate the variation of the absorber temperature between tubes in a collector with water as the working fluid, consider the collector (Example 5.2.4) with the tubes 20-cm apart. The absorber plate is made of 1-mm thick copper sheet. The temperature of the sheet adjacent to the tubes is 90 oC. Determine the maximum absorber plate temperature.

Given T ( x = b ) = T w = 90 o C b = 10 cm Ta = 0 o C T p = 90 o C Figure 5.2.8 Collector with Material: Copper t = 1 mm U B = 0.463 W/m 2 o C U T = 5.64 W/m 2 o C U = U T + U B = 6.104 W/m K Find T max G = 800 W/m 2 = 0.792

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Assumptions (1) Steady state (2) The variation of the temperature of the absorber plate in the direction of flow is negligible. Solution With the thermal conductivity of copper kcu = 401 W/m K, the Biot number for the absorber plate is U T + U B )t 6.104 0.001 ------------------------ = -------------------------------- = 1.5 k cu 401 As Bi << 1 the temperature distribution is assumed to be one-dimensional, i.e., T = T ( x ) .
From an energy balance on the shaded element in Figure 5.2.8,

q x q x + x + ( U T + U B )W ( T T a ) x + ( )GW x = 0

where W is the length of the plate in the flow direction. Dividing the equation by x, taking the limit
as x 0 , substituting q x = kW

dT , and dividing by kWt, we obtain dx

dT q'' m 2 T T a ---- = 0 U dx2 where ( )G = q'' = 0.792 800 = 633.6 W/m 2 , U T + U B = U and ( U T + U B ) kt = m 2 . With the boundary conditions, T ( x = b ) = T w , the solution to the differential equation is
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Advanced Heat Transfer q'' T w T a ---U q'' T T a ---- = ----------------------------- cosh ( mx ) U cosh ( mb ) q'' T w T a ---q'' U T max = T ( x = 0 ) = T a + ---- + ----------------------------U cosh ( mb ) 6.103 ( 401 0.001 ) =, substituting all the known values, we obtain With kt = 633.6 90 633.6 6.103 T max = ------------ + ------------------------------------------ = 91 o C 6.103 cosh ( 3.9 0.1 ) Comment
The plate temperature varies from a minimum of 90 oC to a maximum of 91 oC. With a characteristic temperature difference of the variation of 1 oC is negligible and the assumption of uniform absorber plate temperature is valid. Generally, we are interested in the performance of a collector during days when the solar insolation on the surface changes with time due to the changing angle between the solar beam and the collector surface. Simulation programs that account for the variation not only during days but also during a year, the weather data (air temperature, and wind speed and direction) for different geographical locations are now available.

T w T a = 90 o C ,

_____________________________________________________________________________ Summary
Most heat transfer problems involve heat transfer by more than one mode. The methodologies to solve such problems depend on the nature of the problems, and each case has to be considered by itself. Many of them require numerical techniques. Solutions to a few cases illustrating some of the iterative and numerical algorithms are given. The flat plate solar collector is a good example where such multimode heat transfer occurs. A brief introduction to a flat plate collector is given. The use of special surfaces in collectors to increase the efficiency of collectors is demonstrated. The computations of heat loss coefficients from a collector, and the heat transfer rate to the working fluid are illustrated.
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_____________________________________________________________________________ REFERENCES: SEE CD. PROBLEMS

5.1 The emissivity of a 20-cm diameter electric hot plate is 0.9. The surrounding air and surfaces are at 20 oC. If the power supply to the hot plate is 1000 W, determine the temperature of the plate assuming that all the heat transfer is from the upper surface. 5.2 The temperature of the top surface of a 6-m wide and 15-m long reheat furnace is 200 oC. The surrounding air and the walls are at 30 oC. If the emissivity of the top surface is 0.85, compute the heat transfer rate from the surface. 5.3 Re-solve Problem 5.2, if a thin, radiation shield of steel ( = 0.85) is placed 20 cm above the top surface. Also determine the temperature of the shield. 5.4 A solar collector is constructed with tubes brazed to the absorber plate. Water flowing in the tubes maintains the absorber plate adjacent to the tubes at

T w (Figure P5.4). Derive the differential equation for the one = 0.85) is attached to the bottom surface of a thin, Te .

