HAZARD physical situation that can damage people, plant or the environment.

. Stored energy (P, T, chemical rxns) that can be released unexpectedly. RISK likelihood of a hazard occurring & how bad it will be = FAR- fatal accident rate, varies dependent on what you are evaluating i.e. per km will give a different result for planes & cars - Depends on interpretation, all about control, people accept higher risk when they have control

PROCEDURAL counts on people doing the right thing at the right time - operating instructions, pre-flight checks, training + very flexible, on installation of the process - mistakes (people always make mistakes, emergencies cause bad choices), cost (not cheap, constant renewal, new employees &/or new procedures mean new training) INHERENT decrease/eliminate fundamental hazard - different conditions/materials - difficult to identify & implement (need to be identified in design phase), one hazard can be traded for another LAYERS OF PROTECTION frequency score (FS), consequence score (CS), risk reduction strategy (RSx) = + - risk < -1 is acceptable, no process changes or additions need to be made. Risk reduction strategies impact on consequences.

ACTIVE removes people from the equation, lowers probability & consequence - Redundant equipment & relief equipment - Removes human error, cost & maintenance are problems PASSIVE more reliable parts, lowers probability & consequence - no moving parts, more reliable design (less prone to make mistakes) + higher reliability than active or procedural, minimum maintenance required - cost and size PHOSGENE EXAMPLE: Overview Liquid Cl2 transported 1km to process & Cl2 vaporised & mixed with CO - 2 reactors in parallel cooled by reflux, water is coolant - 1st column separates Cl2 off top. Reflux cooled by water and monochlorobenzene (MCB) & 2nd column uses steam in reboiler - Phosgene stored because this portion of the plant is unreliable Problems: - Phosgene is a nasty chemical - Unreliable plant - Water + HCl acid heat exchanger/reboiler corrode & leak move water more acid more leaks MINIMISE use smaller quantities, less inventory, compare production disruption vs major leak/fire, continuous vs batch process, transfer pipes no bigger than required SUBSTITUTE- use less hazardous material, non-flammable solvents, heat exchanger fluid, good for process but maintenance hazard MODERATE less hazardous conditions, gas vs liquid vs solid SIMPLIFY less complexity, clever design, eliminate confusion (complicated system will ensure that mistakes are made), minimise use of over flexible plant, addresses the probability not the hazard, clever application can eliminate process equipment

Solutions: - Minimise: Eliminate majority of phosgene storage, improved reliability: better instrumentation & preventative maintenance - Moderate: Change Cl2 transport line to gas (less Cl2 in pipe so also minimise) - Substitute: Replace water/steam in HXEs & reboilers, less chance of acid formation, choose MCB although it has a fire hazard, it is already being used in the process. - Simplify: Remove CH4 from feed. No CCl4 formed, no distillation needed.

HSE safety in regards to process, covers employers, employees & principals (subcontractors) Employers ensure the safety of employees, provide and maintain a safe environment, develop procedures for dealing with emergencies, identification of hazards, determine whether or not elimination is possible or provide protection where elimination & isolation is impractical. Employees ensure their safety and that no action or inaction will cause harm to any other person. Principals ensure no subcontractor is harmed while doing work they were hired to do

- Fines & penalties for offences likely to cause serious harm. Found fines were not inspiring companies to improve safety in the workplace HZNO- covered importation of new organisms, lots of procedures to keep non-natives from entering the environment, hazardous chemicals (storage &/or use depends on classification, performance more flexible but more work for engineers RMA manages the quality of air, land, water & the effects of human activities on the environment. Promotes the sustainable management of natural & physical resources. Looks at the impact on surrounding areas (doesnt cover discharge to sewage system.