'Genie' Case study- Marilyn Rigler (1970's): Deprivation on neuroplasticity

'Genie' Case study: Marilyn Rigler (1970's) 'Genie' girl jailed by father isolated/ deprived of human contact until 13 y/o, unable to develop verbal & grammatical language after puberty-developed sign language instead C: One woman sample not representative; personal brain structure & no control on variables. Later studies show critical periods favourable to behaviour but plasticity throughout life (Gage 2002).

5-HTT gene

Responsible for serotonin production-> mood Studied by Caspi et al. (2003) relationship with depression

Alzheimer's Disease

Form of dementia with symptoms such as memory loss, confusion, mood swings, & language breakdown.

Anatomy

The physical structure of the body and brain (localization of function)

Bouchard et. al (1979) Longitudinal Twin study - Genetics & Behaviour

A-Understand genetic vs. environmental influence on IQ P- Studied 71 paris of MZRT (100% gene & environment) & MZRA (different environment) twins ppt age starting 41y/o Interviewed separately for clinical, sexual, life stress & school history. IQ test. F- IQ correlations MZRA 0.69, MZRT 0.88. C- Heritability 70%, so 30 % attributed to other factors. Psychological traits are strongly influenced by genetic factors. C : (+) cross cultural accross the globe; some correlation (-) 41 y/o- lived lots apart anyways; Relied on Media coverage -> social desirability (crowne & Marlow 1960) Same person varied IQ 0.88 (big marginal error). RT = environment & vice versa? Impossible to guarantee.

Broca's Aphasia - Physiology & behaviour; Localization & functions in brain

Broca -> 1961 A: Identify that different areas of the brain carry out different functions P: Autopsy of naturally dead people F: Strokes suffered in frontal lobe area near motor cortex allowed understanding of question but prevented formulation of clear/coherent answers C:Physiological/anatomical factors linked to cognitive functioning C: Not precise (accidental damage), no way to compare structures/behaviour before & after; change in brain after death? Plasticity: adaptation?

Caspi et al. (2003) - Genes & environment => 5HTT & depression New-Zeland

A: Find interaction between environment & genes on behaviour at a molecular level- relationship between 5-HTT gene & depression P: 847 New Zealander participants; DNA sample & questionnaire on depression; responses cross-checked with friend (honesty check); Control levels of stress in life. F: Participants with short 5-HTT gene allele = increased depression vulnerability if 21- 26 y/o. Depression develop if stressful life events- no matter if predisposed allele or not. C: Genes seem to be significantly involved in behaviour but only active if specific on-setter environment->Replications; cultural but large sample.

Chiao & Blizinsky (2010) - Genes & environment => Cross cultural Caspi (2003) replication

A: Prevalence of 5-HTT gene in different populations F: Higher frequencies of 5-HTT gene in "collectivist" cultures (Asians) than in "individualist" (North-America & Europe) C: Asians genetically prone to depression than EU & US. C: EU & US more reported depression diagnosis; Methodological problems: Equally common depression but unreported? Different perception of stress & depression; Asians have higher protective factors against depression-better social support/ government/culture? Ethical issues: discrimination & prejudice (assume more protection is required for Asians/ less resistance? Findings inconclusive as reductionist.

Clive Wearing (Baddeley & Blakemore, 1988) - Cognition & physiology

Chorus master- suffered rear brain infection (1985) caused by cold sore virus (herpes) Destroyed hippocampus & part of cortex.-damaged his temporal lobe Diagnosis (1988): Severe Anterograde amnesia-few seconds (like Henry Molaison)- can't integrate new memories BUT can play piano & no effect on personality C: Hippocampus crucial in memory. Different parts of the brain for different memory formations. Memory division in short & long term- Molaison also long term memory damage C: One man sample not representative; imprecise; & brain plasticity affect. More hippocampus= more memory?

