MAIN

Power Quality improvement using 3-phase SAPF
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
The increasing use of power electronic based loads (adjustable Speed drives, Switch
mode power supplies, etc) to improve system efficiency and Controllability is increasing
concern for harmonic distortion levels in end use facilities and on overall power system. The
application of passive tuned filters creates new system resonances, which are dependent on
specific system conditions. In addition, passive filters often need to be significantly overrated
to account for possible harmonic absorption from power system. Passive filter ratings must be
coordinated with reactive power requirements of the loads and it is often difficult to design the
filter to avoid leading power factor Operation for some load conditions. A number of low-
power electronic based appliances such as TV sets, personal computers, and adjustable speed
heat pumps generate a large amount of harmonic current in power systems even though a single
low power electronic based appliance, in which a single-phase diode rectifier with a dc link
capacitor is used as utility interface, produces a negligible amount of harmonic current. Three-
phase diode or thyristor rectifiers and cycloconverters for industry applications. Also generate a
large amount of harmonic current. Voltage distortion or harmonics resulting from current
harmonics produced by power electronic equipment has become a serious problem to be solved
in many countries. Power system harmonics are not a new problem. Due to the widespread
proliferation of nonlinear distorting loads such as power-electronic controlled devices, the
problems caused by harmonics are of increasing importance. Unlike the conventional load, the
power-electronic device controls the flow of power by chopping. Flattening, or shaping the
waveforms of the voltage and current. Therefore, harmonics are generated during the process.
These waveform distortions can cause problems for neighboring loads, and they tend to have an
overall opposite effect on the quality of electric power. A concept that can improve the power
quality is the active power filter. This type of filters can meet diverse load conditions. In
addition to improve power factor, it also appears to be an attractive and viable method for
reducing voltage and current harmonic distortion or other power quality problems such as
flicker. The active power filter improves the system power quality by injecting equal-but
opposite currents to compensate harmonic distortion and reactive power. Ideally, this active
power filter should monitor and minimize voltage and went distortion of its connected load.
Ganapathy College Of Engineering, EEED Page 1
1.2 Organization of project:
Chapter:1 Introduction of our project, uses of non-linear loads and its effects and
active filter implementation.
Chapter: 2 Literature survey of our report, how we collected our references and
which reference will deal what matter is submitted here.
Chapter: 3 Power Quality, harmonic indices, conventional solutions for harmonic
problem
Chapter: 4 Active power filtering technology for harmonic content elimination. The
active filter technique concept uses power electronics to produce harmonic current component
that cancels the harmonic current components from non-linear load.
Chapter: 5 Active filter system implementation, Different topologies for active
power filter implementation, and advantages of shunt active filters. Shunt, series, and hybrid
active power filters are described showing their compensation characteristics and principles of
operation
Chapter: 6 Theoretical analysis of a shunt active power filter based on the
instantaneous active and reactive current component i
d
i
q
method. This new control method
aims to compensate harmonics and first harmonic unbalance. This performance is compared
with the instantaneous active and reactive power p-q method. Both methods are completely
frequency independent.

Chapter: 7 Here we given simulation implementation of shunt active power filter
control strategy for harmonic mitigation, reducing in THD.
Chapter: 8 Discussion of results was given here.
Chapter: 9 Summery of project and project future scope discussed here.
LITERATURE SURVEY
The application of power electronic based loads are increasing from day to day because
they are static devices, compact in size, doesnt have moving parts thus friction losses are
negligible and we can obtain smooth controllability and are reliability. So with the importance
of these power electronic devices we got interest to work in this field. We studied power
electronic concepts and its advantages from MD.Rashid.
As the proliferation of these solid-state devices increasing the problems associated with
it. Mainly non-linearties in current and/or voltage are introducing in supply system main thus
results in poor power quality. We have adverse effects of poor power quality. For power quality
studies we referred paper on harmonics theory.
We need to eliminate the distortions in supply side to have better performance of the
system. So we referred for distortions called harmonics and its effects.
We studied different harmonic mitigating techniques from reference. in the process we got an
idea what will happen if harmonic producing components becomes harmonic reducing
components like thorn can be removed by thorn. We got very much interest from paper
reference which used power electronic devices to eliminate harmonic distortions.
We have referred different topology and control strategy studies for which we referred
paper on active power filter implementation and chose an effective, efficient and simple
topology, Shunt Active Power Filter with Voltage Source Inverter in current controlled mode
for current harmonic mitigation for VSI operation we studied .
The Instantaneous active and reactive current I
d
- I
q
method provides simple, effective
and frequency independent harmonic compensation. The effectiveness of the compensation
depends on how effectively the filter used to separate harmonics from supply current which is
used to produce reference current for VSI switching operation.
For filters we studied reference 11, For PWM-VSI control techniques we referred
From these essential reference materials we confidently decided to work on this 3phase
Shunt Active Power Filters to improve Power Quality and its implementation through
MATLAB\SIMULINK.

POWER QUALITY
The power quality of power supply of an ideal power system means to supply electric
energy with perfect sinusoidal waveform at a constant frequency of a specified voltage with
least amount of disturbances.
Power quality is an issue that is becoming increasingly important to electricity
consumers at all levels of usage. Sensitive equipment and non-linear loads are now more
commonplace in both the industrial commercial sectors and the domestic environment.
Because of this a heightened awareness of power quality is developing amongst electricity
users. Occurrences affecting the electricity supply that were once considered acceptable by
electricity companies and users are now often considered a problem to the users of everyday
equipment.
How ever the harmonic is one of the major factor due to which none of condition is
fulfilled in practice. The presence of harmonics, disturbs the waveform shape of voltage and
current, and increases the current level and changes the power factor of supply and which in
turn creates so many problems.
3.1 Introduction:
In this part we introduces the commonly accepted definitions used in the field of power
quality and discusses some of the most pertinent issues affecting end-users, equipment
manufacturers and electricity suppliers relating to the field. This Special Feature contains a
range of articles balanced to give the reader an overview of the current situation with
representation from the electricity industry, monitoring equipment manufacturers, solution
equipment manufacturers, specialist consultants and government research establishments. The
term power quality has come into the vocabulary of many industrial and commercial
electricity end-users in recent years. Previously equipment was generally simpler and therefore
more robust and insensitive to minor variations in supply voltage. Voltage fluctuations coming
from the public supply network were therefore not even noticed. Now equipment is used which
depends on a higher level of power quality and consumers expect disruption-free operation.
Wide diversity of solutions to power quality problems is available to both the distribution
network operator and the end-user.
More sophisticated monitoring equipment is readily affordable to end-users, who
empower themselves with information related to the level of power quality they receive. the
following paragraphs introduce the definitions of power quality measurable quantities or
occurrences
A voltage dip is a reduction in the RMS voltage in the range of 0.1 to 0.9 p.u. (retained)
for duration greater than half a mains cycle and less than 1 minute. Often referred to as a sag.
Caused by faults, increased load demand and transitional events such as large motor starting
A voltage swell is an increase in the RMS voltage in the range of 1.1 to 1.8 p.u. for a
duration greater than half a mains cycle and less than 1 minute. Caused by system faults, load
switching and capacitor switching.
A transient is an undesirable momentary deviation of the supply voltage or load
current. Transients are generally classified into two categories: impulsive and oscillatory.
3.2 Harmonics
Harmonics are periodic sinusoidal distortions of the supply voltage or load current
caused by non-linear loads. Harmonics are measured in integer multiples of the fundamental
supply frequency.
Using Fourier series analysis the individual frequency components of the distorted
waveform can be described in terms of the harmonic order, magnitude and phase of each
component. The electricity is produced and distributed in its fundamental form as 50hz in
India.
A harmonics is defined as the content of signal whos frequency is integer multiple of
the system fundamental frequency. Due to harmonic effect the sinusoidal waveform is no
longer have stand and it become non-sinusoidal or complex waveform. The complex
waveform consists of a fundamental wave of 50 Hz and a number of other sinusoidal waves
whose frequencies are integral multiple of fundamental wave like 2f(100hz). 3f (150 Hz), 4f
(200 Hz) etc. Wave having frequency of 2f, 4f, 6f etc are called the even harmonics and those
having frequency of 3f, 5f, 7f etc are called as odd harmonics.
When fundamental frequency is super imposed with high-level harmonics, it results
into complex wave and which is non sinusoidal.
o Harmonic current flow
When non-linear load draws current, that current passes through all of the impedance that is
between the load and the system source (See Figure 4). As a result of the current flow,
harmonic voltages are produced by impedance in the system for each harmonic.
Fig: 3.1 Distorted-current induced voltage distortion
These voltages sum and when added to the nominal voltage produce voltage distortion.
The magnitude of the voltage distortion depends on the source impedance and the harmonic
voltages produced. If the source impedance is low then the voltage distortion will be low. If a
significant portion of the load becomes non-linear (harmonic currents increase) and/or when a
resonant condition prevails (system impedance increases), the voltage can increase
dramatically.
3.2.1 FOURIER SERIES ANALYSIS 1
The French physicist and mathematician, Joseph Fourier, in his article Ànalytic
Theory of Heat which was published in 1882, first introduced Fourier series. The theory
involves expansions of arbitrary functions in certain types of trigonometric series.
It proves that any periodic function in an interval of time could be represented by the
sum of a fundamental and a series of higher orders of harmonic components at frequencies
which are integral multiples of fundamental component.
The series establishes a relationship between the function in time and frequency
domains. Today, the theory has become the famous `Fourier series and it is one of the most
important tools for engineers and scientists in many applications.
Fourier series.
A periodic function can be defined as any function for which the smallest constant T
that satisfies (1) is called the period of the function.
f(t) = f(t +T), for all t.(3.1)
By iteration of (1) we have
f(t) = f(t + hT), h = 0, 1, 2,.(3.2)
let a function f(t) be periodic with period T, then this function can be represented by the
trigonometric series as
f(t)=
0
+
h
0
t)+b
h 0
t)] .(3.3)
where
0
= 2/T. a series such as (1.3) is called trigonometric Fourier series. It can be written
as
f(t) = c
0
+ c
h
0
t +
h
) ...(3.4)
where c
0
= ,c
h
=(a
h
2
+b
h
2
)
1/2

