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Table of Contents
Nature of Inquiry .............................................................................................................. 3 Causation ...................................................................................................................... 18 Ethics and Politics In Social Research .......................................................................... 27 Research Design ........................................................................................................... 28 Conceptualization, Operationalization, and Measurement ............................................ 40 Questionnaire Construction ........................................................................................... 91 Sampling ..................................................................................................................... 110 Experimental Methods................................................................................................. 126 Survey Research ......................................................................................................... 151 Ethnography of Communication .................................................................................. 176 Content Analysis ......................................................................................................... 191 Evaluation Research/Quasi-Experimental Design ....................................................... 203
NATURE OF INQUIRY
I. Why Do Research?
A. Limitations of Common Sense.
1.
2.
B.
1.
2.
a.
Tradition.
b.
Authority.
C.
1.
Inaccurate Observations.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Ego-Involvement in Understanding.
7.
8.
Mystification.
II.
1.
2.
3.
B.
1.
2.
C.
1.
Variable: A Feature of a Class Of Objects Which Can Vary (i.e., Which Is Variable).
2.
Attributes: The Qualities Which Compose a Variable. (Alternatively, the Values That a Variable Can Assume.) See exercise on page 12.
D.
1.
a.
Casual Observation.
b.
Theory.
c.
Competing Theories.
d.
2.
a.
Concepts.
b.
Theoretical Statements.
i.
Axioms.
ii.
Propositions.
iii.
3.
4.
5.
I N D U C T I O N
Theory
Empirical Generalization
Hypotheses
D E D U C T I O N
Observations
III.
B.
IV.
1.
Generality.
2.
Accuracy.
3.
Parsimony (Simplicity).
B.
The Rub: Tradeoffs Among Generality, Accuracy, and Parsimony. (See Handout On Page 16.)
Time Same (Concurrent) Place: Methods Same Subjects Same People Different People Different Same People Different People (a) (e) (I) (m) (b) (f) (j) (n) (c) (g) (k) (o) (d) (h) (l) (p) Same Place Different Place Different (Iterative) Same Place Different Place
Adapted From: Howard M. Bahr, Theodore Caplow, and Bruce A. Chadwick. (1983). Middletown III: Problems of replication, longitudinal measurement, and triangulation. Annual Review of Sociology, 9, 243-264.
Begging the Question This fallacy is committed when we make a claim and then attempt to support it by advancing evidence which is equivalent to the original claim. Example: A: B: A. The President is telling the truth when she says she wants to help people like me. Why do you say that? Because she would not lie.
Appeals To Authority The use of authoritative testimony in reasoning is legitimate. But when authority appeals are used to close off further discussion, reasoning becomes fallacious. Example: A: B: A: The Surgeon General of the United States tells us that socialized medicine would be a disaster. I believe that there is much merit to this approach. So you think that you know more about this matter than the Surgeon General?
Arguing Against The Person This fallacy occurs when a person rejects evidence solely because of its source. Example: A: B: As President Jones once observed, tax increases actually decrease government revenues. If Jones said it, it must be wrong.
Argument From Ignorance This fallacy has been committed when one accepts a claim because its opposite cannot be proved. Example: Because you have seen no evidence that tax increases raise government revenues, you conclude that tax increases will decrease government revenues.
Adapted From: S. Toulmin, R. Rieke, & A. Janik. (1984). An introduction to reasoning (second edition). New York: Macmillan.
Consensus Bias This instance of illogical reasoning occurs when we accept something as true (or false) because most people think it is true (or false). Example: A: B: A: A person has a constitutional right to own a gun. Why do you think so. A poll I just read about says that most people believe this is the case.
Hasty Generalization This fallacy, sometimes referred to as jumping to conclusions, involves making a generalization on the basis of too few instances. Example: She is rich and she is an atheist. I guess rich people tend to reject God.
Alternatively, an individual may draw a general conclusion from atypical examples. Example: I did not like that sushi plate. I dont like Japanese food.
Confused Temporal Succession When a person assumes that event A has caused event B simply because A preceded B, this fallacy has been committed. Example: President Obama gives a marvelous speech in Egypt. The next week, his approval ratings climb. One concludes that the speech brought about the rise in ratings, ignoring other events which occurred prior to the poll.
False Analogy When one argues from analogy, one is focusing on the attributes that two entities share, ignoring those attributes not in common. This may lead to a faulty conclusion. Example: Example: You are good at ping-pong. I bet youd make a great tennis player. Any family that spends more than it brings in will eventually be ruined financially. If the government continues to deficit spend it, too, will run out of money. [Families cannot print money; governments can.]
10
Composition When one assumes that what is true about the parts of a whole is true for the whole, one may not be correct. Example: Since the individual cells of the human body are not visible to the naked eye, people are invisible. Because sodium and chlorine are deadly poisons, sodium chloride (table salt) must be poisonous.
Example:
Division When one asserts that what is true of the whole must be true of the parts, the division fallacy may be committed. Example: Example: Because the pie is round, its pieces must be round. Because sodium chloride is edible, sodium and chloride must be edible.
Gamblers Fallacy This fallacy has occurred when a person assumes that the probability of an event is affected by another event which is actually independent. Example: You have just flipped three heads in a row. You assume that the chance of flipping tails on the next toss is extremely high. In reality, the odds have not changed; they are still 50-50. The last three people you have asked out on a date have said yes. You assume that the next person will turn you down. After all, your good luck cannot go on forever.
Example:
11
In the table below, write down a working set of attributes for the variable given. Variable Marital Status College Major Political Party Affiliation Loneliness Nationality State of Residence Birth Year Music Style TV Program Type Attribute single, married, separated, divorced, widow/widower
12
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Propositions 1. Amount of verbal communication and nonverbal affiliative expressiveness are positively related. [Note how this proposition has been logically deduced from Axioms 1 and 2. If Axioms 1 and 2 are correct, the proposition must also be true. Attempt to identify the axioms from which the remaining propositions have been derived.] Amount of communication and information seeking behavior are inversely related. [Deduced from Axioms 1 and 3.] Amount of communication and intimacy level of communication are positively related. [Deduced from Axioms 1 and 4.] Amount of communication and reciprocity rate are inversely related. Amount of communication and liking are positively related.
2.
3.
4. 5.
Source: C.R. Berger & R.J. Calabrese. (1975). Some explorations in initial interaction and beyond: Toward a developmental theory of interpersonal communication. Human Communication Research, 1, 99-112.
13
6. 7.
Amount of communication and similarity are positively related. Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and intimacy level of communication content are positively related. Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and information seeking are inversely related. Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and reciprocity rate are inversely related. Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and liking are positively related. Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness and similarity are positively related. Intimacy level of communication content and information seeking are inversely related. Intimacy level of communication content and reciprocity rate are inversely related. Intimacy level of communication content and liking are positively related. Intimacy level of communication content and similarity are positively related. Information seeking and reciprocity rate are positively related. Information seeking and liking are negatively related. Information seeking and similarity are negative related. Reciprocity rate and liking are negatively related. Reciprocity rate and similarity are negatively related. Similarity and liking are positively related.
8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.
14
15
Tradeoffs In Theorizing
Two Oclock Theory Is General and Accurate, But Not Simple. (Many Concepts Are Needed To Insure Accuracy Across a Variety of Contexts. Generalized Accuracy is Obtained By Sacrificing Parsimony.)
Six Oclock Theory is Simple and Accurate, But Not General. (A Theory Can Be Both Simple and Accurate Only if it Applies to a Narrow Range of Situations. Thus, Generalizeability Must Be Sacrificed.)
16
Ten Oclock Theory is General and Simple, But Not Accurate. (A Theory Can Be General and Simple Only By Excluding The Many Variables Which Allow For Accuracy Across a Variety of Settings.)
17
CAUSATION
I. Causality and Explanation.
II.
Determinism.
A. Deterministic Explanation.
B.
C.
D.
III.
B.
Idiographic Explanation.
IV.
B.
1.
18
2.
C.
19
The things researchers study exist and act independently of them and their activities. The social world is an objective (real) structure of relations which is not accessible to direct observation. These very real processes generate events, only some of which are observable. Empirical world: that part of reality that can be observed. Actual world: the empirical world plus real but unobservable social processes. Knowledge is generated by building models to explain observable phenomena in terms of the underlying structures and mechanisms which constitute reality. These models consist of law-like statements about the tendencies of things. The assumption is made that if these models can explain regularities in the empirical world, they may be useful models of the real (i.e., of reality). There is no way to verify whether or not a model of reality is true.
Knowledge is derived from (a) everyday meanings and interpretations through the description of these meanings and interpretations (from natives points of view) and from (b) translating these meanings into theoretical constructs. Such constructs are generated from everyday social constructs (i.e., everyday language) so that the integrity of the phenomenon can be retained.
Adapted From Norman W.H. Blaikie (1991). A critique of the use of triangulation in social research. Quality and Quantity, 25, 115-136.
20
Explanations/ Theory
Theories are descriptions of the social structural relations that underlie reality.
Validity
Agreement among participants in a social system (including the investigator and the natives) that an account of their world is acceptable.
If the models constructed to explain observable features of the social world work, they are considered to be potentially valid accounts of reality.
21
Zero Correlation
When two variables have absolutely no relationship to each other, the correlation is r = .00. In this instance, knowledge of a subjects score on one variable does not improve in any way an investigators ability to predict that persons score on the second variable. Below is a scattergram of a bivariate distribution for which r = .00.
22
23
Statistical Significance
You might have heard news anchors report the findings of a scientific study, and then describe its results as statistically significant or not statistically significant. This notion of significance has relevance to the interpretation of correlation coefficients. Imagine that a sample of subjects has been drawn from a population in which the correlation between two variables is r = .00. What is the chance of obtaining a correlation of exactly .00 in the sample? Not very high. After all, there will always be some sampling error in any study. When we compute a correlation coefficient, we will typically test it for statistical significance. When we do so, we are testing the null hypothesis that the correlation in the population is r = .00. If our result is significant, this means that the non-zero correlation we have obtained is probably not due to chance. Statistical significance does not mean that the correlation is really important or even large. When our sample size is large, even small correlations will usually be statistically significant. This is as it should be. After all, few bivariate relationships are exactly .00 in populations of interest. Unfortunately, news folks often equate statistical significance with scientific importance. They dont know better, but now you do!
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Correlation Interpretation
Case 1
An investigator has administered a questionnaire to 1000 males which included measures of (1) frequency of pornographic viewership and (2) sexual objectification of females. He finds a correlation of r = .78 between exposure to pornography and the sexual objectification measure. Our investigator concludes that pornographic viewing leads men to think of women as sexual objects. Offer two other possible interpretations of this relationship.
Case 2
An investigator has found in a study of 250 children that those kids who watch Sesame Street on a regular basis have a better command of written English than do children who do not watch Sesame Street. She concludes that Sesame Street effectively teaches reading skills to children. Offer two other possible interpretations of this relationship.
Case 3
An investigator finds through her analysis of crime records that violent nighttime crimes are less likely to occur when there is a full moon than when the moon is not bright or when the night is cloudy. Our investigator concludes that a full moon has a sedating effect on potential criminals. Offer two other possible interpretations of this relationship.
Case 4
An investigator has measured the marijuana use of 1000 UCD students. He finds that the more marijuana students smoke, the poorer they perform in school. He concludes that marijuana smoking lowers student performance. Offer two other possible interpretations of this relationship.
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Case 5
An investigator has found that people who watch a lot of television tend to think of the world as a scary and dangerous place. She concludes that television viewing leads people to exaggerate the seriousness of crime in our society. Offer two other possible interpretations of this relationship.
Case 6 An investigator observes that there is a strong positive correlation between ownership of a cellular phone and ownership of an expensive performance car; stated differently, people tend to own both or neither. He concludes that ownership of an expensive performance car leads people to purchase a cellular phone. Offer another interpretation of this relationship.
Case 7
A finance professor finds that individuals who watch the TV show Wall Street Review are much wealthier than individuals who do not watch this show. He concludes that watching Wall Street Review makes people wealthy. Offer two other interpretations of this relationship.
Case 8
A researcher discovers that patients who have uncommunicated desires for physician action (e.g., desires for tests, new medications, and the like) report less trust in the quality of the care they received from their physicians after their medical office visits. He concludes that the unexpressed desires erodes patients trust. Offer two other interpretations of this relationship.
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I.
Ethical Issues.
A. Voluntary Participation.
B.
No Harm to Participants.
C.
D.
Deception.
E.
F.
G.
II.
27
RESEARCH DESIGN
I. Research Design.
II.
B.
C.
III.
1.
2.
Unit of Observation: the unit for which data are collected. (See Handout On Page 33.)
B.
1.
The individual.
2.
Dyads.
3.
28
4.
Artifacts.
a.
Physical artifacts.
b.
C.
D.
IV.
1.
2.
Developmental Questions.
3.
B.
1.
Cross-Sectional Research.
2.
Longitudinal Research.
a.
29
b.
c.
Panel Studies: Investigations of changes in a specific sample of individuals over time. (Same individuals serve as subjects on all occasions.)
3.
a.
b.
Age Comparisons.
c.
Recollections.
4.
V.
B.
1.
2.
Confidence in Findings.
Webb (1966): When a hypothesis can survive the confrontation of a series of complementary methods of testing, it contains a degree of validity unattainable by one tested within the more constricted framework of a single method.
C.
Neutralization of Weaknesses.
30
Denzin (1970): The flaws of one method are often the strengths of another, and by combining methods, observers can achieve the best of each while overcoming their unique deficiencies.
D.
Expanded Scope.
E.
F.
1.
2.
Nonreactivity: Studying communication in a way which does not affect the behavior of the people studied.
3.
Generalizeability: Studying communication in a way which allows for the application of findings beyond the individuals investigated.
4.
Causal Explication: Studying communication in a way which allows for the explication of cause and effect.
G.
Tradeoffs in Research.
H.
Combining Methods.
1.
2.
31
3.
I.
32
Study Description
An investigator wishes to test the hypothesis that there is a negative correlation between marriage length and frequency of argument; he expects to find fewer arguments in older marriages. He collects estimates of argument frequency from each partner in 200 marriages and averages these estimates to create an argument frequency score, which is then correlated with marriage length. An investigator wishes to test the hypothesis that patients in HMO health plans make fewer requests of their physicians for treatments and procedures than do patients in traditional fee-for-service health plans. She tape records the conversations of consenting patients at a large clinic which sees both kinds of patients. She then compares the number of requests made by HMO patients with the number of requests made by fee-for-service patients, controlling for other factors (e.g., gender, health status, age). An investigator is interested in testing the hypothesis that the Wall Street Journal is a more conservative paper than the New York Times. One hundred editorials have been randomly selected from each paper from the population of all editorials published in the last calendar year. Each editorial is then rated on a liberal-conservative scale which has been well validated. The ratings for each paper are averaged to derive an overall measure of political ideology for each paper. A conservative television watchdog group is outraged by the language used during prime time on the Fox and CW television networks. They decide to do a content analysis to reveal just how naughty the language is on these two networks, relative to the other broadcast networks (ABC, NBC, CBS). These citizens count the number of swear words used on every prime time program broadcast by the six networks over a period of two weeks. A bad words per minute of programming score is computed for each program. An overall network naughtiness score is then computed for ABC, NBC, CBS, CW, and FOX by averaging across all of the programs aired by each network (after weighing for program length). The group then compares the network naughtiness scores of the four nicer networks with the scores of the two evil networks to test its perceptions.