Cognition

The mental process of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment -> Memory

Companionate love

Guarantees bonded pair to look after offspring

Computer Assisted Tomography (CAT)

Shows brain structure through x-rays from a doughnut shaped machine. Different parts of the brain layered and put together to produce a 3D image of the brain. Use: define normal and abnormal structures in the body and/or assist in procedures by helping to accurately guide the placement of instruments/ treatments. - Invasive Eg. Clive Waring - Anterograde amnesia from viral illness; CAT scan= huge holes in brain (hippocampus). (+) Allows 3D structure analysis (-) No Ongoing activity

Corkin et al. (1997)

A: specify extent of the damage on Henry Molaison-> Anterograde & temporally graded amnesia due to brain damage. P: Conducted MRI F: heir findings showed that the damage to the hippocampal structures of the brain were more extended than previously thought. C: MRI useful in diagnosis of damaged structures

Cortisol - other stress hormone overreleased in prolonged stress: Stress on physiology

Function: increase blood sugar, aid metabolism, suppress the immune system & create memories with epinephrine SO long term stress may: impair immune system, decrease metabolism, & prevent memory formation & learning by damaging cells in hippocampus. Anorexia nervosa, caffeine intake & sleep deprivation increased cortisol levels (relation with stress? research) Developmental disorders (ADHD, Down's syndrome & autism) environmental stressors (prenatal emotional stress, smoking, & oxidative stress) Stressed mothers = altered physiological functions for them AND children

Curtis (2004) => Evolutionary explanations for behaivour

Disgust reactions help children avoid bad food. Most ellicit when immune system is low to avoid threat decrease with age of children Develop empathy?

Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behaviour

Evidence for genetic influence on behaviour (homosexuality, intelligence,criminality, personality...) Less harm given technological advances=> social-economical-cultural power/impact & social engineering - Screen genome-> Correlation+prediction of traits --> Legal issue (genes responsible for behaviour?) Joseph (2001): criminality & behaviour -Screen criminals for predisposition? Biomedical treatment? More behaviour because blame on genes, no punishment? Biomedically 'fix criminals'? 1. Social Engineering - Rockefeller uni (2009) --> missing gene=rat anxiety -Rosenberg et al. (2002) Different genes= different behaviour - Hassim (2002) - Yerkes (1917) 2. Discrimination - Jensen (1969) - IQ american/african or white - Steele & Aaronson - lower performance because of stereotypes. - Nazi Germany WW2 (1945 peak): Engenics 3. Confidentiality: who should access? Balanced considered conclusions = positive research.

Discuss the use of brain imaging techniques in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behaviour

Imaging techniques development start: 1960's; Surgery/autopsy--> brain structure/functioning & behaviour (personality/ cognitive abilities) relation (observing activity) Invasive Techniques: Computer Assisted Tomography Positron Emission Tomography Non-Invasive Techniques: Electroencephalogram (EEG) Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Disgust

Avoid bad food minimizing disease/infection

Dopamine (neurotransmitter) experiment 1

- Dolan et al (2010) UCL A: Investigate the role of dopamine in decision making impulsivity P: 14 healthy volunteers given L-dopa dose or placebo asked to make choices: 'smaller sooner' vs. 'larger later' eg. 15 in 2 weeks vs. 52 in 6 months F: L-dopa 'smaller sooner' C: Dopamine increases likelihood of impulsive behaviour C: Subjective-Different dopamine influence depending on brain anatomy; Students not representative of whole (Sears 1986); but cause effect!

Dopamine (neurotransmitter) experiment 2

-Buckholtz (2010) A: Role of dopamine in decision making impulsivity P: 35 healthy normal participants (18-35 y/o), (no drug abuse history) did PET scan & impulsivity test. Placebo pill first & then amphetamine (stimulates dopamine release) F: Highest impulsivity = less dopamine receptors but more dopamine fired when stimulated by amphetamines C: Natural dopamine abundance=less receptors= more impulsive (postsynaptic cells contract to get < molecules) C: Ecological validity (Heather, 1976); Social desirability bias (Crowne & Marlow 1960) questionnaire; Experimenter bias (Rosenthal & Fode 1963); order effects?

