Assemblies of God Theological Seminary

Diaspora Somalis: A Missional Helix

In Partial Fulfillment of the Master of Arts in Intercultural Ministries MCS/MHT 642: Contextualized Theology Mark Hausfeld, D. Min.

By

Danny W. Davis Springfield, Missouri April 20, 2012

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................................................................3 DIASPORA: A THEOLOGICAL REFLECTION.........................................................................................................3 PRE-COVENANT DIASPORA MOTIFS ................................................................................................................................4 JEWISH DIASPORA: PROTOTYPE OF MODERN D IASPORA ................................................................................................7 Figure 1 - Old Testament Trajectory of Israel's Experience of Diaspora...............................................................7 A WORKING DEFINITION OF DIASPORA ........................................................................................................................ 10 SOMALIA: A CULTURAL ANALYSIS. .................................................................................................................... 11 SOMALIS IN DIASPORA: HISTORICAL REFLECTION..................................................................................... 15 COMMON PROBLEMS FACED BY D IASPORA SOMALIS IN THE U NITED STATES OF A MERICA..................................... 20 STRATEGY FORMATION: ENGAGING DIASPORA SOMALIS. ...................................................................... 22 LOCAL CHURCHES AND LOCAL CONSULTATIONS........................................................................................................ 22 CONTINUED, FERVENT, H EARTFELT PRAYERS............................................................................................................. 23 INTENTIONALLY BUILDING CROSS-CULTURAL RELATIONSHIPS ................................................................................. 23 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................................................ 25

Introduction The paper will begin with an investigation of biblical motifs concerning images of diaspora prior to Abraham, and up to the Jewish exiles to Babylon and Persia. The results of the examination will aid in the construction of a working definition of diaspora. A brief presentation of Somali culture and history will help to determine how the Somali dispersion fits the definition of diaspora. In light of the theological, historical and cultural information collected, this paper will offer suggestions for developing strategies for engaging Somalis with the gospel. Diaspora: A Theological Reflection Diaspora remains a relatively recent but growing field of academic study. Roger Brubaker suggests a veritable explosion of interests in diaspora.1 Between the years 1970 and 2001 there was a 130% increase in the use of the term diaspora or its equivalent in dissertation abstracts.2 However, the increase in diaspora interests in the academy has created somewhat of a diffusive effect. Stephen Neill, the renowned mission historian, once declared, If everything is mission, then nothing is mission.3 His point was simply this: as the use of a term proliferates it often moves past its intended implications and becomes infused with broader possibly less significant meaning. Today one can find diaspora groups based on sexual preference, ethnicity, religious affiliation and linguistic categories; as well as, the classical reference to peoples who have migrated away from their homeland(s).4 Rogers argues that the application of the term to so many types and sub-types creates a diaspora of the term diaspora. In other words, the term has left its roots in the idea of homeland or collectivity and been acculturated into the
1 2

Rogers Brubaker. "The 'Diaspora' Diaspora." Ethnic and Racial Studies 28 (2005): 1. Brubaker, 1. 3 Stephen Neill, Creative Tension: The Duff Lectures, 1958 (London: Edinburgh House Press, 1959), 81. 4 Brubaker, 3.

humanities and social sciences as a process, field of inquiry and/or attribute.5 Therefore, the imperative at the outset of this paper lies in how the term diaspora will be defined and employed in regards to Somalis. A working definition will be constructed by examining the biblical motifs of dispersion preceding Abrahamic Covenant and the subsequent dispersions of Jews to Egypt, Babylon and Assyria. Pre-Covenant Diaspora Motifs Classically the term diaspora has been connected to the Old Testament narrative of the Jewish scattering and dispersion during the exile, and the movement of Christians in the New Testament.6 Nevertheless, the concept of scattering appears in the biblical text long before the Jewish exile. Enoch Wan suggest four incidents of dispersion leading up to the Jewish diaspora.7 First, Adam and Eves rebellious actions force them out of the Garden of Eden.8 The second event comes on the heels of the first murder forcing Cain away from the presence of God. 9 The next incident finds Noah and his family being separated from the shelter of the Ark. 10 Lastly, the sons of Noah are scattered away from the plains of Shinar to the ends of the Earth.11 One may also insert another pre-cursor to the exilic diaspora stemming from the Babel scattering: the calling of Abraham.

