A primer of methods for connecting to earth (ground).

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BY DONALD W. ZIPSE

ROUNDING STRONGLY AFFECTS personnel safety, equipment safety and operation, power distribution systems, solid-state systems and computers, and

technical and theoretical side of grounding, which in some cases may be in opposition or conflict with the NEC and the National Electrical Safety Code. The term ground will be interchanged with earth in the hope that, in the future, the United States will adopt the European terminology, as the term earth is much more descriptive, and it will be one more step in unification of terms. The information contained in this article on earthing will be confined to low-voltage systems, 600 V and under, unless otherwise indicated. Connecting to Earth Before we can discuss connecting to earth, several ideas must be clarified.

static- and lightning-protection systems. Improper earthing-grounding installations can result in equipment damage or improper operation, especially in solid-state equipment. Improper earthing-grounding systems can result in not only electrical injures and shocks, but may have also resulted in electrocution. Many of the misconceptions with todays grounding systems will be disclosed and corrective action will be offered. This article will not regurgitate the National Fire Protection Associations (NFPAs) National Electrical Code (NEC). In fact, be advised that this article will present the

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1077-2618/03/$17.002003 IEEE

HISTORY OF EARTHING/GROUNDING
hen Thomas Alva Edison started his electric illumining company and began the electrical distribution system, he used only one insulated (from earth) conductor and the earth for the return conductor. This uncontrolled flow of electric current over the earth resulted in shocking horses and his employees as they dug alongside the underground distribution systems. Traction employees working on the tracks received electric shocks, especially when separating the track joints. This prompted Edison to devise the three-wire distribution system, similar to what we use today in our homes. However, Edison insulated all three conductors. This allowed Edison to know exactly where all the current was at all times. Likewise, when the Underground Railway was being developed in London, they also elected to eliminate any stray current by using a four-rail track system, two rails for supporting and guiding the coaches, one supply rail and the return conductor rail. The latter two rails were insulated from earth. Major debate raged over whether an electrical system should be connected to earth-ground. Like Edisons electrical systems, which originally were not connected to earth, the ungrounded electrical system flourished until approximately 1913. In 1913, the NEC made mandatory the connection to earth of any electrical system of 150 V or less as measured to earth. However, when more than one connection to earth exists on the same electrical system, current can flow uncontrolled over the earth, metallic piping, equipment, and through the earth, causing problems with personnel safety, electrical equipment, etc., [1], [2]. Because of the need for continuous production processes to operate with minimal power interruptions, ungrounded electrical systems were popular mainly in the continuous processing facilities: chemical and petroleum Industries. However, there are many disadvantages with ungrounded systems. These disadvantages were

overcome with the advent of the high-resistance grounded electrical system that came into existence in the 1930s and were adopted by industry in the 1950s. It is the authors opinion that of the three types of major electrical systems; solidly, high-resistance, and ungrounded, the ungrounded is the least desirable for large electrical systems as it results in damage to components on the system. Over time, the United States has failed to learn from Edison; today, the utilities use the earth for a partial ground return path permitting the uncontrolled flow of parallel current over not only the earth, but over the adjacent underground metallic piping and other conducting materials. This uncontrolled flow of dangerous and hazardous stray current has shocked humans and has resulted in death of dairy cows and pigs [1]. The NEC also requires that multiple connections to earth of the neutral conductor be made, again permitting stray uncontrolled current to flow over the earth, metallic piping, etc., resulting in electric shocks to persons in swimming pools and showers and potentially other places. It is possible that electrocutions have occurred due to the practice of using the earth either as a parallel path or as a partial neutral return conductor [2], [3]. [1] D.W. Zipse, The hazardous multigrounded neutral distribution system and dangerous stray currents, in IEEE Petroleum and Chemical Industry Committee Tech. Conf. Rec., 2003, pp. 2345. [2] D.W. Zipse, Electrical shock hazard due to stray current (The shocking shower), in IEEE I&CPS Conf Rec., 1999, pp. 16. [3] D.W. Zipse, Are the National Electrical Code and the National Electrical Safety Code hazardous to your health? (The shocking swimming pool), in IEEE I&CPS Conf. Rec., 1999, pp. 19.