Dopamine (neurotransmitter) location & main function

Dopamine has many locations in the brain; cerebellum, basal ganglia & limbic system (motor activity, coordination, emotion & memory)

Ekman, 1973 => Evolutionary explanations of behaviour

A: Basis of emotion (cultural/biological)- 1973 P: Interviewed 22 countries -emotional expression. Asked to act out faces emotional context (e.g. "child died"...) Included newly discovered South Fore people from Papua New Guinea (no western culture contact) - emotional expression not influenced by mass media F: Same facial expressions for emotions C: Isolated cultures hard to find (replicability); Unestablished findings from South Fore. Happiness, sadness, anger, disgust easily distinguished, fear and surprise weren't (same emotion?); Mead, 1975; communicate interviewer imitating emotional expressions (mirror neurons); evidence for universal basic emotions

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Records brain waves with scalp electrodes. Waves are sensed by galvanometers (instruments that detect and measure small electric currents) in turn hooked to pens, under which is graph paper; moves according to brain impulses. Eg. Mirror neuron impulse deficiency in autism. (+) Least ecological validity problems (subjects can move), least expensive, & most advanced are portable (-) Can't show deeper sections of the brain or structure

Emotional expressions

externally displayed emotion/feeling through facial, vocal, gestural behaviour

Emotions

Communicate emotional states mainly through emotional expressions

Environmental stressor

Stimulus or demand from the environment that affects the stable condition of an organism and may cause a dysfunction or inappropriate physiological responses. (toxins, viruses, drugs, noise, temperature, traumas, abuse, workplace stress and life events- divorce and loss of job)
-Mason et. al (1985) A: Validate link between epinephrine & depression P: Epinephrine measured serially in 24h through urine collections of 99 male Psychiatric inmates. 39 had attempted suicide < 1 61 no suicide attempt F: Epinephrine levels significantly lower in suicide attempt group C: Epinephrine deficit causes depression C: Cause or result of Seligman's (1975) learned helplessness?; Only MALES (neurotransmitters & hormones dependent on gender-period)

Epinephrine (neurotransmitter) experiment 1

Epinephrine (neurotransmitter) experiment 2

-Rosenthal (1963) A: Investigate link between epinephrine & depression P: (post mortem) Autopsy of natural death vs. depressed suicides F: Depressed suicides increased density of epinephrine receptors= less epinephrine (low epinephrine forces postsynaptic cells to expand to try to catch more molecules)

Epinephrine (neurotransmitter) Hypothesis

-Cathecholamine Hypothesis (1960's) - depression caused by epinephrine deficit

Epinephrine (neurotransmitter) location & main function

Epinephrine has many locations in brain- sympathetic nervous system (emotion, arousal & stress)

Examine one evolutionary explanations for behaivour

Since Darwin 1859-> evolutionary basis of behaviour; across world mind expressed by similar body movement -> Biological rather than will/habit evo-bio psych. Instinct; Behaviour (definitions) Emotions: liking, romantic/companionate love, happiness, unpleasant states, disgust, (definitions) Contribute to evolution=> many human emtions universal? - Ekman (1973)- cross cultural face interview; - Mead (1975)- Posed spontaneous -Congenitally blind similar face expressions - Children emotional expressions/disgust (Sternberg & Campus, (1990); imitation (Field et al, 1982) - Fressler (2006)- pregnant first month sensitive to food - Preschouft (2000): emotions in animals similar (primates) How inherited? Difficult to prove (correlational); Reductionist without cognitive/socio-cultural; extent of factor influence on specific emotion research.

Examine one interaction between cognition & physiology. Evaluate two relevant studies.