Brubaker, 4. Mark Hausfeld, Islam in America: Understanding and Engaging Diaspora Muslims Through the Local Church (Springfield: Assemblies of God Theological Seminary, 2010), 3. For reasons of space, I have chosen to not include an examination of New Testament diaspora. Primarily I wanted to emphasize the Old Testament because of its connection to Abraham, a common character between Christians and Muslims. 7 Enoch Wan, Diachronic Overview of Christian Missions to Diaspora Groups, ed. Enoch Wan (Portland: Western Seminary, 2011), 120. 8 See Genesis 3:22-24 9 See Genesis 4:14-17. Ibid, Wan, 120. 10 See Genesis 9:1-7. Ibid, Wan, 120. 11 Wan, 120.
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The Old Testament, written primarily in Hebrew, employs seven root words12 to describe the idea of dispersion away from ones homeland. The common Hebrew root (puwts)13 occurs 66 times and typically conveys some form of scattering relating to human beings. The first mention of the word comes immediately after the Babel incident where we are told that God scattered them over the face of the whole earth.14 Biblical scholars are somewhat divided regarding the reason for the dispersal. One camp views the scattering as a punishment for attempting build a tower that would enable them to assault heaven itself.15 Others, including this author, believe the event to be an act of God realigning the descendants of Noah with their intended calling to be fruitful and increasefill the earth.16 The incident, therefore, can be viewed as restorative and not merely punitive. Regardless of ones position concerning Gods action at the Babel event, agreement abounds regarding the narratives pivotal role in preparing the stage for Gods calling of Abraham. Ted Rubesh affirms the Genesis 1-11 diaspora macronarrative reduces to a diaspora micro-narrative as the biblical structure narrows its focus to Abraham in Genesis 12.17 Macro and micro diaspora narratives reveal causal activity originating from God. Diaspora consistently exposes fundamental forces pushing or pulling people to move away from or toward something or some place.18 In the above case, God causes the dispersal of

Narry Santos, Exploring the Major Dispersion Terms and Realities in the Bible, ed. Enoch Wan (Portland: Western Seminary, 2011), 22. 13 Blue Letter Bible. "Dictionary and Word Search for puwts (Strong's 6327)". Blue Letter Bible. 19962012. 12 Apr 2012. < http:// www.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?Strongs=H6327&t=KJV > 14 See Genesis 11:9, emphasis mine. All Scripture quotations are from the Holy Bible New International Version (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publisher, 1978). 15 William Oswald, Babel, in The Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, ed. T. Desmond Alexander and David W. Baker (Downers Grove: Inter Varsity Press, 2003), 74. 16 See Genesis 1:28. 17 Ted Rubesh, Diaspora Distinctives: The Jewish Diaspora Experience in the Old Testament, ed. Enoch Wan (Portland: Western Seminary, 2011), 42. 18 Hausfeld, 9.

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those at Babel. The push to scatter, then, comes from God in the form of confounded languages. The pull to leave seemingly lies in an ensuing need to form linguistic groups necessary for survival and community. Sometimes biblical diaspora results because of sin, sometimes it does not. However, the early pictures of diaspora demonstrate how God can, and often does, instigate the scattering of people groups so that a larger purpose might be fulfilled. The Genesis 11 narrative reveals the larger purpose of God as it moves forward from the scattering of the people at Babel and onto the genealogies of Shem, a son of Noah.19 The genealogical account finds historical significance in the announcement of the birth of Abram, the son of Terah the 7th grandson of Shem.20 Abram would eventually become known as Abraham,21 who would experience his own diaspora. The cause of Abrahams movement comes from God. God asks Abraham to leave his homeland of Ur and go to a place God will show him.22 God desires to establish a Covenant through Abraham with a chosen people; and these people will in turn bless the nations that were created from the one people of Babel.23 The pull for Abraham seems to lie initially in Gods promise of blessing and fruitfulness. Ultimately, however, Abraham would recognize the pull as the blessing of imputed righteousness deriving from his steadfast faith in God.24 Beginning early in the Old Testament, the idea of diaspora is firmly entrenched into the fabric of human existence. The people at Babel are scattered across the Earth forming ethnic and cultural bonds still in existence today. God called Abraham from those who had been scattered to

See Genesis 11:10-32. See Genesis 11:27. 21 See Genesis 17:5. 22 See Genesis 12:1. 23 See Genesis 18:18; Genesis 12:2-3; 22:17-18; 26:4; Psalm 72:17; Acts 3:25-26; Galatians 3:8, 14; Ephesians 1:3. 24 See Romans 4:3; Galatians 3:6; Hebrews 11:8-10; James 2:23.
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represent His Covenant to the world. As a condition of this honored place, God expected Abraham to leave his homeland in pursuit of an unknown location. Abrahams obedience to Gods call sets the stage for the creation of a peculiar people who some believe serves as the quintessential model for diaspora scholarship for many years. Jewish Diaspora: Prototype of Modern Diaspora Classic diaspora scholarship connects with the idea of Jewish diaspora. Jewish diaspora by and large equates with the exile of Jews to Babylon beginning 597 B.C.25 Ted Rubesh makes the case for a threefold trajectory ending with Jewish exile in Babylon detailed in Figure 1.

1. Jewish antecedents in the patriarchal era Israels transition from Canaan to Egypt. 2. The Jewish diaspora experience in Egypt Israels national narrative of Land. 3. The Jewish diaspora experience in Babylonia and Persia.
Figure 1 - Old Testament Trajectory of Israel's Experience of Diaspora

Rubeshs trajectory ties together the earlier fundamental idea that diaspora elements help frame the biblical narrative. The diasporic motifs seen from the Garden of Eden dispersion to the journeys of Abraham, establish an ethos that will come to be one of the most enduring characteristics of Jewish experience.26 As such, the Jewish nation has never known an existence outside of the idea of diaspora. In other words, since their dispersal from Babel the Jewish clans continually look for a permanent homeland. The settling of the Israelite clans in Canaan was a

Roger Cotton, Old Testament Introduction Handouts (Springfield: Assemblies of God Theological Seminary, 2011), 108. 26 Rubesh, 44.

