Biology Eukaryotes Eukaryotic-cell that has a true nucleus and membrane bound organelles Nucleus-largest organelle in the eukaryotic

cell, typically 10-20micrometers in diameter. It is surrounded by a double membrane which contains many pores each only about 100nm in diameter. Tiny though they are these pores are so numerous that they make up about one third of the nuclear membranes surface area. This suggests that communication between nucleus and cytoplasm is important. The nucleus contains the chromosomes thread like structures. Site at which ribosomes are synthesised chromosomes and chromatin is visible only if the nucleus is stained.

Mitochondria Mitochondria appear mostly as rod shaped or cylindrical organelles in electron micrographs although occasionally their shape is variable. Relatively large organelles in electron micrographs although occasionally their shape is more variable. Found in cells and are usually present in large number. Mitochondria are rod-shaped organelles that can be considered the power generators of the cell, converting oxygen and nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the chemical energy "currency" of the cell that powers the cell's metabolic activities. This process is called aerobic respiration and is the reason animals breathe oxygen. Without mitochondria

(singular, mitochondrion), higher animals would likely not exist because their cells would only be able to obtain energy from anaerobic respiration (in the absence of oxygen), a process much less efficient than aerobic respiration. In fact, mitochondria enable cells to produce 15 times more ATP than they could otherwise, and complex animals, like humans, need large amounts of energy in order to survive. Has cristae like projections and the fluid part is called the matrix.

Ribosomes Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis. They are minute structures 25nm in diameter built of two subunits and do not have membranes as part of their structure, they are constructed of proteins and nucleic acid RNA

Rough (Endoplasmic Reticulum Has ribosomes that are attached onto to its outer structure. Vesicles are formed from swellings at the margins that become pinched off. A vesicle is a small spherical sac or organelle bounded by a single membrane. RER is the site of protein syntheses that are packaged into small vesicles, and are typically discharged from the cell. Where proteins are made

Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum

The Golgi apparatus The Golgi apparatus consists of stack like collection of flattened membranous sacs. One side of the stack of membranes is formed by the fusion of vesicles from endoplasmic reticulum. At the opposite sides of the stack, vesicles are being formed from swellings at the margins that become pinched off. The Golgi apparatus occurs in all cells but it is especially prominent in metabolically active cells such as secretary cells. It is the site at which polysaccharides and hormones are packaged into vesicles. In animal cells these vesicles may form lysosomes.

The role of Golgi apparatus in the cell

Summary-the golgi apparatus primarily packages vesicles so that large substances are able to move out of the cells. Has smooth regular shape with vesicles being budded off.

Lysosomes Are small spherical vesicles bound by a single membrane. They contain a concentrated mixture of hydrolytic enzymes which are produced by the Golgi apparatus. Lysosomes are involved in the breakdown of unwanted structures imported foo vacuoles for example a harmful bacteria enters it has broken down and engulfed by the one of the bodys defence system. Microtubules Are straight unbranched hollow cylinders only 25nm tare seen in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. These are primarily made up of globular proteins called tubulin and are built up and broken down as needed by cells. Microtubules are involved in the movement of the cell components within the cytoplasm. Centrioles Centrioles are involved in the organization of the mitotic spindle and in the completion of cytokinesis. Centrioles were previously thought to be required for the formation of a mitotic spindle in animal cells. Prokaryotic Cell Structure The prokaryotic are bacteria typically unicellular that dont have a true nucleus, fundamentally different to eukaryotic cells

A tissue-is a group of similar cells to perform a particular function. An organ- is a collection of different tissues that perform a specialised function.

The Cell Cycle

G1-cellular contents getting ready cytoplasm active new organelles formed intense biochemical activity of growing cell. S1-synthesis of DNA chromosomes are copied G2-more growth of cell then preparation for mitosis

Interphase
Interphase is always the longest part of the cell cycle but it is extremely variable. When growth is fast as in developing human embryo, interphase may last about 24 hours. On the other hand, in mature cells that infrequently divide it lasts a very long periodpossibly indefinitely. For example some cells once they have differentiated rarely or never divide Overview -When the nucleus is observed under the microscope it appears to be resting although this is not the case during interphase the chromosomes are actively pumped involved in protein synthesis. From the chromosomes copies of the information of particular genes or groups of genes are taken for use in the cytoplasm.

