GAS CYCLE Heat engine or thermal engine is a closed system (no mass crosses its boundaries) that exchanges

heat and work with it surrounding and that operates in cycles. Elements of a thermodynamic heat engine with a fluid as the working substance: 1. A working substance, matter that receives heat, rejects heat, and does work; 2. A source of heat (also called a hot body, a heat reservoir, or just source), from which the working substance receives heat; 3. A heat sink (also called a receiver , a cold body , or just sink), to which the working substance can reject heat; and 4. An engine, wherein the working substance may do work or have work done on it. A thermodynamic cycle occurs when the working fluid of a system experiences a number of processes that eventually return the fluid to its initial state. CYCLE WORK AND THERMAL EFFICIENCY QA = heat added QR = heat rejected W = net work Available energy is that part of the heat that was converted into mechanical work. Unavailable energy is the remainder of the heat that had to be rejected into the receiver (sink). THE SECOND LAW OF THERNODYNAMICS All energy receives as heat by a heat-engine cycle cannot be converted into a mechanical work. (a) W =Q W = QA + (-QR) (Algebraic sum) W = QA QR (Arithmetic difference) (b) The network of a cycle is the algebraic sum of the works done by the individual processes. W =Q W = W1-2 + W2-3 + W3-4 + The second law of thermodynamics is an expression of the tendency that over time, differences in temperature, pressure, and chemical potential equilibrate in an isolated physical system. From the state of thermodynamic equilibrium, the law deduced the principle of the increase of entropy and explains the phenomenon of irreversibility in

nature. The second law declares the impossibility of machines that generate usable energy from the abundant internal energy of nature by processes called perpetual motion of the second kind. The second law may be expressed in many specific ways, but the first formulation is credited to the French scientist Sadi Carnot in 1824 (seeTimeline of thermodynamics). The law is usually stated in physical terms of impossible processes. In classical thermodynamics, the second law is a basic postulate applicable to any system involving measurable heat transfer, while in statistical thermodynamics, the second law is aconsequence of unitarity in quantum theory. In classical thermodynamics, the second law defines the concept of thermodynamic entropy, while in statistical mechanics entropy is defined from information theory, known as the Shannon entropy.

THE CARNOT CYCLE The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle conceivable. There are other ideal cycles as efficient as the Carnot cycle, but none more so, such a perfect cycle forms a standard of comparison for actual engines and actual cycles and also for other less efficient ideal cycles, permitting as to judge how much room there might be for improvement. The Carnot cycle is a theoretical thermodynamic cycle proposed by Nicolas Lonard Sadi Carnotin 1824 and expanded by Benoit Paul mile Clapeyron in the 1830s and 40s. It can be shown that it is the most efficient cycle for converting a given amount of thermal energy into work, or conversely, creating a temperature difference by doing a given amount of work. Every thermodynamic system exists in a particular thermodynamic state. When a system is taken through a series of different states and finally returned to its initial state, a thermodynamic cycle is said to have occurred. In the process of going through this cycle, the system may perform work on its surroundings, thereby acting as a heat engine. A system undergoing a Carnot cycle is called a Carnot heat engine, although such a 'perfect' engine is only a theoretical limit and cannot be built in practice. Evaluation of the above integral is particularly simple for the Carnot cycle. The amount of energy transferred as work is

The total amount of thermal energy transferred between the hot reservoir and the system will be

and the total amount of thermal energy transferred between the system and the cold reservoir will be

The efficiency

is defined to be:

where is the work done by the system (energy exiting the system as work), is the heat put into the system (heat energy entering the system), is the absolute temperature of the cold reservoir, and is the absolute temperature of the hot reservoir. is the maximum system entropy is the minimum system entropy This efficiency makes sense for a heat engine, since it is the fraction of the heat energy extracted from the hot reservoir and converted to mechanical work. A Rankine cycle is usually the practical approximation.

OPERATION OF CARNOT ENGINE A cylinder C contains m mass of a substance. The cylinder head, the only place where heat may enter or leave the substance(system) is place in contact with the sourcre of heat or hot body which has a constant with the source of heat or hot body which has a constant temperature T1. Heat flows from the hot body into the substance in the cylinder isothermally,process 1-2. And the piston moves from 1 to 2. Next, the cylinder is removed from the hot body and the insulator I is place over the head of the cylinder, so that no heat may be transffered in or out.

Carnot cycle Analysis of the carnot cycle Q = T1 (S2-S1), area 1-2-n-m-1

Q = T3 (S4-S3), area 3-4-n-m-3 =T3 (S4-S3) = - T3 (S2-S1) W = QA QR = T1 (S2-S1) = - T3 (S2-S1) =( T1- T3) (S2-S1),1-2-3-4-1
e = W = ( T1- T3) (S2-S1) QA T1 (S2-S1) e = T 1- T 3 T1

The thermal efficiency e is defined as the fraction of the heat supplied to a thermodynamic cycle that is converted into work. Work from the TS plane
QA = mRTln V2 V1 QA = mRTln V4 = QA = mRTln V3 V3 V4

From process 2-3, T3 = [V2/V3]^K-1 T2 From process 4-1, T4 = [V1/V4]^K-1 T1 But T4 = T3 and T1 = T2 Therefore, [V2/V3]^K-1 = [V1/V4]^K-1 Then, V3/V4 = V2/V1
QR = - mRT3ln V2 V1

W = QA - QR = mRTln V2 - mRTln V2
V1 V1

W = (T1- T3) mRTln V2

V1 e =W = (T1- T3) mRTln V2 / V1

Q e = T 1- T 3 T1

mRTln V2 / V1

Work from the pV plane. W = W = W1-2 + W2-3 + W3-4 + W4-1

W = pV1ln V2 + p1V3 p2V2 + p3V3lnV4 = p1V1 p4V4 V1 1-k V3 1-k

Mean effective Pressure (pm or mep) Pm = W VD VD = displacement volume , the volume swept by the piston in one stroke. Mean effective pressure is the average constant pressure that, acting through one stroke, will do non piston the network of a single cycle. Ratio of Expansion, Ratio of Compression Expansion ratio = volume at the end of expansion Volume at the beginning of expansion Isothermal expansion ratio = V2/V1 Isentropic expansion ratio = V3/V2 Overall expansion ratio = V3/V1 Compression ratio = Volume at the beginning of compression volume at the end of compression

Isothermal compression ratio = V3/V4 Isentropic compression ratio,rk = V4/V1 Overall compression ratio = V3/V1 The isentropic compression ratio rk is the compression ratio most commonly used.