Cognition definition-> Amnesia- severe memory loss (by damage) & Physiology definition -> Hippocampus Amnesia caused by brain damage. -Case study- Henry Gustav Molaison (1953): 1st memory -Case study: Clive Wearing (Baddeley &Blakemore, 1988) *Alzheimer is another way for brain tissue loss= amnesia, but causes unknown (diet; exercise; environment) & affects other areas => functions (use of language (aphasia); visual-spatial function (perceptual confusion); recognition (agnosia); motor coordination (apraxia); sequential tasks)- Findings used for treatment.

Field et al. (1982) => Evolutionary explanations for behaviour

1982 -Emotional expressions in children come from imitation

Foster et al. (2007)

A: Determine effectiveness of diagnosis technique (PET or clinical record) P: Medical records examined and dementia PET scans of 45 patients who later had autopsies. Experienced neurologists asked to decide cause patient's dementias using medical records or the PET images. F: Neurologists more accurate in diagnosing Alzheimer's disease on patients through PET images compared to the clinical information. C: PET scans more accurate in Alzheimer's diagnosis than medical record.

Fressler (2006)=>Evolutionary explanations for behaviour

Pregnant women very sensitive to disgusting scenarios regarding food in first pregnancy month (most sensitive?)

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Large cylindrical magnet that sends radio-waves developed in the 1990's. - Colour coded. Magnetic field creates unique radio frequency for each point in space; sensors determine the blood flow in different areas of the brain, as measured by the density of various molecules in the blood (magnetic change produced when oxygenated blood ---> deoxygenated). Computers transform data into 2-3D image of the brain activity & structure. eg. Corkin et al. (1997) - Molaison scan (+) High resolution - higher than PET; less expensive than PET but still 4000$ (-) No Ongoing activity- still images; too crude to diagnose early dementia

Happiness

Reinforce adaptive behaviour positive for species

Hassim (2002)=> Ethics, genetics, & behaviour

(2002) Research => some genes protect from alcoholism A: Correlation between genes & alcoholism? P: studied Israeli men & found that ADH2 gene variation = different body alcohol metabolism in Israelis less drink. Other research suggests lack of particular gene related to alcohol negative effects greater in Chinese & Japanese than in Caucasians (drink no consequence!) Cultural bias in researcher => religious & political beliefs influence findings - experimenter effect (Rosenthal, 1963).

Henry Gustav Molaison (1953) First localization of memory - Cognition & physiology

27 y/o treated epilepsy by surgeon William Scoville- thought epilepsy on right & left temporal lobes removed some. 2/3 Hippocampus removed. Post-surgery severe memory loss=> community studied case (Milner & Scoville, 1957; Corkin, 2002) Diagnosis: Heavy anterograde amnesia- no forming new memories - & temporally graded amnesia - no remembrance of 11 y before surgery. No effect on personality. C: Hippocampus involved in memory formation and recall. C: One man sample not representative; imprecise; & brain plasticity affect. Supported by Clive Wearing

Hormones influence behaviour

Melatonin: Pineal gland; sleep regulation - Wurtman et al. (2005) MIT - sleep quality - Bipolar case study: Robertson & Tanguay (1996) Oxytocin: Pituitary & hypothalamus; mainly parental attachment/ trust - Damasio et al. (2005)- trusting behaviour - Swamson et al. (1987)- post-partum maternal behaviour

Huntington's disease

Only behaviour proved to be 100% genetic

Instinct (fixed action pattern)

behaviour not learned from experience, response to certain stimuli Relate other behaviours as well emotion.

Intelligence Quotient: IQ definition

Intelligence Quotient originally created by Lewis M. Terman, a professor at Stanford University, then comparing their individual's mental activity to the average of their age (David Wechsler, 2001).

