Renewable Energy 27 (2002) 277292 www.elsevier.

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Solar thermal performance of a nickelpigmented aluminium oxide selective absorber

A. Wazwaz
a b

a, b,*

, J. Salmi c, H. Hallak a, R. Bes

Physics Department, Bethlehem University, PO Box 9, Bethlehem, Palestine, via Israel Chemistry Department, Hebron University, PO Box 40, Hebron, Palestine, via Israel c CIRIMAT/LCMIE, Universite Paul Sabatier, 31062 Toulouse Cedex, France Received 18 July 2000; accepted 15 November 2001

Abstract The solar thermal performance of a nickel-pigmented aluminium oxide selective absorber was determined by using an experimental model (prototype model). The constructed models were tested outdoors during daylight under a clear sky. Different volumes of prototypes were used. The at-plate collector used was of the glazed type. The thermodynamic characteristics of each at-plate collector were determined. The maximum calculated collective ux of the selective absorbers was in the range 590699 W/m2. The maximum conversion efciency for our systems was in the range 0.730.78. However, the maximum Carnot efciency was 0.04 0.16. The absorption of merit of the samples lay in the range 0.910.97. The selective absorbers used have absorptivity in the range 92.097.0% while they have emissivity in the range 11.0 22.5%. The effects of absorptivity, emissivity, and prototype volume on the collective ux, conversion efciency, and absorption of merit are discussed. 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Selective absorber; Nickel-pigmented aluminium oxide; Collective ux; Conversion efciency; Absorption of merit

1. Introduction Solar thermal collectors are used to produce heat in which radiation, convection, and conduction are strongly coupled by energy transport mechanisms. The main part
* Corresponding author. PO Box 233, Hebron, West Bank, Palestine, via Israel. E-mail address: arefwazwaz@hotmail.com (A. Wazwaz).
0960-1481/02/$ - see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 9 6 0 - 1 4 8 1 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 1 9 2 - 6

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of the at-plate collector is the absorber. The absorber may be selective [1], nonselective, black or coloured [2]. The at-plate collector can be glazed, unglazed or insulated. The glazed, insulated at-plate collector gives the best solar thermal performance. In this paper we present experimental results for 10 nickel-pigmented aluminium oxide selective absorbers. These absorbers differ only in their optical properties. The cover used is a commercial polyethylene, because it reduces the convective loss, is of low cost, exible and can protect the selective absorber from degradation caused by exposing the absorber directly to the environment. The performance of the at-plate collector with an absorber for photothermal conversion can be described by the conversion efciency (h) [3]. h depends on the collective ux which in turn depends on the radiation ux and the heat loss. The radiation losses can be calculated using the StefanBoltzmann law and the other losses can be easily calculated, because they are dependent on the conguration and environment of the system. These losses are also linearly proportional to the temperature. The effective role of the selective absorbers in photothermal conversion can be described by two cases [4]. Both of them are concerned with the calculation of the collector efciency. The rst case is where the conduction and convection losses are assumed to be negligible compared to the radiation losses. This is also valid if the collector is operating at a high temperature. To maximize h for both at-plate and concentrating collectors, the loss of heat must be reduced while the absorbance transmittance product must be increased to be close to unity. The performance of photothermal converters is also dependent on absorptivity (a) and emissivity (e) separately. The term absorption of merit (am) is used to indicate the conversion efciency (h) when there is no cover. It gives the upper limit for the conversion efciency of a solar converter. The Carnot efciency can be calculated for a particular thermodynamic cycle [3]. The second case is where the conduction and convection losses are not neglected. The conduction and convection losses are strongly dependent on the environment (wind velocity, humidity, ambient temperature) and on the conguration of the systems. Many scientists [3,4] have discussed the thermodynamic equations governing the efciency of solar collectors. Advances and development in fundamental physics and chemistry can lead to new and more efcient solar energy materials that have very widespread applications [57]. In this paper we study the effect of the optical properties of the selective absorber nickel-pigmented anodized aluminium [1], environment conditions, and the conguration of our system (prototype) on the heating power and the conversion efciency of the selective absorber. The relationship between these variables is also discussed. 2. Experimental The constructed models were tested outdoors during daylight under a clear sky at Bethlehem University from June to October. All measurements are done at steady-