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time of semi-permanence and helped to establish the Israelite relationship to land. However, the disobedience of the Jewish people resulted in diaspora or separation from that land. Rubesh offers nine distinctive diaspora characteristics that act as both stabilizing and preserving qualities for the scattered Jews, and provide a model for delineating diaspora today.27 The qualities demonstrated by the Jews in Egypt and Babylon reflects a people desiring to retain their identity while abiding in a foreign land. The more affinities a group retains with each other and their homeland, the more the home culture will be maintained in the following generations while living in a host culture. Seven of the nine characteristics pertain specifically to Egyptian and Babylonian diaspora. These include, first, the foundation of an incipient national identity (e.g. relationship to Abraham); second, the impetus of a corporate crisis (e.g. famine, war); third, the influence of powerful advocacy (e.g. Moses, Esther); four, the legacy of negative historical associations (e.g. Hyksos); fifth, the experience of marginalization and exploitation (e.g. bondage, exile); six, the inheritance of shared diaspora memory (e.g. rehearsed oral and written narrative); seven, the abiding historical and theological lings to natal land (e.g. Covenant).28 These characteristics reflect, in no small way, a resistance to assimilation a fierce desire to retain cultural heritage. The final two characteristics reflect a different attitude of acculturation and hope in Jewish diaspora as they enter exile into Babylon and Persia. The first quality, the credibility of healthy diaspora/host interaction; and the second states, the revitalization of natal identity.29 A millennium after the Exodus, life for the Jewish nation was radically different. They had

27 28

Rubesh, 72. Rubesh, 51-60. 29 Rubesh, 62-64.

settled in Canaan, established a monarchial government and lived relatively prosperous lives. However, political infighting after King Davids death resulted in a divided kingdom. The once united tribes of Israel were now two. Ten tribes comprised the Northern Kingdom called Israel and two tribes, Judah and Benjamin, ruled the Southern Kingdom. The divided kingdom reduced a once strong nation into two smaller and vulnerable kingdoms. Consequently, in 722 B.C. history records the decimation of the Northern Kingdom and their exile to Assyria. The Southern Kingdom also experienced the destruction of the Temple and Jerusalem by the Chaldeans in 586 B.C. they were then carried off to Babylon. However, the results of these dispersions were quite different for each kingdom. The Northern Kingdoms were absorbed into the prevailing host culture completely losing their national identity. The Southern Kingdom in Babylon thrived and retained their natal identity. They carried with them the admonition of Jeremiah, who prophesied, Build houses and settle down; plant gardens and eat what they produce. Marry and have sons and daughters; find wives for your sons and give your daughters in marriage, so that they too may have sons and daughters. Increase in number there; do not decrease. Also, seek the peace and prosperity of the city to which I have carried you into exile. Pray to the LORD for it, because if it prospers, you too will prosper."30 The Southern Kingdoms success at living in their host culture had future importance. When Cyrus decreed that Jews could return to Jerusalem, the retention of a national identity was key to reestablishing Jerusalem and rebuilding the Temple. Preservation of the Jewish identity through exile proved to be a unifying force once people began to return to their homeland. Observing Jewish diaspora reveals one key piece of information: each diaspora contains unique characteristics. As such, difficulty arises in creating a hard and fast definition of diaspora that fits each situation. Therefore, the Jewish diaspora would not necessarily serve as the

30

See Jeremiah 29:5-7

prototypical model but more a first chapter in a long evolution among dispersion events. Nevertheless, the study of these events and their characteristics prepares the way to finding consensus of definition of diaspora. A Working Definition of Diaspora Historically students of diaspora have relied heavily on the work of William Safran and Robin Cohen to find consensus of definition for diaspora. Their work attempts to create lists of common characteristics among dispersed groups so as to provide criterion for inclusion as diaspora. Brubaker, however, attempts to group similar elements in Safran and Cohens lists into broad categories. The categories attempt to accommodate the individuality of each diasporic situation while not becoming overly restrictive or exclusionary as the others. Brubaker offers the following categories of definition helping students to delineate diaspora: 1. Dispersion. This speaks primarily to people groups who have either voluntarily or forcibly moved across state borders. Exception can be made for those who remain within state borders but through some cause find themselves scattered away from their home.31 2. Homeland Orientation. The second constitutive criterion is the orientation to a real or imagined homeland as an authoritative source of value, identity and loyalty.32 3. Boundary-Maintenance. The third measure of diaspora considers to what extent a group chooses to incorporate itself into the host culture. Boundaries can be maintained by deliberate resistance to assimilation through self-enforced endogamy or other forms of self-segregation.33 The level of absorption may also be restricted by how the host culture accepts or rejects the newcomers. The idea of boundaries should not be confused with

31 32

Brubaker, 5. Brubaker, 5-6 33 Brubaker, 6.