33
Study Description
A music critic is angry because his favorite rock group, the Rolling Stones, is always used as the point of comparison for a new band, the Stationary Pebbles. Our peeved critic intends to show that the imagery used by the Rolling Stones is completely different than the imagery used by the Stationary Pebbles. He does so by using computer-assisted content analysis. Specifically, every song ever recorded by both groups is run through the computer designed to analyze its lyrics on a number of dimensions. The values obtained are then averaged for each band to make a comparison possible. An interpersonal communication researcher hypothesizes that nonverbally sensitive individuals make better police officers. She obtains the performance ratings for 150 cops and also has these individuals complete the Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity (PONS) Test. She then classifies the officers into two groups: the nonverbally sensitive and the nonverbally insensitive. These two groups are then compared on the performance ratings to determine if the more sensitive officers are better at their jobs than the less sensitive officers.
Unit of Analysis?
Unit of Observation?
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An interpersonal communication researcher believes that dysfunctional family communication patterns can be passed from generation to generation. To test this possibility, he intends to measure the degree to which a sample of 1000 junior high school students are satisfied with the communication they have with their parents. He will also ask the parents of these students to report the extent to which they were satisfied as adolescents with the communication they had with their parents (the students grandparents). He will thus be able to correlate family communication satisfaction across two generations. What kind of research design will the investigator be using? a. b. c. d. e. Cross-Sectional Research Longitudinal: Trend Study Longitudinal: Cohort Study Longitudinal: Panel Study Attempt to Approximate Longitudinal Research With Cross-Sectional Data
3.
A mass communication researcher believes that exposure to soap operas leads people to develop distorted views of reality. For example, he believes that people who watch a lot of soap operas, in comparison to people who do not, will overestimate the proportion of married couples who engage in extra marital affairs and the proportion of individuals who are doctors and lawyers. This researcher will attempt to examine his hypotheses by conducting a nationwide survey in which respondents complete a measure of soap opera viewing and make estimates such as the ones described above. Soap opera viewing will then be correlated with these estimates. What kind of research design will the investigator be using? a. b. c. d. e. Cross-Sectional Research Longitudinal: Trend Study Longitudinal: Cohort Study Longitudinal: Panel Study Attempt to Approximate Longitudinal Research With Cross-Sectional Data
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4.
A political communication scholar is interested in the long-term effects of coming of age during the Watergate era on cynicism toward government. In 1974, he identified through a random sampling procedure a group of high school students (aged 15-18) for study and administered a questionnaire to them. Using the same sampling procedure, he generated a second sample of respondents in 1984 from this age group (now aged 25-28). These respondents completed the same questionnaire administered ten years earlier to the first sample. In 1994, he generated a third sample of individuals aged 35-38 and administered his questionnaire to these folks. In the year 2004, he came up with a fourth sample of people aged 45-48 for study. In the year 2014, he will come up with a fifth sample of people aged 55-58. What kind of research design is this investigator using? a. b. c. d. e. Cross-Sectional Research Longitudinal: Trend Study Longitudinal: Cohort Study Longitudinal: Panel Study Attempt to Approximate Longitudinal Research With Cross-Sectional Data
5.
An interpersonal communication researcher believes that our society has become more and more impersonal over the past two decades, which should reflect itself in increasing levels of loneliness. She learns that a major polling firm has made a practice of asking nationwide samples of Americans to report their levels of loneliness in its annual Americas Quality of Life Survey. The investigator obtains the mean loneliness score for each survey conducted over the past two decades to test her perceptions. What kind of design is she using? a. b. c. d. e. Cross-Sectional Research Longitudinal: Trend Study Longitudinal: Cohort Study Longitudinal: Panel Study Attempt to Approximate Longitudinal Research With Cross-Sectional Data
6.
A marital communication researcher is interested in the phases of marriage. He asks a sample of married individuals to write a history of their relationships. Each is instructed to provide a chronological account of the entire relationship, from first meeting to the present. What kind of design is this investigator using? a. b. c. d. e. Cross-Sectional Research Longitudinal: Trend Study Longitudinal: Cohort Study Longitudinal: Panel Study Attempt to Approximate Longitudinal Research With Cross-Sectional Data
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Unobtrusive Measurement
Make observations in a manner which does not affect the behavior of the people being observed.
Survey Research
Employ sophisticated sampling procedures to generate representative samples of the populations of interest. Study sample to understand population. Sampling techniques, standardized interviewing (face-toface and by phone), self-administered questionnaires. Analyses are typically quantitative.
Experimental Research
Manipulate (independent) variables to assess their causal effects on other (dependent) variables.
Primary Tools
Observation, participant observation, ethnographic interviewing. Focus groups may also be used. Analyses are typically qualitative.
Content analyses of archives, covert observation and coding of behavior, examination of physical traces (accretions and erosions). Analyses are typically quantitative.
Experimental manipulations within carefully constructed situations. Careful control of extraneous factors. Analyses are quantitative.
Priority
Naturalism Study people in a way which respects the situated nature of interaction.
Generalizeability Make inferences about many people on the basis of a substantially smaller sample.
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Research Style
Fieldwork Naturalism
This is the strength of ethnographic fieldwork.
Unobtrusive Measurement
Unobtrusive observation can be very naturalistic, provided that contextual information is respected by the coding procedure. The meaning of naturalism is unclear when applied to content analyses of texts.
Survey Research
Not at all naturalistic. Survey researchers typically employ standardized procedures for all respondents. Information obtained is often extracted from the larger social context.
Experimental Research
Laboratory experimental research is not at all naturalistic. Field experiments can be very naturalistic. Indeed, subjects in field experiments may not even know that they are being studied.
Non-reactivity
Reactivity can be very high. Informants are usually aware of the investigators presence and purposes. Investigators behavior may also affect the informants behaviors. The fieldworker attempts to develop a relationship with the informants which encourages honest, accurate reporting. Covert observations may be made to assess behavior when reactivity concerns are considerable.
The interrogative nature of survey research is unlike everyday interactions. Although open-ended questions can be asked, most typically, people are asked to report their thoughts and feelings using investigator-defined categories.
Reactivity potential is high. People who know they are in an experiment will develop hypotheses about the purpose of the study. These guesses may affect their behavior. Deception may be used to thwart subjects efforts to understand the purposes of the experiment, but the deception itself may lead to suspicions which affect the subjects behaviors. Reactivity is less of a concern in the naturalistic field experiment.
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Research Style
Fieldwork Generalizeability
Fieldwork is typically limited to the understanding of a particular cultural group. The goal of generalizeability violates the theoretical assumptions of ethnographic fieldworkers.
Unobtrusive Measurement
In theory, there is no reason why unobtrusive measurement cannot be applied to artifacts which represent a large and diverse population. In practice, this objective may be exceedingly difficult to achieve.
Survey Research
This is a primary goal and the strength of survey research. The overriding objective is to obtain a sample which is representative of the entire population to which one wishes to generalize.
Experimental Research
In theory, generalizeability is possible. Once could, for instance, conduct an experiment using subjects drawn from a nationwide probability sample. In practice, the cost of doing so is prohibitive. Experimental researchers are often accused of relying too heavily upon convenience samples (such as college undergraduates), which restricts generalizeability.
Causal Explication
Ethnographic fieldworkers do not typically view the world in terms of cause and effect. Causal explication is neither a goal nor a value of ethnographers.
One could manipulate a variable of interest and examine its effects using unobtrusive dependent measures. Overall, unobtrusive measurement does not lend itself well to causal explication. The need for control will often clash with the goal of nonreactivity.
Survey researchers are usually more interested in descriptive research questions than explanatory ones. As such, causal explication is often not a goal. Longitudinal survey research could, however, be employed to provide a basis for inferences about cause-andeffect.
This is the strength of the experiment. By manipulating one or more variables in a carefully controlled setting, the investigator can examine how the manipulation affects other variables of interest. In essence, every experiment is a mini longitudinal study.
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1.
2.
3.
a.
Directly Observables.
b.
Indirect Observables.
c.
B.
1.
2.
Kinds of Definitions.
a.
Real Definitions.
b.
Nominal Definitions.
c.
Operational Definitions.
3.
40
4.
Indicators.
C.
Summary.
Conceptualization
II.
Nominal Definition
Operational Definition
Measurement
B.
Structuring of Responses.
1.
Response Choices.
a.
Agreement.
b.
Evaluation (Good-Bad).
c.
Frequency (Never-Often).
d.
Proximity (Identical-Different).
2.
3.
C.
41
III.
Scale Construction.
A. Some Common Scaling Procedures.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
B.
IV.
Measurement Quality.
A. Reliability of Measurement.
1.
2.
Assessment Procedures.
a.
Test-Retest Method.
b.
42
c.
Internal Consistency.
B.
Validity of Measurement.
1.
2.
Types of Validity.
a.
b.
(Criterion-Related) Predictive Validity: Does Our Measure Predict Some Future Event That Is logically Related to the Construct the Measure Is Intended to Tap Into?
c.
Construct Validity: Is Our Measure Associated with Other Constructs to Which it Should Be Logically Related?
d.
Content Validity: Does Our Measures Capture the Full Range of Meaning of the Concept Is Purports to Assess?
V.
43
Elaine Hatfield. (1988). Passionate and companionate love. In R.J. Sternberg & M.L. Barnes (Eds.), The psychology of love (pp. 191-217). New Haven: Yale University Press.
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Intimacy
Passion
Decision/ Commitment
Consummate Love
Passion + Intimacy + Commitment
Robert J. Sternberg. (1986). A triangular theory of love. Psychological Bulletin, 93, 119-135.
45
Self-Disclosure Wheeless* proposes that self-disclosure is composed of five dimensions: Honesty: Amount: Positivity: The extent to which ones disclosures are truthful (versus dishonest). The amount/frequency of ones disclosures. The extent to which one s disclosures are positive (versus negative) about oneself. The degree to which ones self-disclosures are intentional revelations (versus unintentional accidents). The intimacy level of ones disclosures.
Intent:
Depth:
Scales have been developed to measure each component. Assertiveness Assertiveness is the ability to express ones feelings or wants, even when such expressions may lead to loss of reinforcement or punishment. Lorr and More believe that there are at least four dimensions of assertiveness: directiveness, independence, social assertiveness, and defense of rights and interests. Each class of assertiveness is conceptualized both as a skill and as a disposition to behave in specified ways to a specific class of stimuli. The basic framework is outlined in the table below:
Lawrence R. Wheeless. (1976). Self-disclosure and interpersonal solidarity: Measurement, validation, and relationships. Human Communication Research, 3, 47-61. Maurice Lorr and William W. More. (1980). Four dimensions of assertiveness. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 15, 127-138.
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Stimulus Situation Problematic Interpersonal Situations Situations involving others that require direction, initiative, control and assumption of responsibility.
Response Pattern Taking leadership, direction, control and responsibility for action (versus refusing or evading action involving direction, control, or decision making). Expressing or defending opinions, resisting peer pressure or authority (versus yielding or conforming to pressure or authority). Introducing self; starting, stopping or continuing conversations with strangers or acquaintances; making friends (versus remaining in the background; maintaining silence; doing nothing). Defending rights, rejecting unjust demands (versus accepting violations of rights).
Independence
Social Assertiveness
Social Situations Situations involving two or more people that call for initiation and conduct of social interactions.
A well-validated measure designed to assess each dimension has been reported by Lorr and More.
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Levels of Measurement
Nominal
Numbers are assigned to attributes of variables only as labels or names (nominal means in name only). The assignment of numbers is arbitrary. Example: The numbers on the uniforms of baseball players. Assignment is arbitrary and does not reflect amounts of some underlying property (e.g., a player does not get assigned number 10 because she has more of something than the player who is given number 8).
Ordinal
Assignment of numbers to attributes on the basis of a rank order of the amount of some property possessed by each attribute. Example: Your preference list of candidates for the Presidential election. Suppose you listed McCain first, Barr second, Obama third and Nader fourth. We know that you like McCain more than Barr, Barr more than Obama, and Obama more than Nader but we have no idea how much distance separates these candidates.
Interval
Assignment of numbers to variable attributes on the basis of the amount of some property possessed by each attribute AND in a manner which preserves information about differences/distances among those attributes. Example: The Fahrenheit temperature scale. The difference between 20 degrees and 40 degrees is identical to the distance between 80 and 100 degrees.
Ratio
Assignment of numbers to the attributes of a variable with a true zero point. Numbers are assigned on the basis of the amount of some property possessed by each attribute AND in a manner which preserves information about differences/distances among those attributes. Example: Kelvin temperature scale, for which the coldest possible temperature is given the value of 0. The difference between twenty and forty degrees is identical to the distance between 80 and 100 degrees. Furthermore, 20 degrees is one-half as hot as 40 degrees, and 80 degrees is four-fifths as hot as 100 degrees.
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Characteristic
Mutually Exclusive and Exhaustive Attributes Attributes May Be RankOrdered Equality of Intervals True Zero Point
Nominal
Yes No No No
Ordinal
Yes Yes No No
Interval
Yes Yes Yes No
Ratio
Yes Yes Yes Yes
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Circle One...
Ordinal Interval Ratio Ordinal Interval Ratio
Nominal
Nominal
Nominal
Nominal
Nominal
Nominal
Nominal
Nominal
Nominal
Nominal
Nominal
Nominal
50
Note: In practice, investigators are encouraged to generate an initial item set of 100+.
51
Items with large standard deviations should be discarded; their placement on the continuum of favorability cannot be reliably determined.