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state conditions. The selective absorbers were put on a horizontal plane. The experimental model for the at-plate collector (prototype), consisting of the selective absorber, the insulated box, the transparent cover and the data logger, is discussed below. 2.1. Selective absorber Nickel-pigmented alumina was prepared on an aluminium substrate. Samples of different optical properties were used [1,8]. These samples were made using an electrochemical process. Anodic aluminium (alumina) was rst formed followed by pigmentation of alumina by nickel using alternate or pulse current. Scanning electron microscopy was used to determine the structure of the selective absorber surface and the thickness of the coatings. The thickness measured was found to be in the range from 0.350 to 0.400 m. The optical properties (hemispherical absorptivity a and hemispherical emissivity e) were measured using an absorptiometer (EL 510 Elan Informatique) and an emissiometer (EL 520 Elan Informatique) at 70 C, respectively. X-ray diffraction was used to test the presence of impurity phases. 2.2. Insulated box (prototype) Four different types (by volume) of prototypes were used. Fig. 1 illustrates schematically the structure of the prototype. Table 1 gives the dimensions for each prototype. 2.3. The transparent cover A commercial polyethylene shield of thickness 50 m and average transparency 0.80 (in the solar range) was used. It is usually used to reduce the heat loss and to protect the absorber from degradation caused by exposing the absorber directly to the environment.

Fig. 1.

Schematic drawing of the prototype.

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Table 1 Internal volume and cover area for each prototype used in the solar thermal set-up Box type A B C D Internal volume (cm3) 490 1110 1900 7980 Cover area (cm2) 102 231 396 1596

2.4. The data logger The data logger used was HANDY-LOG DB-525 version 4 with DB-Lab WINDOWS software. This data logger is coupled with temperature sensors DT013 of temperature range 25 C to +125 C (0.01 C). In addition, it is equipped with a relative humidity sensor (DT 041). The temperature of the selective absorber, the temperature inside and outside the box, and the relative humidity were measured at the same time. All the set-up components of the solar thermal performance measurements are shown in Fig. 2.

3. Results and discussion The geometrical, thermal and optical characteristics of the experimental collector models with the nickel-pigmented aluminium oxide selective absorber were involved

Fig. 2.

Solar thermal experimental set-up.

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in the steady-state analysis. The optical properties of the selective absorber and the cover, the radiation ux, the output thermal ux, the optical losses and the thermal losses to ambient were considered in calculating the conversion efciency. Normal incident solar radiation and a horizontal selective absorber were considered in the analysis. The model was validated by using the collected data from the performed experiments and then used for the extraction of the theoretical results. 3.1. Conduction and convection losses The heat losses through the walls, bottom and top of the box were estimated by calculating the conductionconvection loss coefcient (B) [9]. It was calculated by introducing preheated sheets of specular copper of known masses and specic heats inside the box. The temperature difference (t) between the prototype and the ambient was measured as a function of time. B can be calculated using Eq. (1). (mc where: mc is the heat capacity of the sample (m is the mass of the sample and c is the specic heat of the copper) X is the equivalent heat capacity of the box B is the conductionconvection coefcient t=Ts Ta (Ts is the temperature of the copper inside the prototype and Ta is the ambient temperature). t is time. The results of one of the prototypes (prototype A) (using different heat capacities of the copper sample) are shown in Figs 35. The heat capacity of the insulated box X) dt dt Bt (1)

Fig. 3.

Heat loss of prototype A as a function of time for copper sample of heat capacity 0.483 J K 1.