dimensional temperature distribution T(x) in the plate. Both convective and radiative heat transfer are significant. The equivalent surrounding temperature for radiative heat transfer is 5.5 A 1-cm thick insulation material (k = 0.2 W/m K,

horizontal steel plate ( = 0.8). If the temperature of the steel plate is 600 oC, determine the ratio of the heat Figure P5.4 flux from the top surface to the surroundings to the heat flux across the insulation. The surrounding air and surfaces are at 30 oC and the convective heat transfer coefficients for both the top and bottom surfaces are 20 W/m2 oC. 5.6 To reduce the heat transfer rate from a 2-m wide and 4-m long roof of a reheat furnace, made of 40-cm thick firebricks (k = 1 W/m oC), a radiation shield is placed 10 cm above the roof. The emissivity of both surfaces of the shield is 0.9. If the inside surface of the firebrick is at 800 oC and the surroundings are at 40 oC, calculate the heat transfer rate from the roof. 5.7 Re-solve Problem 5.6 if the firebrick is replaced by 15-cm zirconia. 5.8 The solar insolation on the flat, 20-cm thick concrete roof (k = 0.663 W/m oC,

= 0.9) of a room is 800 W/m2. The ambient air and surfaces are at 35 oC. The < 2 m and 0.9 for > 2 m.

equivalent sky temperature is 0 oC. The inside surfaces and the air are at 35 oC. The outside and inside convective heat transfer coefficients are 15 W/m2 oC and 10 W/m2 oC, respectively. Estimate the outer and inner surface temperatures of the roof and the heat flux across the roof. 5.9 Re-solve Problem 5.8 if the roof is lined with a material having an emissivity of 0.1 in the wave band 0 <

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5.10 A horizontal, 20-cm diameter, circular, hot plate is rated at 1500 W. It consists of a 9-mm thick steel plate followed by 6mm thick insulating cement (k = 1 W/m oC) and the heating element. The underside of the heating element is well insulated. The temperature of the air and the walls of the room is 30 oC. Determine the temperatures of the surface adjacent to the heating element and the outer steel surface if the heater is operated at

(a) Full rated capacity. (b) Half the rated capacity.

Figure P5.10 5.11 Steel parts are preheated to 930 C prior to carburizing, in a furnace with inside dimensions of 2 m width, 3m length, and 1.5 m height. The walls of the furnace are made of 20-cm thick firebricks (k = 0.27 W/m K) followed by 10-cm thick insulation (k = 0.15 W/m K). The outer wall is lined with a thin metal sheet ( = 0.3). If the inner surface of the furnace is at and the ambient air and surroundings are at estimate the heat flux across the side walls. 5.12 Estimate the heat transfer rate from a 40-cm diameter, lightly oxidized, stainless steel sphere hanging freely in a large room. The surface of the heater and the room are at 200 oC and 20 oC respectively. Suggest a means of increasing the heat transfer rate without increasing the surface temperature or the sphere diameter. 5.13 The filament of a 75-W, evacuated, incandescent electric bulb is approximated as a gray body at 2800 K. The properties of the bulb are 1000 oC 35 oC,
o

Figure P5.11

0 < < 3 m : = 0.8, = 0 3 m < < : = 0, = 0

The bulb is freely suspended in a room which is at 30 oC. Determine the temperature of the glass bulb, approximating it as a 60-mm diameter sphere.
5.14 A reservoir for storing liquid hydrogen is made of a 1-m stainless steel, hollow sphere, inside a concentric, thin, 1.04-m shell also of stainless steel. The space between the two spheres is completely evacuated. The surface of the inner sphere is at 42 K. Assuming the container to be freely suspended in a large room maintained at 30 oC, determine the heat transfer rate to the liquid hydrogen. 5.15 Re-solve Problem 5.14 if the outer sphere is covered with 50-mm thick insulation material (k = 0.06 W/m K) enclosed inside a thin, stainless steel cladding. 5.16 Due to a small leak between the two spheres in Problem 5.14, air enters the space between the spheres. Determine the heat transfer rate to the liquid hydrogen. 5.17 On clear, cold nights, the effective sky temperature is considerably less than 0 oC. As a result of radiative heat transfer, the temperature of some vegetation may fall below 0 oC even when the surrounding air temperature is greater than 0 oC, leading to frost damage. To

