Acoustic resonance

Acoustic resonance
Acoustic resonance is the tendency of an acoustic system to absorb more energy when it is forced or driven at a frequency that matches one of its own natural frequencies of vibration (its resonance frequency) than it does at other frequencies. The term acoustic resonance is sometimes used to narrow mechanical resonance to the frequency range of human hearing, but since acoustics is defined in general terms concerning vibrational waves in matter [1] acoustic resonance can occur at frequencies outside the range of human hearing. An acoustically resonant object usually has more than one resonance frequency, especially at harmonics of the strongest resonance. It will easily vibrate at those frequencies, and vibrate less strongly at other frequencies. It will "pick out" its resonance frequency from a complex excitation, such as an impulse or a wideband noise excitation. In effect, it is filtering out all frequencies other than its resonance. Acoustic resonance is an important consideration for instrument builders, as most acoustic instruments use resonators, such as the strings and body of a violin, the length of tube in a flute, and the shape of a drum membrane. Acoustic resonance is also important for hearing. For example, resonance of a stiff structural element, called the basilar membrane within the cochlea of the inner ear allows hair cells on the membrane to detect sound. (For mammals the membrane by having different resonance on either end so that high frequencies are concentrated on one end and low frequencies on the other.) Like mechanical resonance, acoustic resonance can result in catastrophic failure of the vibrator. The classic example of this is breaking a wine glass with sound at the precise resonant frequency of the glass; although this is difficult in practice.[2][3]

Resonance of a string
Strings under tension, as in instruments such as lutes, harps, guitars, pianos, violins and so forth, have resonant frequencies directly related to the mass, length, and tension of the string. The wavelength that will create the first resonance on the string is equal to twice the length of the string. Higher resonances correspond to wavelengths that are integer divisions of the fundamental wavelength. The corresponding frequencies are related to the speed v of a wave traveling down the string by the equation

where L is the length of the string (for a string fixed at both ends) and n = 1, 2, 3... The speed of a wave through a string or wire is related to its tension T and the mass per unit length :

So the frequency is related to the properties of the string by the equation

where T is the tension, is the mass per unit length, and m is the total mass. Higher tension and shorter lengths increase the resonant frequencies. When the string is excited with an impulsive function (a finger pluck or a strike by a hammer), the string vibrates at all the frequencies present in the impulse (an impulsive function theoretically contains 'all' frequencies). Those frequencies that are not one of the resonances are quickly filtered outthey are attenuatedand all that is left is the harmonic vibrations that we hear as a musical note.

Acoustic resonance

String resonance in music instruments

String resonance occurs on string instruments. Strings or parts of strings may resonate at their fundamental or overtone frequencies when other strings are sounded. For example, an A string at 440Hz will cause an E string at 330Hz to resonate, because they share an overtone of 1320Hz (3rd overtone of A and 4th overtone of E).

Resonance of a tube of air

The resonance of a tube of air is related to the length of the tube, its shape, and whether it has closed or open ends. Musically useful tube shapes are conical and cylindrical (see bore). A pipe that is closed at one end is said to be stopped while an open pipe is open at both ends. Modern orchestral flutes behave as open cylindrical pipes; clarinets and lip-reed instruments (brass instruments) behave as closed cylindrical pipes; and saxophones, oboes, and bassoons as closed conical pipes. Vibrating air columns also have resonances at harmonics, like strings.

Cylinders
By convention a rigid cylinder that is open at both ends is referred to as an "open" cylinder; whereas, a rigid cylinder that is open at one end and has a rigid surface at the other end is referred to as a "closed" cylinder. Open Open cylindrical tubes resonate at the approximate frequencies

where n is a positive integer (1, 2, 3...) representing the resonance node, L is the length of the tube and v is the speed of sound in air (which is approximately 343 meters per second at 20 C and at sea level). A more accurate equation considering an end correction is given below:

where d is the diameter of the resonance tube. This equation compensates for the fact that the exact point at which a sound wave is reflecting at an open end is not perfectly at the end section of the tube, but a small distance outside the tube.

The first three resonances in an open cylindrical tube. The horizontal axis is pressure.