we see that the Fourier series expression of a periodic function represents a periodic
function as a sum of sinusoidal components with different frequencies. The component of h
0
is called the h-th harmonic of the periodic function. c
0
is the magnitude of the dc component.
The component with h = 1 his called the fundamental component. C
h
and
h
are known as the
h-th order harmonic magnitude and phase angle, respectively. The magnitude and phase angle
of each determine the resulting wave shape of f(t).
A function f(t) is called an even function if it has the property
f(-t) = f(t) ...(3.5)
and it is called an odd function if
f(-t)=-f(t) ..(3.6)
An even function is symmetrical to the vertical axis at the origin and an function is
anti-symmetrical to the vertical axis at the origin. A function with a period of T is half
symmetry if it satisfies the condition
f(t)=-f(t )..(3.7)
if f(t) has half symmetry and is either an even or odd function, then it has even or odd quarter
wave symmetry.
3.2.2 Harmonic indices
3.2.2.1 Total harmonic Distortion (Distortion factor)
The THD is defined as the ratio of the rms value of the harmonic components to the
rms value of the fundamental component and usually expressed in percent. This index is used
to measure the deviation of a periodic wave form containing harmonics from a perfect sine
wave. For a perfect sine wave at fundamental frequency, the THD is zero.

1
2
2
V
V
THD
h
V
h
Or
1
2
2
I
I
THD
h
I
h
.(3.8)
3.2.2.2 Total demand distortioin
The total demand distortion ( TDD) is the total harmonic current distortion defined as

L
h
h
I
I
TDD

2
2
..(3.9)
Where I
L
is the maximum demand load at fundamental frequency at the point of
common coupling (pcc) calculated as the average of previous twelve months.
3.2.2.3 Telephone influence factor
Telephone influence factor (TIF) is a measure used to describe the telephone noise
originating from harmonic currents and voltages in power systems. TIF is adjusted based on
the sensitivity of telephone system and the human ear to noises at various frequencies. It is
defined as
( )
rms
h
h h
I
I
I w
TIF

1
2
Or
( )
rms
h
h h
V
V
V w
TIF

1
2
(3.10)
Where w
h
is a weighting accounting for audio and inductive coupling effects at the h-th
harmonic frequency.

3.3 Sources of power quality problems .
3.3.1 Introduction
Power electronic devices are non-linear loads that create harmonic distortion and can
be susceptible to voltage dips if not adequately protected. The most common economically
damaging power quality problem encountered involves the use of variable-speed drives.
Variable-speed motor drives or inverters are highly susceptible to voltage dip
disturbances and cause particular problems in industrial processes where loss of mechanical
synchronism is an issue. The ideal solution to problems of this nature would be for systems
engineers to specify equipment that has a reasonable level of susceptibility to voltage clips
from the outset.
Power electronics has two faces in power distribution: (a) that consists of controllable
industrial and domestic equipment to match the appliance with the power supply and (b) that
helps to solve those power quality problems created by the controllers. Modern semiconductor
switching devices are being utilized more and more in a wide range of applications in
distribution networks, particularly in domestic and industrial loads.
Examples of such applications widely used are adjustable-speed motor drives, diode
and thyristor rectifiers, uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs), computers and their
peripherals, consumer electronics appliances (TV sets for example), among others.
Those power electronics devices offer economical and reliable solutions to better
manage and control the use of electric energy. However, given the characteristics of most
power electronics circuits, these semiconductor devices present nonlinear operational
characteristics, which introduce contamination to voltage and current waveforms at the point
of common coupling of industrial loads. These devices, aggregated in thousands, have become
the main polluters and the main distorters of the modern power systems.
At the same time, microelectronics processors have found their way into many
applications: From automated industrial assembly lines, to hospital diagnostics and
measurement schemes, to home appliances such as video and DVD units. These applications
are sensitive and vulnerable to power quality problems such as either electrical disturbances or
power system harmonics. But microelectronics-based applications are not the only ones facing
the dangers of poor power quality. Those same semiconductor-based loads, which are the
major contributors to power system pollution, are also very sensitive to that pollution.
Non-linear loads
Typical examples of non-linear loads include rectifiers (power supplies, UPS units,
discharge lighting), adjustable speed motor drives, ferromagnetic devices, DC motor drives
and arcing equipment.

Fig (3.2): Voltage and current wave forms of non-linear loads
The current drawn by non-linear loads is not sinusoidal but it is periodic, meaning that
the current wave looks the same from cycle to cycle. Periodic waveforms can be described
mathematically as a series of sinusoidal waveforms that have been summed together (See
Figure 3).
The sinusoidal components are integer multiples of the fundamental where the
fundamental, in the United States, is 60 Hz. The only way to measure a voltage or current that
contains harmonics is to use a true-RMS reading meter. If an averaging meter is used, which is
the most common type, the error can be Significant. Harmonic sin wave