Invasive

Any kind of surgery; Injecting or inflicting body with potentially harmful substances;

Jensen (1969) => Ethics & behaviour

1969 P: Claimed controlled factors such as social class & income F: African-Americans IQ averaged 15 points lower than White Americans on IQ test Widely contested by most other researchers

Joseph 2001-genes & criminals=> Ethics, genetics&behaviour

2001, Twin adoption studies: Genes high correlation with criminality

Liking

Promotes social cooperation for collective defense and hunting

Mead, 1975=> Evolutionary explanations for behaviour

1975 Emotions posed spontaneous expression-->not universal? BUT (me) difficult to believe basic emotions significantly different posed than spontaneous

Melatonin (hormone) experiment 1

Wurtman et al. (2005) MIT A: Investigate melatonin effect on sleep F: Meta-analysis of 17 peer reviewed scientific papers (placebo controlled & quantitative objective measurements on >6 adults) F: High levels of melatonin ---> better sleep C: Melatonin isdirectly related to sleep C: Meta-analysis increases applicability and validity, but studies analyzed may have experimenter bias (Rosenthal & Fode 1963)

Melatonin (hormone) experiment 2

Case study of Robertson & Tanguay (1996): Clinical course of 10 y/o diagnosed with bipolar at 5. Ineffective treatments (medicines/drugs)- bad sideeffects. Melatonin-> relief insomnia associated with bipolar & aborted manic episode. 15 month of melatonin treatment= no insomnia/mania Conclusion: affective disorders involving circadian regulation respond to interventions that treat/regulate circadian rhythms? C: Low Applicability to rest of population/1 Man Sample not representative; Depression assessed?

Melatonin (hormone) location & main function

Pineal gland; Regulation of sleep:levels peak at night & gradually decrease in morning - moderated by light.

Nazi Germany WW2 (1945 peak) => Ethics and behaviour

most well known & documented example Classes were taught for people to genuinely believe in the science behind: -Selective breeding by coupling strong & healthy Aryans -Mentally ill or undesirable (homosexual etc...) sterilized & not allowed to mix with German Aryans =>Culminated in genocide Less popular & undocumented cases: US & Sweeden (1970's- mentally ill sterilized)

Neurotransmitters influence behaviour

Epinephrine: many locations-sympathetic nervous system (emotion, arousal & stress) - Catecholamine Hypothesis (1960's) -> J.Mason (1985) - Rosenthal 1963 - depressed suicides = low levels of epinephrine Dopamine: many locations-cerebellum, basal ganglia & limbic system (motor activity, coordination, emotion & memory) - Dolan et. al (2010) - reward smaller sooner vs. larger later. - Buckholtz et. al (2010)- impulsivity test & PET scan=> more impulsive, more dopamine

Non-Invasive

Not involving surgery; Not injecting or inflicting body with potentially harmful substances

Observation born blind=> Evolutionary explanations for behaviour

Born blind smile if pleased - no influence. Small children few days old obvious emotions of Happiness, sadness, surprise. Sternberg & Campus (1990) Anger/disgust in early infanthood
Damasio et al. (2005) Zurich U A: Investigate function of dopamine in trust P: 178 voluntary male students (20y/o); double blind oxytocin or placebo; "Investors" gave "Trustee" up to 12 money units, "Trustee" trippled amount & decided share with "Investors". F: Oxytocin "Investors" gave 20% more than placebo Oxytocin: 50% max invest; 20% lower than 8 money u. Placebo: 20% max invest; 50% lower than 8 money u. C: Significant: oxytocin increases likelihood of trusting C: Double blind prevents experimenter bias BUT; all male (Wilkinson 1991) students-not representative (Sears 1985)

Oxytocin (hormone) experiment 1

Oxytocin (hormone) experiment 2

Swamson et al. (1987) A: Investigate role of Oxytocin in post-partum behaviour P: Rat groups: Control (saline) & Oxytocin antagonist- both injected for same experience. 40 min rest after birth giving (no pups); pups replaced & maternal behaviour evaluated (pup carrying, duration of pup interaction, nest building...). F: Control: immediate maternal behaviour (within 10 min) Antagonist: maternal behaviour delay (2/6 mothers hadn't picked up any pups after 1h) C: Suppression= no maternal behaviour; Oxytocin is involved in post-partum maternal behaviour C: High replicability and validity due to little confounding; BUT human-animal applicability (Hackman et al. 2006)

Oxytocin (hormone) location & main function

Pituitary & hypothalamus (parental attachment/ trust) Also memory of attachment, learning, anxiety & pain perception

PET & MRI criticisms

(-) Both PET & MRI lack ecological validity- uncomfortable subject (Heather, 1976); colour may exaggerate brain activity (image "noise"); not sophisticated enough to detect subtle brain activities (is that where personality is found?)

