UNIT NO. 6.

4 ALLOWABLE STRESSES In runway beam design the stresses we are most concerned with are tensile and compressive. The simply supported runway (Fig 1) when loaded will deflect, the fibres in the upper half of the beam being compressed whilst the fibres in the lower half are stretched. When the load is removed the beam will go back to its original position because it is elastic.

Fibres compressed Neutral axis

Fibres stretched

Note:BS 2853 assumes the load is always supported on the lower flange of the beam (tension flange). A load supported on the top compression flange edges could result in excessive stress over that indicated by BS 2853 formulae. Simply supported beam in bending Figure 1 If the load on the beam were to be increased it would eventually take a permanent set and not return to its original position when the load is removed. In practice this permanent set would be preceded by buckling, ie the beam would start to roll out of the plane of symmetry, the properties of the section would be destroyed and the beam would collapse totally. The Buckling Effect Buckling takes place when a beam becomes unstable. The degree of instability is directly related to two ratios: (1) Effective Length of the Beam = l/ry Radius of Gyration This ratio is known as the slenderness ratio. Hence the longer the span or the narrower the beam the more prone it becomes to buckling. (2) Depth of Beam Section = D/T Flange thickness This is known as the D/T ratio. The thicker the flange relative to the depth of the beam the greater load the beam can support. This is due to a greater resistance to buckling due to compressive stress.

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Table 1 in BS 2853 allows for this buckling effect. As the slenderness ratio, l/ry, increases or the D/T increases so the allowable compressive stress, Pbc, is reduced accordingly, (See Table 1). Allowable stresses Pbc in bending (Tonf/in2) for beams of steel to BS 15 D/T 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.5 10.5 10.5 9.9 9.9 9.9 9.9 10.5 10.5 10.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 10.5 10.5 10.2 9.2 9.2 9.2 9.2 10.5 10.5 9.9 8.9 8.9 8.9 8.9 10.5 10.5 9.7 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 10.5 10.3 9.4 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.2 10.5 9.8 8.8 7.6 7.6 7.6 7.6 10.1 9.3 8.3 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.0 9.6 8.8 7.7 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 9.2 8.3 7.2 5.9 5.6 5.6 5.6 8.8 7.9 6.6 5.6 5.2 5.0 5.0 8.4 7.4 6.1 5.4 5.0 4.7 4.4 8.0 6.9 5.8 5.2 4.7 4.4 4.1 7.5 6.4 5.6 4.9 4.5 4.2 3.9 7.4 6.2 5.4 4.7 4.3 4.0 3.7 7.2 6.0 5.2 4.6 4.1 3.8 3.5 7.1 5.9 5.0 4.4 4.0 3.6 3.3 6.9 5.7 4.9 4.2 3.8 3.5 3.1 6.8 5.6 4.7 4.1 3.7 3.3 3.0 6.7 5.5 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.2 2.9 6.6 5.3 4.4 3.8 3.3 3.0 2.8 6.5 5.2 4.3 3.7 3.2 2.9 2.7 6.4 5.1 4.1 3.6 3.1 2.8 2.6 6.3 4.9 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.7 2.5 l = Effective length D = Depth of section ry = Radius of Gyration T = Flange thickness

l/ry 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300

50 10.5 10.2 9.9 9.5 9.2 8.9 8.6 8.2 7.6 6.9 6.3 5.6 5.0 4.4 3.8 3.5 3.4 3.1 3.1 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2

Table of allowable compressive stresses for beams of steel to BS 4360, Grade 43A (BS15) Table 1 This Table has been inserted to help the reader understand how the ratio of l/ry and D/T affect the strength of a runway beam. NOTE: Radius of Gyration When calculating the slenderness ratio, the radius of gyration is taken about the YY axis which passes through the centre line of the vertical web of the beam. This figure can be looked up in the Table of Properties for the particular beam being used. Stresses due to bending in a runway beam

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When a runway is simply supported or supported at each end, (Fig.2 Length L1), the maximum bending stress will occur at the centre with the load at the centre span, position A. For a cantilever the maximum stress will occur at the support, position B, with the load at end of the cantilever.

L2

Position B

L1
Position A

Simply supported Runway with Cantilever Figure 2 Deflection of Runway Beams BS 2853 Clause 4K states:The maximum measured deflection of runway beams under the safe working load shall not exceed 1/500 of the span. For cantilever beams the maximum measured deflection under the safe working load shall not exceed 1/250 of the span. Measured Deflections The Tester and Examiner, when measuring the deflections of a runway beam, must ensure that it is done in such a manner that they relate to precisely the same conditions as those covering the calculated deflection. It is important that the Tester and Examiner is aware that the allowable deflection of a runway beam refers to the beam itself and does not include any additional deflections attributed to the supporting structure.

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Example 1

Runway set into Brick Piers (Encastre) Figure 3 The runway beam in Fig. 3 could be considered to be simply supported, any deflection measured would be the beam itself since any deflection of the brickwork would be negligible. Maximum deflection occurring at L/2 (centre of beam). Similarly if the runway beam was supported by steel columns the deflection measured would be the beam itself since deflection at the supports would be negligible. Example 2 Another common method of support is shown in Fig. 4, the runway is supported on two cross support beams. If we measure from an independent position then the measured deflection is compounded as the supports also deflect.