52
Term/ Phrase Superior Fantastic Tremendous Superb Excellent Terrific Outstanding Exceptionally Good Extremely Good Wonderful Unusually Good Remarkably Good Delightful Very Good Fine Quite Good Good Moderately Good Pleasant Reasonably Good Nice Fairly Good Slightly Good Acceptable Average All Right
Housewives 20.12 (1.17) 20.12 (0.83) 19.84 (1.31) 19.80 (1.19) 19.40 (1.73) 19.00 (2.45) 18.96 (1.99) 18.56 (2.36) 18.44 (1.61) 17.32 (2.30) 17.08 (2.43) 16.68 (2.19) 16.92 (1.85) 15.44 (2.77) 14.80 (2.12) 14.44 (2.76) 14.32 (2.08) 13.44 (2.23) 13.44 (2.06) 12.92 (2.93) 12.56 (2.14) 11.96 (2.42) 11.84 (2.19) 11.12 (2.59) 10.84 (1.55) 10.76 (1.42)
Executives 18.22 (2.82) 18.69 (3.68) 18.67 (2.01) 19.00 (2.10) 18.72 (2.25) 18.81 (2.19) 19.31 (2.01) 17.03 (4.12) 17.33 (3.09) 17.97 (2.35) 16.47 (2.99) 17.44 (2.63) 16.61 (2.45) 16.83 (2.52) 15.61 (2.72) 13.69 (2.90) 13.81 (3.25) 11.42 (2.99) 13.61 (2.43) 11.89 (3.37) 11.44 (2.79) 11.94 (3.84) 10.25 (3.14) 10.67 (3.34) 9.97 (2.34) 10.17 (3.28)
Graduate Business Students 19.45 (1.78) 20.15 (1.37) 19.70 (1.18) 19.40 (1.95) 19.58 (1.97) 19.08 (1.61) 19.58 (1.26) 17.68 (2.26) 17.45 (2.26) 18.45 (1.99) 16.78 (2.12) 17.20 (2.32) 16.60 (2.24) 17.00 (2.18) 14.60 (3.00) 15.70 (2.08) 14.78 (2.27) 12.60 (2.55) 13.48 (2.33) 13.85 (2.19) 12.70 (2.65) 12.40 (2.24) 11.88 (2.62) 10.72 (1.96) 10.82 (1.43) 10.95 (2.15)
Undergraduate Business Students 18.96 (1.67) 19.20 (1.87) 18.92 (1.75) 19.60 (2.42) 19.44 (1.42) 18.60 (1.63) 19.40 (1.35) 17.88 (1.72) 18.00 (1.50) 17.52 (2.10) 16.20 (1.80) 17.08 (1.89) 16.76 (1.51) 16.80 (1.44) 15.32 (2.21) 15.60 (1.94) 14.56 (1.96) 13.04 (1.43) 14.48 (2.14) 14.20 (1.71) 13.72 (1.77) 13.12 (2.11) 12.32 (1.52) 11.40 (2.02) 10.76 (1.05) 11.40 (1.26)
Taken From: J.H. Myers & W.G. Warner. (1968). Semantic properties of selected evaluation adjectives. Journal of Marketing Research, 5, 409-418.
53
O.K. So-so Neutral Fair Mediocre Not Very Good Moderately Poor Reasonably Poor Slightly Poor Poor Fairly Poor Unpleasant Quite Poor Bad Very Bad Unusually Poor Very Poor Remarkably Poor Unacceptable Exceptionally Poor Extremely Poor Awful Terrible Horrible
10.28 (1.67) 10.08 (1.87) 9.80 (1.50) 9.52 (2.06) 9.44 (1.80) 6.72 (2.82) 6.44 (1.64) 6.32 (2.46) 5.92 (1.96) 5.76 (2.09) 5.64 (1.68) 5.04 (2.82) 4.80 (1.44) 3.88 (2.19) 3.20 (2.10) 3.20 (1.44) 3.12 (1.17) 2.88 (1.74) 2.64 (2.04) 2.52 (1.19) 2.08 (1.19) 1.92 (1.50) 1.76 (0.77) 1.48 (0.87)
10.11 (2.48) 8.81 (2.75) 9.56 (1.90) 9.56 (3.67) 8.11 (2.74) 6.47 (2.41) 6.83 (3.50) 6.31 (2.19) 7.19 (2.36) 5.19 (2.86) 6.67 (2.81) 4.36 (3.02) 4.56 (2.58) 3.67 (2.54) 2.22 (2.34) 3.08 (1.79) 3.14 (2.39) 2.75 (1.70) 3.53 (3.42) 3.19 (2.23) 2.83 (2.14) 2.25 (1.46) 2.22 (2.63) 2.22 (2.51)
10.58 (2.12) 9.52 (1.47) 10.18 (2.01) 9.20 (2.05) 8.90 (2.36) 6.40 (2.05) 6.28 (1.87) 5.82 (1.74) 7.25 (2.00) 4.72 (2.51) 6.25 (1.63) 4.68 (2.63) 3.62 (1.67) 3.85 (1.81) 2.70 (2.16) 3.48 (1.68) 3.35 (1.99) 3.12 (1.70) 3.98 (2.79) 3.22 (1.82) 3.10 (1.72) 2.48 (1.72) 2.05 (1.43) 1.62 (1.15)
11.28 (1.21) 10.36 (1.15) 10.52 (1.16) 10.24 (2.20) 9.36 (2.20) 7.92 (2.02) 7.24 (1.59) 6.16 (1.57) 8.48 (1.83) 5.24 (1.51) 6.72 (1.74) 5.52 (2.06) 4.56 (1.78) 4.24 (1.88) 3.08 (1.50) 4.16 (1.57) 3.68 (1.52) 3.92 (1.68) 5.56 (3.06) 3.52 (1.96) 3.24 (1.76) 2.68 (1.86) 1.88 (1.24) 2.00 (1.35)
54
Strongly Agree
Agree
Unsure
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
55
56
1. I seldom know what to say or do to get others to like me. 2. If I put my mind to it, I could get anyone to like me. 3. I have trouble building rapport with others. 4. I have difficulty getting others to want to spend time with me. 5. If I want someone to like me, I can usually create positive feelings between us. 6. I feel tense when I am with people I do not know well. 7. I am good at getting others to want to hang around with me. 8. I do not seem to know what to say and do to make myself popular with others. 9. When necessary, I can put on an act to get important people to approve of me.
Strongly Agree
Agree
Unsure
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree
Unsure
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree
Unsure
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree
Unsure
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree
Unsure
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree
Unsure
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree
Unsure
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree
Unsure
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree
Unsure
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Source: R.A. Bell, S.W. Tremblay, & N.L. Buerkel-Rothfuss. (1987). Interpersonal attraction as a communication accomplishment: Development of a measure of affinity-seeking competence. WJSC, 51, 1-18.
57
10. I am not very good at putting on a show to impress others. 11. I am very good at playing roles to draw people to me. 12. I can present myself as more likeable than I really am. 13. I can put on excellent social performances to get others to approve of me.
Strongly Agree
Agree
Unsure
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree
Unsure
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree
Unsure
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree
Unsure
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Note: Items 1 through 8 compose the Affinity-Seeking Competence scale. The Strategic Performance scale is composed of items 9 through 13 Reverse scoring must be applied to items 2, 5, 7, 9, 11, 12, and 13.
58
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
I told my friend that I no longer wanted to be friends with him/her. I told my friend that I was thinking seriously about ending the relationship. I permanently cut off all contact with my friend. I told other people that my friend and I had gone our separate ways. I walked away from the friendship. I told my friend that we were not suited to each other and should give up trying to be friends. I let my friend know that I did not want him/her to ever talk to me again. I threatened to end our relationship if my friend did not change his/her ways.
Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree
Agree
Disagree
Agree
Disagree
Agree
Disagree
Agree Agree
Disagree Disagree
7. 8.
Agree
Disagree
Agree
Disagree
Adapted From: J.G. Healey & R.A. Bell. (1990). Assessing alternative responses to conflicts in friendship. In D.D. Cahn (Ed.), Intimates in conflict: A communication perspective (pp. 25-48). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
59
(Voice Items)
1. 2. 3. 4.
We solved our problems by talking things over in a calm and polite manner. We were each open to the others suggestions for resolving problems. We negotiated a solution to our conflict. I told my friend that there were problems in our friendship and suggested that we work them out. We talked openly and honestly about our differences in hopes of restoring the friendship. I made sure my friend realized that resolving our differences was important because I valued the friendship. We worked together to settle our differences. I told my friend what was bothering me and asked for his/her opinions on the matter.
Agree
Disagree
Agree
Disagree
Agree Agree
Disagree Disagree
5. 6.
Agree
Disagree
Agree
Disagree
7. 8.
Agree Agree
Disagree Disagree
(Loyalty Items) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. I said nothing and waited for things to get better. I did not take things personally and just kept quiet so that things might improve. I hoped that the situation would resolve itself. I tried to pretend that the incident never occurred out of concern for the friendship. I allowed things to cool off rather than taking any action. I did nothing and remained loyal to the friendship. I said nothing and dealt with the situation by adopting a strategy of forgive and forget. I kept my concerns to myself to give my friend a chance to reconsider his/her actions.
Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree
Agree
Disagree
Agree Agree
Disagree Disagree
Agree
Disagree
Agree
Disagree
Agree
Disagree
Agree
Disagree
60
(Neglect Items)
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
I allowed my friendship to deteriorate. When my friend tried to discuss our problems, I refused to cooperate. I said nasty things about my friend to other people. I ignored my friend for awhile. I said and did things out of anger to make my friend feel bad. While in the presence of my friend, I acted as though he/she did not even exist. I mentioned bad things that my friend did in the past to hurt and embarrass him/her. Out of anger, I said things to damage the reputation of my friend.
Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree
Agree Agree
Disagree Disagree
Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree
Agree
Disagree
Agree Agree
Disagree Disagree
Agree
Disagree
Agree
Disagree
Agree
Disagree
61
Unsure
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
Unsure
Unsure
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
Source: A. Fenigstein, M.F. Scheier, & A. H. Buss. (1975). Public and private self-consciousness: Assessment and theory. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 522-527
62
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
63
2.
I wish I could have more respect for myself. I feel I am a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others. I feel I do not have much to be proud of.
Strongly Agree
Tend To Agree
Tend To Disagree
Strongly Disagree
3.
Strongly Agree
Tend To Agree
Tend To Disagree
Strongly Disagree
4.
Strongly Agree
Tend To Agree
Tend To Disagree
Strongly Disagree
5.
Strongly Agree
Tend To Agree
Tend To Disagree
Strongly Disagree
6.
Strongly Agree
Tend To Agree
Tend To Disagree
Strongly Disagree
7.
All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure. I am able to do things as well as most other people. At times I think I am no good at all.
Strongly Agree
Tend To Agree
Tend To Disagree
Strongly Disagree
8.
Strongly Agree
Tend To Agree
Tend To Disagree
Strongly Disagree
9.
Strongly Agree
Tend To Agree
Tend To Disagree
Strongly Disagree
10.
Strongly Agree
Tend To Agree
Tend To Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Source: M. Rosenberg. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton: Princeton University.
64
Self-Disclosure Scales*
Amount
5. I do not often talk about myself. 6. My statements of my feelings are usually brief. 7. My conversation lasts the least time when I am discussing myself. 8. I often talk about myself. 9. I often discuss my feelings about myself. 10. Only infrequently do I express my personal beliefs and opinions. 11. I usually talk about myself for fairly long periods at a time.
Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Agree Agree Agree Agree Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree Disagree Disagree Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree
Positiveness-Negativeness
12. I usually disclose positive things about myself. 13. On the whole, my disclosures about myself are more negative than positive. 14. I normally reveal bad feelings about myself.
Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree
Lawrence R. Wheeless (1976). Self-disclosure and interpersonal solidarity: Measurement, validation, and relationships. Human Communication Research, 3, 45-61.
65
15. I normally express my good feelings about myself. 16. I often reveal more undesirable things about myself than desirable things. 17. I usually disclose negative things about myself. 18. On the whole, my disclosures about myself are more positive than negative.
Control of Depth
19. I intimately disclose who I really am, openly and fully in my conversation. 20. Once I get started, my self-disclosures last a long time. 21. I typically reveal information about myself without intending to. 22. I often disclose intimate, personal things about myself without hesitation. 23. I feel that I sometimes do not control my selfdisclosure of personal or intimate things I tell about myself. 24. Once I get started, I intimately and fully reveal myself in my self-disclosures.
Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Agree Agree Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Honesty-Accuracy
25. I cannot reveal myself when I want to because I do not know myself thoroughly enough. 26. I am often not confident that my expressions of my own feelings, emotions, and experiences are true reflections of myself. 27. I always feel completely sincere when I reveal my own feelings and experiences. 28. My self-disclosures are completely accurate reflections of who I really am. 29. I am not always honest in my self-disclosure.
Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree
66
30. My statements about my own feelings, emotions, and experiences are always accurate selfperceptions. 31. I am always honest in my self-disclosures. 32. I do not always feel completely sincere when I reveal my own feelings, emotions, behaviors, or experiences.
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Agree Agree
Disagree Disagree
67
Circle the response that best describes how much you agree or disagree with each statement, as it relates to you. 1. I find it hard to imitate the behavior of other people. 2. My behavior is usually an expression of my true inner feelings, attitudes, and beliefs. 3. At parties and social gatherings, I do not attempt to do or say things that others will like. 4. I can only argue for ideas which I already believe. 5. I can make impromptu speeches even on topics about which I have almost no information. 6. I guess I put on a show to impress or
VSA SA MA U MD SD VSD
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
Source: M. Snyder. (1974). Self-monitoring of expressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10, 526-537.
68
entertain people. 7. When I am uncertain how to act in a social situation, I look to the behavior of others for cues. 8. I would probably make a good actor. 9. I rarely need the advice of my friends to choose movies, books, or music. 10. I sometimes appear to others to be experiencing deeper emotions than I actually am. 11. I laugh more when I watch a comedy with others than when alone. 12. In a group of people I am rarely the center of attention. 13. In different situations and with different people, I often act like very different persons. 14. I am not particularly good at making other people like me.
VSA SA MA U MD SD VSD
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
15. Even if I am not enjoying myself, I often pretend to be having a good time. 16. I am not always the person I appear to be. 17. I would not change my opinions (or the way I do things) in order to please someone else or win their favor. 18. I have considered being an entertainer. 19. In order to get along and be liked, I tend to be what people expect me to be rather than anything else.
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
69
20. I have never been good at games like charades or improvisational acting. 21. I have trouble changing my behavior to suit different people and different situations. 22. At a party I let others keep the jokes and stories going. 23. I feel a bit awkward in company and do not show up quite so well as I should. 24. I can look anyone in the eye and tell a lie with a straight face (if for a right end). 25. I may deceive people by being friendly when I really dislike them.
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
VSA
SA
MA
MD
SD
VSD
Note: Reverse scoring must be applied to items 5-8, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 18, 19, 24, and 25.
70
Sociability Scale
1. I like to be with people. 2. I welcome the opportunity to mix socially with people. 3. I prefer working alone rather than with others. 4. I find people more stimulating than anything else. 5. I would be unhappy if I were prevented from making many social contacts.
Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Unsure Disagree Somewhat Disagree Somewhat Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree
Unsure
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
Shyness Scale
6. I feel tense when I am with people I do not know well. 7. I feel inhibited in social situations.
Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat Unsure Disagree Somewhat Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
Source: A.H. Buss. (1980). Self-consciousness and social anxiety. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman & Company.
71
9. I am often uncomfortable at parties and other social functions. 10. When conversing, I worry about saying something dumb. 11. I feel nervous when speaking to someone in authority. 12. I am more shy with members of the opposite sex. 13. I have trouble looking someone right in the eye. 14. I do not find it hard to talk to strangers.
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree
Agree Somewhat
Unsure
Disagree Somewhat
Strongly Disagree
Note: Items 1 through 5 compose the sociability scale. Items 6 through 14 make up the shyness measure. Reverse scoring should be applied to all items except 3 and 14.
72
3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree
8. 9.
Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree
Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree Strongly Agree
10. My partner does not show me when she/he is sexually satisfied. 11. I show my partner what pleases me during sex. 12. I am displeased with the manner in which my partner and I communicate with each other during sex. 13. My partner does not show me things she/he finds pleasing during sex.