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those of the state. This criterion would actually allow for groups to live in diverse geographical locations while maintaining connection with their home culture. Though the Jewish dispersions do not act as prototype, they can be called diaspora by Brubakers criteria. In each case, either voluntary or forced dispersion across state borders occurs. After the Abrahamic Covenant was instituted and land became entrenched in the Jewish psyche, the majority of Jews became oriented around a homeland and pictured it as the source of their values, identity and loyalty. Lastly, the Judean dispersion provides an example of boundarymaintenance whereby the people choose to retain their national identity while cooperating with the host culture (Babylon). The dispersion of Israel to Assyria, however, provides a contrary example of a group choosing to completely assimilate surrendering its identity to the host culture. Having established the group as diaspora the work of discerning its unique diasporic qualities can be undertaken. Therefore, this paper will employ Brubakers criterion as the primary source for defining diaspora. Somalia: A Cultural Analysis. Shaped like number seven, Somalia lies on the eastern horn of the African continent. Ethiopia borders it to the west and Somalia has nearly 2,000 miles coastline on its northern and eastern shores. According to the United States Department of State the estimated population of Somalia at 9.9 million people.34 Nearly one quarter of that population resides in an area known as Somaliland. This enclave located in northwest Somalia formed in 1991 after the collapse of the Somalian government. Though not recognized as a country it acts as an independent state within a state. In 2009 the leaders of Somaliland held presidential elections and hope to be

U.S. Department of State, Background Note: Somalia, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2863.htm (accessed April 15, 2012).

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recognized an independent country.35 Another semi-autonomous state called Puntland exists in the northeast region of Somalia. Lineage identity is a central organizing force in Somali society, but not the only one.36 Somali society consists of a complex system of a segmented lineage clans. The clan structure can be organized into three groups: Nomadic/Pastoral, Agro-Pastoralists and Minorities.37 The segmented lineage begins with the patrilineal family clan. The family clan divides into sub-clans, primary lineage and mag/diya (blood money) paying groups.38 The Somali only knows himself of herself by their clan genealogy. Children are taught to memorize and recite several generations of ancestors. The information establishes a membership connection for the individual and, at times, may even save their lives.39 Clan affiliation often equates to political affiliation and in times of unrest being able to recite ones history to prove lineage can be a life saving skill. On the other hand, younger Somalis who have lived primarily in cultural blending urban centers like Mogadishu often fail to know their genealogical script.40 However, there can be much fluidity within the clan structures. In other words, if an individual needs to align with another clan for political or other reasons, he or she simply adopts a genealogy from that clan making it their own and thus gains membership. The flexibility in the clan system may be due to the belief in a common natal descent. The Nomadic/Pastoralists have four basic family clans: Darood, Hawiye, Dir, and Isaaq.

Rueters, Factbox: What is Somaliland, http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/08/08/us-africa-diasporasomaliland-factbox-idUSL637638620080808 (accessed April 1, 2012). 36 Joakim Gundel, The Migration-Development Nexus: Somalia Case Study, International Migration Vol. 40 (2002): f. 1, 278. 37 Joakim Gundel, Clans in Somalia, ACCORD (2009): 12-20. There is argument as to whether Minorities should be considered clans. However, this paper will refer to them as clan. 38 Gundel, Clans in Somalia, 8. 39 Virginia Luling, Genealogy as Theory, Genealogy as Tool: Aspects of Somali Clanship, Social Identities, Vol. 12, No. 4, (2006): 471. 40 Luling, 476.

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These family clans are considered noble because they claim descent from Samaale of the Quraysh, of which the Prophet Muhammad belonged. The Agro-Pastoralists are also nobles and consist of two family clans: Rahanwein/Mirifle and Digil. These family clans claim agnatic descent from Saab, the brother of Samaale. The third group consists of people referred to as Minorities. Considered outcasts or non-nobles, the Minorities work as cobblers, tanners, weavers and blacksmiths.41 Somalis, in large part, practice exogamy and polygyny (within the limits of Islamic law). Courtship among Somalis often proves difficult because of their nomadic and semi-nomadic lifestyles. Virginity remains a high value for would be brides, thus, the practice of infibulation among certain clans can be found.42 The older male members of families often arrange marriages for the younger men. The Somali marriage ideal has a sense of utilitarianism, however. As a mans herds increase so to does the responsibility of the wife. Somali wives will be expected to care for about 150 sheep and goats unless she has numerous daughters or a widowed mother to help, then, the number may grow as large as 300. When the flocks grow too large, the male will choose another wife. Therefore, the more wives the greater the status of the man because he requires more help tending his large flocks (wealth).43 Each new bride requires bride-wealth be paid which only demonstrates further the prosperity of the husband. When the male takes a second (or third or fourth) wife the first wife and her children form called the great house or minweyn.44 The successive wives and their children form the little house or minyar.45 Each

Global Security, Military: An Introduction to Somalia, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/call/call_93-1_chp1.htm (accessed April 12, 2012). 42 Ingrid Engebrigtsen, Kinship, Gender and Adaptation Processes in Exile: The Case of Tamil and Somali Families in Norway, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 33, No. 5, (2007): 736. 43 I.M. Lewis, Marriage and the Family in Northern Somaliland, (Kampala: East African Institute of Social Research, 1962), 16. 44 I.M. Lewis, 8.