Mitosis
Prophase-In prophase the chromosomes become visible as long thin threads. They increasingly shorten and thicken by a process of supercoiling. Only at the end of prophase is it possible to see that they consist of two chromatids held together at the centromere. At the same time the nucleolus gradually disappears. Metaphase-The breakdown of the nucleolus signals that start of metaphase, the centrioles start to move opposite ends of the cell. Microtubules of the cytoplasm start to form into a spindle radiating out from the centrioles. Microtubules attach to the centromere each pair of chromatids, and these are arranged at the equilibrium position of the cell or equator. Anaphase-Centromeres divide, the spindle fibres shorten and the chromatids are pulled by their centromeres to opposite poles. Once separated the chromatids are referred to as chromosomes. Telophase-Nuclear envelope reforms around both groups of chromosomes at opposite ends of the cell. The chromosomes decondense by uncoiling becoming chromatin again. The nucleolus reforms in each nucleus Cytokinesis-Division of the cytoplasm is known as cytokinesis follows on from Telophase. During the division cell organelles become evenly distributed across the cells.

Mitotic stages

Why is mitosis Important

Mitosis replicates somatic cells in the body. The only exceptions are brain cells (neurons) and sex cells (which replicate via meiosis). Without mitosis, we wouldn't "heal" after injury or grow. Cell replication is essential for survival. An exact copy of each chromosome is made by accurate replication during interphase, when two chromatids are formed. Chromatids remain attached by their centromeres during metaphase of mitosis when each becomes attached to a spindle fibre at the equator of the spindle Centromeres divide during anaphase and the chromatids of each pair are pulled apart to opposite poles of the spindle The signicance of mitosis arises because the daughter cells produced by this nuclear division have a set of chromosomes

Unravelling the DNA

Meiosis

Meiosis refers to the duplication of sex cells only; sperm and egg. Meiosis of one sex cell results in 4 haploid cells (haploid means that it only has one set of chromosomes to be contributed to another set during fertilization when we receive one set of chromosomes from mom and one set from dad). Meiosis One- In Prophase, the DNA duplicates as before, but the chromosomes recombine, creating genetic variability. This is unique to Meiosis. In Metaphase, the cells line up as before. In Anaphase, whole chromosomes are pulled to the opposite side of the nucleus in Meiosis two-Chromosomes separate and enter daughter cells.

The process of Meiosis Meiosis is the cell division that occurs in the gametes. When the homologous pairs of chromosomes have paired up closely each pair is called a bivalent. Members of the bivalent continue to coil and shorten. -During the coiling and shortening process within the bivalent the chromatids frequently break. Broken ends re-join more or less immediately, they do so exactly corresponding sites so that a cross-shaped structure called a chiasma is formed at one or more places along the bivalent. The event is known as crossing over.

Meiosis and Genetic variation Crossing over Crossing over of segments of individual maternal and paternal homologous chromosomes. These events results in new combinations of genes on the chromosomes of the haploid cells produced. The exact point at which they exchange parts is called the chiasma. Homologous pairs in a bivalent. Chromatids break they re-join and exchange parts. Haploid-This is half the number of chromosomes that are generally in a somatic cell.

Independent Assortment Independent assortment of maternal and paternal homologous chromosomes. This happens because the way the bivalents line up at the equator of the spindle in meiosis I is entirely random. Bivalents are

Which chromosomes of a pair is totally random. Orientation is random when the homologous pairs line up. There are more than 8 million combinations Fertilisation in Mammals A sperm is a cell adapted for reaching the egg cell (while at secondary oocyte stage). On reaching the target a sperm penetrates between the follicle cells and delivers the male nucleus within the egg cell. The tail an organelle called the flagellum propels the sperm in the phase of its journey There are numerous mitochondria in the midpiece that provide the ATP for this locomotion The head consists of a type of lysosome called the acrosome which contains digestive enzymes required for penetration. The head also consists of a haploid nucleus. Adaptations in the sperm cell

Egg cell
The egg has a lot of cytoplasm to support the multiple divisions it undergoes. The zona pellucida thickens to prevent the further entry of any other sperm cells entering at the point which the nuclei fuse together, this prevents polysperm.