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Unsure
Agree
Strongly Agree
Source: L.R. Wheeless, V.E. Wheeless, & R. Baus. (1984). Sexual communication, communication satisfaction, and solidarity in the developmental stages of intimate relationships. Western Journal of Communication, 48, 217-230.
73
14. I show my partner when I am sexually satisfied. 15. My partner does not let me know whether sex has been satisfying or not. 16. I do not show my partner when I am sexually satisfied. 17. I am satisfied concerning my ability to communicate about sexual matters with my partner. 18. My partner shows me by the way she/he touches me if she/he is satisfied. 19. I am dissatisfied with my partners ability to communicate her/his sexual desires to me. 20. I have no way of knowing when my partner is sexually satisfied. 21. I am not satisfied in the majority of our sexual interactions. 22. I am pleased with the manner in which my partner and I communicate with each other after sex.
Disagree Disagree
Unsure Unsure
Agree Agree
Reverse scoring should be applied to items 3, 6, 7, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16, 19, 20, and 21.
74
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
I feel in tune with the people around me. I lack companionship. There is no one I can turn to. I do not feel alone. I feel part of a group of friends. I have a lot in common with the people around me.
7. 8.
I am no longer close to anyone. My interests and ideas are not shared by those around me.
never never
rarely rarely
sometimes sometimes
often often
I am an outgoing person. There are people I feel close to. I feel left out. My social relationships are superficial. No one really knows me well. I feel isolated from others. I can find companionship when I want it. There are people who really understand me. I am unhappy being so withdrawn. People are around me but not with me.
never never never never never never never never never never
rarely rarely rarely rarely rarely rarely rarely rarely rarely rarely
sometimes sometimes sometimes sometimes sometimes sometimes sometimes sometimes sometimes sometimes
often often often often often often often often often often
Source: D. Russell, L.A. Peplau, & C.E. Cutrona. (1980). The revised UCLA Loneliness Scale: Concurrent and discriminant validity evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 472480.
75
19. 20.
There are people I can talk to. There are people I can turn to.
never never
rarely rarely
sometimes sometimes
often often
Reverse scoring must be applied to positively worded items: 1, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 15, 16, 19, 20.
76
It has been argued that most of the variance in meaning can be accounted for by three underlying dimensions: evaluation, potency, and activity. Items reflecting the evaluation dimension include good/bad, valuable/worthless, clean/dirty, etc.; items tapping the activity dimension include active/passive, fast/slow, etc.; potency items include strong/weak, potent/impotent, and powerful/powerless, etc. The steps in preparing a semantic differential are essentially the same as those required for constructing a Likert scale; indeed, most scholars consider the semantic differential to be a type of summated scale. Reverse Scoring Items with the negative adjective pole on the right hand side (such as unwise and worthless) would be subjected to reverse scoring, as follows: 1=9, 2=8, 3=7, etc.
77
Expertise
Inexpert: Uninformed: Unqualified: Unintelligent: Unauthoritative: Inexperienced: Unskilled: Untrained: Stupid: Inept: Novice: Amateurish: Incompetent: -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -3 -3 -3 -3 -3 -3 -3 -3 -3 -3 -3 -3 -3 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 :Expert :Informed :Qualified :Intelligent :Authoritative :Experienced :Skilled :Trained :Smart :Proficient :Veteran :Professional :Competent
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Bipolar Scales
Bipolar scales are very similar in format to semantic differentials. With a bipolar scale, respondents are asked to indicate where they place themselves on a numerical scale which is anchored at each end by a word or phrase. For example, a person might ask to indicate the extent to which a particular position reflects her own opinion: BARACK OBAMA W OULD MAKE AN EXCELLENT U.S. PRESIDENT. I tend to agree with this statement : I tend to disagree : with this statement
There is nothing sacred about a nine-point scale. Subjects may be asked to indicate their position on a continuum defined by any number of intervals. Nor is there any reason why only positive numbers must be used in numerical bi-polar scales. Indeed, there are times when negative values may make more sense to subjects: It has been suggested that Barack Obama would make an excellent President of the United States. How do you feel about the idea of a President Barack Obama? Very Negative : -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 Neutral 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 : Very Positive
Recently, some investigators have abandoned numerical categories in lieu of more precise continuous measures. For instance, a respondent could be asked to indicate the point on a continuum represented by a line which reflects his or her viewpoint. The distance between the starting point on the line and the point of intersection is measured in mm. to derive a value for the item:
It has been argued that an expanded system of mass transit which linked Sacramento to the San Francisco Bay Area would lead to many people to move from the Bay Area to the Greater Sacramento Area. As a resident of Sacramento, how would you feel about such an outcome? Please draw a slash across the point on the line which best reflects your opinion. Very Negative Very Positive
|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| Neutral
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Attitude Similarity
Doesnt think like me: Behaves like me: Similar to me: Unlike me: Perceives things like me: Personality different from mine: Does things like I do: Shares my beliefs: Shares my attitudes: Likes things I dislike: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 :Thinks like me :Doesnt behave like me :Different from me :Like me :Doesnt perceive things like me :Personality similar to mine :Does things unlike I do :Doesnt share my beliefs :Doesnt share my attitudes :Dislikes things I like
Value Similarity
Morals unlike mine: Sexual attitudes different from mine: Doesnt share my values: Treats people like I do: Doesnt share my emotions: Politics different from mine: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 :Morals like mine :Sexual attitudes like mine :Shares my values :Doesnt treat people like I do :Shares my emotions :Politics like mine
Appearance Similarity
Looks different than me: Different size than I am: Same weight I am: Wears hair like I do: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 :Looks similar to me :Same size as I :Different weight than I am :Wears hair different than I do
James C. McCroskey, V.P. Richmond, & J.A. Daly. (1975). The development of a measure of perceived homophily in interpersonal communication. Human Communication Research, 1, 323-332.
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Background Similarity
From social class similar to mine: Culturally different than me: Economic situation different from mine: Status different from mine: Family like mine: Background different from mine: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 :From different social class than mine :Culturally similar to me :Economic situation similar to mine :Status like mine :Family different from mine :Background similar to mine
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Directions: We would like you to describe how you feel when you are passionately in love. Some common terms for this feeling are passionate love, infatuation, love sickness, or obsessive love. Please think of the person whom you love most passionately right now. If you are not in love right now, please think of the last person you loved passionately. If you have never been in love, think of the person whom you came closest to caring for in that way. Keep this person in mind as you respond to the thirty statements that follows. Please be assured that there is no correct way to respond. To indicate the extent to which each statement describes how you feel when passionately in love, please use the following scale:
Not At All True Of Me 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Definitely True Of Me
Write the number which best describes how true the statement is of you in the box to the left of the statement.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. I would feel deep despair if this person left me. Sometimes I feel I cant control my thoughts; they are obsessively on this person. I feel happy when I am doing something to make this person happy. I would rather be with this person than anyone else. Id get jealous if I thought this person were falling in love with someone else. I yearn to know all about this person. I want this person physically, emotionally, mentally. I have an endless appetite for affection from this person. For me, this person is the perfect romantic partner. I sense my body responding when this person touches me. This person always seems to be on my mind. I want this person to know me my thoughts, my fears, and my hopes.
Source: E. Hatfield & S. Sprecher. (1986). Measuring passionate love in intimate relations. Journal of Adolescence, 9, 383-410.
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I eagerly look for signs indicating this persons desire for me. I possess a powerful attraction for this person. I get extremely depressed when things dont go right in my relationship with this person.
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D no no no no yes yes
E no no no no no yes
Score 0 1 2 3 4 5
I would not object to sitting next to a __________ on a bus. I would not object to having a __________ live next door. I would have no objections to inviting a __________ to dine in my house. At a party with my friends, I would not hesitate to ask a __________ to dance if I were attracted to him or her as a person. I would have no objections to my son or daughter dating a __________ as long as s/he were a good person.
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Directions. Below you will find descriptions of conditions which might lead a pregnant woman to ask you to perform an abortion. Please indicate (by circling) whether you would approve or disapprove of an abortion under each condition.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
The womans career or education would be disrupted. The woman is too young to have the child. The woman is financially unable to support the child. The woman is too old to have the child. The woman does not want the child. The womans unmarried status would be a problem. The pregnancy or childbirth would threaten the mental health of the woman. The pregnancy or childbirth would threaten the physical health of the woman. The woman is pregnant as a result of rape or incest.
10. There is a risk of congenital abnormality. 11. The pregnancy or childbirth is a threat to the womans life.
Source: Koslowski, M., Pratt, G.l., & Wintrob, R.N. (1976). The application of Guttman scale analysis to physicians attitudes regarding abortion. Journal of Applied Psychology, 61, 301-304.
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Example
I would like to ask your opinion about how serious you think certain crimes are. The first situation is this: A PERSON STEALS A BICYCLE PARKED ON THE STREET. This crime has been given a seriousness score of 10. Use this first situation to judge all others. For example, if you think a particular crime is 20 times more serious than the bicycle theft, the number you tell me should be around 200, or if you think it is half as serious, the number you tell me should be around 5, and so on. There is no upper limit. Use ANY number so long as it shows how serious you think the situation is. If you think something is not a crime, give it a zero rating. We are no ready to begin.
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___ 1. A person using force robs a victim of $25. The victim struggles and is shot to death. ___ 2. A person disturbs the neighborhood with loud, noisy behavior. ___ 3. A person steals property worth $1000 from outside a building. ___ 4. A man forcibly rapes a woman. Her physical injuries require medical treatment. ___ 5. A five-year old child steals a candy bar in a drugstore. ___ 6. A student breaks into her professors office to steal a test. ___ 7. A terrorist randomly shoots people at an airport check-in point. Twelve people are killed and five others are critically wounded. ___ 8. A poor man steals money from a convenience store to buy food for his hungry children. The man pretends he has a gun. No one is injured. ___ 9. A student rips an article out of a book at a public library.
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communication is represented by the 40 indicators. Are there aspects of FOC that are not reflected in the indicators? Are there dimensions of FOC not assessed?
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Typologies
The purpose of a typology is to categorize observations into a system of types. Although there are several ways to form a typology, a common approach is to create types by examining the intersection between two (or intersections among more than two) variables. In most cases, the results of this strategy is a nominal-level category system. These types can themselves be thought of as the attributes of a variable. An Example One example of a typology formed through the intersection of two variables is Rusbults Exit-VoiceLoyalty-Neglect Model of responses to dissatisfaction in relationships. Rusbult argues that two dimensions (variables) distinguish the various responses one might make when dissatisfied with a relationship. Active-Passive: One either does or does not take action which addresses the problem at hand. Constructive-Destructive: Ones response is intended to either preserve or destroy the relationship. When these two variables are dichotomized and crossed, the result is a typology of four kinds of responses to dissatisfaction:
Active
Exit
Voice
Destructive
Neglect Loyalty
Constructive
Passive
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QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION
I. Introductory Observations.
II.
B.
A question should be specific with regard to who, what, where, and when.
1.
2.
3.
4.
a.
Sources of Confusion.
b.
c.
Prevent Telescoping.
Telescoping: the tendency to place an event in a time period when it actually occurred prior to that event.
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i.
Multiple Interviews.
Interview the respondent about the behavior in question. The data for the first interview are not used, but serve to bound subsequent reports. (e.g., The last time we talked, you told me that you had done x...Since our last interview, have you...[questions about behavior follow].
ii.
Bound recall with an initial question. (For instance, in an interview which took place in May, the respondent could be asked to report about the occurrence of behavior X in the month of April. The subsequent question then asks about performance of the same behavior in May.)
iii.
Using Records.
d.
Minimize Omissions.
Omission: A failure to report a behavior which occurred during the specified time frame.
i.
ii.
e.
C.
1.
2.
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3.
4.
5.
a.
b.
c.
d.
6.
7.
Casual Approach.
8.
9.
10.
III.
93
B.
1.
Open Questions.
2.
Dichotomous Questions.
3.
C.
Reduce Threat
1.
Casual Approach.
Do you happen to know ... As far as you know, is ... From what you have heard or read...
2.
Legitimize Ignorance.
D.
E.
IV.
1.
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2.
B.
C.
1.
2.
D.
1.
2.
E.
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Unwise
Should the Federal Government allow...? Should the Federal Government forbid...? Do you favor...? Do you oppose...? Are you satisfied with...? Are you dissatisfied with...? Do you support...? Do you oppose...?
Better
Should the Federal Government allow or forbid... Do you favor or oppose...?
F.
G.
1.
Loaded Language.
2.
Effects of Enhanced Outcomes Versus Simple Labels (see handout on page 102).
H.
I.
J.
1.
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2.
K.
When Using Closed Question Formats, Be Open To Creative Alternative to the Traditional Approaches..
1.
2.
a.
Use Metaphors
i.
ii.
b.
Rankings.
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c.
Paired Comparisons.
V.
1.
2.
Motivate Participation.
B.
1.
2.
3.
C.
1.
2.
D.
Organization.
1.
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2.
3.
4.
Provide Transitions.
5.
6.
E.
Length.
F.
Variety.
1.
2.
V.
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1.
Over the past three months, how many movies did you view?
2.
3.
Over the past five years, how many appliances did you purchase?
4.
How much money have you spent on clothing during the past year?
5.
How many long distance phone calls do you make in the typical week?
6.
How often do you attend movies and theatrical performances never, rarely, sometimes, or often?
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1.
How many packs of cigarettes do you smoke in the typical day? None, 1 pack, or 2 or more packs?
2.
Now we would like to ask you a couple of questions about your attitudes toward fidelity in marriage.
A. Do you approve or disapprove of extramarital affairs? ___Approve ___Disapprove
B.
3.
4.
Have you ever beaten your child so hard that he or she became physically injured by your abuse?
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Percent Saying Too Little Is Being Spent Crime Year 1984 1985 1986 Enhanced: Halting Rising Crime Rates 69.3% 67.3% 66.8% Simple: Law Enforcement 56.5% 57.8% 53.9%
Drug Addiction Enhanced: Dealing with Drug Addition 1984 1985 1986 64.4% 66.6% 60.7% Simple: Drug Rehabilitation 49.4% 58.0% 56.3%
Adapted from: K.A. Rasinski. (1989). The effect of question wording on public support for government spending. Public Opinion Quarterly, 53, 388-394.
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Percent Saying Too Little Is Being Spent Welfare Year 1984 1985 1986 Enhanced: Assistance To The Poor 64.1% 65.2% 62.8% Simple: Welfare 25.2% 19.8% 23.1%
Cities Enhanced: Solving Problems of Big Cities 1984 1985 1986 52.0% 45.7% 48.2% Simple: Assistance To Big Cities 21.3% 20.8% 17.7%
Social Security Enhanced: Protecting Social Security 1984 68.2% Simple: Social Security 53.2%
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6. 7.
8. 9. 10.
11.
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Very-fairly-not at all Frequency Regularly-sometimes-seldom-never Often-most of the time-some of the time-rarely-never More likely-less likely-no difference
Good for measuring probability of the respondents action, given some hypothetical circumstance.
Adapted from: P.B. Sheatsley (1983). Questionnaire construction and item writing. In P.H. Rossi, J.D. Wright, & A.B. Anderson (Eds.), Handbook of survey research (pp. 195-230). Orlando: Academic Press.