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wife receives from her husband a home, but the first wife directs all aspects of the polygynous family.46 Somali women keep all natal clan affiliations and do not, like Western culture, take the surname of the husband as their own.47 On the other hand, the children produced in the union carry the first name of the father as their surname.48 The patrilineal name given to the daughter, as her surname, cannot be lost because she must retain her agnatic clan relationship. The significance of this tradition comes to the forefront when it is understood that because the husband does not necessarily take full responsibility for the wifes well being. Primarily the wifes/wives loyalty(ies) lie with her patrilineal lineage and not her husband. Divorce is common among Somalis (typically instigated by the husband), thus, maintaining the patrilineal relationship is of utmost importance to the female. The levirate prevails49 in the case of widows in most Somali clans. An intrinsic link exists between the history of Somalia and history of Islam. Daarood and Isaaq, for whom two Somali noble family clans are named, are believed to have brought the Islamic faith to Somalia.50 Much debate about the veracity of these claim exists. Lewis, however, argues that Islam made its appearance in Somali shortly after Hijrah and entrenched itself in the local landscape by the 9th or 10th Century B.C.51 The historical trajectory would correlate to the overall account of the spread of Islam into the Horn of Africa. Somalis, by and large, practice Sufism. Classic Sufism believes intimate relationship with Allah can be obtained before one dies.
I.M. Lewis, A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa, (New York: International African Institute by Oxford University Press, 1961), 67. 46 Lewis, A Pastoral Democracy, 67. 47 Engebrigsten, 736. 48 Lewis, Marriage and Family, 8. 49 Nello Puccioni, Anthropology and Ethnography of the Peoples of Somalia, (Bologna: Nicola Zanichelli, 1936), 172. 50 Luling, 473 51 I.M. Lewis, Sufism in Somaliland: A Study in Tribal Islam, (London: The School, 1956), 9.
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Intimacy with God, for the Sufi, comes by following tariqah (the path). The disciplines practiced along tariqah vary but the result should be marifa, or absorption into God.52 It should be stressed that the above account of Somali culture, clanism and religion is, at best, simplistic. One must resist the temptation to group Somalis into simple genealogical charts or hard and fast heterogeneous groups. Somali segmented lineage weaves a complex web of descent with multiple layers. This author has merely scratched the surface but attempted to give a broad overview of important characteristics pertinent to this writing. Attention will now turn to understanding the turbulent history of Somalia that has lead to their diaspora. Somalis in Diaspora: Historical Reflection Somalian history paints a picture of trouble and turmoil and occupation. Ancient East African history was tied to Arabic trading routes and the spread of Islam. Colonization, resistance and diaspora dominate most of modern Somali history. As early as the 16th Century, East Africa Sultans entered into trading agreements with the Portuguese that devolved into territorial power plays. In the early 19th Century the British East India Company entered into trading contracts with the Sultan of Tajura. Between 1840 and 1887 B.C. the British succeed in establishing consensus among East African clan leaders and establish borders for British Somaliland. If one imagines the present day country of Somalia as a number 7, British Somaliland would have been the horizontal line. However, the vertical line would represent an area of the incipient Somalia that was being heavily influenced by the Italians. Eventually, the Italians gain enough support among clan leaders and the British to form the boundaries of Italian Somaliland. Italian colonization lasted until after World War II (1947) when the United Nations made Italian Somaliland a trust territory. British Somaliland existed under colonialism

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I.M. Lewis, Sufism, 10.

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until 1960 when both British and Italian Somaliland obtain independence and form the United Republic of Somaliland. The United Republic lasted less than a decade and held only two free elections. In 1969 Major General Mohamed Siad Barre grasped power after the 1968 assassination of President Abdi Rashid Ali Shermarke. Siads nearly two decades of leadership brought border skirmishes with and the eventual invasion of Ethiopia, membership in the Arab League and a short-lived partnership with the Soviet Union. Siads leadership created such division among the people that war broke out among many clan families in the northern region of Somalia. The clan wars began a long history of people movement among Somalis. By 1990 the Somalis had been pushed out of Ethiopia and ties to the Soviet Union had broken. The United States was becoming increasingly involved in Somalia as a supplier of weapons. In 1991 Siad was removed from power by enemy clans and forced to flee Somalia. Siads removal and the ensuing clan wars threw the country into absolute chaos. The United States (U.S.) spearheaded a United Nations (U.N.) peacekeeping mission to Somalia. The goal was to restore peace and provide humanitarian assistance. The mission was somewhat successful in distributing food and providing for human needs. Restoring peace to the country had very little success. While attempting to capture high value targets in Mogadishu two U.S. helicopters were shot down and many U.S. soldiers were killed attempting to rescue the crews. Eventually the U.S. and U.N withdraw from Somalia leaving it without a centralized government and still in chaos. To this day in Somalia has recognized central government and the country remains divided under the control of various clan warlords. The lack of a central government allowed for a rise of Islamic interests. In an attempt to establish order in the country Islamic leaders formed the Islamic Courts Union. The goal of the