Fig (3.3): Wave form with symmetrical harmonic components
Each term in the series is referred to as a harmonic of the fundamental. The third
harmonic would have a frequency of three times 60 Hz or 180 Hz. Symmetrical waves
contain only odd harmonics and un-symmetrical waves contain even and odd harmonics. A
symmetrical wave is one in which the positive portion of the wave is identical to the negative
portion of the wave. An un-symmetrical wave contains a DC Component (or offset) or the
load is such that the positive portion of the wave is different than the negative portion. An
example of un-symmetrical wave would be a half wave rectifier. Most power system elements
are symmetrical. They produce only odd harmonics and have no DC offset. There are
exceptions, of course, and Normally symmetrical devices may produce even harmonics due to
component mismatches or failures. Arc furnaces are another common source of even
harmonics but they are notorious for producing both even and odd harmonics at different
stages of the process.
There are many cases, which are responsible for production of harmonic effect in
power supply system, few of them is listed below:
o More use of solid-state Power Converters for industrial drivers.
o Use of arc and Induction furnaces for steel and non-ferrous plants.
o Use of thyrister controlled locomotives.
o Use of electronic loads in domestic sectors.
o Use of energy conservation devices in both domestic and industrial sectors,
e.g. Electronic chokes for florescent light, electronic controllers for motors.
o The operation of transformers closure to saturation region for
magnetizing curve.
o Non-sinusoidal air gap flux in synchronous machines.
o Magnetizing current of saturated reactors.
Transformers
A transformers harmonic generating effect is based on the magnetic non-linearity of
iron. The magnetic flux density does not grow linearly with increase of magnetic field strength.
Due to the hysteresis of the transformers iron core the magnetic flux does not follow the curve
form of supply voltage. Due to hysteresis of the transformers iron core the magnetization
current does not follow the curve form of the supply voltage. Transformer connection, structure
of the core and way of earthing has a remarkable effect on the generation and spreading of
harmonics.
3.4 Adverse effects of harmonic currents
o Excessive heating of conductor due to circulating harmonic currents through the
system.
o Over heating of transformer due to harmonic current resulting in insulation damage
and failure.
o Increase in losses and consequent heating of rotating machines, reduced life, frequent
maintenance and repair of system equipments.
o Intermittent electrical noise from connections loosened by thermal cycling.
o Malfunctioning of protective relays due to distortion in voltage and current.
o Interference with the adjacent communication network, thereby corrupting the message
transmitted.
o Overloading of power factor corrector shunt capacitors, leading to frequent blowing of
fuses.
o Some of the harmonic components in voltage and current get amplified because of the
resonance between system impedance and inductive/capacitive elements causing over voltages
and subsequent failures.
o Increased error in the energy meters.
o
Power system
o Sudden increase in demand reduced capacity of utilization and increased energy
losses.
o Increase in neutral current over loading of diesel generator sets, fire hazards due to
burning of over heated cables.
o Frequent change due to switchgears and controls.
o Amplification of harmonic current in capacitor banks and frequent failure of
Capacitors.
o Inaccurate and excess recording by energy meters.
o Interface with communication equipments.
3.5 Need for compensating harmonics
The objective of the electric utility is to deliver sinusoidal voltage at fairly constant
magnitude throughout their system. This objective is complicated by the fact that there are
loads on the system that produce harmonic currents. These currents result in distorted voltages
and currents that can adversely impact the system performance in different ways. As the
number of harmonic producing loads has increased over the years, it has become increasingly
necessary to address their influence when making any additions or changes to an Installation.
To fully appreciate the impact of these phenomena, there are two important concepts to bear in
mind with regard to power system harmonics. The first is the nature of harmonic-current
producing loads (non-linear loads) and the second is the way in which harmonic currents flow
and how the resulting harmonic voltages develop.
3.6 Approaches for mitigation of harmonics [1]
3.6.1 Passive Filters
The filters used for the earlier examples were all made up of passive components:
resistors, capacitors, and inductors, so they are referred to as passive filters.
A passive filter is simply a filter that uses no amplifying elements (transistors,
operational amplifiers, etc.). In this respect, it is the simplest (in terms of the number of
necessary components) implementation of a given transfer function. Passive filters have other
advantages as well. Because they have no active components, passive filters require no power
supplies. Since they are not restricted by the bandwidth limitations of op amps, they can work
well at very high frequencies.
They can be used in applications involving larger current or voltage levels than can be
handled by active devices. Passive filters also generate little noise when compared with
circuits using active gain elements. The noise that they produce is simply the thermal noise
from the resistive components, and, with careful design, the amplitude of this noise can be
very low.
Passive filters have some important disadvantages in certain applications, however.
Since they use no active elements, they cannot provide signal gain. Input impedances can be
lower than desirable, and output impedances can be higher the optimum for some applications,
so buffer amplifiers may be needed. Inductors are necessary for the synthesis of most useful
passive filter characteristics, and these can be prohibitively expensive if high accuracy (1% or
2%, for example), small physical size, or large values are required. Standard values of
inductors are not very closely spaced, and it is difficult to find an off-the-shelf unit within 10%
of any arbitrary value, so adjustable inductors are often used. Tuning these to the required
values is time-consuming and expensive when producing large quantities of filters.
Furthermore, complex passive filters (higher than 2nd-order) can be difficult and time-
consuming to design.
Passive harmonic filters are an effective mitigation method for harmonic problems.
The passive filter is generally designed to provide a path to divert the troublesome harmonic
currents in the power systems.
Two compensation techniques are
(a) Shunt passive filter (b) series passive filter
The shunt filter is characterized as a series resonant and traps type, which has a low
impedance path at tuned frequency. The series filter is characterized as a parallel resonant
blocking type,
which has high impedance at its tuned frequency,e.g smoothening reactor in power
systems. Shunt passive filter consist of tuned LC circuits that are used to suppress harmonics
in power system, as shown in Fig.2.6. Shunt passive filters exhibit lower impedance at the
tuned harmonic frequency than the source impedance. This diverts the harmonic current to the
tuned filter thereby, reducing the harmonic currents flowing into the source. In principle, the
characteristics of the shunt passive filters are determined by the impedance ratio of the source
and the filter.
Shunt passive filter has the following problems:
The source impedance, which is not accurately known and also varies with the system
configuration, strongly influences filtering efficiency of the filter.
The shunt passive filter acts as a sink to the harmonic current flowing from the source.
In the worst case, shunt passive filter may fall in series resonance with the source impedance.
At a specific frequency, anti-resonance or parallel resonance may occur between the
source impedance and the shunt passive filter, which is known as the so-called harmonic
amplification. The filter has detuning problem due to the variation in line frequency.
Shunt passive filter are bulky and need several filter sections connected in parallel for
different harmonic frequencies.
3.6.2 Active power filters
. The other solution is to install line-conditioning systems that suppress or counteracts
the power system disturbances. Active power filters offer a flexible and versatile solution to
voltage quality problems. Currently they are based on PWM converters and connect to low
and medium voltage distribution system in shunt or in series. Series active power filters must
operate in conjunction with shunt passive filters in order to compensate load current
harmonics. Shunt active power filters operate as a controllable current source and series active
power filters operates as a controllable voltage source.
Both schemes are implemented preferable with voltage source PWM inverters, with a
dc bus having a reactive element such as a capacitor. Active power filters can perform one or
more of the functions required to compensate power systems and improving power quality.
As it will be illustrated in this project, their performance depends on the power rating
and the speed of response. The selection of the type of active power filter to improve power
quality depends on the source of the problem.
Active filtering technique sences the non-linear load harmonic voltages or current use either
1) Inject harmonic current at 180 degrees out of phase with the load harmonics.
2) Inject or absorb current bursts to hold the voltage waveform within an acceptable
tolerance.
These approaches provide effective filtering of harmonics and eliminate some adverse
effects of passive filters such as component aging and resonance problems.
The active filter is a generic name and is applied to a group of power electronics
circuits incorporating power semiconductor devices and passive energy storage circuit
elements, such as an inductor and capacitors. The function of these circuits varies, depending
on the applications. They are generally used for controlling current/voltage harmonics in
supply voltage. They are also used for the reactive power generation and load balancing.
The active power filters are classified into different sections based on,
The power circuit configuration and connection,
Technique used for estimating reference current/voltage,
Control strategies.
Classification based on the power circuit configuration and connection
In this class of filters, the power circuit configurations are,
a) Shunt Active Power Filters
b) Series Active Power Filters
c) Combination of Series-Shunt Active Power Filters
3.6.3 Specially designed transformers:
Harmonic currents in power systems can also be reduced by produced by providing a
phase shift transformers between non-linear loads on different branches. Use of phase-shifting
transformers for self-cancellation of some harmonics.
Specially designed transformers like zig-zag Transformers is used to trap triplen
harmonics currents and to prevent the current flowing back to the source from non linear
load. This is usually designed to provide low harmonic impedance between its windings
compared to source harmonic impedance. Use of zig-zig transformer. But the use of zig-zig
transformer results in complex connections, which contribute to the elevation of the neutral
potential and are not economical to implement.
3.6.4 Load conditioning:
Load conditioning ensures that the equipment is less sensitive to the power system
disturbances, allowing operation even under significant voltage and current distortion.
Power quality is a well-defined field with growing interest being shown in the
solutions to problems, monitoring equipment, regulations and statistical analysis of customers
expected levels of disturbance. Power quality tends to be an issue for a small number of large
customers, although in recent years the rise in numbers of information technology equipment
especially in commercial buildings has led to a large increase in the number of harmonic
problems encountered, as discussed in Eugene Conroys article. However, for these customers
for whom it is an issue, it is usually a big issue. It is likely that the number of customers for
whom it will be an issue will increase in the future.
Filters
4.1 Introduction
Filters of some sort are essential to the operation of most electronic circuits. It is
therefore in the interest of anyone involved in electronic circuit design to have the ability to
develop filter circuits capable of meeting a given set of specifications. Unfortunately, many in
the electronics field are uncomfortable with the subject, whether due to a lack of familiarity
with it, or a reluctance to grapple with the mathematics involved in a complex filter design.
This Application Note is intended to serve as a very basic introduction to some of the
fundamental concepts and terms associated with filters. It will not turn a novice into a filter
designer, but it can serve as a starting point for those wishing to learn more about filter design.
4.2 Filters and Signals: What Does a Filter Do?
In circuit theory, a filter is an electrical network that alters the amplitude and/or phase
characteristics of a signal with respect to frequency. Ideally, a filter will not add new
frequencies to the input signal, nor will it change the component frequencies of that signal, but
it will change the relative amplitudes of the various frequency components and/or their phase
relationships. Filters are often used in electronic systems to emphasize signals in certain
frequency ranges and reject signals in other frequency ranges. Such a filter has a gain which is
dependent on signal frequency. As an example, consider a situation where a useful signal at
frequency f1 has been contaminated with an unwanted signal at f2. If the contaminated signal is
passed through a circuit .
that has very low gain at f2 compared to f1, the undesired signal can be removed, and
the useful signal will remain. Note that in the case of this simple example, we are not
concerned with the gain of the filter at any frequency other than f1 and f2. As long as f2 is
sufficiently attenuated relative to f1, the performance of this filter will be satisfactory. In
general, however, a filter's gain may be specified at several different frequencies, or over a
band of frequencies.
Since filters are defined by their frequency-domain effects on signals, it makes sense
that the most useful analytical and graphical descriptions of filters also fall into the frequency
domain.
Thus, curves of gain vs frequency and phase vs frequency are commonly used to
illustrate filter characteristics, and the most widely-used mathematical tools are based in the
frequency domain.
4.3 Passive Filters
The filters used for the earlier examples were all made up of passive components:
resistors, capacitors, and inductors, so they are referred to as passive filters. A passive filter is
simply a filter that uses no amplifying elements (transistors, operational amplifiers, etc.). In
this respect, it is the simplest (in terms of the number of necessary components)
implementation of a given transfer function. Passive filters have other advantages as well.
Because they have no active components, passive filters require no power supplies. Since they
are not restricted by the bandwidth limitations of op amps, they can work well at very high
frequencies. They can be used in applications involving larger current or voltage levels than
can be handled by active devices. Passive filters also generate little noise when compared with
circuits using active gain elements. The noise that they produce is simply the thermal noise
from the resistive components, and, with careful design, the amplitude of this noise can be
very low.
Passive filters have some important disadvantages in certain applications,
however. Since they use no active elements, they cannot provide signal gain. Input
impedances can be lower than desirable, and output impedances can be higher the optimum for
some applications, so buffer amplifiers may be needed. Inductors are necessary for the
synthesis of most useful passive filter characteristics, and these can be prohibitively expensive
if high accuracy (1% or 2%, for example), small physical size, or large values are required.
Standard values of inductors are not very closely spaced, and it is difficult to find an
off-the-shelf unit within 10% of any arbitrary value, so adjustable inductors are often used.
Tuning these to the required values is time-consuming and expensive when producing large
quantities of filters. Furthermore, complex passive filters (higher than 2nd-order) can be
difficult and time-consuming to design.
4.3.1 Low-Pass filter:
A low-pass filter passes low frequency signals, and rejects signals at frequencies above
the filter's cutoff frequency. If the components of our example circuit are rearranged as in
Figure 6.1, the resultant transfer function is:

1
1
) (
2
+ +

s s V
V
s H
in
out
LP ..(4.3.1)
Fig (4.1) Example of simple low pass filter.
It is easy to see by inspection that this transfer function has more gain at low
frequencies than at high frequencies. As 0 approaches 0, HLP approaches 1; as 0 approaches
infinity, HLP approaches 0. Amplitude and phase response curves are shown in Figure 6.2,
with an assortment of possible amplitude response curves in Figure (6.2) . Note that the
various approximations to the unrealizable ideal low-pass amplitude characteristics take
different forms, some being monotonic (always having a negative slope), and others having
ripple in the passband and/or stopband. Low-pass filters are used whenever high frequency
components must be removed from a signal. An example might be in a light-sensing
instrument using a photodiode. If light levels are low, the output of the photodiode could be
very small, allowing it to be partially obscured by the noise of the sensor and its amplifier,
whose spectrum can extend to very high frequencies. If a low-pass filter is placed at the output
of the amplifier, and if its cutoff frequency is high enough to allow the desired signal
frequencies to pass, the overall noise level can be reduced.

(a) (b)
Fig(4.2) Ampllitude(a) and phaseresponse(b) of Example low pass filter.
4.3.2 High-Pass filter
The opposite of the low-pass is the high-pass filter, which rejects signals below its
cutoff frequency. A high-pass filter can be made by rearranging the components of our example
network as in Figure (5.4). The transfer function for this filter is:

1
) (
2
2
+ +

s s
s
V
V
s H
in
out
HP ... (4.3.2)
Fig (4.3) Example of Simple High-Pass Filter
and the amplitude and phase curves are found in Figure 13.Note that the amplitude response of
the high-pass is a ``mirror image'' of the low-pass response. Further examples of high-pass
filter responses are shown in Figure 14, with the `ìdeal'' response in (a) and various
approximations to the ideal shown in (b) through (f). High-pass filters are used in applications
requiring the rejection of low-frequency signals. One such application is in high-fidelity
loudspeaker systems. Music contains significant energy in the frequency range from around
100 Hz to 2 kHz, but high frequency drivers (tweeters) can be damaged if low-frequency audio
signals of sufficient energy appear at their input terminals. A high-pass filter between the
broadband audio signal and the tweeter input terminals will prevent low-frequency program
material from reaching the tweeter.
In conjunction with a low-pass filter for the low-frequency driver (and possibly other
filters for other drivers), the high-pass filter is part of what is known as a ``crossover network''.

Fig(4.4) Ampllitude(a) and phaseresponse(b) of Example high pass filter
4.3.3 Bandpass filter
The number of possible bandpass response characteristics is infinite, but they all share the
same basic form. Several examples of bandpass amplitude response curves are shown in Figure
(5.7). The curve in 5.7 (a) is what might be called an `ìdeal'' bandpass response, with
absolutely constant gain within the passband, zero gain outside the passband, and an abrupt
boundary between the two. This response characteristic is impossible to realize in practice, but
it can be approximated to varying degrees of accuracy by real filters. Curves (b) through (f) are
examples of a few bandpass amplitude response curves that approximate the ideal curves with
varying degrees of accuracy. Note that while some bandpass responses are very smooth, other
have ripple (gain variations in their passbands. Other have ripple in their stopbands as well. The
stopband is the range of frequencies over which unwanted signals are attenuated. Bandpass
filters have two stopbands, one above and one below the passband.
Fig (4.5) amplitude and phase response curves of example band pass filter
Bandpass filters are used in electronic systems to separate a signal at one frequency or
within a band of frequencies from signals at other frequencies. In 6.1 an example was given of
a filter whose purpose was to pass a desired signal at frequency f1, while attenuating as much
as possible an unwanted signal at frequency f2. This function could be performed by an
appropriate bandpass filter with center frequency f1. Such a filter could also reject unwanted
signals at other frequencies outside of the passband, so it could be useful in situations where the
signal of interest has been contaminated by signals at a number of different frequencies.
4.4 Butter worth filter:
Best known filter approximation is the Butterworth or maximally-flat response. It exhibits a
nearly flat passband with no ripple. The roll off is smooth and monotonic, with a low-pass or
high-pass roll off rate of 20 dB/decade (6 dB/octave) for every pole. Thus, a 5th-order
Butterworth low-pass filter would have an attenuation rate of 100 dB for every factor of ten
increase in frequency beyond the cutoff frequency. The general equation for a Butterworth
filter's amplitude response is