Figure P5.14

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Multimode
estimate the surface temperature of vegetation in those cases, consider a thin, freely suspended, black, horizontal 30-cm square plate, with the bottom surface insulated. If the effective sky temperature is -40 oC, and the surrounding air temperature is 4 oC, determine the equilibrium temperature of the plate if

(a) The air is calm. (b) The air has a velocity of 4 m/s parallel to one of the edges.
5.18 Re-solve part b of Problem 5.17 if the plate is replaced by a 8-cm diameter spherical shell (simulating an orange). 5.19 A 1-mm diameter thermocouple junction placed inside a duct to measure the temperature of the air flowing in the duct indicates 400 oC with the duct walls at 380 oC. The air velocity is 10 m/s. Assuming conduction in the lead wires of the thermocouple to be negligible, estimate the true air temperature if the emissivity of the junction is

(a) 0.9 (b) 0.1 Suggest a method to reduce the error in measuring the air temperature without changing the emissivity of the surface.
5.20 The properties of a spherical thermocouple junction are

k = 20 W/m K c p = 400 J/kg K = 8500 kg/m3

= 0.9d = 1 mm It is placed in an air stream flowing at 10 m/s and 60 oC, in a duct whose surface is also at 60 oC. The initial temperature of the junction is 20 oC. Estimate the time for the junction temperature to reach 59.5 oC (a) Neglecting radiative heat transfer. (b) Including radiative heat transfer, making a reasonable estimate of the radiative heat transfer.
5.21 A 10-cm diameter copper sphere with a surface emissivity of 0.8, initially at a uniform temperature of 100 oC, is freely suspended in a large room with air in it at 20 oC. Determine the time for the sphere temperature to reach 25 oC. 5.22 A thermocouple junction to measure the temperature of air flowing at 4 m/s in a duct is made by soldering two wires to a thin plate at the end of a 3-mm I.D. plain carbon-steel tube with a wall thickness of 1 mm. A 2- cm length of the tube is inserted into the duct. The temperature of the tube where it enters the duct

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Advanced Heat Transfer

is 25 oC and the air in the duct is at 70 o and 400 kPa. There is concern that due to conduction in the tube, the temperature at the end of the tube may be lower than the actual temperature of the air in the duct.

(a) Estimate the temperature that the thermocouple would indicate. (b) If the indicated temperature is significantly different from the actual air temperature, propose methods to ensure that the indicated temperature is close to the actual temperature. For Problems 10.23 through Problem 5.30 on flat plate collectors with water as the working fluid, the specifications of the collector are:

Figure P5.22

Collector length Collector width Water tube inside diameter Pitch of water tubes Orientation of water tubes

2.4 m 1.2 m 1 cm 20 cm Parallel to the 2.4-m dimension 15 oC

Ambient air temperature

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Multimode

Air space between absorber and cover plates Solar transmissivity of glass cover plate Infrared emissivity of glass cover plate Collector tilt angle with the horizontal Solar insolation

5 cm 0.85 0.88 45o 800 W/m2

5.23 The convective heat transfer coefficient associated with the surface of the cover plate exposed to the surrounding air is 6 W/m2 oC. The gray absorber plate has an emissivity of 0.9. Determine the top heat loss coefficient for an absorber plate temperature of 60 oC.

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Advanced Heat Transfer

5.24 Re-solve Problem 5.23 for an absorber plate temperature of 60 oC if the air gap is 3 cm. < 2 m and 0.15 for 2 5.25 The absorber plate emissivity is 0.9 for 0 < infrared emissivity of the surface at 350 K and its solar absorptivity. 5.26 The emissivity of the absorber plate is 0.9 for 0 < 5 5.27

m < < . Compute the

m < < . Determine the infrared emissivity of the surface at 350 K and its solar absorptivity. The collector is operated in a location where the air temperature ( T ) and the effective sky a

< 2 m, 0.7 for 2 m < < 5 m, and 0.15 for

temperature are 15 oC. Due to a failure of the circulating water pump, the water in the collector is stagnant. The pressure of the water in the tubes is 100 kPa and the emissivity of the gray absorber plate is 0.9. The convective heat transfer coefficient associated with the cover plate surface exposed to the atmospheric air is 6 W/m2 oC. The heat loss through the back insulation is negligible. Determine whether the water in the tube boils. 5.28 Re-solve Problem 5.27 if the absorber plate has a solar absorptivity of 0.85 and infrared emissivity of 0.1, and the water in the tubes is replaced by a mixture of water and ethylene glycol having a boiling point of 150 oC. 5.29 The collector with a gray absorber plate ( = 0.9) is used to heat water. Determine the heat transfer rate

