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b b a
2. n b 3. n b
na b
a n c
n c
:b modn
a modn
1. a 2. a 3. a
b modn nq nq r r 0 0
a r r n n
b a a b 0 /
in the union of the disjoint sets.
r modn r
4. Either a 5.
0 a n
b or a
a is a partition of
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of rings, factor rings and elds and also later in the second half of the course when we will study groups, and then at the end in cryptography and coding theory, especially RSA algorithm
Denition 3. n Example 1. In 5 :
0 1
3 3
In
6:
4 4 2 c
7 12 6 ac
2 2 0 c a c
3 a
Denition 4. a
ac
bd
Check by yourself or see the book. OBS! For ring properties of and see Theorem 2.7 (p 34) which follow by the fact that they are valid in . This is because n is obtained from by a ring homomorphism a a . Ring homomorphisms are to be discussed later in this lecture.
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2011, Spring term 2011, Sergei Silvestrov lectures OBS! to be repeated as the start of Lecture 2 on rings and elds
p when
p is a prime number
OBS! Next theorem states that p is a eld when p is a prime number. Fields will be discussed later in this lecture and then again in connection to polynomials and their roots. Theorem 3. (Th 2.8, p.37) For p the following are equivalent: 1. p prime 2. ax=1 has solution in 3. ab
p,
0 0 in
p
0 in
0 or b
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0R
0R
x for all x
operation ) For any x R the set R contains the element x such that x ((existence of inverse under operation ) x y z x y z (assotiative under operation ) x y y x (abelian under operation ) 2. Multiplication is associative, i.e., for every a, b, c
R, a b c b c
3. For every a, b, c R, the left distributive law, a distributive law a b c a c b c hold. It is customary to use ab instead of a b.
This term was probably coined by D. Hilbert, in 1897, when he wrote Zahlring. One of the meanings of the word ring, in German as in English, is collection, as in the phrase a ring of thieves."
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Examples of rings
Example 2. The structure , , and is a ring. The structure 2 are rings. The n n matrices over is a ring. The structures (or , or ) form a ring.
Example 3. For each positive integer n the set cation modulo n is a ring.
n of integers modulo
Example 4. Let A be an abelian group and let Hom A be the set of all homomorphisms : A A. Dene addition in Hom A by a a a . This makes Hom A an abelian group. Let multiplication in Hom A be given by composition of functions. Then Hom A with addition and multiplication is a ring.
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0 a ab a
a 0 a b
0 for all a b
R; R;
and all a, b
ab for all a, b an b m 1 b j j
n ab n 1 a j i
R; R.
n 1 m 1 ai b j for all ai , b j i j
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Denition 7. (p 43) (Obs! We use the word unity instead of used in the book word identity) If a ring R contains an element 1 such that 1a a1 a for all a R, then R is said to be a ring with unity or unital ring. Terminological note: terminology "ring with identity" is also used in literature. But it is really bad one since it clashes directly with the name for important class of rings with identity where the word identity in a ring has completely different and widely used (!) meaning of it an equality depending on one or more variables valid for any elements, of the ring or more generally any algebraic structure, when those elements are substituted on the place of the variables in the identity) Obs! Easy exercise for you! Prove that 1) In any ring 0 and 1 (if any) are unique. 2) If 1 0 in a unital ring R, then R 0 Example 6. The rings with unity. The structure 2 , , , is a ring without unity. , Mn , Mn , and Mn are rings
Denition 8. (p. 60) An element a in a ring R with unity 1 0 is said to be invertible or to be a unit in R if there exist an element a 1 R such that a 1 a aa 1 1. The element a 1 is called a multiplicative inverse of a. The set of units in a ring R with unity 1
Example 7. The set of units in the ring is the multiplicative group 1 . The set of units in the ring (or , or ) is the multiplicative group (or , or ). The set of units in the ring Mn (or Mn , or Mn ) is the multiplicative group GL n (or GL n , or GL n ). Denition 9. A ring D (non necessarily commutative) with unity 1 element is invertible is called a division ring, or skew eld.
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Denition 10. (p 47) A eld is a commutative division ring, which means that a eld is a commutative ring with unity 1R 0R in which every non-zero element is invertible (for each a 0R the equation ax 1R has a solution in R). The derivation of the mathematical usage of the English term eld (rst used by E. H. Moore in 1893 in his article classifying the nite elds) as well as the German term Krper and the French term corps is as follows. Each word denotes a realm" or a collection of things". The word domain abbreviates the usual English translation integral domain of the German word Integrettsbereich, a collection of integers. Example 8. The structures rings Mn , Mn , and Mn , , and are not division rings. are both division rings and elds. The
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n, then Mm
Mn
, Mm
Mn
, and
Mm
Mn
Denition 12. (p. 49) Let E be a eld and F a nonempty subset of E that is closed under the operations of addition and multiplication in E . If F is itself a eld under these operations then F is called a subeld of E . We denote this as E F . We write E F if E F and E F . Example 10. .
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0, b
0, but ab
0.
Example 11. The rings , , , and do not have the divisors of 0. In the ring n , the divisors of 0 are precisely those nonzero elements that are not relatively prime to n. Theorem 5. A ring R has no zero divisors if and only if both the right cancellation law
ab
and the left cancellation law
ac
ba
hold in R.
ca
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10
Integral domains
Denition 14. (p. 46) A commutative ring R with unity 1 integral domain.
Every eld F is an integral domain since ab 0 and a 0 imply that b 1b a 1a b a 1 ab a 1 0 0. The converse is not true. For example, the integral domain is not a eld. However, for any prime p the integral domain p is a eld. It follows from the following result. Theorem 6. (Th. 3.11, p. 61) Every nite integral domain D is a eld. Proof. Let 0, 1, a1 , . . . , an be all the elements in D. For any a D 0 , consider the elements a1, aa1 , . . . , aan . If aai aa j , then ai a j by the left cancellation law, therefore all these elements are distinct. None of these elements is 0, because D has no 0 divisors. It follows that a1, aa1 , . . . , aan are elements 1, a1 , . . . , an in some order, so that either a1 1, that is, a 1, or aai 1 for some i. Thus, a has a multiplicative inverse.
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11
R,
1.
R: k a
1a
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12
ab
a b
Denition 17. (p. 69) Invertible (=one-to-one=bijective = injective and surjective) homomorphism is called an isomorphism of rings. When the context is clear then we shall frequently write homomorphism" in place of homomorphism of rings". A homomorphism of rings is, in particular, a homomorphism of the underlying abelian groups. Consequently the same terminology is used: an isomorphism of rings is a homomorphism of rings which is a one-to-one correspondence. The kernel of a homomorphism of rings : R Ker 1 0. The image of a homomorphism of rings : R
S is the subset of S R r :r R
Im
S: s
r for some r
Theorem 8. (Cor. 3.13, p.73) If : R S is a homomorphism of rings, then the image Im of is a subring of S. Proof. See p. 73 in the book. Example 12. The canonical map morphism of rings. Check this as an exercise!
m that maps
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13