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courts was to bring order by enforcing Sharia law. However, the Islamic Courts Union also had a military wing called Al-Shabaab. In 2006 the Ethiopians invaded Somalia and overthrew the Islamic Courts Union. Nevertheless, Al-Shabaab broke away from the defeated courts and waged war against the Ethiopians. As Al-Shabaab gained victory they never left behind the goal of establishing Sharia law. Eventually Al-Shabaab was successful in ousting the Ethiopian army and remains a resistant force against the Transitional Federal Government (TFG). The TFG was an attempt at creating a transitional government brokered at the Somalia National Reconciliation Conference in Kenya (2002). Currently, however, Ethiopia has returned to Somalia and retaken some Al-Shabaab territory and Kenya has joined the fight by sending invasion forces. To compound the already turbulent troubles of Somalia, the worst drought in nearly six decades brought further devastation. Crops failed and people began to die of starvation. Outside groups attempted to bring in humanitarian aid but the Al-Shabaab successfully blocked these groups from delivering much needed food and water. Thousands of people began to flee the country to refugee camps in Kenya and Ethiopia while other refugees fled into Al-Shabaab controlled Mogadishu and its refugee camps. Many of these refugees were granted access to multiple countries creating a recent diaspora. The recent dispersion does not constitute the first migration of people groups away from Somalia, however. Gundel presents four points in history where Somalis were dispersed from their homeland.53 During the British and Italian colonial period many Somalis were granted residence in the United Kingdom. This dispersion consisted primarily of people involved in the Merchant Navy and settled in the coastal areas of England.54 Current estimates place the diaspora Somali

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Gundel, The Migration-Development Nexus, 266. Gundel, The Migration-Development Nexus, 263.

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population in the U.K. at about 20,000. Gundel, however, estimates the population to be between 70,000 and 100,000.55 A second dispersion of Somalis was largely caused by the rapid economic decline of the country during the Siad regime. Somalia had joined the Arab League in 1974 and large numbers of Somalis migrated to the Gulf States to work in the oil fields. Ahmed, as cited in Gundel, asserts that as many as 200,000 migrants dispersed to the Gulf States and half of these were of the Isaaq clan.56 Continuing and ongoing hostilities between Somalia and Ethiopia caused the third migration. This time the migration pattern was unidirectional depending on the stage of fighting. The war between Somalia and Ethiopia created a massive humanitarian crisis for both countries. At times Somalis would migrate to Ethiopia and at other times Ethiopians would disperse to Somalia. The numbers of Somalian refugees entering Ethiopia varies but some estimates are as high as 600,000.57 The fourth, and largest, wave of migration from Somalia began in 1991 when a reported 1 million people fled Somalia after Siad was removed from power. The poorer refugees entered Kenya, Ethiopia and Djibouti while the more affluent escaped to Western European countries.58 A 2000 report by the United Nations High Commissioner of Refugees (UNHCR) records 5,200 Somali refugees being granted asylum in the United States of America. This small number has continued to grow, however. Abdi Kusow gives a range of between 30,000 and 150,000 Somalis living in the United States thus revealing a large discrepancy.59 Randy Mitchell contends this
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Gundel, The Migration-Development Nexus, 263. Gundel, The Migration-Development Nexus, 263. 57 Gundel, The Migration-Development Nexus, 264. 58 Gundel, The Migration-Development Nexus, 265. 59 Abdi Kuslow, Migration and Racial Formations Among Somali Immigrants in North America, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 32, No. 3 (2006): 541.

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discrepancy derives from Somali fears and fluidity.60 Typically multiple Somali families may live in one domicile and fear being evicted if their true numbers are reported.61 Diaspora Somalis also tend to relocate frequently for economic reasons making it hard to track their exact numbers.62 Nevertheless, Kusow calls on 2003 data from the U.S. Department of State showing the number of settled Somalis at 40,000.63 The majority of Somali refugees have settled in two U.S. cities: 1) Minneapolis, Minnesota and, 2) Columbus, Ohio. Somalis in the present dispersion more than meet the proposed criteria for defining a diaspora. They have been dispersed from their homeland across state borders and within the country as displaced persons. Secondly, they are oriented to a real homeland from which they derive their value identity and loyalty. The majority of dispersed Somalis practice Islam, the religion of their homeland giving them a common identity with other Somalis (and the larger Islamic Umma). However, the identity and loyalty of diaspora may not be essentially tied to clan or genealogy but to an identity formed from connection to other Somalis in diaspora from other clans. Though space does not allow for discussion of remittance practice among Somali diaspora, the amount of money sent back to the homeland to fund regional development demonstrates loyalty. The third criterion, in this case, integrates with the second. As Somalis from various clans are settled in the same geographical location groups begin to seek ways to maintain the boundary of Somali culture and especially religion. Therefore, in some sense, a new clan forms from the dispersed persons desiring to maintain a sense of connectedness to home.

Randy Mitchell, Diaspora Missions in Minnesota: Local Actions with Global Implications, ed. Enoch Wan (Portland: Western Seminary), 297. 61 Mitchell, 297. 62 Mitchell, 297. 63 Kuslow, 541.