Phineas Gage (1848) - Natural experiment

1848 Case study:construction man Rod accidentally flew through head. Regained consciousness almost immediately, walked, talked, drove home, & waited for doctor. Vomited ' a teacup full of brain' in front of doctor. Went into a coma caused by brain heamoragy, & woke up 2 months later. Lead normal life without major problems BUT more aggressive, had epilepsy. No vision on right eye. C: No quantitative way of comparing before to after.

Physiology

Chemical and physical function in the body and brain (neurotransmitters, hormones, neuroplasticity)

Positron Emission Tomography (PET scan)

1st brain activity image (radio-radiotracer, into arm vein). Tracer through the body absorbed by the different parts of the active brain. More active sections= more absorption Machine detects & records energy given off tracer substance. Picture brain cross-sectional images from any angle to detect any functional problems. Colour-coded. Use: Brain disorders, tumours & help brain localization for sensory processes. - Invasive eg. PET monitor chemical processes & can study activity of specific neurotransmitters & Alzheimers diagnosis eg. Foster et al. (2007). (+) Can record ongoing activity; little radioactive= no harm (-)Rapid decay=>Short tasks; 6000$; bad interpret images

Preschouft (2000)=> Evolutionary explanation for behaviour

Emotional expressions in animals but most similar in primates => Close relatives: support Evolutionary explanations & theory for behaviour!

Rockefeller university (2009) => Ethics & behaviour

2009, missing gene related to increased rat anxiety. Valid but not human (Hackman, 2006); samples limited due to engineering of living being. Representative?

Romantic Love

Pair selection & copulation

Rosenberg et al. (2002) =>Ethics, genetics & behaviour

(2002) A: Do human populations differ at a genetic basis? P: analyze genotype of 1056 individuals from 52 'unknown' populations (double blind) F: Six main clusters were identified five of which coincided with geographical locations. Rest were population clusters within location.

Selye (1936 -1980's)-General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): Stress on physiology

A: Environmental stressor on physiological processes through experiments on rats F: Body stress response: produces epinephrine (increases blood pressure, alertness & tensing muscles for fight/flight) --> enhanced performance at initial stages. BUT long periods of stress=depleted coping mechanism-->impaired immune system (Glaser et al- 1984), exhaustion & disease C: Prolonged stress=physiological adaptation to overstimulation-> malfunction of physiological processes because of worn out coping mechanisms C: Animal-human applicability (Hackman et al. 2006); Ecological validity? (Heather 1976)--- Seyle conducted studies on some hospital patients & it gave same effect. Coherent with Seligman's (1975) learned helplessness.

Steele & Aaronson => Ethics & behaviour

F: African-Americans will perform poorer if told test was to understand racial differences C: IQ performance impaired by predisposed stereotypes. C: More careful answering questions (less good as IQ is intuitive) or less as socially discouraged and decide to put less effort.

Sternberg & Campus (1990) => Evolutionary explanations for behaviour

1990 -Anger/ Disgust developed in early infanthood

Stress-vulnerability model

onset & symptoms of mental disorders: biological, environmental & protecting factors (protect individual from disorder development)

The nature of the nervous system is electric (not water) in parts

Galvani-> 1780's A: Understand the nature of the circuit through the body P: Helper touched frogs' chopped leg with charged item -- twitch. Galvani applied electrical charge to spinal cord & other chopped parts of frog. F: Spinal cord produced convulsions everywhere in complete circuit. Legs & other organs twitched even when detached from spinal cord. C: Nerves aren't water pipes- they're electrical conductors through which info passes in form of electricity generated by organic tissue activating muscle C: Animals- Hackman et. al 37% of animal studies -> successful human trials.