n
s H
2
0
1
1
) (
,
_
. (4.4.1)
where n is the order of the filter, and can be any positive whole number (1, 2, 3, . . . ), and is
the -3dB frequency of the filter. Figure 6.6 shows the amplitude response curves for
Butterworth low-pass filters of various orders. The frequency scale is normalized to f/f
-3dB
so
that all of the curves show 3 dB attenuation for f/fc = 1.0.
Fig :4.6 Ampllitude response curves of Butterworth filter of various order
The coefficients for the denominators of Butterworth filters of various orders are shown in
Table 2(a). Table 2(b) shows the denominators factored in terms of second-order polynomials.
Again, all of the coefficients correspond to a corner frequency of 1 radian/s As an example, the
tables show that a fourth-order Butterworth low-pass filter's transfer function can be written:
H(S) =
( ) ( ) [ ] 1 76536 . 0 . 1 84776 . 1
1
2 2
+ + + + S S S S
,...(4.4.2)
This is the product of one first-order and two second-order transfer functions. Note
that neither of the second-order transfer functions alone is a Butterworth transfer function, but
that they both have the same center frequency. Figure 24 shows the step response of
Butterworthlowpass filters of various orders. Note that the amplitude and duration of the
ringing increases as n increases.
Fig: 4.7 Step response for Butterworth low pass filter in each case
0
=1 and the step
amplitude=1.0.
4.5 APPROACHES TO IMPLEMENTING FILTERS [11]
4.5.1 Analog Butterworth filter design:
The magnitude function of the butter worth filter is given by low pass filter is given by
H (j) = 1/ [1+ (/
c
)
2N
]
.(4.5.1)
Where n=1, 2, 3,..N.
N=order of the filter.
c =
cut off frequency.
Magnitude response approaches the ideal low pass filter characteristics as the order N
increases.
We can get the magnitude square function of normalized Butter worth filter
(1rd/sec=
c
).
1+ (j) =
( ) [ ]
N 2
1
1
+
..(4.5.2)
Let us derive the Transfer function of a stable filter.
Substitute =S/J in 1.
[H (j)]
2
= H(-S
2
) = H (j).H(-j) .(4.5.3)
H (j).H (-j) =
1
1
]
1
,
_
+
N
J
S
2
1
1
.(4.5.4)
H(S).H (-S) =
( ) [ ]
N N
S
2
. 1 1
1
+
... (4.5.5)
The roots of the equation are obtained by equating denominator to zero,
I.e. 1+ ((-S
2
) =0 ..(4.5.6)
The roots of the equation are obtained as following:
S
k
= e
jk
, where
k
= /2 + (2k-1)/2N
;

K=1, 2, 3.N;
Here N is the order of the low pass filter.
4.5.2 Design of fourth order low pass filter:
k
= /2 + (2k-1)/2N, for N=4;

k
= /2 + (2k-1)/2(4) = /2 + (2k-1)/8;
S1=e
(j5/8)
= -0.3827 + j0.9239, S2 =

e
(j7/8)
= -0.9239 + 0.3832;
S3 = e
(j9/8)
= -0.9239 - 0.3832, S4= e
(j11/8)
= -0.3827 - j0.9239;
The Transfer function of 4
th
order Butter worth filter is given as
D(S) = ([S + 0.3827]
2
) + (0.9239)
2
. ([S + 0.9239]
2
+ (0.3827)
2
]

);
N(S) = 1;
Transfer function H(S) = N(S)/D(S);
H(S) =
( ) ( ) [ ] 1 76536 . 0 . 1 84776 . 1
1
2 2
+ + + + S S S S
(4.5.7)
For denormalized the the T/F is given by replacing S by S/
c
,
c
= 25Hz.
The T/F of 4
th
order LPF filter is given as H(S), where H(S) is
H(S)=
( ) [ ] 607573201 10113000 84157 2608 . 410
607573201
2 3 4
+ + + + S S S S
. (4.5.8)
The magnitude and phase response are given by Bode plot.
fig: 4.8 The magnitude and phase response of fourth order low pass filter
4.5.3 Design of High pass filter:
Transfer function of LPF is given as
H(S) =
( ) ( ) [ ] 1 76536 . 0 . 1 84776 . 1
1
2 2
+ + + + S S S S
Here replace S by
c
/S,
c
= 25Hz.
Transfer function of HPF is given as H(S)
Where H(S) =
( ) [ ] 607573201 10113000 84157 2608 . 410
2 3 4
4
+ + + + S S S S
S
;( 4.5.9)
fig: 4.9 The magnitude and phase response of fourth order high pass filter
4.5.4 Design of Alternate High pass filter:
Fourth order alternate high pass filter is given as follows
AHPF = 1-LPF;
AHPF(S) = 1- LPF(S) ,,. (4.5.10)
AHPF(S) =1-
( ) [ ] 607573201 10113000 84157 2608 . 410
607573201
2 3 4
+ + + + S S S S

AHPF(S)=
( )
( ) [ ] 607573201 10113000 84157 2608 . 410
10113000 84157 2608 . 410
2 3 4
2 3 4
+ + + +
+ + +
S S S S
S S S S
(6.5.11)
fig: 4.10 The magnitude and phase response of fourth order alternate high pass filter