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Common Problems Faced by Diaspora Somalis in the United States of America. Randy Mitchell groups problems faced by diaspora Somalis into three basic categories; first, language and education; second, culture and religion; third, affordable housing and business development; last, complex circumstances (i.e. post 9/11 prejudice against Muslims).64 These categories represent wide ranges of issues for Somalis attempting to integrate into their host culture. Some simply choose to maintain their boundaries and resist assimilation while others try to find a balance between their traditions and their current situation. As stated earlier, a large population of diaspora Somalis have settled in Columbus, Ohio.65 These diaspora Somali settlers in Columbus are second migration diaspora. Second migration happens when early settlers in one location (e.g. Washington D.C. or Virginia) move to another location due to economic or other reasons. Otiso and Smith believe the influx of second migration Somalis in Columbus rests on two main socio-economic factors.66 The first reason stems from a low U.S. birth rate resulting in fewer native born people to populate the work force, especially in urban centers.67 The second attraction to Columbus lies in its substantial economic growth in the service sector. Otiso and Smith paint a favorable picture of immigration into Columbus showing it to be necessary in the larger economic scheme.68 Though the previous study speaks to a positive approach to Somali migration, the common problems listed by Mitchell still arise among diaspora Somalis in Columbus.

Mitchell, 299-304. The actual numbers are contested but some place them as low as 5,000 while others, like Randy Mitchell, estimate the group at 20,000. The Ohio State group Students for Cultural Awareness places the number at 35,000. 66 Kefa Otiso and Bruce Smith, Immigration and Economic Restructuring in Ohio Cities, 1940-2000, Ohio Journal of Science, Vol 105, No. 5, (2005): 136. 67 Otiso, 136. 68 Otiso, 104-135.
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A student group formed at the Ohio State University called Students for Community Cultural Awareness (SCCA) seeks to raise awareness of immigrant communities in the Columbus area. The SCCA research regarding Somalis in Columbus correlates with Mitchells categories. However, the SCCA lists diaspora as being a major issue faced by the Somalis.69 The group seems to infer that second migration mirrors the characteristics of diaspora due to forced removal based on economic survival. The SCCA seeks to engage the areas education, health care and city adaptation (i.e. how the city views the influx of diaspora Somalis both positively and negatively).70 Other regions of the United States have also seen relatively large numbers of Somali settlers through second migration. Large numbers of Somalis relocated to various parts of the U.S. from early 2001 to late 2002. The cities of Portland and Lewiston Maine became the home of nearly 2,400 Somali immigrants.71 The mass relocation was not a part of any planned relocation by the U.S. government or Non-Governmental Organization. The influx of immigrants overwhelmed the cities social services and educational entities. Consequently, residents of the communities did not view the initial immigration favorably. Eventually the governments of Portland and Lewiston began to develop partnerships between municipalities and faith based organizations in an attempt to tackle the problems.72 Though not all citizens of Portland and Lewiston would agree, the partnerships have proved to help acculturate Somalis to their new environment making them more productive members of the community. Further study of how

Students for Community and Cultural Awareness SCCA, Population in Columbus, Ohio (presentation Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, no date available), Slide 4. 70 SCCA, Slides 11-19. 71 Phil Nadeau, The New Mainers: State and Local Agencies Form Partnerships to Help Somali Immigrants, National Civic Review (2007): 55. 72 Nadeau, 57.

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these partnerships are being sustained may help other cities manage diaspora groups arriving in the U.S. and for church leaders wishing to strategically engage diaspora. Strategy Formation: Engaging Diaspora Somalis. At this point temptation to outline multiple program initiatives to meet the challenges of diaspora Somalis might seem appropriate. No one would argue against the value of English as Second Language classes to help Somalis adjust to the U.S. Certainly Somalis could be engaged through social services empowering them to utilize available governmental resources. Church leaders, however, need to view the necessity of engaging diaspora Somalis from a higher view before drilling down to specific programs. This paper will draw on the work of Randy Mitchell to highlight overarching themes that must be grasped before implementing initiatives with the goal of engaging diaspora Somalis with the gospel. Local Churches and Local Consultations.73 Essential to the task of reaching diaspora Somalis with the gospel of Jesus Christ has been and will remain the local church. Though it would serve denominations to create within their mission structures a Diaspora Ministries Field,74 the real work of contextualization and engagement must be done on a local level. This does, however, present a multitude of challenges to a local assembly. One unfortunate challenge comes in the form of prejudices existing in many local Christian communities toward diaspora Somalis. Prejudice must be faced head on through consultations seeking to educate local church leaders and members about diaspora and how God may be using transnational movements to open doors to accomplish the Great Commission. Further education about the culture, worldview, and issues facing diaspora Somalis may serve to
73 74

Mitchell, 305-306. The Lausanne Global Conversation, Carolyn Kemp: Changing to be Strategic, http://conversation.lausanne.org/en/resources/detail/12275 (accessed: April 1, 2012).