-it is also 100 x larger or a lot larger than a sperm cell, there are many sperm to egg ratio, has a haploid nucleus

How does Fertilisation take place

When fertilisation occurs the two nuclei fuse together to form a diploid number of chromosomes. This is the full set of chromosomes of the human being or any mammal.

After this stage the nucleus will start to divide into cells. The point at which the sperm releases its hydrolytic enzymes is referred to as an acrosome reaction. Double Fertilisation of Plants In flowering plants nuclei from the gametes also have to combine in the process of fertilisation. Fertilisation occurs in the embryonic sac within the ovule. The pollen grain germinates The pollen grain germinates down the style and a pollen tube grows down through the style towards the ovary. The pollen grain contains two nuclei, the tube nucleus and the generative nucleus. On germination of the pollen tube the generative nucleus divides to form two haploid gametes. One fuses with the egg cell forms a diploid zygote (2n) Second fuses with the two polar nuclei forming a triplet endosperm (3n)

Stem cells and Differentiation After a human zygote has gone under all three stages of cell cycles, the cell is said to be totipotent as it can develop into a complete human being. TotipotentDifferentiate into any type of cell. After about a five day conception a hollow ball of cells is known to produce a blastocyst. The outer blastocyst area goes and forms the placenta. The inner cell mass of the blastocyst these cells are known to be pluripotent. Cells become more differentiated. As the embryo develops into a multicellular body the cells from this is made become increasingly differentiated. In adults some cells retain certain capacity to grow these are known as multipotent-only a few are able to specialise.

Arguments against and For Stem cells-IVF

Favourable Arguments
For some otherwise childless couples, desired parenthood may be achieved. Allows men and women survive cancer treatments, possibility of having children later. Permits screening/selection of embryos before implantation

Critical Arguments
Allows infertility due to inherited defects to be passed on to the offspring who may experience the same problem in adulthood. Excess embryos are produced to ensure success and so an embryologist has to select some new embryo to live and to allow the later destruction of other potential human lives. Multiple pregnancies have been a common outcome sometimes producing triplets quads or sextuplets leading to increase a mothers health.

Favourable Arguments for ethics of using ES Cells.

Respect due to an early stage embryo as a human being increases significantly as it develops and needs to be weighed against the potential future benefits of ES cell research. Allows men and women survive cancer treatments, possibility of having children later. Permits screening/selection of embryos before implantation

Critical Arguments

An embryo should be accorded full human status from the moment of its creation All human life is sacred at whatever level or stage of development and no human life of this sort should be taken in these circumstances. Its an important overriding principle for some people that humans should not tamper with nature

Switching genes on-Gene expression Cells become specialised because only some genes are switched on and produce active mRNA which is translated onto proteins. Switching on B-galactosidase synthesis The French geneticists Jacob and Monod were the first to produce a theory for the control of gene expression in the early 1960s. They studied the control of genes in the prokaryote E.coli. These bacteria only produced b-galactosidase to break down carbohydrate lactose when it is present in the surrounding. This enzyme converts the disaccharide lactose to the monosaccharides glucose and galactose. Lactose absent When lactose is not present in the environment, a lactose repressor molecule binds to the DNA, it blocks off the binding site for the lactose operator gene Lactose present If lactose is present in the environment, a lactose repressor molecule binds to the DNA and prevents the transcription of the b-galactosidase molecule

Operator gene

Lactose metabolising enzymes formed only when lactose is present

Lactose binds onto the repressor molecule so that transcription proceeds.

Switching Genes on Cells become specialised because only some genes are switcched on and produce active Mrna which is translated into proteins within the cells. What switches an individual gene on or off Genes in a uncoiled,acceisble regions of the eukaryote DNA can be transcribed into messenger RNA. The enzyme RNA polymerase binds to a section of the DNA adjacent to the gene to be transcribed. This section is known as the promoter region. Only when the enzyme has attached to the DNA will transcription proceed. This process is outlined . The gene remains switched off until the enzyme attaches to the promotor region sucessfully. The attachment of a regulator protein is needed to initiate transcription. RNA polymerase Promoter region DNA Regulator protein

Promoter region

DNA RNA SYNTHESIS

PREVENTION OF TRANSCRIPTION Transcription of a gene can be prevented by a protein repressor molecule attaching to the DNA of the promoter region blocking the attachment site. In addition protein repressor molecules can attach to the regulator proteins themselves, preventing them from attaching. In either case the gene is switched off. When Gene expression goes wrong FOP- this is an inherited condition caused by a gene mutation. Bone cells are normally only produced in growing limbs and in other places where the skeleton develops. Here genes are expressed that produce all the proteins to become a specialised bone cell.