Alternate high pass filter phase response is very close to zero in the harmonic load current
spectra. This is very important especially in compensation of low frequency current component
Active Power Filter Topologies
5.1 Introduction
There are two approaches to the mitigation of power quality problems. The first approach is
called load conditioning, which ensures that the equipment is less sensitive to power
disturbances, allowing the operation even under significant voltage distortion. The other
solution is to install line-conditioning systems that suppress or counteracts the power system
disturbances. Active power filters offer a flexible and versatile solution to voltage quality
problems. Currently they are based on PWM converters and connect to low and medium
voltage distribution system in shunt or in series. Series active power filters must operate in
conjunction with shunt passive filters in order to compensate load current harmonics. Shunt
active power filters operate as a controllable current source and series active power filters
operates as a controllable voltage source. Both schemes are implemented preferable with
voltage source PWM inverters, with a dc bus having a reactive element such as a capacitor.
Active power filters can perform one or more of the functions required to compensate power
systems and improving power quality. As it will be illustrated in this paper, their performance
depends on the power rating and the speed of response. The selection of the type of active
power filter to improve power quality depends on the source of the problem as can be seen in
Table 1.
Topology : shunt active power filter system.
Topology : series active power filter system.
Topology: Hybrid active power filter system.
5.2 Shunt active power filters
This class of filters constitutes the most important and widely used filter configuration in
industrial process. It is connected in parallel to the main power circuit as shown in Fig.5.1.
The concept of the shunt active power filter is based on harmonic cancellation through the
act of injecting equal and opposite harmonic currents into the supply line by means of
solid-state converter circuits. These filters are voltage source type or current source type as
shown in Fig. 5.2, respectively. Normally these filters are connected in parallel with the
load, and carry only a fraction of the fundamental current. Furthermore, they can be
designed to provide compensation for all of the system non-linearties at the point of
common coupling (PCC) under distorted and non-distorted supply.
Fig (5.1) Shunt active power filtering
These filters have disadvantages of injection of switching frequency harmonics in the system.
Due to the need of high switching frequency fully gate controlled devices these filters are
limited to low and medium power range only.
Shunt active power filter compensate current harmonics by injecting equal-but-opposite
harmonic compensating current. In this case the shunt active power filter operates as a current
source injecting the harmonic components generated by the load but phase shifted by 180o.
This principle is applicable to any type of load considered a harmonic source. Moreover, with
an appropriate control scheme, the active power filter can also compensate the load power
factor. In this way, the power distribution system sees the non linear load and the active power
filter as an ideal resistor. The current compensation characteristic of the shunt active power
filter is shown in Fig.5.1
Power Circuit Topology
Shunt active power filters are normally implemented with pulse-width modulated voltage
source inverters. In this type of applications, the PWM-VSI operates as a current controlled
voltage source. Traditionally, 2 level PWM-VSI have been used to implement such system.
however, in the past years multilevel PWM voltage source inverters have been proposed to
develop active power filters for medium voltage applications. Also, active power filters
implemented with multiple VSI connected in parallel to a dc bus but in series through a
transformer or in cascade has been proposed in the technical literature.
Fig (5.2) Shunt active power filter topologies implemented with PWM voltage-source inverters.
The use of VSI connected in cascade is an interesting alternative to compensate high power
non-linear load. The use of two PWM-VSI of different rated power allows the use of different
switching frequencies, reducing switching stresses and commutation losses in the overall
compensation system. In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in using multilevel
inverters for high power energy conversion, especially for drives and reactive power
compensation. Multilevel PWM inverters can be connected to high voltage source without a
coupling transformer. The use of neutral-point-clamped (NPC) inverters allows equal voltage
shearing of the series connected devices in each phase. However, the neutral point potential
deviates, resulting in an excess voltage stress to either the upper or lower set of devices.
Basically, multilevel inverters have been developed for applications in high voltage ac motor
drives and static VAR compensation. For these types of applications, the output voltage of the
multilevel inverter must be able to generate an almost sinusoidal output current. In order to
generate a near sinusoidal output current, the output voltage should not contain low frequency
harmonic components.
For active power filter applications the three levels NPC inverter output voltage must
be able to generate an output current that follows the respective reference current which contain
the harmonic and reactive component required by the load. The power circuit topology of an
active power filter implemented with a Neutral-Point- Clamped voltage-source inverter is
shown in Fig.4.3. The three levels NPC voltage-source inverter is connected in parallel through
a link reactor to the power distribution system.
Fig (5.3) An active power filter implemented with a three level NPC voltage-source inverter.
5.3 Series active power filters.
The active power filters in this configuration produces a PWM voltage waveform, which is
added/subtracted on the instantaneous basis, to force the supply voltage to maintain pure
sinusoidal waveform across the load. The line diagram of power circuit configuration is
shown in Fig.5.4. The inverter configuration accompanying such a system is a voltage fed
inverter without any current control loop. It is well known that series active power filters
compensate current system distortion caused by non-linear loads by imposing a high
impedance path to the current harmonics which forces the high frequency currents to flow
through the LC passive filter connected in parallel to the load. The high impedance
imposed by the series active power filter is created by generating a voltage of the same
frequency that the current harmonic component that needs to be eliminated. Compensating
the fundamental frequency negative and zero sequence voltage components of the system
correct voltage unbalance.
Fig. 5.4. The proposed series active power filter topology.
5.4 Combination of series-shunt active power filters.
Fig.5.6 shows the line diagram of the combination of the shunt active and series
active filter. The major functions of the series filter are to provide voltage harmonic
isolation between the supply side and the load side, voltage regulation, voltage flicker
and/or imbalance compensation at the point of common coupling (PCC). The main
functions of the shunt active filter is to act as harmonic sink, however this may also be used
to provide reactive power compensation and dc link voltage regulation between the filters.
This combination is generally known as Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) or
Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC). Active power filters can be used with
passive filters improving compensation characteristics of the passive filter,
and avoiding the possibility of the generation of series or parallel resonance. One example
of this combination is the series active power filter shown in section V. In this scheme,
(Fig.5.5), if the passive filters are not connected, the series active power filter can
compensate only voltage regulation, and voltage unbalance. If passive filters are not used in
Fig. 5.5, the topology cannot compensate current harmonic components. Another
possibility to combine the compensation characteristics of passive and active power filters
is by connecting the active passive filter in series with the passive one, as shown in Fig. 5.5.
In this way, the compensation characteristics of the passive filter is significantly improved,
since the active scheme generated voltage harmonic components across the terminal of the
primary windings of the series transformer, forcing current harmonics generated by the load
to circulate through the passive filter instead of the power distribution system.
Fig (5.5) The hybrid active power filter configuration.
By controlling the amplitude of the voltage fundamental component across the coupling
transformer, the power factor of the power distribution system can be adjusted. However, the
control of the load power factor imposed a higher voltage across the filter capacitor. This
consideration has to be considered when the filter capacitor is specified. This type of
configuration is very convenient for compensation of high power medium voltage non linear
loads, such as large power ac drives with cycloconverters or high power medium voltage
rectifiers for application in electro wining process or for compensation of arc furnace. In all
these applications passive filters do not have enough compensation capability to reduce current
harmonics in order to satisfy IEEE Std.519. Simulated waveforms for this type of
compensation are shown in Figs. 4.5
5.5 The following factors were considered for active filter topology selection.
o Ability to meet IEEE 519 harmonic standards, including for stiff supply systems and in
presence of maximum allowable 5% supply voltage distortion.
o Impact of voltage notching due to rectifier front-end at the active filter terminal on the
performance and rating of the active filter.
o KVA rating and cost of active and passive filter components.
o Overall displacement factor from 125% to 105% load rating.
o Losses of active filter system, including switching ripple filter.
o Ability to provide value-added features such as harmonic isolation between supply and
load, voltage regulation in presence of 1O% supply voltage swells/sags, immunity to
supply and load transients and ride-through capability.
o Ability for maximum integration with the ASD- i.e., capability of using the same ASD
dc bus, one unit packaging to minimize cost, filter topology selection size, weight and
floor space.
o Sensor requirement and control complexity.
o Affect of supply voltage distortion, supply voltage sags/swells and unbalances, and sup-
ply side or ASD load induced sub harmonics in the supply current, on the performance
and rating of the active filter to meet IEEE 519 harmonic standards Bandwidth and
switching frequency of active filter inverter.
o Damping/mitigation of supply/load side resonances, including additional cost and
bandwidth requirement for providing active damping by the active filter inverter.
o Start-up, sequencing and active filter system protection issues, including cost of
isolation and protection switchgear.
5.6 Parallel active filter systems have the following advantages
o Viable and cost-effective.for low to medium LVA industrial loads where system
engineering effort is a large part of overall cost.
o Do not create displacement power factor problems and utility loading.
o Supply side inductance L, does not affect the harmonic compensation capability of
parallel active filter system.
o Controlled as a harmonic current source and its controller implementation is simple.
o Can damp harmonic propagation in a distribution feeder or between two distribution
feeders.
o Performance, controlled as a harmonic current source, is not affected by supply voltage
harmonics.
o Provides immunity from ambient harmonic loads.
o Protection and sequencing is relatively easy and does not require expensive isolation
switchgear.
o Has a high possibility of system integration with various harmonic front-ends with
common functionalities.
o Can be installed as a black box solution with minimal system level design expense
and provides viable retrofit options. And Is scalable for higher load KVA rating by p
THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
6.1 The basic principle of shunt active power filter
The basic principle of Shunt active filter is that it generates a current equal and opposite in
Polarity to the harmonic current drawn by the load and injects it to the point of coupling there
by forcing the source current to be pure sinusoidal.
6.2 Block diagram:

Fig. 6.1. Basic structure of a shunt AF with a three-leg VSC.