Two effects of the environment on physiological processes

-Overstimulation: Stress on body Selye (1936 -1980's)-General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): Epinephrine Cortisol: other stress hormone released in long stress -Understimulation: Deprivation on neuroplasticity Wen-Biao Gan et al. (2005)-mice sensory deprivation Genie Case study: Marilyn Rigler 1970's

Unpleasant states

e.g. anger, discontent, sadness. Avoid adverse situations that put us in danger

Walter Freeman 1940's - Ethical issues

1940's Walter Freeman: A: Investigate the function of the Frontal Lobe P: Took psychiatric ward inmates to perform frontal lobotomies & observed results comparing before & after F: Regulated mood & anxiety disorders -> inmates more calm and compliant. C: Frontal lobe regulates anxiety, reasoning and emotion C: ETHICS: No consent, and irreparable damage.

Wen-Biao Gan et. al (2005)- Sensory deprivation: deprivation on neuroplasticity

Post-natally synapses increase & then decrease to 50% for both humans & animals (efficiency); whiskers=explore surroundings. A: Sensory deprivation effect on neuroplasticity P: Ultrathin window - optical technique- allow observation of mice living neurons & dendritic spines. Normal mice of same age & under same conditions divided: control group no deprivation& group one side whiskers trimmed; 2 weeks F: Trimmed whiskers/deprivation=More spine loss; early adolescence sensory deprivation= rare adult recovery C: Deprivation prevents neurogenesis & critical times exist C: Animal-human applicability (Hackman et al. 2006- 36% of 76 highly cited animal studies successful in humans); Ethics prevent replication in humans

Wernicke's Aphasia - Physiology & behaviour; Localization & functions in brain

Wernicke-> 1874 A: Verify that different areas of the brain carry out different functions P: Autopsy of naturally dead people F: Strokes suffered in temporal lobe area near auditory cortex allowed clear/coherent answering of question but prevented understanding of question C: Physiological/anatomical factors linked to cognitive functioning C: Not precise (accidental damage), no way to compare structures/behaviour before & after; change in brain after death? Plasticity:adaptation?

Wilkinson (1984,1990) - Naturalistic observation

Naturalistic observation on altruistic behaviour of bats. Blood-sharing vampires who fail to feed on a given night (fatal as survive 2 days) are fed by other bats (by regurgitation of blood), saved from starvation. This behaviour was often returned => Reciprocal altruism.
Evidence suggests that genetic influences human behaviour (homosexuality, intelligence & personality) Behaviour=> species specific (warning behaviour of prairie dogs & vampire bats Wilkinson, 1984-1990); closer genetic resemblance= similar behaviour. Behaviour bred => Labradors more loyal & compliant. Buckholtz et al (2010)- dopamine receptors Stress-vulnerability model Caspi et al. (2003) - 5-HTT depression gene Chiao & Blizinski (2010)- Cultural 5-HTT IQ definition-> Bouchard et al. (1979-1990)- Twin studies High rates: homosexuality, schizophrenia, alcoholism, general mood levels & intelligence (60-70%) Low rates: depression, personality, religion, political & vocational interest (30%) Evidence for correlation; Huntington's 100%; dependent ofn behaviour; critical time; social/cultural pressure?

With reference to relevant studies, to what extent does genetic inheritance influence behaviour?

Yerkes (1917)=> Ethical implications in genetics & behaviour

A: Find correlation between IQ and race P: Measured intelligence of over 1 million US soldiers during WW1 F: Low IQ for Eastern Europeans & Africans -> used to restrict immigration to protect Americans from stupidity Criticisms: IQ test not a measure of intelligence, culturally biased with political questions of country. Inevitably happens in modern research in spite of effort for representative samples, reducing confounding variables (experimenter bias) & replicable?