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65.6%
Order: American Reporter/Communist Reporter 1. Do you think a Communist country like Russia should let American newspaper reporters come in and send back to America the news as they see it? 2. Do you think the United States should let Communist newspaper reporters from other countries come in here and send back to their papers the news as they see it? 89.8%
73.1%
Source: H.H. Hyman & P.B. Sheatsley. (1950). The current status of American public opinion. In J.C. Payne (Ed.), The teaching of contemporary affairs. Twenty-first Yearbook of the National Council of Social Studies, 11-34.
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Pretest For What? Purposes of Questionnaire Pretesting Assessment of the Quality of Specific Questions
Variation. If almost everyone responds to a question in the same way (i.e., there is little variation in their responses), this is a good sign that something might be wrong with the question. Perhaps the question is worded in such a way that people are not being truthful out of concerns over how they will be judged. Of course, a lack of variation is not always a problem. If 95% of the population reports being able to read, we wont be troubled by this lack of variation. Meaning. We need to pretest on meaning to determine if each question is being understood as intended. What is clear and obvious to the question-writer may be interpreted differently by respondents. Pretesting on meaning is needed to identify such confusions and correct them! Pretesting on meaning is also important because many respondents will answer a question even if they dont understand it. In the survey research literature, many comical examples have been reported of questions being interpreted in other-than-intended ways. For instance, the question Should corporations be driven by profits? has been interpreted by some subjects as Should corporations be driven (controlled) by prophets? Questions about heavy traffic may be assumed by some subjects to refer to cars and trucks; other respondents especially those living in bad neighborhoods may interpret the question as being about drug trafficking. Family planning may be interpreted as birth control by some individuals, but as family decision-making by others. Difficulty. A good question asks for information that a respondent can provide. A question such as How many loafs of bread do you and your family consume each year? is probably a bad one; even the most cooperative respondent might have trouble coming up with a valid answer. Respondent Interest. Finally, every question needs to be pretested to determine its effect on respondents levels of interest in the survey. Efforts should be made to enliven dull questions. This is why varying question formats is especially useful!
Flow and Naturalness of the Sections. One must assess the extent to which each section flows well. Does it cohere? One must also determine if there is a natural flow across sections. This is
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where overviews and transitions can be important. Like a good term paper, a questionnaire must overview its content and provide transitions that link its distinct parts. Question Order. If one question seems to shape how a completely different question is interpreted, the two questions may need to be reordered or separated. For instance, suppose you ask respondents how satisfied they are with what they have to pay to attend UCD, and then ask them to evaluate UCD in general. If they tend to answer the second question in terms of the high cost of tuition, a red flag should go up. This problem could be solved simply by asking the more general question first. Clarity of Skip Patterns (Branching Questions). Very often, we find it necessary to ask different questions to different people, based on their answers to an earlier question. For instance, if I ask you if you have purchased a car during the past 12 months, I will probably want to follow up by asking you questions about that purchase. These questions are irrelevant if you did not purchase a car during the specified time period. In this case, you will need to be given clear instructions to skip to the next relevant question or even to the next section. A questionnaire must thus be pretested to determine if subjects understand your instructions concerning such branching questions and follow them correctly. Length. Respondents responses to a questionnaire have more to do with how interesting it is than with how long it is. However, as a general rule, a questionnaire administered in a face-to-face interview should probably be no more than 50 minutes long; longer questionnaires may need to be administered in a couple of sessions. For phone surveys, the general norm is about 10 minutes. Respondent Interest. Just as you need to pretest each question to determine its impact on respondent interest, so too must you assess the changing nature of respondents interests over the duration of the questionnaires administration. If their interest begins to fall at some point, that part of the questionnaire may need to be given more spice. Respondent Well-Being. Does the questionnaire leave respondents bummed out? If so, do something! Insert a few positive, upbeat questions.
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What did the whole question mean to you? How would you say it? What did ______ make you think of? What was it you had in your mind when you said __________? Would your answer have been different if the question had been worded this way: ______________________? A second approach, often used later in the pretesting processes, is the undeclared pretest. With this tack, the interviewer pays careful attention for points of confusing, respondent boredom, the effects of the questionnaire on respondents mood, etc. However, the interviewee is never told that s/he is merely a pretest respondent.
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SAMPLING
I. Introductory Comments.
A. Who Samples?
B.
II.
A Working Vocabulary.
A. Population: The entities about which one wishes to draw conclusions.
B.
Sample: The subset of the population which is actually studied, and from which results are generalized to the population.
C.
Element (Unit of Observation): The unit about which information is collected and that provides the basis for our analysis.
D.
Sampling Unit: The elements considered for selection at some stage of the sampling procedure.
1.
2.
E.
F.
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G.
Sampling Error: An estimate of the degree of error to be expected for a given sample.
H.
III.
Nonprobability Sampling. A nonprobability sample is one which has been selected not on the basis of a randomized mechanism, but on the basis of convenience or systematically employed nonrandom criteria.
A. Nonprobability Sampling Strategies.
1.
2.
Quota Sampling: Interviewers select individuals for the sample in the same proportions as the population proportions on easily identified variables (e.g., age, gender, race).
3.
a.
b.
Most Dissimilar.
4.
Typical Case(s) Sampling: Cases are selected for study on the basis of the investigators judgment of representativeness.
5.
Critical Case Sampling: Cases are selected because they have had predictive power in the past not because they are seen as being representative of the population.
6.
Snowball Sampling.
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B.
IV.
Probability Sampling. In probability sampling, each unit in the population has a known, nonzero probability of being included in the sample.
A. Equal Versus Unequal Probability Sampling.
1.
Equal Probability Sampling: Sampling designs which give each member of the population the same probability of being selected for the sample.
2.
Unequal Probability Sampling: Sampling designs which give each member of the population an unequal probability of being selected for the sample.
B.
1.
Simple Random Sampling: This is an equal probability sampling procedure. All members of the population are listed, or at least physically present. That is, you could reach any and all of them if you so desired.
a.
Sampling fraction: The probability of selection, determined by dividing the desired sample size by the number of units in the population.
b.
i.
ii.
iii.
Manual procedures.
c.
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2.
Systematic Sampling.
a.
Procedure.
i.
Assemble a list (the sampling frame) of all of the units of the population.
ii.
iii.
iv.
b.
Potential Problems.
i.
ii.
periodicity concerns
3.
Stratified Sampling: Random Sampling of Strata (Subpopulations): This sampling approach involves the simple random sampling of the subpopulations of the population of interest.
a.
b.
4.
a.
Procedure.
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i.
Divide survey population into unique, nonoverlapping groups prior to sampling. (Groups are typically preexistent, naturally occurring groupings.) These groups are the primary sampling unit.
ii.
iii.
b.
Examples.
c.
i.
Similarities.
ii.
Dissimilarities.
d.
5.
Multi-Stage Sampling.
a.
i.
Survey Population is Organized into Groups (Clusters), which are sampled to obtain Primary Sampling Units (PSUs).
ii.
The Members of these PSUs are Sampled (Simple or Stratified Sampling) To Obtain the Final Sample.
b.
c.
Sampling Interviewees In the Household PSU (see handouts beginning on page 119).
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i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
C.
V.
Nonsampling bias is the difference between the true target population value (e.g., means, percent agreement/disagreement, etc.) and the population value we would obtained if the data collection operations were carried out on the entire population.
Nonsampling bias results from explicit decisions and implementation of decisions during data collection efforts that are not directly related to the selection of the sample.
1.
a.
b.
Study Population: The Population Which is Actually Represented, Given the Researchers Procedures.
2.
a.
The Unreachables.
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b.
The Uncooperatives.
3.
B.
Sampling Bias: Sampling bias is the systematic error that results from a sampling approach that over-represents or under-represents a portion of the study population.
C.
Sampling Variability.
Sampling variability is the fluctuation of sample estimates that results from the random selection process.
Sampling variability is inevitable because statistics from randomly selected samples will vary from one sample to the next due to chance. (Remember: You have only one of a very large number of samples which could have been drawn.)
1.
a.
Small Sample Size (N) (as sample size increases, sampling variability decreases).
b.
Large Variance in the Variable (sampling variability decreases as sample homogeneity decreases.)
2.
VI.
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117
Procedure 4. A news organization covering a state election for Governor attempts to forecast the results of the election by interviewing an assortment of citizens from two counties which appear to be demographically similar to the state as a whole. What sampling strategy is this organization using?
5. A news organization covering a state election for Governor attempts to forecast the results of the election by interviewing an assortment of citizens from one county which has always voted for the winner in past elections. What sampling strategy is this organization using?
6. An organizational behavior scholar wishes to identify those factors which distinguish well managed organizations from poorly managed organizations. She selects the 30 organizations from the S&P 500 with the greatest percentage increase in five-year earnings and the 30 S&P 500 organizations with the largest average percentage decline in five-year earnings. She then interviews a broad spectrum of individuals from within each organization. Our investigator has made use of what kind of sampling procedure?
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The Kish method is the most rigorous interviewee selection procedure ever developed. It is also the most intrusive, and is thus not used very much anymore. In particular, the technique requires that personal information be collected about the members of the household before rapport has developed. Step 1: After the introductory comments, obtain a list of all of the individuals in the household who meet the age requirement for the survey, and then ask for the sex and age of each member. Step 2: Delete from the list those individuals who are ineligible to participate in the study because of other criteria relevant to the survey (e.g., age, voter registration, or whatever). Step 3: Rank order the members of the household on the basis of their age and gender, beginning with the oldest man and ending with the youngest woman. For instance: List All Persons Age 18 and Over in this Dwelling Unit Person Husband Wife Oldest Son Youngest Son Husbands Dad Daughters Husband Daughter Sex M F M M M M F Age 55 55 24 22 80 30 25 Rank 2 6 4 5 1 3 7 X Interviewee
Step 4: Select person to interview on the basis of one of eight versions of a selection table that is printed on the questionnaire. (Each selection table is used either 1/6th or 1/12th of the time [see table below]. The selection table which is used for a particular household is based on random assignment of a table to the household.)
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If the Number of Adults in Household Is: Proportion of Assigned Tables 1/6 1/12 1/12 1/6 1/6 1/12 1/12 1/6 Table No. A B1 B2 C D E1 E2 F 1 2 3 4 5 >5
Step 1: Ask how many persons live in the household age ___ or older. For example, How many persons 18 years of age or older live in your household, including yourself? Step 2: Ask how many of these adults are men. Step 3: Determine the respondent on the basis of one of four matrices of possible respondents (a matrix should be randomly assigned to a household). One of the four matrices developed by Troldahl and Carter is reproduced below. See the source above for the other three matrices.
Source: V.C. Troldahl & R.E. Carter (1964). Random selection of respondents within households in phone surveys. Journal of Marketing Research, 1, 71-76.
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Question 1 Question 2 How many of these adults are men? 0 How many persons 18 years of age or older live in your household, including yourself? 1 Adult Interview the woman Interview the man 2 Adults Interview the oldest woman Interview the man Interview the oldest man 3 Adults Interview the youngest woman Interview the man Interview the youngest man Interview the youngest man >3 Adults Interview the youngest woman Interview the oldest woman Interview the youngest man Interview the oldest man Interview the oldest man
1 2 3 >3
This procedure represents a modification of the Troldahl-Carter method. It is sometimes referred to as the Troldahl-Carter-Bryant Procedure. Its purpose is to correct for the undersampling of males which appears to occur with the Troldahl-Carter approach. Step 1: Ask how many individuals aged ___ or older live in the household. Step 2: Ask how many of these individuals are women. Step 3: Select a respondent on the basis of one of the four matrices. (Matrix use alternates.)
Source: B.E. Bryant. (1975). Respondent selection in a time of changing household composition. Journal of Marketing Research, 12, 129-135.
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No. of Women Aged ___ + In Household 1 Matrix A 0 1 2 3 >3 Matrix B 0 1 2 3 >3 Matrix C 0 1 2 3 >3 Matrix D 0 1 2 3 >3 man woman man woman man woman man woman
Number of Persons Aged ___ + In Household 2 oldest man man youngest woman 3 oldest man youngest man man oldest woman >3 youngest man woman youngest man man or youngest man youngest woman youngest man woman oldest woman youngest man oldest man man youngest woman oldest man woman oldest man man or oldest man oldest woman youngest man man youngest woman oldest man woman oldest woman oldest woman oldest man youngest man oldest woman youngest woman youngest woman oldest man woman oldest woman youngest man woman youngest woman youngest woman youngest man oldest man youngest woman oldest woman oldest woman
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Birthday Methods
One recently developed approach is to ask to talk to the person within the sampling unit who most recently had a birthday. A variant of this approach is to ask for the individual who will have the next birthday. Preliminary research suggests that this approach leads to rather unbiased (i.e., representative) samples, but much more research is needed before it can be used with great confidence. Theoretically, the method should work. The only potential bias is that people born in certain months may be over represented, but since astrological sign does not correlate with much of anything, the consequences of such a bias should be minimal.
Hagen/Collier Method
With this approach, the interviewer directly requests to talk with one of four individuals: (1) The oldest male over age ___; (2) the oldest female over age _+__; (3) the youngest male over age ___; or (4) the youngest female over age ___. In households with only one male or one female, that individual is both the oldest and youngest representative of his/her gender. Of course, the request is made to talk to the oldest/youngest male/female who live in the household not the oldest/youngest male/female who happens to be home at the time of the contact. The four different requests must be used in proportion to the known distribution of males and females in the sampling area. The method will probably lead to the under representation of middle-aged individuals of both genders.
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2.
3.
SIMPLE RANDOM SYSTEMATIC STRATIFIED CLUSTER MULTISTAGE SIMPLE RANDOM SYSTEMATIC STRATIFIED CLUSTER MULTISTAGE
4.
5.
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Procedure 6. A media researcher wishes to compare the current occupational portrayal of blacks and whites in U.S. print ads. She identifies all magazines with a circulation greater than one million in the last calendar year, and then randomly selects 20% of these magazines for analysis. Every ad which appeared in the issues of these magazines during the year is content analyzed. What design did she use? A sociologist is interested in doing a survey of his fellow sociologists beliefs about the important issues in the field. He defines his population as all people who are members of the American Sociological Association (ASA). A list of the current members is obtained from ASA headquarters. The investigator samples 25% of the membership by flipping two coins for each name listed. If heads came up on both coins, the member was included in the final sample. Suppose our investigator had broken down his lists into smaller lists, based on each members primary interest (e.g., race relations, organizational sociology, health sociology, etc.), and then applied simple random sampling to each list. What kind of sampling design would this approach represent? Lets assume that our investigator took an alphabetized list of members and enumerated each name. He then selected a random starting point through the use of a random numbers table; lets assume that number 329 came up. He then selected member 329, and every fourth name thereafter (333, 337, 341, etc.), cycling back through the top of the list until he reached member 328. What sampling design did our investigator use?
7.
8.
SIMPLE RANDOM SYSTEMATIC STRATIFIED CLUSTER MULTISTAGE SIMPLE RANDOM SYSTEMATIC STRATIFIED CLUSTER MULTISTAGE
9.