6.3 synchronous reference frame method
This algorithm relies on the Park's transformation where the three-phase voltages and current
signals are transformed to a synchronously rotating frame. The active and reactive components of the
system are represented by the direct and quadrature component respectively. In this approach
fundamental quantities become DC quantities which can be separated easily through filtering. To
implement the synchronous reference frame synchronizing system (PLL) is needed. This method is
only applicable to three-phase system.
In the SRF, the load current signals are transformed into the conventional rotating frame d-q.
If is the transformation angle,
The transformation is defined by:
(6.32)
Where x denotes voltages or currents.
In the SRF is a time varying angle that represents the angular position of the reference
frame which is rotating at constant speed in synchronism with the three phase ac voltages. To
implement the SRF method some kind of synchronizing system should be used. In phase-locked loop
(PLL) is used for the implementation of this method. In this case the speed of the reference frame is
practically constant, that is, the method behaves as if the reference frames moment of inertia is
infinite. The fundamental currents of the d-q components are now dc values. The harmonics appear
like ripple. Harmonic isolation of the d-q transformed signal is achieved by removing the dc offset.
This is accomplished using high pass filters (HPF). In spite of a high pass filter, a low pass filter is
used to obtain the reference source current in d-q coordinates. Fig.5.2 illustrates a configuration of the
SRF method. There is no need to supply voltage waveform for a SRF based controller. However the
phase position angle must be determined using voltage information.
Fig.(6.2): Basic Synchronous Reference Frame Configuration
The transformation from 3-axis to 2-axis is mainly used for the SRF method. There are five
steps to calculate the reference currents for a shunt active power filter using the SRF method.
Step 1: Transform the three-phase load currents (i
La
, i
Lb
, i
Lc
) to 0 frame (i
L
, i
L
, i
L0
) by:
(5.33)
Step 2: Transform the i
L
and i
L
to the dq-axis by:
(6.34)
when is the fundamental frequency of the system (rad/s).
Fig (5.3): Vector diagram for dq-transformation of load currents
The vector diagram for dq-transformation is depicted in Fig.5.3. In Fig.5.3, the i
Ld
and i
Lq
consists of two terms, the fundamental and harmonic terms. For harmonic terms, it means all
harmonics are included behaving as an AC component, while the fundamental terms behave as a DC
component. The equations to explain these load current on dq frame are:
(6.35)
When and are the DC components and AC component of the load
currents on dq-frame, respectively.
Step 3: From Step 2, it is shown that the dq load currents consist of two terms. For this step,
the high-pass filter (HPF) is used to separate the harmonic components ( ) from the dq load
currents ( i
Ld
, i
Lq
) as shown in Fig.5.4.

a) HPF for d-axis b) HPF for q-axis
Fig.(5.4): Separation of harmonic components on dq-frame.
Step 4: Transform the harmonic currents on dq-frame ( ) from Step 3 to -frame (
) by:
6.36)
Step 5: Calculate the three-phase reference currents ( i*
ca
, i*
cb
, i*
cc
) for a shunt active power
filter (SAPF). These currents are then used as the input for SAPF to compensate the harmonic of the
power system. The purposed reference currents can be determined from the harmonic currents on -
frame ( )

from Step 4 and the zero current ( i
L0
) from Step 1 by:
(6.37)
The SRF harmonic detection method can be reasonably summarized as a block diagram as
shown in Fig.5.5.
Fig.(6.5): SRF harmonic detection

6.4 Instantaneous Active and Reactive Current Component Id-Iq method
6.4.1 Control of active power filters
Fig. 6.1 shows the schematic block diagram of the shunt active filter with
controller. The block diagram consists of variable sensing system, Reference
Estimation System, PWM signal generator and system controller.
The variable sensing block senses the system variables like supply current, load
current and compensating current, DC link voltage or current.
PWM signal generator and system controller generate switching signals for
converter switches based on the error produced by reference signal and actual system
variables.
Fig. (6.2) AF control system based on the instantaneous active and reactive current component Id - Iq method.
6.4.2 PARKS TRANSFORM
The first transform is to move from a 3-axis, 2-dimensional coordinate system referenced to the
stator of the motor to a 2-axis system also referenced to the stator. The process is called the
Clarke Transform. At this point you have the stator current phasor represented on a 2-axis
orthogonal system with the axis called -. The next step is to transform into another 2-axis
system that is rotating with the rotor flux. This transformation uses the Park Transform, as
illustrated in Figure (6.3). This 2-axis rotating coordinate system is called the d-q axis. From
this perspective the components of the current Phasor in the d-q coordinate system are time
invariant. Under steady state conditions they are DC values. The stator current component
along the d axis is proportional to the flux, and the component along the q axis is proportional
to the rotor torque. Now that you have these components represented as DC values you can
control them independently with classic PI control loops.

FIG(6.3): PARKS TRANSFORM
In this method the currents I
ci
are obtained from the instantaneous active and reactive current
components Id and Iq of the nonlinear load. In the same way, the mains voltages v
i
and the
polluted currents Ii in as in the previous method by (5.3.1) and (5.3.2). However, the load
current components are derived from a synchronous reference frame based on the Park
transformation, where represents the instantaneous voltage vector angle (5.3.6)
. (6.3.6)
Fig.6.4 Voltage and current space vectors in the stationary and synchronous reference frames.
Fig. 6.4 depicts the voltage and current space vectors in the stationary and rotating
frames dq. Under balanced and sinusoidal mains voltage conditions angle is a uniformly
increasing function of time. This transformation angle is sensitive to voltage harmonics and
unbalance, therefore d/dt may not be constant over a mains period. With transformation the
direct voltage component is u
dq
=u
= and the quadrature

voltage component is always null,Uq=0 , so due to geometric relations (6.3.6) becomes
..(6.3.7)
Instantaneous active and reactive load currents Id and Iq can also be decomposed into
oscillatory and average terms Id=I*d+Id , and Iq=I*q+Iq . The first harmonic current of
positive sequence is transformed to dc quantities, h dq i 1
+
i.e., this constitutes the average
current components. All higher order current harmonics including the first harmonic current of
negative sequence, , are transformed to non-dc quantities and undergo a
frequency shift in the spectra, and so, constitute the oscillatory current components. These
assumptions are valid under balanced and sinusoidal mains voltage conditions. Eliminating the
average current components by HPFs the currents that should be compensated are obtained,
and . Finally, (6.3.8) and (6.3.5) calculate the converter currents in the
system coordinates
....(6.3.8)
One of the characteristics of both methods is that the compensating currents are calculated
directly from the mains voltages, enabling the methods to be frequency-independent. Avoiding
the use of a PLL a large frequency operating range can be achieved limited chiefly by the
cutoff frequency of the current control system (VSC and current controller). Furthermore,
under unbalanced and nonsinusoidal mains voltage conditions, a large number of
synchronization problems are avoided especially if a PLL is synthesized with a fast dynamic
response.
6.4.3 INVERSE PARK
After the PI iteration you have two voltage component vectors in the rotating d-q axis. You will
need to go through complementary inverse transforms to get back to the 3-phase motor voltage.
First you transform from the 2-axis rotating d-q frame to the 2-axis stationary frame -. This
transformation uses the Inverse Park Transform, as illustrated in Figure 5.5

Fig (6.5) Inverse Park Transform
A Park current calculator performs the direct and inverse transformations described previously.
In the experimental prototype the angle is calculated by (5.3.6), however u

and u
are
derived form the mains line-to-line voltages u
12
and u
23
(6.3.9)
..(6.3.9)
The zero current components are null, therefore the inverse and direct Park transformations are
obtained from (6.3.10) and (6.3.11), respectively.
... (6.3.10)
. (6.3.11)
In Fig. 5.5 a block diagram of the inverse Park current calculation and the Park current
calculator implementation is presented. The measured voltages u
12
and u
23
pass through anti-
aliasing filters and voltage limiters before digital conversion.
6.4.4 Harmonic Current Generation
By the inverse Park transformation the first harmonic load current of positive sequence is
transformed to dc quantities i
dq1h
+
. These represent the harmonic current system that must be
preserved in the mains. The ac components of the load current must be injected by the AF.
These ac quantities are i
dqnh
which derive from the load currents through i
dq
the AHPF
presented in Fig.(6.7). Low-pass Butterworth fourth-order switched-capacitor filters are used.
The cutoff frequency chosen is f
c
= f/2.
This assures a small phase shift in harmonics and a sufficiently fast transient response
in the AF harmonic compensation. The fourth-order AHPF gives the best performance. Fig.
(6.6) clearly shows that, although the AHPF presents four times less slope in the rejection band
than the HPF (80 dB/dec), its phase response is very close to zero in the harmonic load current
spectra. This is very important especially in the compensation of low frequency current
components (e.g. second order harmonic current of negative sequence).