How are cells organised into tissues -Specialised cells can group themselves into clusters, working together as a tissue. Cells have specific regulator proteins, also known as adhesion molecules, on their cell surface membrane. -Adhesion molecules help cells to recognise other cells like themselves and stick to them -A small part of the recognisiton protein is embeded in the cell surface membrane, a larger part extends from the membrane -These exposed section binds to complementary proteins on the adjacent cell.

Genes and the environment

Characteristics such as height, weight, shape, blood group or sex are known as phenotype. Differrences in phenotypes are caused by two factors

-Genotype Enviromental factors

A persons blood which is only affected by one locus is not affected by environmental factors and show discontinous variation.

CONTINOUS

DISCONTINOUS

Characteristics such as height are continous variation as there are number of factors that can affect this.

Monohybrid Inheritance-Each locus is responsible for a differrent heritable feature. Polygeneic Inheritance is the inheritence of phenotypes that are determine by the collective effect of several genes. These genes interact with one another. MORE THAN ONE GENE IS INVOLVED. Multifactorial-Conditions where several genetic and one or more environmental factors are involved. Genes and environment interactions There are countless number of genes and environment interacting to produce an organisms phenotype. Some are very familiar such as skin and jair colour. Others are less so .
-Height -MAOA -hair colour -Causes of cancer

Hair Colour Differrences in hair colour are largely genetically determined due to variation in the amount and type of pigment the hair contains. But the environment can influence hair colour in some cases. Making Melanin The dark pigment found in skin and at the root of the hair in the follicle. These are activated by melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH). There are receptors for MSH on the surface of the melanocyte cells. The melanocytes place melanin into organelles called melanosomes.

The melanosomes are transferred to nearby skin and hair cells where they collect around the nucleus, protecting the DNA from harmful damage by UV light. People with more receptors have darker skin and hair, they have n hair cells.protection from sunburn. Ultraviolet increases the amount of MSH and also of MSH receptors making the melanocytes more active and causing the skin to darken.

Hair does not appear to be darker due to more melanin produced, UV light causes chemical and physical change to melanin and other proteins in hair cells. Hair lightens due to the destruction of the melanin by UV light.
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone MSH Receptor

Melanin is made and put into melanosomes

Nucleus

Melanosomes collect around the nucleus protecting it from damage by UV light. Low exposure MS MSH RECEPTORS AND HORMONES

Melanin is made and put into melanosomes

Nucleus More Melanosomes collect around the nucleus protecting it from damage by UV light.

High exposure

Seasonal Colour change Arctic foxes have brown fur in summer and white fur in winter. They must have the genes for making brown hair (which contains melanin) all the time. The white winter coat is actually grown during the summer. It grows under the brown summer coat and is revealed when the summer coat is moulted in autumn. The foxes produce fewer MSH receptors in the summer. Without these receptors. Without these receptors (MSH) has no effect and no melanin is produced. White with dark tips To make melanin, animals use an enzyme called tyrosinase. Tyrosinase catalyses formation of melanin . The mutated enzyme is heat-sensitive it fails to work out normal body temperature but becomes highly active in cooler areas.