The reflection ratio is slightly less than 1; the open end does not behave like an infinitesimal acoustic impedance; rather, it has a finite value, called radiation impedance, which is dependent on the diameter of the tube, the wavelength, and the type of reflection board possibly present around the opening of the tube. Closed A closed cylinder will have approximate resonances of

where "n" here is an odd number (1, 3, 5...). This type of tube produces only odd harmonics and has its fundamental frequency an octave lower than that of an open cylinder (that is, half the frequency).

Acoustic resonance

A more accurate equation is given below: .

Cones
An open conical tube, that is, one in the shape of a frustum of a cone with both ends open, will have resonant frequencies approximately equal to those of an open cylindrical pipe of the same length.

The first three resonances in a one end open and other end closed cylindrical tube. The horizontal axis is pressure.

The resonant frequencies of a stopped conical tube a complete cone or frustum with one end closed satisfy a more complicated condition:

where the wavenumber k is

and x is the distance from the small end of the frustum to the vertex. When x is small, that is, when the cone is nearly complete, this becomes

leading to resonant frequencies approximately equal to those of an open cylinder whose length equals L+x. In words, a complete conical pipe behaves approximately like an open cylindrical pipe of the same length, and to first order the behavior does not change if the complete cone is replaced by a closed frustum of that cone.

Closed Rectangular box

Sound waves in a rectangular box include such examples as loudspeaker enclosures and buildings. Rectangular building have resonances described as room modes. For a rectangular box, the resonant frequencies are given by

where v is the speed of sound, Lx and Ly and Lz are the dimensions of the box, and integers. However, , n, and m cannot all be zero.

n, and m are the nonnegative

Acoustic resonance

Resonance of a sphere of air (Vented)

The diameter of a sphere with a sound hole is given by

where: (in meters) D = diameter of sphere d = diameter of sound hole f = frequency

The diameter of a sphere with a necked sound hole is given by

where: (in meters) D = diameter of sphere d = diameter of sound hole C = speed of sound L = length of neck f = frequency

False tones
Some large conical instruments like tubas have a strong and useful resonance that is not in the well-known harmonic series. For example, most large B-flat tubas have a strong resonance at low E-flat (E-flat1, 39Hz), which is between the fundamental and the second harmonic (an octave higher than the fundamental). These alternative resonances are often known as false tones or privileged tones. The most convincing explanation for false-tones is that the horn is acting as a 'third of a pipe' rather than as a half-pipe. The bell remains an anti-node, but there would then be a node 1/3 of the way back to the mouthpiece. If so, it seems that the fundamental would be missing entirely, and would only be inferred from the overtones. However, the node and the anti-node collide in the same spot and cancel out the fundamental.

Resonance in musical composition

Several composers have begun to make resonance the subject of compositions. Alvin Lucier has used acoustic instruments and sine wave generators to explore the resonance of objects large and small in many of his compositions. The complex inharmonic partials of a swell shaped crescendo and decrescendo on a tamtam or other percussion instrument interact with room resonances in James Tenney's Koan: Having Never Written A Note For Percussion. Pauline Oliveros and Stuart Dempster regularly perform in large reverberant spaces such as the 2-million-US-gallon (unknown operator: u'strong'm3) cistern at Fort Worden, WA, which has a reverb with a 45-second decay.

Acoustic resonance

External links
Standing Waves Applet [4]

References
[1] Kinsler L.E., Frey A.R., Coppens A.B., Sanders J.V., "Fundamentals of Acoustics", 3rd Edition, ISBN 978-0471029335, Wiley, New York, 1982. [2] http:/ / www. physics. ucla. edu/ demoweb/ demomanual/ acoustics/ effects_of_sound/ breaking_glass_with_sound. html [3] Tutorial on how to break glass with sound (http:/ / www. acoustics. salford. ac. uk/ acoustics_info/ glass/ ?content=index) [4] http:/ / www. physics. smu. edu/ ~olness/ www/ 05fall1320/ applet/ pipe-waves. html

Nederveen, Cornelis Johannes, Acoustical aspects of woodwind instruments. Amsterdam, Frits Knuf, 1969. Rossing, Thomas D., and Fletcher, Neville H., Principles of Vibration and Sound. New York, Springer-Verlag, 1995.

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