Heat Transfer

Dr. Hassan Shraim

Chapter One

General Introduction to Heat Transfer

Definitions
Heat Transfer Deals with the rate of heat transfer as well as the temperature distribution within the system at a specified time. It has a direction and a magnitude Heat can be transferred in three different ways: conduction, convection, radiation.

All these modes require the existence of a temperature difference, and all are from the high-temperature medium to a lower temperature one.

Conduction

Heat transferred by particles colliding into one another, such as in a metal. Transfer of energy by touch Primarily solids
Conduction refers to the transport of energy in a medium due to a temperature gradient (which is the change in temperature per unit length in that direction).

Conduction

When you heat a metal strip at one end, the heat travels to the other end.

As you heat the metal, the particles vibrate, these vibrations make the adjacent particles vibrate, and so on and so on, the vibrations are passed along the metal and so is the heat. We call this Conduction.

Conduction Metals are different

The outer electrons of metal atoms drift, and are free to move. When the metal is heated, this sea of electrons gain kinetics energy and transfer it throughout the metal.

Insulators, such as wood and plastic, do not have this sea of electrons which is why they do not conduct heat as well as metals.

Conduction

Why does metal feel colder than wood, if they are both at the same temperature?
Metal is a conductor, wood is an insulator. Metal conducts the heat away from your hands. Wood does not conduct the heat away from your hands as well as the metal, so the wood feels warmer than the metal.

Convection

It refers to the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion. The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer. The presence of bulk motion of the fluid enhances the heat transfer between the solid surface and the fluid, but it also complicates the determination of heat transfer rates. It refers to heat transfer that occurs between a surface and a fluid when they are at different temperatures, such as in a heating system at home.

Water movement
Cools at the surface

Convection current

Cooler water sinks

Hot water rises

Why is it windy at the seaside?

Cold air sinks

Where is the freezer compartment put in a fridge?
It is put at the top, because cool air sinks, so it cools the food on the way down.

Freezer compartment

It is warmer at the bottom, so this warmer air rises and a convection current is set up.

Convection questions
Why does hot air rise and cold air sink? Cool air is more dense than warm air, so the cool air falls through the warm air.

Why are boilers placed beneath hot water tanks in peoples homes?
Hot water rises. So when the boiler heats the water, and the hot water rises, the water tank is filled with hot water.

Radiation
How does heat energy get from the Sun to the Earth There are no particles between the Sun and the Earth so it CANNOT travel by conduction or by convection.
RADIATION

Radiation travels in straight lines

Radiation can travel through a vacuum Radiation travels at the speed of light

Radiation

Unlike conduction and convection, heat transfer by radiation can occur between two bodies, even when they are separated by a medium colder than both of them. 14

Radiation
It is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules. Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of energy by radiation does not require the presence of an intervening medium. In fact, energy transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) in a vacuum. This is exactly how the energy of the sun reaches the earth. In heat transfer studies, we are interested in thermal radiation, which is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature. It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays, gamma rays, microwaves, radio waves, and television waves that are not related to temperature.

All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.

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Radiation

Black Bodies
Summer clothing: white reflects radiant energy better than black. Until equilibrium is reached, white stripes on roads are at a lower temperature than unpainted asphalt. Wrap an ice-cube in black cloth and another in aluminum foil and place both in the sunshine. What will happen?

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Radiation questions
Why are houses painted white in hot countries? White reflects heat radiation and keeps the house cooler. Why are shiny foil blankets wrapped around marathon runners at the end of a race? The shiny metal reflects the heat radiation from the runner back in, this stops the runner getting cold.

Emission experiment
Four containers were filled with warm water. Which container would have the warmest water after ten minutes?
Dull metal Shiny black

Shiny metal

Dull black

The shiny metal container would be the warmest after ten minutes because its shiny surface reflects heat radiation back into the container so less is lost. The dull black container would be the coolest because it is the best at emitting heat radiation.

Absorption experiment
Four containers were placed equidistant from a heater. Which container would have the warmest water after ten minutes?
Dull metal Shiny black

Shiny metal

Dull black

The dull black container would be the warmest after ten minutes because its surface absorbs heat radiation the best. The shiny metal container would be the coolest because it is the poorest at absorbing heat radiation.

Chapter Two

Conduction

Conduction
A Three Dimensional, Transient Temperature Field

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Conduction
The rate of heat conduction in a specified direction is proportional to the temperature gradient, which is the change in temperature per unit length in that direction. Heat conduction in a medium, in general, is three-dimensional and timedependent. That is, T = T(x, y, z ;t) and the temperature in a medium varies with position as well as time.