10. A major survey research firm is interested in adult (i.e., aged 18 or older) Americans attitudes on a variety of law and order issues. She begins by obtaining a list of zip codes in use throughout the nation, and then randomly selects 25% of these codes. She then obtains a list of households within each of the selected zip codes and randomly selects 5% of the households from each zip code area, weighting each area for the number of households in it. Finally, she uses the last birthday technique to identify one person within the household for inclusion in the final sample. This interviewee is also weighted to take into account the number of eligible individuals within the household. What sampling design did our investigator use?
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EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
I. An Overview of Experimentation.
A. Select a Question for Study.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Examine the Generality of the Tentatively-Supported Hypothesis in New Situations Through Replication.
F.
II.
B.
Manifestations of Problems.
1.
A Gap in Knowledge.
2.
3.
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4.
Theories.
a.
b.
Derivations/Tests of Theories.
C.
III.
The Hypothesis.
A. Definition: An hypothesis is a testable statement of a potential relationship between two (or more) variables.
B.
Examples of Hypotheses.
1.
Covariation: An hypothesis that states that two (or more) variables will be statistically correlated with each other.
Example: High self-monitors are less likely to be detected when given the task of deceiving others than will low self-monitors.
2.
Causal Hypotheses.
Example: High self-monitors are more skilled at suppressing behaviors indicative of stress than low self-monitors, thereby enhancing their abilities to lie without detection.
C.
Types of Variables.
1.
Independent Variable: An aspect of the environment that is experimentally manipulated to study its effects on other variables.
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2.
Dependent Variable: The variable that we propose will be affected by our manipulations of the independent variable.
3.
Mediator Variable: A variable may be said to function as a mediator to the extent that it accounts for the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable.
Independent Variable(s)
Mediating Variable(s)
Dependent Variable(s)
4.
Manipulation Checks: Measurements intended to determine if the experimenters manipulation (operationalization) of an independent variable worked as intended.
D.
Operationalization.
IV.
1.
a.
Design.
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R M O R O
i.
Hypothesis.
Individuals who are instructed in the behavioral cues of deception will be more likely to detect deception than will individuals who have not received such training.
ii.
Procedure.
iii.
Internal Validity.
2.
a.
Design.
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R O1 M O2 R O1 O2
R = Randomization O1 = Observation of Dependent Variable (Pretest) M =Manipulation of Independent Variable O2 = Observation of Dependent Variable (Posttest)
b. Example.
c.
3.
Two-Matched-Group Design.
a.
O O
b.
Example.
B.
N - Group Designs: The above designs can be generalized to more than two groups.
1.
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R M O R M O R O
2.
R O1 M O2 R O1 M O2 R O1 M O2 R O1 O2
R = Randomization O1 = Observation of Dependent Variable (Pretest) M = Manipulation of Independent Variable O2 = Observation of Dependent Variable (Posttest)
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3.
M M
O O O
C.
1.
2.
Hypothesis 1:
Metaphor facilitates comprehension through increased attention to the message. (e.g., The U.S. is a beacon for democracy.) Source status facilitates comprehension through increased attention to the message. Source physical attractiveness decreases comprehension through decreased attention to the message.
Hypothesis 2:
Hypothesis 3:
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Source Status: Low Metaphors None Two Four Six Eight Source Status: High Metaphors None Two Four Six Eight
3.
a.
Hypothesis:
Training leads to greater detection of deception, but only when the deceiver is led to believe that severe consequences will occur if the deception is detected.
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Training Condition Consequences None No Training I Same as in Cells II and III III Same as in Cells I and II Training II Same as in Cells I and III IV Highest Detection Accuracy Here
Severe
Hypothesis:
Training leads to greater detection of deception, but only when the deceiver is led to believe that negative consequences will occur if the deception is detected and if the deception is planned in advance.
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V.
VI.
Theory
VII. Theory and Research.
Research
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Hypothesis 1. When a message is counterattitudinal, a humorous style will lead to more attitude change than will a serious style because humor will inhibit counter-arguing. An interviewer who initially expresses skepticism about a job candidate, but then endorses that candidate will be more influential in her recommendation than will an interviewer who is positive from the outset. This greater effectiveness is due to the perception that the skeptical interviewer employs more rigorous evaluation standards than the nonskeptical interviewer. Fast talkers will be more persuasive than slow talkers, due to the attribution of intelligence to fast speaking communicators. The door-in-the-face request tactic will lead to greater compliance than a simple request tactic by elevating message recipients selfpresentation concerns. Strong fear appeals are more effective than weak fear appeals because of the effects of fear on subjects assessments of personal vulnerability.
Independent Variable?
Dependent Variable?
Mediator Variable?
2.
3.
4.
5.
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If an event occurs between our pretest and posttest (or between our manipulation of the independent variable(s) and our posttest) which is not part of our experimental treatment, then we have a problem of drawing the conclusion that the difference observed on our dependent measure is due to our manipulation of the independent variable(s). Example: You are interested in the effects of a university-based health promotion campaign on students smoking behavior. During your promotion activities, the U.S. Government begins its own anti-smoking campaign. Randomization can often deal with this threat to internal validity. If all of our subjects have been exposed to the extraneous event, then its effect should be expressed equally across all treatment groups. To use the above example, the effects of the governments efforts should be felt equally by all subjects, including those in the control group. 2. Maturation.
Maturation becomes a threat to internal validity when an observed effect might be due to the respondents growing older, wiser, stronger, more independent, etc. Example: As adolescents grow older, they become more independent and may be more inclined to say no to cigarettes rather than to peer pressure. Randomization will usually solve this problem: maturation effects should be just as strong in ones control group. 3. Testing.
This information has been abstracted from: T.D. Cook & D.T. Campbell (1976). The design and conduct of quasi-experiments and true experiments in field settings. In M.D. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 224-246). New York: Rand McNally.
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Testing may be a threat to internal validity when the very act of taking a test affects the variable being assessed. Example: Our students who take a pretest about their smoking attitudes may come to reconsider their views and habits as a result of the questionnaire experience itself. There are experimental designs which systematically examine the possibility of testing effects. A simple two-group design, for instance, could be substituted for a four-group design involving two experimental groups, only one of which is pretested, and two control groups, only one of which is pretested. 4. Instrumentation.
This threat occurs when our measuring instrument changes between pretest and posttest. We thus get differences on the posttest measure which might be erroneously attributed to the manipulation of the independent variable(s). If measurement is by mechanical means, calibration of the equipment is critical. Even paper and pencil tests might take on new meanings as time passes. Example: In a longitudinal study of developmental aspects of sex roles, an investigator finds that her questionnaire uses terms which have taken on new connotations. 5. Selection.
This threat occurs when the people in the various treatment groups are not identical. Of course, the purpose of randomization of subjects to treatment groups is to prevent this problem. Randomization is normally quite effective, especially when our sample size is large. One procedure which can be used to minimize the possibility of this threat to internal validity is the matched group design. An investigator could also collect demographic and other kinds of information to ensure that randomization is successful. The possibility of a selection bias is particularly great in field research, in which preexisting groups are often assigned to particular treatment conditions. Example: An investigator wishes to examine the effectiveness of a smoking prevention education program. She could not randomly assign subjects to groups because of the diffusion of treatment problem described below. Rather, she will have to assign several schools to the treatment group and several schools to the control group. Despite great efforts to construct equivalent groups, can she really be sure that an experimental group composed of Woodland High School and Dixon High School is equivalent to a control group composed of the students at Davis High School and Winters High School? Probably not. There may be differences in socio-economic status, race and ethnicity, parental educational levels, etc.
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6.
Attrition.
If particular kinds of individuals drop out of the different treatment groups, then you end up with treatment groups that are not identical, even if they initially were equivalent. Attrition analyses are critical; the investigator must examine the possibility that a different kind of person was more likely to leave the investigation by comparing drop outs to those who remain in the study. Example: Heavy smokers might drop out of the smoking prevention treatment group because they find the educational materials to be threatening, but heavy smokers in the control group will probably remain in the study. Their habit, after all, is not under attack. 7. Diffusion of Treatment.
This threat to validity occurs when the individuals in one treatment become inadvertently exposed to the treatment from another experimental condition. Randomization will not save the experimenter on this one! Example: Your experimental subjects share all of the information you have given them about smoking effects with the control subjects, who happen to be their friends. This kind of problem can be precluded by separating treatment groups for example, by having experimental subjects in Sacramento and control subjects in Culver City. This creates the potential for a selection bias, however. 8. Compensatory Equalization of Treatment.
When an experimental treatment appears to be doing good, administrators may become upset that the control group isnt getting equivalent treatment. They may then do things which serve to equalize the experimental and control groups. In doing so, they may make it impossible to determine if the treatment did in fact produce benefits. Example: The experimental subjects in a study of a new pharmacological agent appear to be made healthier. Pressures mount to administer the drug to control subjects. 9. Compensatory Rivalry.
If the assignment of people to treatment versus control groups is made public, the conditions for social competition are generated. Example: Students in one class room are given a special reading program. The students in the control classroom decide that they will work very hard to show that they are no dummies. The effect is that both groups show performance gains. It thus becomes impossible to have confidence that the treatment did in fact benefit students. 10. Resentful Demoralization of Respondents Receiving Less Desirable Treatments. Instead of adopting a we will show them! attitude (compensatory rivalry), subjects in the control condition (or in other less desirable treatment conditions) may feel defeated or resentful. One effect of resentful demoralization is a change in the behavior of the control subjects, which seriously undermines their usefulness as a comparison group.
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Example: If Woodland High School learned that they had been denied a neat anti-smoking program, they might become demoralized and conclude that if no one else cares about their health, then why should they care. 11. Inadvertent Differential Treatment of Subjects in Ways Unrelated to Experimental Manipulations. In the process of administering different treatments, it is possible that biases unrelated to the experimental manipulations can be introduced. Example: The health education coordinators who administer one type of anti-smoking education program are more experienced than are the coordinators who administer the other kind of education program. Are observed effects due to the program or to the experience levels of the coordinators? We will never know. Example: Something significant happens during one of the treatment sessions, but not during the other treatment sessions. For instance, one treatment condition is administered at 7:00 a.m.; all others take place at a humane time of the day. Example: One treatment condition includes an obnoxious subject who makes the experience a negative one for everybody in that experimental group.
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Threats
1. The independent variable did not vary what it was meant to vary.
Example: A high fear appeal message proves not to elicit higher levels of fear in audience members than the low fear appeal. Manipulation checks should be routinely taken to assess the effects of ones manipulations. For instance, when one manipulates the strength of fear in a persuasive message, then one should attempt to obtain measures of experienced fear, perceived vulnerability to the stated threat, etc. Likewise, when an investigator alters descriptions of a sources background to affect perceptions of credibility, then subjects should be asked to make ratings of credibility. Manipulation checks are a necessary feature of any carefully planned experimental design. 2. When manipulating the independent variable, other constructs were also inadvertently manipulated.
Example: A manipulation of source trustworthiness should not involve the alteration of information related to source expertise and power. Example: When manipulating argument quality, you should do so in a way which does not affect argument length (strong and weak arguments should be of equal length). 3. Your dependent measure does not adequately assess the dependent construct.
Example: Your multiple choice test for message comprehension does not really reflect differences among subjects in comprehension. 4. Your dependent measure assesses factors not relevant to the construct it is suppose to measure.
Example: Subjects scores on your multiple choice test of message comprehension reflects, in addition to message comprehension, prior knowledge on the topic, intelligence, test taking abilities, and reading skills.
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The probability of making these two errors in decision-making can be minimized, but never completely eliminated. These errors can be diagramed as shown in the box to the right.
Reality Phenomenon Exists Phenomenon Exists Phenomenon Does Not Exist Correct Inference Made Phenomenon Does Not Exist Type I Error
Type II Error
When we go fishing for a statistically significant effect (for example, by comparing all possible pairs of means or by examining every correlation among our variables), we increase our chances of making a Type I error unless we make adjustments to our decision-making criteria. In most cases, an investigator will accept as true a phenomenon if there is less than a five percent chance of obtaining a particular effect (such as a correlation of a particular size or a difference among means of a particular magnitude) given an assumption that the sample on which the test was based was taken from a population in which the phenomenon does not exist. Thus, the probability of a Type I error for that particular test is .05; we would say that our effect is significant at the .05 level of statistical significance. The problem comes when we start to make a lot of tests, each with a .05 chance of being a Type I error. One way to deal with this problem is to adopt a more rigorous significance level for each test so that our overall (experiment-wise) probability of a Type I error remains at p < .05.
The probability of making a Type II Error increases when we have limited statistical power, due to a small sample size. By analogy, trying to find a real effect with a small sample size is like trying to see something through weak binoculars. 2. Low Reliability of Dependent Measures.
If our dependent measures are not very reliable, they may not be powerful enough to detect real differences in the sample. To continue our analogy, trying to find a real effect with unreliable 142
measures is like trying to see something through dirty binoculars. 3. Low Reliability of Treatment Implementation.
Independent variables can also be unreliable. The experimental treatment is unreliable if it is implemented in a nonstandard way. For example, if one experimenter implements the independent variable differently than other experimenters, unreliability has been introduced. Likewise, if any one experimenter manipulates the treatment in different ways for different people we also have nonstandard implementation of our independent variables. This lack of standardization introduces noise into the experiment, and makes it difficult to detect real treatment effects.
Threats
1. Interaction of Treatments and Treatments.
When two treatments have been introduced in a study (as is done in factorial designs), we may not be able to generalize the effects of one of the treatments to situations in which the other treatment is not present. Example: You find that strong fear appeals work in a study in which both fear appeal strength (strong versus weak) and evidence type (personal testimony versus expert testimony) have been manipulated. Can you generalize to other situations involving no use of evidence? 2. Pretest Effects on Responses to the Treatment.
If we have used a pretest, is it possible that this testing affected how people responded to the experimental treatment? Example: In a study on peoples responses to different kinds of requests for help, subjects are asked to complete an Altruistic Tendencies Scale to make sure that the experimental and control groups do not differ on general helpfulness. If I observe differences among my control and experimental groups, there is the possibility that the pretest may have sensitized experimental subjects to the requests and altered their behavior. We are thus left with the question of whether the results could be generalized to situations in people have not been led to examine their altruistic tendencies prior to receiving a request for assistance. 3. Generalization To Other Kinds of People.
Can the studys results be generalized to groups not included in the design: e.g., to people of a different sex, age, race, social group, culture, educational background, socio-economic class, etc.?
143
Given resource limitations, experimental researchers must often make use of convenience samples, which are not typical of the population at large. For instance, much research has been conducted on college undergraduates, who are on average younger, brighter, whiter, better educated, and more affluent than mainstream America. 4. Generalization to Other Kinds of Settings.
Do the effects observed generalize to settings not examined in the experiment? Example: If participatory decision-making was found to increase employee satisfaction in a study involving small organizations, would the same effect be found in large organizations? Military organizations? Not-for-profit organizations? Example: If I find that funny television ads gain more attention from consumers than serious ads, can I generalize this finding to print and radio? 5. Generalization to Other Times.
Does the effect of a particular treatment generalize to other times? Example: Can we generalize the results of a study conducted 15 years ago on the causes of divorce to the present time? Example: Can we generalize the results of a study on gender differences in compliance within work groups that was conducted 30 years ago to the present time?
