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LAB 2: NODE VOLTAGE ANALYSIS

Author Team member 1 Team member 2 Experiment date: date Report due: date

ENGR 1303 50# Instructor: Instructor Name

Abstract There are three goals to this experiment that will all be based on a resistive circuit with a voltage source and two approximated current sources. First, the theoretical values of current and voltage determined by the method of Node Voltage Analysis will be compared to measured values. The results show that differences between the two values are all within a 2%, verifying that Node Voltage Analysis is valid. The measured values will also be used to compare the actual current produced by the approximated source with the ideal and to calculate the power dissipated by the resistors in the approximated current sources. While the approximated current sources are good substitutions, they are inefficient since they dissipate almost 90% of the power in the circuit. Additionally, the experiment also shows that if one resistor contained in a super-node is replaced with another of a different resistance it does not affect the currents throughout the rest of the circuit or voltage values at each node.

1.0 Introduction This report will document and discuss the results of experiment 2 Node Voltage Analysis. Background information about Node Voltage Analysis and Current Source Equivalents will be provided, along with the purpose of the lab. A brief description of the procedure is included as well as diagrams of the built circuit. Calculations and analysis are performed based on recorded data from the experiment. Conclusions that follow from the analysis are also presented. 1.1 Background Information Node Voltage Analysis Node Voltage Analysis is a technique for determining voltages at specific locations (nodes) in circuits where Kirchhoffs Voltage and Current laws will not easily work. The method includes equating the currents entering and leaving nodes and then rewriting the currents in terms of voltage differences and resistances between nodes. After equations for each node are written the system of equations is used to solve for the voltage at each node. 1.2 Background Information - Current Source Equivalents In the real world, ideal current sources do not exist; however, in the lab circuit we analysed in the pre-lab there are two. An ideal current source can be closely replicated by using a voltage source and a resistor in series, provided that the value of resistance within the current source equivalent is much greater than the overall resistance of the loaded circuit. This method is called a passive current source. This experiment uses this method to create the ideal current sources in the circuit by combining a resistor and a 9 Volt battery in series. 1.3 Purpose The purpose of this lab is to give the opportunity for more practice with the breadboard and building circuits. The concepts that will be investigated during the experiment include: the validity of Node Voltage Analysis, the suitability of Approximated Current Sources and the impact of resistor change within a SuperNode.

2.0 Procedure 1. Construct the circuit shown in figure 1. Two batteries with measured voltages of V1= 8.97 and V2 = 8.819 V are powering the circuit. The first battery is connected in series with two resistors with total resistance of ~ 900 ohms to simulate a 10mA current source. The second battery has a 470 ohms resistor connected in series for a similar purpose to approximate a 20mA current source. In addition, a DC power supply provides a constant voltage of 2 V across a 100 ohm resistor, which is considered to be a SuperNode (enclosed in dashed line). 2. With all sources turned on and connected to the circuit, measure currents is1, is2, i1, i2, and i3. 3. Replace the 100 ohm resistor with a 470 ohm resistor and repeat the measurements of i1, i2, and i3. Compare these measured values to the current measurements using the 100 ohm resistor. 4. Compare the measured values of i1, i2, and i3 to the values calculated in the prelab using node voltage analysis. 5. Compare the values of is1, is2 to the ideal values that the batteries and resistors were meant to replicate. 6. Calculate the total power dissipated in the circuit resistors, as well as total power dissipated in the passive current source internal resistors, using the measured currents. Compare these values and comment on fraction of wasted power in the internal resistors.