Deflection at A Measured deflection Deflection of runway beam Deflection at C

Runway supported on two cross support beams Figure 4

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The measured deflection at the centre of the runway beam, with the load at centre, is increased due to the deflection of supports. The actual deflection of the runway beam at centre span will be:
Measured deflection (Deflection at A + Deflection at C) 2

The above formula would still hold good even if the cross support beams were of a different section and the deflections at A and C were different. Note Very often a runway beam is built into a wall one end and supported on a goal post structure the other. The actual deflection of the runway at centre span would then be:

Measured deflection at centre span -

Deflection of Cross support 2

Maximum stresses in the cross supports, and therefore maximum deflection, will occur when the load is directly underneath the cross supports at the runway beam connections A and C. Fig 4. Although not part of the runway and therefore not within the confines of BS 2853 the Tester and Examiner must satisfy himself that support steelwork is adequate. BS 449, Clause 15 permits a maximum deflection of 1/360 for structural members and under no circumstances should this be exceeded. It is however the general practice to treat supporting beams as a runway gantry limiting deflection to 1/500 under maximum load. The design of runway beams to BS 2853 assumes the beam is simply supported, ie supported on two solid supports with no fixings, but in practice this would be unacceptable and the joint would be bolted or clamped. In most cases the rigidity of the joint will give the beam added resistance to bending, this is known as a fixing moment. For instance an encastre beam, as Figure 3, built into brick piers giving the highest fixing moment obtainable, would only deflect 25% of the amount of that of an identical simply supported beam loaded in a like manner. Most structural engineers ignore fixing moments when designing runway beams, for this reason the tester rarely finds runway beams which deflect the permissible 1/500 of the span. If he does so, the installation should be suspect. For instance a 178mm x 102mm U beam of say 3 metres long supported from two roof trusses and carrying a load of 1 tonne centrally positioned may deflect 5mm. As this deflection is within that permitted by BS 2853 it has been known for a test certificate to be issued for the installation. However the calculated design deflection for the beam alone would be approximately 2mm and in practice would be less, also with the load supported under one support point only the deflection of the roof truss would be at least l0mm as the runway beam would not deflect. For this reason the supporting structure is suspect and not the beam, so further checks must take place to ensure installation is safe.

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Measuring Deflection To obtain accurate deflection of a runway beam it is essential that a fixed datum point is used in order that the measuring device is not affected by movement of test loads involved etc. Adequate fixing points could be as listed below:(i) Solid ground floor. (ii) (iii) A suitable structure or machine on a ground floor not affected by test loads. A roof member not affected by test loads.

Datum points to be wary of:(i) (ii) Floors that can be affected by raising and lowering test loads. Roof members etc. that can be affected by raising and lowering test loads.

Other examples can obviously be encountered. Under certain circumstances the runway structure can supply its own datum point ie a suitable line tautly stretched between the beam support points see Figure 5.

Figure 5 Using suitable measuring equipment the actual deflection of the beam can be taken without recourse to taking support deflections into account. Where joists or similar supports are not available suitable supports can be clamped to the beam to give a height to a line above the beam using a modified version of equipment shown in Figure 6. With the advent of accurate and relatively cheap optical levels being on the market these are now often used for measuring runway beam deflections by hanging a suitable tape from the beam centre. The tripod height of the level can often help in ensuring the load does not interfere with taking readings from the tape. Care must, however, be taken to ensure the tripod is on a fixed, solid datum and the tape fixing point is stable. For instance if an outrigger is used from the beam centre, movement of this beam due to a badly supported runway, ie not vertical, it can affect optical level readings. Most Testers and Examiners have their own purpose built equipment for measuring deflection, with various attachments for different situations. The basic equipment would normally comprise a clamp anchor, a length of fine steel chain or piano wire to which is attached a weight. This weight would run in some form of guide attached to a base (sometimes magnetic), firmly attached to the framework a Dial Test Indicator.

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The DTI allows the Tester and Examiner to satisfy himself that the beam returns to its original position after loading, any creep or slip would easily be identified.
Piano wire Clamp

Dial test indicator

Zeroing bezel

Weight Stop

Sleeve guide Magnetic base

Simple Deflection Measuring Device Figure 6 The equipment shown in Fig. 5 can be stood on the floor or sat on top of the runway beam, bearing in mind there is usually some large weight (ie test load) directly under the beam where the measurements need to be taken. Note Many testers and examiners of runway beams refer to tables to assess the SWL of a particular runway. These tables are related to simply supported beams. However universal beams are rolled in lengths of up to 14 metres and some structural engineers will use such a length for up to 3 or 4 runway spans. Under these circumstances substantial fixing moments occur at the support points enabling greater loads to be supported by a particular size of beam than indicated by the tables. For this reason where a continuous beam, or beams with substantial joints are used as continuous beams, they should not be rejected on the basis of the tables but dimensions must be taken for calculations to be made to ascertain if they are strong enough. A single span beam with rigid end fixing could also come within this category. Transverse stress in flanges should always be checked where spans longer than indicated in the tables are used.

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