144
After reading the editorial, each subject reported his or her attitude toward the Governments cleanup efforts on a series of Likert scales. Earl summed across these responses to create a measure of subjects attitudes toward the Governments cleanup policy. In addition, each subject was asked to list all of the arguments he or she could think of that were presented in the editorial. Finally, each subject made an estimate of the number of dirty words in the editorial and indicated if the source of the message was male or female.
145
1.
2.
3.
Was a mediating variable assessed in this study? If so, what was it?
4.
5.
6.
How did Earl attempt to hold constant potential factors that could make interpretation of the results difficult?
7.
Suppose Earl found that (a) subjects who read the editorial from the female source were more persuaded when she did not swear; (b) subjects who read the editorial from the male source showed the same amounts of persuasion in the profane condition as in the control condition; and (c) subjects who heard a profane message recalled the same number of arguments as subjects who heard the nonprofane editorial. Does this pattern of results support the hypothesis?
8.
9.
146
Pregiving: These people were given the brochure and then asked for money. Order I: These people were asked to sign a petition, were then given the brochure, and then received the request for money. These people were given the brochure, then asked to sign the petition, and then heard the request for money.
Order II:
147
A script was carefully devised for each condition to ensure that extraneous factors were not introduced into the study. The research teams practiced extensively until they were able to administer the memorized scripts flawlessly and naturally. The investigators hypotheses can be summarized as follows: (1) The FITD strategy was expected to be more effective than the control (target request only) strategy and the Order II strategy. (2) The Pregiving strategy was expected to be more effective than the control strategy and the Order II strategy. (3) The Order I strategy was expected to be more effective than all of the other message strategies. The investigator had three teams of solicitors, each composed of two adults, go door-to-door to administer the five message strategies outlined above. The experiment was conducted in two suburban Northern California communities. Each team used a random procedure to assign each household to one of the five conditions. The strategy for that condition was then implemented. Thus, all research teams administered each of the five conditions on an equal number of occasions. One of the members of each team served as requester, while the other member performed the role of record-keeper. The record-keeper was responsible for the random assignment of a household to one of the conditions, and also recorded the amount of money donated (the range proved to be $0 to $26).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What did Dr. Bell do to hold constant potential factors that could make interpretation of the results difficult?
6.
7.
Suppose Dr. Bell had used five research teams, and had assigned one condition to each team. Thus, team one could have administered all of the control condition requests, team two could have been responsible for the FITD requests, etc. Would this have been a good or bad idea?
8.
148
After reading the speech, subjects were asked to report on a series of semantic differentials their evaluation of the need for a federal program to support child care for working mothers. They also rated how strong they thought Johnsons arguments were in support of his positions. In addition, they were asked to write down all the arguments they could remember that were used by Johnson. Finally, they made a rating of how much they liked Johnson on a single 10point scale.
1.
149
2.
3.
4.
Were any manipulation checks made? If so, what were they? Does reliance upon pre-testing in any way mitigate the need for manipulation checks?
5.
6.
What did Suzy do to hold constant potential factors that could make interpretation of the results difficult?
7.
8.
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SURVEY RESEARCH
I. Introduction.
A. What is a Survey?
A survey involves the use of a self-administered questionnaire and/or personal interview methods to collect information from a sample of respondents for the purpose of describing the larger population from which these people were selected.
B.
1.
Demographic Analysis.
2.
3.
Consumer Research.
4.
Policy Formation.
5.
Academic Research.
C.
1.
Research Objective.
2.
Sampling Design.
151
3.
Questionnaire Design.
4.
Question Administration
a.
Self-Administered.
b.
c.
Telephone.
5.
Data Analysis.
II.
1.
Low Cost.
a.
b.
No Travel Costs.
2.
3.
B.
Some Disadvantages.
1.
152
2.
3.
Not Particularly Effective When Open-Ended Questions Need To Be Asked. (Inability to Probe.)
4.
5.
Not Appropriate For Complex Survey Formats Involving Many Contingency Questions (Skip Patterns).
6.
7.
C.
A Solution to the Response Rate Problem: Dillmans Total Design Method (TDM).
1.
a.
Attention to Request.
b.
i.
Minimizing Costs.
ii.
Maximizing Rewards.
153
c.
Obligation.
i.
Norm of Reciprocity.
ii.
Worthy Sponsor.
2.
a.
b.
Implementation Guidelines.
c.
3.
D.
1.
Deadlines.
2.
Incentives.
a.
Monetary Incentives.
b.
Nonmonetary Incentives.
E.
1.
2.
154
3.
4.
III.
1.
A standardized questionnaire results in a standardized study only if the questionnaire is administered in a stable fashion.
a.
b.
Within-Interviewer Standardization.
B.
1.
When
2.
When Not.
a.
b.
Case Studies.
C.
1.
Some Advantages.
155
2.
Some Disadvantages.
D.
1.
2.
a.
Clarification of Meaning.
b.
Vocabulary Problems.
c.
d.
e.
3.
4.
a.
Professional Distance.
b.
c.
E.
156
1.
Initial Briefing. Interviewers should begin the interview with a statement that informs the respondent how the interview will be conducted and what is expected of the respondent.
SAMPLE INITIAL BRIEFING: Since many people have not been in an interview exactly like this, let me read you a paragraph that tells a little bit about how it works. I am going to read you a set of questions exactly as they are worded so that every respondent in the survey is answering the same questions. Youll be asked to answer two kinds of questions. In some cases, youll be asked to answer in your own words. For those questions, I will have to write down your answers word for word. In other cases you will be given a list of answers and asked to choose the one that fits best. If at any time during the interview you are not clear about what is wanted, be sure to ask me. Please be assured that there are no right or wrong answers to any of the questions I will be asking you.
2.
When the Respondent Does Not Fulfill His/Her Role: Common Problems and Standard Training Responses. (See handout on page 169.)
F.
1.
2.
3.
Training Must Focus on Both the Hows and the Whys of Standardization.
4.
IV.
Phone Surveys.
A. Telephone Trivia. (See handout on page 171.)
B.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
C.
1.
Members of the Target Population Who Have No Phones Will Not Be a Part of the Study Population.
2.
Response Rates Will Usually Be Lower than Those Obtained Through Personal Interview Surveys.
3.
4.
5.
158
D.
1.
2.
Gather the Area Codes and Prefixes Used Within the Geographical Region.
3.
4.
a.
i.
ii.
b.
For a detailed discussion of this issue, see R.A. Bell. (1989). A comment on Krokoffs Recruiting Representative Samples for Marital Interaction Research. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 6, 231-234.
159
5.
RDD Is Self-Weighting Exchange % Working Numbers 50% 45% 20% 12% 38% 41% 10% No. of Calls Made 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 No. of Interviews Likely To Be * Completed 100 90 40 24 76 82 20
444445447449555556 558*
Expected value of the mean number of interviews completed over a series of independent samples.
6.
D.
1.
2.
Systematic Sampling.
3.
Stratification By Prefix.
160
E.
Processing Sampling Pools: Call Sheets and Disposition Records. (See handout on page 173.)
F.
Contact.
1.
a.
Mandatory Information.
Verification of phone number Who is calling? (Interviewers full name.) Identify the research organization or sponsor of the research. Study topic. Selection procedures. Protection of respondent confidentiality procedure. Approximate length of interview. Opportunity to refuse. Opportunity to ask questions. b. Optional Information.
Offer of incentive. How results will be used. Format of interview (open or closed items). Any unusual expectations of the respondent. Detailed discussion of research purpose.
c.
2.
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3.
Explanation of Survey Use of Findings Random Digit-Dialing Respondent Selection Procedure Contact Person: Name and Phone Number of Project Director.
4.
G.
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Obligation
Attention To Request Favorable R/C Ratio Norm of Reciprocity Worthy Sponsor
Questionnaire Guidelines
1. Designed as small booklet (6 X 8 inches). Does not seem imposing. Marketing materials wont look legitimate. Get people to want to look over the questionnaire.
2.
3.
Cover (first) page should have a catchy title and an attention-grabbing illustration. No questions, please. Instructions go here. No questions on the last page (back cover). Use this page to invite additional comments and express appreciation for the respondents participation. The first few questions should be the most interesting, topic-relevant, and respondent-relevant. Give special attention to the first question; it should apply to everyone.
4.
Less imposing. (Most people will initially look at the first and last page.)
Shows you really care about their opinion and are nice.
5.
This might be fun (rewarding)! This study also appears to be potentially important (selfinterest)!
Don A. Dillman. (1983). Mail and other self-administered questionnaires. In P.H. Rossi, J.D. Wright, & A.B. Anderson (Eds.), Handbook of Survey Research (pp. 359-377). Orlando: Academic Press.
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Obligation
Attention To Request 6. Use lowercase letters for questions and uppercase letters for answers. Write questions so that responses can be recorded in a straight vertical line (prevents missed questions). Dont split a question between pages. Use transitions to signal change of focus, justify the importance of a new set of questions, etc. Use visual cues (arrows, indentations, spacing) as necessary to reinforce directions. Favorable R/C Ratio Ease of use. The wellwritten and visuallyinviting questionnaire will not seem like a very difficult task to complete. Norm of Reciprocity Worthy Sponsor
2.
3.
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Obligation
Attention To Request 4. The purpose of the identification number printed on the questionnaire should be explained. Favorable R/C Ratio Respondents might assume the worse when they see the ID number and conclude that participation is too risky. Seems less imposing. No postage must be paid by respondent. Norm of Reciprocity Worthy Sponsor
5.
The mailout packet, which includes the cover letter, questionnaire, and postage-paid business reply envelope (6 X 3 inches) is mailed in a monarch-size envelope (7 X 3 inches). The respondents name and address should be individually typed on the mailout envelope. Never use address labels. This does not appear to be a mass mailing. Maybe I should open the letter instead of trashing it.
6.
7.
It cost you something to get this to me. I should help * you out.
Research has shown that a postage stamp is no more effective than the U.S. Post Offices nonprofit permit stamp.
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Obligation
Attention To Request 8. After one week, send reminder postcard to all recipients of the questionnaire. Three weeks after the first mailout, send a second cover letter and questionnaire to everyone who has not responded. Seven weeks after the first mailout, a second cover letter complete with another questionnaire is sent by certified mail. They might have forgotten about the study or lost the first questionnaire. Favorable R/C Ratio Norm of Reciprocity Theyre really putting a lot of energy into getting my views. The least I can do is help them out. Worthy Sponsor
9.
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General Costs
Draw systematic sample or purchase a sample listing from a consulting firm. Purchase mailout envelopes. Purchase business reply envelopes. Print Questionnaire. Graphics design for cover. Telephone (toll charges).
Supplies (staples, printer supplies, software, computer supplies, etc.). Type, proof, and store names in computer. Professional supervision of clerical staff. Professional consultation fees (data analysis, survey design, etc.)
First Mailout
Print cover letter. Address letters and envelopes. Postage for mailout.
Prepare mailout packets. Postage for returned questionnaires (business reply envelopes). Process, precode returns.
Postcard Follow Up
Process, precode returns Postage for returned questionnaires (business reply envelopes). Postage for returned questionnaires (business reply envelopes). Process, precode returns.
Second Mailout
Print cover letter. Address letters and envelopes. Postage for mailout. Prepare mailout packets.
Third Mailout
Print cover letter. Address letters and envelopes. Postage for mailout.
Prepare mailout packets. Postage for returned questionnaires (business reply envelopes). Process, precode returns.
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Standardized Interviewing
Recording Answers During the Standardized Interview In the standardized interview, the goal is to obtain records of the interviewees responses in a way which does not involve interviewer judgments. The following guidelines should be observed at all times:
Question Form Open Factual Write down all information relevant to the questions objectives. Closed Check off the answer chosen by the respondent. If the respondent is not certain which category fits, the question should be treated as an open-ended question and the interviewees opinion should be written down verbatim. The final decision about how to treat the answer should be made back at the office during the coding operation. Opinion Record answer verbatim. Paraphrasing and summaries are to be avoided. Check off the answer chosen by the respondent. The respondent should be probed until an answer is given. No category should be checked off unless an answer is given.
Information Requested
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Interviewer Response The next question is one you have already dealt with to some extent. However, the way the interview works is that I need to have you answer each question specifically, so that we can compare the answers you give with the answers everyone else gives. Also, sometimes we find the answer is different to a specific question, even though it seems that the question has been answered before. So, let me read the question as it is worded here, and I would like you to give me the answer to make sure we have it right. I see what your problem is with the question. Even though these questions are carefully tested, sometimes we have one that is not quite clear to some people, or which does not quite fit everybodys situation. Again, though, the way a survey works, we need peoples best answers to the questions as they are written. That way we can compare your answers with other peoples. If we change the question for each respondent, we wouldnt be able to analyze the answers. Let me read the question again, and you give me the best, most accurate answer you can, given the way it is written. With this kind of question, answers are analyzed according to which of these alternatives people choose. I need to have you choose one of these specific answers so that we can compare your response with those that others give. We know that in some cases none of the answers will fit the way you feel exactly; but other people will have that problem, too. The important thing is that we keep the question-and-answer process consistent across everybody, so we can see similarities and differences in the answers people give.
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Well, we would like it if you would make your very best estimate. Even though it may not be exactly right, no one is in a better position than you are to make this estimate. Just do the best you can. On factual questions, things like how many times you have seen a doctor or been in the hospital, it is fine for you to get help from anyone who can be helpful, because we want the most accurate information we can get. However, when we ask for somebodys feelings or opinions, there really is no one except you who can give us that answer. Again, it is a matter of being consistent in how we treat everybody. I will talk about anything you want after the interview, but not before it is over. The reason is that we have found that in some cases when interviewers give their opinions and ideas during an interview, we influence the answers we get. This whole interview process is set up so that the only thing that influences the answers if your situation and what you have to say.
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Telephone Trivia
Telephone surveys became justifiable in the United States in the 1970s, when the proportion of U.S. households with telephones finally exceeded 90%. America is connected. Approximately 98% of all households now have connected phone lines. Approximately one-third of all U.S. phones are for nonresidential uses (business and government). Nearly one-half of households will soon have two or more telephone lines. Those people without phone lines are disproportionately. . . single adults minorities undereducated low income employed in nonmanagerial/nonprofessional positions When a telephone is answered, the median number of rings it will take is about 3-4; more than 90% of the time, an answered telephone will be picked up within seven rings. The proportion of households with unlisted numbers has been estimated to be between 40-50%; this proportion is increasing. Who has unlisted numbers? The proportion of people with unlisted numbers is much higher in Urban areas; unlisted numbers in rural areas are very rare. Believe it or not, there is a greater tendency for lower-income people to have unlisted numbers than higher-income individuals. In particular, people holding professional or managerial positions are four times more likely to be listed in the directory than individuals without such positions. College graduates are four times more likely to be listed than nongraduates. The proportion of white households with unlisted numbers is lower than the proportion of minority households. For example, blacks are 250% more likely to have unlisted numbers than whites.