Figure 1 Actual Resistive Circuit that was build and Analyzed

V2= 8.79 V V1=8.819 V

3.0 Results A summary of the lab measurements, expected values and calculations are presented the following two tables.

Table 1: Comparison of Measured and Calculated Currents (in mA)


Calculated Values for Pre-lab circuit (with 10 and 20 mA sources) Calculated Values for real lab circuit (with approximated current sources and actual battery values) Measured values for original lab circuit Measured values with 470 ohm resistor instead of 100 ohm % difference between pre lab calculated and measured values % difference between real circuit calculated and measured values lab

is1 10 8.66

is2 20 20.5

i1 12.7 12.1

i2 2.7 3.45

i3 17.52 16.9

8.8

20.4

11.9 11.9 6.3% 1.7%

3.4 3.4 26% 1.4%

16.7 16.37 2.9% 1.2%

12% 1.6%

2% 0.49%

Sample calculation for % difference from prelab for i1: % difference = absolute difference between measured and expected divided by the maximum of the two numbers = (12.7 11.9)/12.7 = 6.3%

Table 2: Power Dissipation by each Resistor (values measured with 100 ohm resistor) Measured Values Calculated Values Current Voltage Power Dissipated Sum (mA) (V) (mW) (mW) External 82 11.9 0.995 11.8 Total External 47 3.40 0.162 0.551 External: 31.0 External 68 16.7 1.157 19.3 Internal 1 820+82 8.80 8.005 70.4 Total Internal: 263 Internal 2 470 20.4 9.842 20.1 2 2 Sample calculation for 82 ohm resistor: I R = (11.9mA) (82) = 0.0116W Resistor Values (Ohms)

3.1 Answers to Analysis Questions 1. The differences between the pre-lab and the measured values for is1 and is2 (shown in Table 1) are 12% and 2% respectively. The largest source of error is the voltage of the batteries. The required resistances for the approximated current sources were calculated using battery voltages of 9V; however, our batteries had voltages of 8.81 and 8.79 V. Once the actual battery voltage is accounted for the differences between the calculated and measured values of is1 and is2 are less than 2%, which is less than the 5% tolerance of the resistors. The measured values for i1, i2 and i3 (shown in Table 1) differ from the pre-lab values by up to 26%. The large difference can be attributed to the variation in the battery voltages. Using the actual battery voltages and Node Voltage Analysis the calculated and measured values for i1, i2 and i3 are again less that 2%. As shown in table 2 the power dissipated by the external resistors is 0.0310W. As shown in table 2 the power dissipated by the resistors internal to the approximated current sources is 0.263W. The fraction of the total power wasted in the internal resistors is 89.5%. Calculation: (0.262)/(0.263+0.03104) *100 = 89.5% Our theoretical circuit contains two current sources which have been experimentally approximated by batteries and resistors in series. This attempt to make independent current sources has its limits. The high percentage calculated indicates that the passive current sources are very inefficient to use to replace ideal current sources. Only 10% of the total power is being dissipated in the loading resistors. An efficient current source delivers most of the power to the circuit resistors rather than dissipating in its internal resistor. 6. The 100 ohm resistor in the circuit does not have any effect on the circuit. As shown in Table 1, there is no change in the currents i1, i2 and i3 with a 470 ohm resistor in place of the 100 ohm resistor. This result is expected. The power supply provides 2V voltage difference between v2 and v3 nodes. The power supply is in parallel with the branch that contains the 100 ohm resistor and the voltage drop across that resistor will always be 2V. When using Voltage Node Analysis, this resistor can be included along with the 2V power source in a super-node.

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3.2 Additional Analysis Overall the results were close to the expected values. The largest error was the lower than expected voltage of the batteries. Once this discrepancy was accounted for, the measured values were within 2% of the calculated ones. The small error can be accounted for by the 5% tolerance of the resistors. 4.0 Conclusion The current values measured in the experiment and calculated in the pre-lab did differ because of the lower battery voltages. However, once we account for that discrepancy, the calculated and measured values of current are all within 2%. The good results of the lab confirm that Node Voltage Analysis is a valid method to use to analyse a resistive circuit. The results also establish that ideal current sources can be approximated using the proper combination of voltage sources and resistors in series. The lab also confirmed that the value of a resistor in a super-node does not change the resulting currents in the circuit.

Signature: This report is accurate to the best of my knowledge and is a true representation of my laboratory results.

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