C3 Development of the periodic table: The early periodic table: The periodic table of elements developed as an attempt to classify

y the elements. It arranges them in a pattern according to their properties. Early versions of the periodic table failed to take account of the fact that not all the other elements were known at that time. Mendeleevs table took account of unknown elements, and so provided the basis for the modern periodic table. The modern periodic table: The group that an element is in is determined by its atomic/proton number. The number of electrons in the highest energy level of an atom determines its chemical properties. We can explain trends in reactivity as we go down a group in terms of the number of energy levels in the atoms. Group 1 the alkali metals: The elements in Group 1 of the periodic table are called the alkali metals. The metals all react with water to produce hydrogen and an alkaline solution containing the metal hydroxide. The reactivity of the alkali metals increases as we go down the group. Group 7 the halogens: The halogens exist as diatomic molecules The halogens all form ions with a single negative charge. The halogens form covalent compounds by sharing electrons with other non-metals. The reactivity of the halogens decreases going down the group The transition elements: Nearly all the transition elements have high melting points and high densities. The transition metals are strong and hard, and are good conductors of electricity and heat. The transition metals do not react vigorously with oxygen or water.

More about acids and bases: Strong and weak acids/alkalis: Acids in aqueous solutions produce H+ ions. Alkalis in aqueous solutions produce OH- ions. A strong acid or base in 100% ionised in water A weak acid or alkali is only partially ionised in water. An acid is a proton donor A base is a proton acceptor Titrations: Titration is used to measure accurately how much of an alkali is needed to react completely with a known amount of an acid (or vice versa) The point at which an acid-base reaction is complete is called the end point of the reaction. A suitable indicator should be chosen to show the end point of an acidbase reaction. Titration calculations: To calculate the concentration of a solution: Calculate the mass (in grams) of solute in 1cm cubed of solution Calculate the mass (in grams) of solute in 1000cm cubed of solution Convert the mass from grams into moles To calculate the mass of solute in a certain volume of solution Calculate the mass (in grams) of solute there is in 1dm cubed of solution Calculate the mass (in grams) of solute in 1cm cubed of solution Calculate the mass (in grams) of solute there is in the given volume of solution.

Water Water and solubility: Water evaporates from rivers, lakes and oceans and condenses to form clouds, returning to the surface as rain. Most ionic substances are soluble in water, but many covalent compounds are not. A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve at that temperature. Solubility curves: The solubility of most solid solutes increases with temperature. The solubility of gases decreases with increasing temperature Solubility curves show how the solubility of a substance changes with temperature Hard water: Hard water contains dissolved substances such as calcium and magnesium salts. The calcium and/or magnesium ions in hard water react with soap, producing a precipitate called scum The calcium salts and/or magnesium salts also decompose to form scale when the water is heated Hard water may have benefits for human health Removing hardness: Soft water does not contain salts that produce scum or scale Hard water can be softened by removing the salts that produce scum and scale Water can be softened by adding washing soda, or by using an ionexchange resin to remove calcium and magnesium ions Water treatment: Water for drinking should contain low levels of dissolved substances and microorganisms Water is made fit to drink by filtering it to remove solids and adding chlorine to kill bacteria We can make water pure by distillation.

Energy calculations: Comparing the energy produced by fuels: When fuels and food react with oxygen, energy is released this reaction is exothermic. A simple calorimeter can be used to compare the energy released by different foods in a school chemistry lab Energy changes in reactions: In chemical reactions, energy must be supplied to break the bonds between atoms in the reactants. When bonds are formed between atoms in a chemical reaction, energy is released. In an exothermic reaction, the energy released when bonds are formed is greater than the energy absorbed when the bonds are broken. The opposite is true for endothermic reactions. H is negative for exothermic reactions. It is positive for endothermic reactions. Calculations using bond energies: USE EXERCISE BOOK

Analysis: Test for positive ions: Group 1 and 2 metals can be identified in their compounds using flame tests. Sodium hydroxide solutions can be used to identify different metal ions, depending on the precipitate that is formed Ammonium ions produce ammonia when sodium hydroxide is added, and the solution is (gently) heated. Tests for negative ions: We identify carbonates by adding dilute acid, which produces carbon dioxide gas. We identify halides by adding nitric acid and silver nitrate solution, which produce a precipitate of silver halide. We identify sulfates by adding hydrochloric acid and barium chloride solution to produce a white precipitate of barium sulfate. We identify nitrates by adding sodium hydroxide solution and a little aluminium powder to produce ammonia gas. Testing for organic substances: Organic compounds burn or char when we heat them. We can work out the empirical formula of an organic compound from the ratio of carbon and hydrogen in the carbon dioxide and water produced when it burns. We can detect carbon-carbon double bonds using bromine water. Instrumental analysis 1: Modern instrumental techniques depend on electronics and computers to provide fast, accurate and sensitive ways of analysing chemical substances. Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) and mass spectrometry can be used to analyse and identify the chemical elements in a sample. Instrumental analysis 2: Compounds in a mixture can be separated using chromatography. Once separated, compounds can be identified using a variety of instrumental techniques.