Figure P10.23 - P10-30

to the circulating water if the absorber plate temperature is 60 oC and that of the surrounding air is 15 oC. With a gentle breeze the air velocity parallel to the 1.2-m dimension is 3 m/s. 5.30 Re-solve Problem 5.29 if the absorber plate has a solar absorptivity of 0.9 and an infrared emissivity of 0.1.

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Multimode
5.31 The collector is modified to use air as the working fluid. Air flows with a velocity of 6 m/s parallel to the 2.4-m dimension, in a 2-cm deep channel on the underside of the absorber plate. The channel extends over the entire width of the collector. The inlet air temperature is 40 oC and the surroundings are at 15 oC. The convective heat transfer coefficient associated with the surface of the cover plate and the ambient air is 6 W/ m2 oC. The solar absorptivity of absorber plate is 0.9 and the infrared emissivity is 0.1. Assuming the absorber plate temperature to be uniform, compute

(a) The temperature of the absorber plate. (b) The air exit temperature. DESIGN PROBLEMS
5.32 Design a handle for a wood stove door so that when the door surface is at 120 oC, one can comfortably use the handle to operate the door. 5.33 Design an experimental apparatus to measure the convective heat transfer coefficient in forced convection inside a tube under uniform heat flux conditions. The heat transfer coefficient is to be determined at several Figure P5.31 axial locations both for fully developed velocity and temperature profiles, and fully developed velocity profile but developing temperature profile. The Reynolds number range is to be between 5000 and 100 000 using building air or water supply. The maximum available air flow rate is 0.08 kg/s. 5.34 To transport liquid hydrogen, a container with a capacity of 0.8 m 3 is to be designed. LH2 is kept at a constant pressure (slightly above atmospheric pressure) by venting it to the atmosphere and releasing the vapor generated by heat transfer from the surroundings. It is desired to limit the heat transfer rate such that no more than 2% of the LH2 is lost in a day when the container is full. Design the container. 5.35 Re-solve Problem 5.34 for liquid nitrogen. 5.36 People like to have large windows so that they can enjoy a good view from inside buildings. The large windows also provide a better work environment. However, the heat flux across a single-pane glass window is significantly greater than that across a well-insulated window, leading to an increase in both the cooling and heating loads. To reduce the cooling load, it is proposed to use double-glazed windows with 6-mm thick glass panes. The glass is opaque to infrared radiation. Propose a suitable air gap between the glass panes and determine the heat flux with and without the second pane. To estimate the convective heat transfer coefficient from the inner and outer surfaces, assume an inside air temperature of 20 oC and convective heat transfer coefficient of 7 W/m2 oC and outside air temperature of 45 oC with a convective heat transfer coefficient of 12 W/m2 oC. If the value of

[ g 2 ( T 1 T 2 )a 3 2 ]Pr ( a H ) 1 ( T 1 and T 2 are the glass temperatures in the cavity, a = gap, and H = height) the heat transfer
across the cavity is essentially by conduction. Include the effect of radiative heat transfer.

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5.37 An electric heater is to be fabricated by sandwiching a heating element between two plates each 72-cm long and 36-cm wide. With the plates maintained at 40 o C above the surrounding air temperature, the heater is to transfer 4000 W. The ambient air flow velocity over the heater should not to exceed 5 m/s. Aluminum and copper rods of 3-mm diameter are available for use as extended surfaces. Rod spacing should not be less than 4d and weight and volume should be low. Propose a design. 5.38 A package has two sources of energy generation. Each source dissipates 200 W. The temperature of the sources may be assumed to be uniform and is to be limited to 60 oC with ambient air at 20 oC flowing at 5 m/s over the plates connecting the sources used as extended surfaces Investigate if such a heater is feasible and if so, design the system of extended surfaces. Weight is an important consideration.

Figure P5.38 5.39 Design a 110-V (or 220 V) 1500 W electric space heater for residential use. Identify the criteria or a successful design.

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