171
Women are more likely to have unlisted numbers than men. Single adults are more likely to have unlisted numbers than married adults. Divorced and separated individuals are four times more likely to have unlisted numbers than married individuals. Single-parent families are also more likely to have unlisted numbers than two-parent families. Young people are more likely to have unlisted numbers than senior citizens. Fear of crime is strongly and positively correlated with having an unlisted number.
172
Project Title: ____________________________________________ Telephone Number (__ __ __) __ __ __ __ __ __ __ Contact Attempt Questionnaire Number: ___ ___ ___ ___ Disposition Code Interviewer I.D. #
Date
Time
1 2 3 4 5 6
___ / ___ ___ / ___ ___ / ___ ___ / ___ ___ / ___ ___ / ___
a.m. p.m. a.m. p.m. a.m. p.m. a.m. p.m. a.m. p.m. a.m. p.m. COMMENTS
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
1 2 3 4 5 6
173
Disposition Codes*
No Contact 10 11 No answer after 7 rings Busy, after one immediate redial Answering machine (residence) 23 13 Household language barrier Describe language needs, if possible, on Comment Line of Call Sheet 14 15 15H Nonresident answered Refusal Refusal: hung up without comment 20 21 22 12
Not Part of Target Population Disconnected or Not Working 30 Temporarily Disconnected Nonresidential Number (Business, Govt, etc.) No one meets eligibility criteria 33 31
Contact
Contact only Selected Respondent Not Currently Available Selected Respondent Not Available During Survey Period Selected Respondent Not Available Due to Health Language Barrier with Selected Respondent Describe language needs, if possible, on Comment Line of Call Sheet
32
34
35
36
The disposition codes described here are based on the system reported by P.J. Lavrakas. (1987). Telephone survey methods: Sampling, selection, and supervision. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. For a less detailed disposition coding system see J.H. Frey. (1983). Survey research by telephone (p. 162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
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TO RESPONDENT (ONCE S/HE HAS BEEN BROUGHT TO THE PHONE): Hello. This is __________ calling from the Telephone Survey Center of the University of the Redwoods. We are conducting a survey of Northern California residents on their opinions and perceptions of the quality of life in the state. Your number was selected at random by our computer. We have just a few questions we would like to ask of you. Your answers will be confidential and the interview will take only about 5 minutes. Can you help us out? Thank you. Please feel free to ask questions at any time.
IF RESPONDENT IS NOT AVAILABLE: Could you please give me the name of the person I have asked to speak with? __________ When would be a good time for me to call __________. [Enter suggestions on Comment line of Call Sheet.]
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ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION
I. Overview.
A. The Ethnographic Approach.
1.
Ethnography: The analysis of a culture in an effort to understand the world view of the members of that culture.
2.
Culture: The accumulated knowledge that natives use to interpret their experiences and generate behavior.
3.
Ethnography as Method.
a.
Participant Observation.
b.
c.
Focus Groups.
d.
4.
B.
C.
Assumptions.
1.
Theoretical Foundations.
2.
Propositions.
176
a.
People act toward things on the basis of the meaning that those things have for them.
b.
c.
Meanings are generated and modified through an interpretive process used by the person dealing with the things s/he encounters.
3.
a.
b.
c.
d.
We dont reflect much upon our meanings unless they are in some way questioned.
D.
1.
2.
We learn from the members of that culture; they are the teachers and the ethnographer is the student.
3.
4.
5.
The ethnographer must make inferences, and must subject these inferences to the judgments of native informants.
177
6.
Because physical actions have no inherent meanings, the ethnographers observations must be treated as pre-data until confirmed by native informants.
E.
1.
a.
b.
2.
Identifying the cultural boundaries of social and psychological theories of human behavior is an important goal.
3.
4.
II.
B.
C.
D.
E.
178
1.
2.
Personal Journal.
3.
Interview Journal.
F.
Research Plan.
1.
Ethnographic Sampling.
2.
3.
4.
III.
Selecting Informants.
A. Some Sampling Procedures.
1.
Network Sampling.
2.
Network Analysis
3.
Area Sampling.
4.
Recognize the Value of Talking with the Very Successful and the Very Unsuccessful.
179
B.
IV.
Observation.
A. Some Barriers to Effective Participant Observation.
1.
Language Difficulties.
2.
Ethnographer Ethnocentrism.
3.
4.
Customs.
B.
Types of Observation.
1.
a.
Overt.
b.
Covert.
2.
Level of Systematization.
a.
b.
c.
Selective. In search of specific attributes of a behavior, activity, routine, practice, and the like.
180
C.
D.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
E.
Recording Observations.
1.
2.
V.
B.
1.
Contact.
181
2.
Pre-Interview.
a.
Project Explanation.
b.
Recording Explanations.
c.
d.
Interview Explanations.
e.
Question Explanation.
3.
The Interview.
a.
Question Types.
i.
ii.
Structural Questions: Requests for Information Components of the Cultures Symbol System.
About
the
iii.
Contrast Questions: Request for Information About How Cultural Symbols Differ.
b.
Progressions.
C.
Question Strategies.
1.
What to Ask?
a.
Informants Expertise.
b.
Flexibility.
182
c.
Focus.
2.
Order.
3.
Question Checklist.
183
Typology of Ethnographies*
The categories that follow are not mutually exclusive.
Biographical Ethnography
These life histories, which include biographies and autobiographies, show the influence of psychological anthropology. An example would be a biography of an Indian chief.
Adapted From O.Werner & G.M. Schoepfle. (1987). Systematic fieldwork (Vol. 1). Newbury Park: Sage.
184
Encyclopedic Ethnography
Thesauri or dictionary of any language community. An example is Werners The Anatomical Atlas of the Navajo. This approach is static; it does not show document language in use.
185
186
Why Cant We be Friends: Expectations Versus Experiences in the Volunteer Role Ladies, Flirts, and Tomboys: Strategies for Managing Sexual Harassment in an Underground Coal Mine Cooling Out Men in Singles Bars and Nightclubs: Observations on the Interpersonal Survival Strategies of Women in Public Places Developing Trust: Patient-Practitioner Encounters in Natural Health Care The Story of Edward: The Everyday Geography of Elderly Single Room Occupancy (SRO) Hotel Tenants Working At and Working: Computer Fritters Ethnography and AIDS: Returning to the Streets Confronting Deadly Disease: The Drama of Identity Construction Among Gay Men with AIDS Constructing AIDS Policy in the Public School: A Multimethod Case Study Takin It to the Streets: AIDS Outreach as Ethnography Ethnopharmacology: An Interdisciplinary Approach to the Study of Intravenous Drug Use and HIV Visual Ethnography: Tools for Mapping the AIDS Epidemic Deskilling, Decollectivization, and Diesels: Toward a New Focus in the Study of Changing Skills Women in Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs Narcotics Addicts Hustling Strategies: Creation and Manipulation of Ambiguity Boyhood, Organized Sports, and the Construction of Masculinities American States of Mind: Political Beliefs and Behavior Among Private and Public Workers Duty Bound: Elder Abuse and Family Care The Charaka Complex: Maturation Out of Delinquency in an Israeli Slum Turn-ons for Money: Interactional Strategies of the Table Dancer Guarding Against Boredom: Security Specialists in the United States Air Force Jocularity, Sarcasm, and Relationships: An Empirical Study Psychiatric Dirty Work Revisited: Conflicts in Servicing Nonpsychiatric Agencies The World of the Yeshiva: An Intimate Portrait of Orthodox Jewry
187
188
Ethnographic Experiments Example: Psychological anthropologist who lives with the natives, but does testing away from the natives group.
Secret Ethnography Example: A clientsponsored study of an organization, in which members are interviewed in private places
Adapted From: O. Werner & G.M. Schoepfle. (1987). Systematic Fieldwork (Vol. 1). Newbury Park: Sage.
189
The Possibilities: Initial Communication Context Matrix for Six Navajo School Ethnographies
Students Students School Community In Class and school In class, halls, and yard In homes
School
Community
Ethnographers
In meetings school board meetings interview Chapter meetings and school board interview research staff meetings
Ethnographers
Final Communication Context Matrix After Restricting Ethnographies to the View of Students
Students Students School Community Ethnographers In class, hall, and yard In class, halls, and yard not covered Interview and classroom
School
Community
Ethnographers
not covered not covered contact and permission contact and permission permission research staff meetings
Adapted From O. Werner & G.M. Schoepfle. (1987). Systematic fieldwork (Vol. 1). Newbury Park: Sage.
190
CONTENT ANALYSIS
I. Historical Sketch of Content Analysis.
A. Quantitative Newspaper Analysis.
B.
1.
a.
Academic Interest.
b.
c.
Statistical Sophistication.
2.
a.
b.
Emergence of Social and Political Problems for Which the Mass Media Received Blame.
c.
C.
Propaganda Analysis.
1.
a.
Harold Lasswell and Associates Refine the Tools of Content Analysis (Experimental Division for the Study of Wartime Communications, Library of Congress).
191
b.
Hans Speiers Investigative Team (Federal Communications Commission): Predicting Nazi Movements on the Basis of the Enemys Broadcasts.
2.
D.
E.
II.
III.
Definitional Considerations.
A. Content Analysis Defined: Content Analysis is a research technique for making replicable (reliable) and valid inferences from data to the context from which those data were taken.
B.
1.
2.
3.
192
IV.
Unitizing.
A. Sampling Units: The specific entities which are sampled; the chunks in which content comes.
B.
Recording Units: The specific segment of the sampling unit about which information is recorded (unit of observation).
C.
Context Units: The contextual limits which may be considered when categorizing (coding) the recording unit.
V.
Sampling.
A. Rationale For Sampling.
B.
1.
2.
Systematic Sampling.
3.
Stratified Sampling.
4.
Proportional Sampling.
5.
Multistage Sampling.
193
C.
Sample Size.
VI.
Recording
A. Recording as Categorizing.
B.
1.
Mutual Exclusivity.
2.
Exhaustiveness.
C.
Coding.
1.
Observers (Judges).
2.
Training.
3.
a.
Definitions.
b.
Extensional Lists.
c.
D.
194
1.
Administrative Information.
2.
3.
Data.
VII.
Types of Questions.
A. Questions About Frequencies.
1.
2.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Clustering.
VIII.
Reliability Assessment: An attempt to determine the extent to which our categorizing reflects real variations in real phenomena.
A. Ingredients of Data-Making.
1.
195
2.
3.
4.
Recording Errors.
B.
Duplication of Effort.
C.
D.
1.
2.
3.
IX.
Validity.
A. Definition.
B.
196
Example
Are females being portrayed in more professional roles now than ten years ago? What theories are being researched in the field of __________, and how does this attention compare to the past? Are there invisible colleges in the field of __________? [bibliographic citation analysis] Are advertisers in Britain more or less likely to use humor than advertisers in the USA? Are there any differences in humor style usage? How do editorials on television compare with newspaper editorials? Have network executives kept their promise to decrease the level of violence on television programming? How often do Saturday morning commercials make use of the same characters that are found in the shows that provide the context for the commercials? You have peoples open-ended descriptions of the problems they feel most challenge this nation. These must be placed into standardized categories so that tallies can be computed across respondents. How do the pro-life and pro-choice movements portray each other? What level of education must one have achieved to be able to comprehend the New York Times? How are visual elements used to augment the verbal message of network news? Does the enemy give away its upcoming attacks? What can be learned about the attitudes of these clinical patients from a content analysis of the images they see in the Jones Protective Inkblot Test? What values are expressed on television, and are these values portrayed positively or negatively? What issues are receiving the most attention from network news departments this month? How does this coverage compare to the past?
Examination of International Differences in Content Media Comparisons Audit Communication Content Against Objectives Communication Policy Formation Code Responses to OpenEnded Questions Expose Persuasion Techniques Readability Assessment Examine Stylistic Features Identify the Intentions of Communicators Assessment of Psychological States of Persons and Groups Assessment of Cultural Patterns of Population Groups Reveal the Focus of Attention
197
Sampling Unit
Recording Unit
Context Unit
Character
Scene
Word
Sentence
The TV Ad
Utterance
Previous Utterance
The Newspapers
Political symbol
Verbs
Sentence
The Magazine
Headlines
Story
198
199
Project Name: Demographic Analysis of TV Characters Variable Program ID # State of Coding Categories/Codes (Circle Code or Enter Appropriate No.) Assigned Number: ___ ___ ___ 1 Coding Completed 2 Coding Verified 3 Data Entry Complete 1 Bill 2 Cathy 3 Janie 4 Paul Assigned Number: ___ ___ ___ ___ ___________________________________ ___________________________________ ___________________________________ ___________________________________ 1 Female 2 Male 3 Unsure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Black White Asian Hispanic Native American Other: ____________________ Not Human: Animal Not Human: Alien, Monster, etc. Column No. 1-3 4
Character Sex
10
Character Race
11
Lawbreaker?
12
200
Project Name: Demographic Analysis of TV Characters Variable Occupation Categories/Codes (Circle Code or Enter Appropriate No.) 1 Professional 2 Managerial 3 Clerical 4 Sales 5 Craftsman 6 Service 7 Private 8 Operative 9 Laborer 10 Household 11 Unemployed 12 Child 13 Not Determinable Describe Work Activities: 1 Regular Character 2 Guest Appearance 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Situation Comedy Family Drama Crime Animated Adventure Documentary News Sports Programming Early Morning (6 - 8:59 a.m.) Morning (9 a.m. - 11:59 a.m.) Afternoon (Noon - 4:59 p.m.) Early Evening (5 p.m. - 6:59 p.m.) Evening (7 - 10:59 p.m.) Late Evening (11:00 p.m. - 1:59 a.m.) Graveyard (2:00 - 5:59 a.m.) Column No. 13-14
15 16
17
Station
18-19
201
Types of Reliability*
Errors Assessed Types of Reliability Stability Reproducibility Accuracy Reliability Designs test-retest test-test teststandard Intra-Judge Inconsistency yes yes yes Inter-Judge Disagreements no yes yes Deviations From a Standard no no yes Relative Strengths Weakest Intermediate Quality Strongest
Adapted From K.K. Krippendorff (1980). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Beverly Hills: Sage.
202
1.
Applied Research
2.
Purpose
3.
Outcomes
4.
Social Intervention
B.
II.
1.
Experimental and Control (or Comparison) Groups Occur Naturally and Cannot Be Reconstituted.
D.T. Campbell & J.C. Stanley. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
203
2.
3.
Ethics Require That Subjects Have Right To Select Themselves Into or Out of a Particular Treatment Group.
4.
B.
Three factors make quasi-experimental designs potentially more subject to sources of invalidity.
1.
2.
3.
Lack of control over the timing of the experimental stimulus (the intervention).
III.
B.
IV.
B.
Measurement. 204
1.
a.
Identification of Groups.
b.
2.
3.
4.
C.
A Measurement Example.
D.
V.
VI.
1.
Basic Design.
205
O O
O O
2.
B.
1.
Basic Design.
O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8 Time >
2. Point of Comparison.
3.
Some Strengths.
a.
b.
c.
4.
5.
206
C.
1.
Basic Design.
O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8 O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8
Time: >
2.
Advantages.
3.
Disadvantages.
207
Based on Figure 3 in D.T. Campbell & J.C. Stanley. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
208