Heat conduction in a medium is said to be steady when the temperature does not vary with time, and unsteady or transient when it does.
Heat conduction in a medium is said to be one-dimensional when conduction is significant in one dimension only and negligible in the other two dimensions. It is said to be two-dimensional when conduction in the third dimension is negligible, and three-dimensional when conduction in all dimensions is significant.

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Heat Transfer
Heat flows in the direction of decreasing temperature
There can be no net heat transfer between two mediums that are at the same temperature. The temperature difference is the driving force for heat transfer, just as the voltage difference is the driving force for electric current flow and pressure difference is the driving force for fluid flow.

The rate of heat transfer in a certain direction depends on the magnitude of the temperature difference per unit length in that direction. The larger the temperature difference, the higher the rate of heat transfer. There is an attempt to replace the term heat in the associated phrases such as heat flow, heat addition, heat rejection, heat absorption, heat gain, heat loss, heat storage, heat generation, electrical heating, latent heat, body heat, and heat source by thermal energy.

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Heat Generation
A medium through which heat is conducted may involve the conversion of electrical, nuclear, or chemical energy into heat (or thermal) energy. In heat conduction analysis, such conversion processes are characterized as heat generation. The rate of heat generation in a medium may vary with time as well as position within the medium. When the variation of heat generation with position is known, the total rate of heat generation in a medium of volume V can be determined from

Where the derivative of g is the constant rate of heat generation per unit volume.
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Heat Generation
The resistance of a wire of a 1200 W hair dryer is 80 cm long and has a diameter of D= 0.3 cm. Determine the rate of heat generation in the wire per unit volume, in W/cm3, and the heat flux on the outer surface of the wire as a result of this heat generation

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Multi dimensional Heat Transfer

If n is the normal of the isothermal surface at point P, the rate of heat conduction at that point can be expressed by Fouriers law as:

In rectangular coordinates, the heat conduction vector can be expressed in terms of its components as:

Where:

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Assumption

Heat transfer through the window of a house can be taken to be one dimensional

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One dimensional Heat Transfer

Heat conduction in a plane plate

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One dimensional Heat Transfer

Heat conduction in a plane plate

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One dimensional Heat Transfer

Heat conduction in a plane plate

Noting that the area A is constant for a plane wall, the one dimensional transient heat conduction equation in a plane wall becomes:

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Conduction
The thermal conductivity k of a material, in general, depends on the temperature T, and thus it cannot be taken out of the derivative. However, the thermal conductivity in most practical applications can be assumed to remain constant at some average value. The thermal conductivity of the material, is a measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat.

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One dimensional Heat Transfer

The thermal diffusivity is a measure of how quickly a material can carry heat away from a hot source.

Since material does not just transmit heat but must be warmed by it as well, involves both the conductivity, k, and the volumetric heat capacity, cp.

Heat Conducted k Heat Stored CP (m2 / s )

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One dimensional Heat Transfer

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Conduction

Thermal Diffusivity
The thermal diffusivity is a measure of how quickly a material can carry heat away from a hot source. Since material does not just transmit heat but must be warmed by it as well, involves both the conductivity, k, and the volumetric heat capacity, cp.

Heat Conducted k Heat Stored CP (m2 / s )

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Conduction

Heat conduction in a long cylinder

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Conduction

Heat conduction in a sphere

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Conduction

Physical Mechanism in Conduction

The conduction heat transfer results from diffusion of energy due to random molecular activity
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Conduction

Physical Mechanism in Conduction

Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energies of the molecules.

In a liquid or gas, the kinetic energy of the molecules is due to the random motion of the molecules as well as the vibrational and rotational motions.
When two molecules possessing different kinetic energies collide, part of the kinetic energy of the more energetic (higher temperature) molecule is transferred to the less energetic (lower temperature) particle, In solids, heat conduction is due to two effects: the lattice vibrational waves induced by the vibrational motions of the molecules positioned at relatively fixed position in a periodic manner called a lattice, and the energy transported via the free flow of electrons in the solid. The thermal conductivity of a solid is obtained by adding the lattice and the electronic components. The thermal conductivity of pure metals is primarily due to the electronic component, whereas the thermal conductivity of nonmetals is primarily due to the lattice component. 38

Conduction
The lattice component of thermal conductivity strongly depends on the way the molecules are arranged. For example, the thermal conductivity of diamond, which is a highly ordered crystalline solid, is much higher than the thermal conductivities of pure metals, as can be seen from the Table

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Conduction
The thermal conductivity of an alloy is usually much lower than the thermal conductivity of either metal of which it is composed

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Conduction
Thermal conductivities of materials vary with temperature

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Conduction The variation of the thermal conductivity of various solids, liquids, and gases with temperature

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Conduction

The range of thermal conductivity of various materials at room temperature.

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