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Fig. 4.

Heat loss of prototype A as a function of time for copper sample of heat capacity 0.817 J K 1.

Fig. 5.

Heat loss of prototype A as a function of time for copper sample of heat capacity 1.847 J K 1.

(X) and the conductionconvection coefcient results for each prototype are illustrated in Table 2. The graphs represent one of the four prototypes where the best t of ln t against the time is shown. For each prototype the equivalent heat capacity of the box (X) and the conductionconvection coefcient were determined. As seen from Table 2, as the internal volume of the prototype increased, the exchange of heat between the prototype and the ambient is increased (the conductionconvection loss coefcient B is increased).

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Table 2 Heat capacity (X) and conductionconvection loss coefcient (B) for each prototype Prototype X (J K 1) B (W K 1) 0 C t 20 C A B C D 15.715.26 22.437.62 71.3720.71 236.6472.82 (21.751.83)10 3 (29.892.46)10 3 (164.4811.50)10 3 (298.904.69)10 3 20 C t 80 C (50.903.51)10 3 (110.687.30)10 3 (295.9319.84)10 3 (1284.4026.82)10 3

3.2. The optical properties of the selective absorbers The optical properties for each selective absorber sample were measured at Paul Sabatier University as shown in Table 3. 3.3. The solar thermal performance The net collective ux (heating ux, Ee) was calculated according to Eq. (2) which depends on the radiation ux and the loss ux. Ee where tra is the transmittanceabsorbance product for the cover and selective absorber, respectively Is is the incident ux Ee is the net collective ux from the system B is the conductionconvection loss coefcient s is the StephanBoltzmann constant (5.67810 8 W m 2 K 4)
Table 3 Optical properties (absorptivity and emissivity) of the selective absorbers Absorptivity (%) 95.0 96.0 95.0 96.0 92.0 96.0 96.0 97.0 92.0 Emissivity (%) 15.5 16.5 19.0 20.0 14.0 19.0 17.5 22.5 11.0

(tra)Is B(Ts Ta) seeff(T4 T4) s a

(2)

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eeff is the effective thermal emittance of the selective absorber and the atmosphere [6] Ts is the temperature of the absorber Ta is the ambient temperature. This ux was calculated as an average ux during daylight and as an accumulative ux for a day. The conversion efciency of the selective absorber was calculated using Eq. (3). h tra seeff(T4 T4) s a Is (3)

The transmissivity of the shield (tr) was averaged over the solar range and found to be 80%. The solar radiation ux was measured at a xed time during the day (insolation). It was supplied from a database manual prepared at Bethlehem University [10]. The emissivity and absorptivity of the selective absorber was measured at Paul Sabatier University. The average emissivity of the atmosphere was found to be 55% according to a previous study [9]. The collective ux, temperature difference and the conversion efciency of one of the selective absorbers (a=95.0% and e=15.5%) were calculated as a function of time of day as shown in Figs 68, respectively. All the graphs represent the prototype A. The solar radiation ux at Bethlehem University was averaged over three years and measured from June to October. This was taken as one of the inputs to calculate the performance of the selective absorber. As shown in Fig. 8 the conversion efciency is constant during the day at certain absorptivity and emissivity for a certain prototype. All other selective absorbers exhibit the same behaviour, but with different numerical results. The accumulative net collective ux (for a day), average net collective ux (for

Fig. 6.

Variation of net collective ux with day time for the selective absorber of a=0.95 and e=0.155.

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Fig. 7. Variation of temperature difference between the selective absorber (of a=0.95 and e=0.155) and the ambient with the day time.

Fig. 8.