Fig (6.6) block diagram of harmonic current generation

Fig.(6.7) Magnitude and phase responses of an HPF and fourth-order AHPF.
The fourth-order AHPF gives the best performance. Fig. 6.7 clearly shows that, although the
AHPF presents four times less slope in the rejection band than the HPF (80 dB/dec), its phase
response is very close to zero in the harmonic load current spectra. This is very important
especially in the compensation of low frequency current components (e.g. second order
harmonic current of negative sequence).
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
7.1 Simulation of models of non-linear load systems
Fixed diode rectifier load
3phase source driving a diode rectifier load
Fig 7.1 phase source driving a diode rectifier load.
Input Voltage and Current Wave Forms for above model are
Fig7.2 Input Voltage and Current Wave Forms for diode model
The THD values of current waveform is 29.48
Fig 7.3 FFT of THD for diode model
Dynamic Diode Rectifier Load
Fig7.4 Dynamic Diode Rectifier Load

Pulse switching of the circuit Breakers

Fig7.5 Pulse switching of the circuit Breakers
Voltage and Current Waveforms are as follows

Fig7.6 Voltage and Current Waveforms for Dynamic load of diode load model
Above Fig shows distortions mainly on supply current, its THD value is 29.04% .
Fig7.7 distortions on supply current for dynamic diode load model
Fixed Thyrister Load

Fig7.8 Fixed Thyristor Load
Fig7.9 Voltage and Current Waveforms for Thyrister load
It contains distortions only on supply current side its THD is given by FFTanalysis as 28.47%.

Fig7.10 THD values of current for Thyrister converter model
7.2 Non linear load systems with 3-phase Shunt Active Power Filter

Diode rectifier with Shunt APF Control Strategy
Fig7.11 Diode rectifier with Shunt APF Control Strategy

Fig7.12 Voltage and Current Waveforms for diode rectifier with APF

THD Values of current waveform

Fig7.13 THD Values of current waveform for diode rectifier with APF
Inverter gating, reference and capacitor Current wave forms
Fig7.14 Inverter gating, reference and capacitor Current wave forms with APF
Inverter reference current
Fig7.15 Inverter reference current for rectifier load with APF
Inverter Current
Fig7.16 Inverter Current for rectifier load with APF
Id harmonics
Fig7.17 Id harmonics for rectifier load with APF

Iq harmonics
Fig7.18 Iq harmonics for rectifier load with APF
From the above THD value of Current it is clear that with Shunt APF control method Current
wave form distortions reduced to 4.74 % which is allowable range when compared to IEEE
standard 5 % . Thus supply current distortions are greatly reduced from 29.04 % for fixed diode
rectifier load to 4.74 % with SAPF control strategy
Thyrister load with 3-Phase Shunt APF

Fig7.19 Thyrister load with Shunt APF

Fig7.20Voltage and Current Waveforms for Thyrister converter with APF
Fig7.21 THD Values of current waveform for Thyrister converter with APF

Fig7.22 Inverter gating, reference and capacitor Current wave forms for Thyrister converter with APF
Inverter reference current
Fig7.23Inverter reference current for Thyrister converter with APF
Inverter current
Fig7.24 Inverter current for Thyrister converter with APF

From the above THD value of Current it is clear that with Shunt APF control method for
Current wave distortions reduced to 4.43% which is allowable range which is allowable range
when compared to IEEE standard 5 % . Thus supply current distortions are greatly reduced
from 28.47 % for fixed thyrister rectifier load to 4.43 % with SAPF control strategy.
Dynamic load with 3-phase Shunt active power Filter
Fig7.25 Dynamic load with 3-phase Shunt active power Filter
Fig7.26Voltage and Current Waveforms for dynamic diode loads with APF
Fig7.27 Inverter gating, reference and capacitor Current wave forms for Thyrister converter with APF
Harmonic contents Id - Iq
Fig7.28 Harmonic contents Id - Iq
Fig7.29THD Values of current waveform for dynamic diode rectifier with APF
From the above THD value of Current it is clear that with Shunt APF control method for
Current wave distortions reduced to 3.22% which is allowable range which is allowable range
when compared to IEEE standard 5 % . Thus supply current distortions are greatly reduced
from 29 % for fixed thyrister rectifier load to3.22 % with SAPF control strategy.
Discussion of results
For diode rectifier loads with Shunt Active Power Filter THD value of Current it is
clear that with Shunt APF control method Current wave form distortions reduced to 4.74 %
which is allowable range when compared to IEEE standard 5 % . Thus supply current
distortions are greatly reduced from 29.04 % for diode rectifier load to 4.74 % with SAPF
control strategy.
From the Thyrister converter load THD value of Current it is clear that with Shunt APF
control method for Current wave form distortions reduced to 4.43% which is allowable range
which is allowable range when compared to IEEE standard 5 % . Thus supply current
distortions are greatly reduced from 28.47 % for fixed thyrister rectifier load to 4.43 % with
SAPF control strategy.
From the dynamic load system THD value of Current it is clear that with Shunt APF
control method for Current wave distortions reduced to 4.43% which is allowable range which
is allowable range when compared to IEEE standard 5 % . Thus supply current distortions are
greatly reduced from 28.47 % for fixed thyrister rectifier load to 4.43 % with SAPF control
strategy.
Non-linear load systems With out Shunt APF With Shunt APF
Diode rectifier bridge 29.04 % 4.74 %
Thyrister rectifier bridge 28.47 % 4.43%
Dynamic load system 29 % 3.22 %
Summery and conclusion
9.1 Summery
The increasing use of power electronic based loads (adjustable speed drives, switch modern
power supplies, etc) to improve system efficiency and controllability is increasing concern for
harmonic distortion levels in end use facilities and on overall power system. The Active Power
Filter uses power electronic switching to generate harmonic currents that cancel harmonic
content from non linear loads.
In this project we simulated non-linear loads with fixed diode, dynamic diode, fixed
Thyrister load and corresponding THD values are noted but its THD values above the IEEE
ranges of the THD values. We need to eliminate the Harmonic content from the supply wave
form in order to obtain the better performance of the system.
The efficient compensation is achieved by effective filtering technique which make use
of Fourth order Alternative High Pass Filter whose phase response is close to zero in harmonic
load spectra. This is very important especially incase of low frequency current components.
9.2 Conclusion
This control method is applied for non linear loads which eliminate high distorted current
harmonics to allowable range.This is very much applicable even when the load on the system
frequently changes. Thus it provides good results for dynamic load changes.
The harmonic currents, which need to be compensated, are directly calculated from the supply
voltage thus this system is independent of the frequency. Hence it can be applied for any
system irrespective of the frequency changes.
The Instantaneous Active and Reactive current component (Id - Iq) control method provides
efficient compensation of current harmonics of supply current waveform and uses a simple
control strategy.
9.3 Future scope
It can be adaptive by training intelligently in neural network or Fuzzy logic control.
This efficient 3-phase Shunt Active power Filter can be implemented in different power quality
problems mitigating techniques.
Inconjuntion of transformers using multiple bridges medium to high-level voltage control can
be possible.
It can also used to improve the efficiency of the distribution system.
REFERENCES
1. Gary W.Chang, Harmonic Theory, National Chung University.
2. N.M Pawar Harmonics and Its Effects, from EEU, NOV-DEC 2006.
3. Bhattacharya, D.Diwan and B.Banarjee Active Filter System Implementation for
Harmonic eliminations IEEE Industry Magazine SEPT-OCT 1998.
4. Suresh Kumar K.S Active Power Techniques for Harmonic Elimination
Asst.Prof.Dept of Electrical Engg, R.E.C Calicut.
5. Vasco Soares, Pedro Verdelho, An Instantaneous Active and Reactive Current
Component Method for Active Filters. IEEE Tran, Power Electronics Vol 15, July-
2000.
6. S.Bhattacharya, D.Diwan and B.Banarjee Synchronous Frame Harmonic
Isolation Using Active Filters in Proc, EPE91 Conf.Vol 3, 1991.
7. V.Soares and P.Verdelho, Instantaneous Active and Reactive Current Id Iq
Calculation Suitable to Active Power Filters, in Proc, Power Electronics, MAR
1998, Conf.Vol 7, 1998.
8. J.Dixon, G.Venegas and L.Morin, A Simple Frequency Independent Method
And Harmonic Current in a Non linear Load, IEEE Trans, Ind 3, Power
Electronics, Vol. 43.
9.Lining Zhou ,Evalution and implementation of PWM approaches.
10.POWER ELECTRONICS CIRCUITS, DEVICES AND APPLICATIONS by
MUHAMMAD H.RASHID.
Publication from PRENTICE-HALL OF INDIA.
Year of Publication: 2000.
11.LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS by D.ROY CHOUDHURY AND SHAIL
JAIN.Publication from NEWAGE INT5ERNATIONAL (P) LTD.Year of
Publlication: 1991.

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