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empower local assemblies to effectively engage them with the good news. It may also help to combat the tendency of Americans toward ethnocentric monoculturalism so that creative strategies of multi-cultural engagement can be constructed. Continued, Fervent, Heartfelt Prayers75 Knowledge of an issue, though important, has to move from the mind to the spirit. There has to be a diaspora of the heart. This type of movement only happens when the local body and its members pray. Prayer not only creates space for heart change and burden development but it also builds faith in the believer. Mark Hausfeld contends that adherents to Islam, like Somalis, must be engaged through the miraculous power of God.76 Fervent prayer and the miraculous are intrinsically related to each other. Diaspora Somalis, according to their Islamic belief, hold prayer in high regard. Christians engaging Muslims without placing priority on personal powerful prayer make two major mistakes. First, they create distance between themselves and devout Muslims by demonstrating a poor example of devotion to Christ. Secondly, neglecting prayer disconnects the individual Christian from the necessary spiritual discernment required to effectively engage the people of Islam. Intentionally Building Cross-Cultural Relationships77 Empowered by prayer and equipped with cultural understanding Christians can go about the business of intentionally engaging Somalis. This does not mean an immediate presentation of the good news of Jesus Christ, however. It does mean the Christian enters into the Somali community to build friendships that will, over time, create opportunities to share Jesus Christ. The key word patience must remain in the forefront of the Christian mind. Patience in prayer,
75 76

Mitchell, 307. Hausfeld, 25. 77 Mitchell, 308-310. I have combined two of Mitchells categories: Crossing Cultures without Crossing Oceans and Ministering Cross Culturally.

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patience in understanding the nuances of diaspora culture and patience in discerning open doors for the gospel must be practiced.

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Bibliography Blue Letter Bible. "Dictionary and Word Search for puwts (Strong's 6327)". Blue Letter Bible. 1996-2012. 12 Apr 2012. < http:// www.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?Strongs=H6327&t=KJV > Brubaker, Rogers. "The 'Diaspora' Diaspora." Ethnic and Racial Studies 28 (2005): 1-19. Cotton, Roger. Old Testament Introduction Handouts. Springfield: Assemblies of God Theological Seminary, 2011. Engebrigtsen, Ingrid. Kinship, Gender and Adaptation Processes in Exile: The Case of Tamil and Somali Families in Norway, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 33, No. 5, (2007): 727-746. Global Security, Military: An Introduction to Somalia, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/call/call_93-1_chp1.htm (accessed April 12, 2012). Gundel, Joakim. The Migration-Development Nexus: Somalia Case Study, International Migration Vol. 40 (2002): 255-281. ____________. Clans in Somalia, ACCORD (2009): 1-30. Hausfeld, Mark. Islam in America: Understanding and Engaging Diaspora Muslims Through the Local Church. Springfield: Assemblies of God Theological Seminary, 2010. Kuslow, Abdi. Migration and Racial Formations Among Somali Immigrants in North America, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 32, No. 3 (2006): 533-551. Lewis, I.M. Marriage and the Family in Northern Somaliland. Kampala: East African Institute of Social Research, 1962.

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____________. A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa. New York: International African Institute by Oxford University Press, 1961. ____________. Sufism in Somaliland: a study in tribal Islam. London: The School, 1956. Luling, Virginia. Genealogy as Theory, Genealogy as Tool: Aspects of Somali Clanship, Social Identities, Vol. 12, No. 4, (2006): 471-485. Mitchell, Randy. Diaspora Missions in Minnesota: Local Actions with Global Implications, ed. Enoch Wan. Portland: Western Seminary, 2011. Nadeau, Phil. The New Mainers: State and Local Agencies Form Partnerships to Help Somali Immigrants, National Civic Review (2007): 55-57. Neill, Stephen. Creative Tension: The Duff Lectures, 1958. London: Edinburgh House Press, 1959. Oswald, William. Babel, in The Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, ed. T. Desmond Alexander and David W. Baker. Downers Grove: Inter Varsity Press, 2003. Otiso, Kefa and Bruce Smith, Immigration and Economic Restructuring in Ohio Cities, 19402000, Ohio Journal of Science, Vol 105, No. 5, (2005): 133-137. Puccioni, Nello. Anthropology and Ethnography of the Peoples of Somalia. Bologna: Nicola Zanichelli, 1936. Rubesh, Ted. Diaspora Distinctives: The Jewish Diaspora Experience in the Old Testament, ed. Enoch Wan. Portland: Western Seminary, 2011. Rueters, Factbox: What is Somaliland, http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/08/08/us-africadiaspora-somaliland-factbox-idUSL637638620080808 (accessed April 1, 2012).

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Santos, Narry. Exploring the Major Dispersion Terms and Realities in the Bible, ed. Enoch Wan Portland: Western Seminary, 2011. Students for Community and Cultural Awareness SCCA, Population in Columbus, Ohio. Presentation Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, no date available. The Lausanne Global Conversation, Carolyn Kemp: Changing to be Strategic, http://conversation.lausanne.org/en/resources/detail/12275 (accessed: April 1, 2012). U.S. Department of State, Background Note: Somalia, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2863.htm (accessed April 15, 2012). Wan, Enoch. Diachronic Overview of Christian Missions to Diaspora Groups, ed. Enoch Wan Portland: Western Seminary, 2011.

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