Variation of conversion efciency as a function of day time.

a day) and the conversion efciency as a function of absorptivity and emissivity of the selective absorber were studied. The effect of absorptivity on collective ux, conversion efciency, and absorption of merit was studied at constant emissivity as shown in Figs 912. The net collective ux increases strongly as absorptivity increases (Figs. 9 and 10), while the conversion efciency and absorption of merit increase slightly (Figs. 11 and 12). The net collective ux depends mostly on the absorbed energy which in turn depends on the absorptivity of the selective absorber. The effect of emissivity on the net collective ux at constant absorptivity is shown in Figs 1316. The net collective ux decreases as the emissivity increases (Figs. 13 and 14). Increasing the emissivity will increase the loss of energy by radiation.

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Fig. 9.

Variation of accumulative net collective ux with absorptivity.

Fig. 10.

Variation of average net collective ux with absorptivity.

Therefore, the net collective ux will decrease. However, the average conversion efciency and the average absorption of merit (Figs. 15 and 16) are not affected strongly. The effect of prototype volume is shown in Figs 1719. Fig. 17 shows that as prototype volume increases the net collective ux decreases and this happens because the conduction and convection losses increased (B increased). Fig. 18 shows that the prototype volume affects the average conversion efciency slightly. However, Fig.

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Fig. 11.

Variation of average conversion efciency with absorptivity.

Fig. 12.

Variation of absorption of merit with the absorptivity.

19 shows that the average absorption of merit increases as the volume of the prototype increases. Moreover, as the volume of the prototype increases, the area of the shield increases and more radiation is absorbed by the selective absorber. Among all samples the maximum calculated net collective ux was found to be 699.15 W/m2 when a=0.96 and e=0.165 in the prototype of volume 1110 cm3. In the case of the conversion efciency, the maximum value was found to be 0.78 for different volumes of prototypes. Tripanagnostopoulos et al. [2] obtained a maximum efciency of 0.76 for a black absorber, and 0.70 for blue and redbrown

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Fig. 13.

Variation of accumulative net collective ux with emissivity.

Fig. 14.

Variation of average net collective ux with emissivity.

absorbers. In all these cases glass was used as a cover. They increased the efciency by using a booster reector which increased the incident radiation ux. The incident radiation ux was increased from 800 to 1200 W/m2 using the booster reector. Matsuta et al. [11] used selective surfaces for both heating during the day and cooling at night. They obtained a maximum conversion efciency of 0.70 for a selective absorber using polyethylene as a cover for their at-plate collector. For absorption of merit, the maximum value was found to be 0.97 for the selective absorber of a=0.96 and e=0.165 in the prototype of volume 7980 cm3 and for the selective absorber of a=0.97 and e=0.225 in the prototype of volume 1900 cm3.

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Fig. 15.

Variation of average conversion efciency with emissivity.

Fig. 16. Variation of average absorption of merit with emissivity.

The maximum temperature difference between the at-plate collector and the ambient was measured to be 56.22 C. 4. Conclusions Experimental models of at-plate collectors of different volumes and of different selective absorber samples (nickel-pigmented aluminium oxide) were examined. The

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Fig. 17.

Variation of accumulative net collective ux with prototype volume.

Fig. 18.

Variation of average conversion efciency with prototype volume.

effect of absorptivity, emissivity and prototype volume on accumulative and average net collective ux, conversion efciency and absorption of merit were examined. We conclude that: 1. Conversion efciency is not affected during the daylight by the solar radiation ux at certain absorptivity and emissivity. 2. The net collective ux increases strongly as absorptivity increases at constant emissivity, while conversion efciency increases slightly.

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Fig. 19.

Variation of the average absorption of merit with prototype volume.

3. The net collective ux decreases as emissivity increases at constant absorptivity. Conversion efciency and absorption of merit are not affected strongly by the change in emissivity. 4. The net collective ux decreases strongly as the prototype volume increases, but the absorption of merit increases as the prototype volume increases. The conversion efciency is not affected as the prototype volume increases. 5. Commercial polyethylene is a good shield for a glazed, insulated at-plate solar collector because it reduces the connective loss and protects the selective absorber against degradation.

References
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