Monoamine Oxidase (MAOA) Monoamine oxidase A is an enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of a neurotransmitter in the brain involved in the regulation of behaviour, including the response to stress -It was found that some individuals have a rare mutation in the MAOA gene and produce no enzyme. They exhibit aggressive and sometimes violent behaviour . Genetically modified mice which lack MAOA gene are also aggressive. -This observation led scientists to suggest there might be a connection between the gene and violent behaviour -Researchers at Kings College in London revealed an interaction between MAOA genotype, mistreatment in childhood and antisocial behaviour in later life. They used the

results of a study that had followed the health and social development. They used the results of a study that had followed the health and social development of over 1000 children in Dunedin, New Zealand, for 20 years . There are two alleles for the MAOA GENE. One results in the production of high levels of the enzyme, the other is linked with low level production of the enzyme. The researchers focused on the boys in the study because the MAOA GENE occurs on the X-chromosomes so males only have one allele. Childhood maltreatment was associated with more antisocial behavioir as adults. No direct link was found between MAOA levels and subsequent antisocial behaviour as adults. However, maltreated children with high levels of MAOA were less likely to exhibit violent behaviour than maltreated children with low MAOA. 12% of the males had low MAOA and had been maltreated children but they had committed 44% of the violent crimes recorded for the whole group. Further studies have supported this complex interaction between childhood environment and MAOA genotype.

In mutated individuals there is no enzyme, which means that the breakdown of the neurotransmitter often that causes stress is left unchanged.

Cancer What causes cancer One in three people in the Uk will suffer from cancer at some in their life and at present one in four people dies from the disease . Cancers are when the rate of cell multiplication is faster than the rate of cell death. This causes a TUMOUR often in the tissues with a high rate of mitosis. -Cancers are caused by the damage to the DNA structure -Damaged by a variety of factors such as UV light. -It can be also damaged by chemicals as carcinogens, which may be in the environment or can be produced by cell metabolism. Telling Cells what to do Cells go through a fixed sequence of events during the cell cycle G1,S1 and G2 and mitosis The progression from one phase to the next to the next is controlled. During each stages of the cycle proteins are produced that stimulate the next stage in the cycle. Cells also produce proteins that stop the cell preventing progress from one stage to the next. These proteins that stop the cell cycle preventing progress from one stage to the next. These proteins activate or inhibit enzymes that initate the reactions in the next stage. Cancer cells do not respond to the control mechanisms. Two types of gene have a role in control of the cell cycle and play a part in triggering cancer. These are: -oncogenes -tumour suppressor genes

Oncogenes-code for the proteins that stimulate the transition from one stage in the cell
cycle to the next. Mutations in these genes can lead to the cell cycle being continually active. This may cause excessive cell division resulting in a tumour.

Tumour suppressor genes

Produce suppressor proteins that stop the cycle. Mutations inactivating mean these genes there is no break on the cell cycle. This protein stops the cell cycle by inhibiting the enzymes at G1/S stage transition, preventing the cell from copying its DNA. In cancer lost the control of the cell cycle.

Inherited Cancer Most common cancer occur more frequently in close relatives of cancer patients, suggestung an inherited component. Many gene defects have been identified that predispose people to cancers including to cancers including bowel cancer,ovarian caner prostate cancer retinal cancer. For example mutations in the gene BRCA1 predispose a person to breast cancer. The functioning BRCA1 gene produces a protein to repair DNA. A child who inherits one defective BRCA1 allele may get cancer later in life if the other allele becomes damaged in the breast tissue cells. Having a single defective BRCA1 allele does not therefore mean that breast cancer is inevitable. It simply means that such individuals are more susceptible to cancer through environmental DNA damage. Women who inherit a single BRCA1 mutation have about 60% chance of developing breast cancer by the age of 50 compared with only 2% chance for those who inherit two normal BRACA1 alleles . The muatation confers a high risk but is relatively rare accounting for only 5/5 of breast cancer cases. Environment and Cancer Damage from the environment can be either chemicall or physical. The greater the risk of all is from smoking. -smoking increases the likelihood of many forms of cancer, especially lung cancer through the action of carcinogens in tar. Tar lodges in the bronchi and causes damage to DNA IN THE SURROUNDING epithelial cels. -Ultraviolet light physically damages the DNA -If a tumour is not removed cancer cells sometimes spread to other parts of the body carried in the blood and lympthatic systems. New cancers may then form new organs. Diet is also linked to cause and prevention of cancer through the connections are not always clear. A diet with plenty full of fruit and vegetables provides antioxidants which destroy radicals. Radicals are chemicals from the diet from environmental factors such as smoke and UV by the cells own metabolism which contribute to ageing and cancer through DNA damage. Viral Infections -several infections triggered by viral infections, a virus RNA may contain an oncogene which it has pickled from one of its hosts.