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Grounding Hypothesis

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The first premise that one must realize is that the earth is not a sponge that can absorb and dissipate electrons. The second is that the earth is a conductor having various degrees of conductivity. The third misconception is that every electrical circuit must be connected to earth to function. The fourth is that every electrical grounding system, whether it is used for power distribution, radio, lightning, or static consists of a circuit. Most grounding problems can be resolved if one determines the circuit associated with the problem, be it lightning, static, or power distribution. The IEEE Power Engineering Society defines a circuit as a conductor or system of conductors through which an electric current is intended to flow. This definition is lacking. The definition of a circuit is: 1) A path or route, the complete traversal of which without local change of direction requires returning to the

starting point. 2) The act of following such a path or route. A journey made on such a path or route. 3) Electronics. (IEEE definition) A closed path followed or capable of being followed by an electric current. A configuration of electrically or electromagnetically connected components or devices [1]. The beginning is arbitrarily selected. This is a vital concept to remember, and this idea will assist you in solving complex electrical problems.
Why We Ground

The reasons and methods used for connecting various items to earth may not be the same. The object of connecting electrical power systems to earth is different than it is for equipment and for grounding buildings. The reasons why grounding is used and what is affected by grounding and or bonding is contained in Table 1.

The Connection to Earth

Connections to earth minimize the voltage differences between conductive metallic objects and ground. Various methods are used to connect to earth. The connection to earth is called the grounding or earthing electrode. These connections can be divided into two groups. One group is comprised of man-made electrodes specifically designed for and used only for the electrical connection to earth. The other is objects primarily used for functions other than earthing electrodes, such as underground metallic water piping, well casings, concrete-encased reinforcing bar, steel piling, etc. The connection to earth, an electrode, can be made using many different forms such as a rod, a loop of copper conductor, a plate, or the reinforcing bar or a length of copper conductor buried in the concrete foundation. The earthing rod can be made out of several different materials. The usual material is copper or copper-clad steel. Galvanized steel or even, for special cases, stainless steel can be used. The resistance of the electrode to earth is made up of several components: resistance of the electrode condition of the soil moisture content temperature of the soil material content type of soluble chemicals in the soil concentration of soluble chemicals in the soil contact resistance between the electrode and the soil geometry of the current flow in the soil outward from the electrode to infinite earth. To explore the connection to earth, a common 3 m (9.8 ft) long by 1.6 mm (5.2 ft) diameter rod will be driven into virgin soil in a remote area unimpeded with underground metallic piping or other conducting materials. Visualize the flow of current out from the rod intersecting a series of successive cylindrical and hemispherical shells
TABLE 1. RELATIONSHIP OF GROUNDING. Systems Lightning Static Computers Communications Equipment Power Systems Swimming Pools Humans Equipment Structures Power X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

(Figure 1). Each shell consists of resistance across the shell. As the distance from the rod increases, likewise, the crosssection area of the shell increases. As the area increases, the individual series resistances decrease inversely
Misconception 1: It is common for engineering firms with

total lack of understanding to repeatedly copy a ground-rod concept that goes back to the 1950s, or even possibly earlier. Three 3-m rods are driven on 3-m centers and connected together to form a triad grounding electrode network (Figure 2). At 3 m from the rod, the approximate percentage of the total resistance is 94% [2]. The 100% level is reached at the 7.6 m distance from the rod. The overlapping of the sphere of influence of the ground rods negates the effectiveness of the rods. The distance between rods should be at least the depth of Rod 1 plus the depth of Rod 2 for optimum performance of the 94 percentile of the sphere of influence (see Figure 3 amd Table 2). Number of Rods: There is an ever-decreasing return. Assuming the rods are of equal diameter and length, the resistance of two rods is not the rule for two resistances in parallel. Three rods only average a reduction to 40% of a single rod. Thus, if a single rods resistance to earth were 100 , three rods would reduce the resistance to 40 . Not a very good return on the effort. Diameter of Rod: One may think that increasing the rods diameter would reduce the resistance. For the same driven depth, doubling the rod diameter only reduces the resistance by about 10%. Depth of Rod: Driving a longer rod does decrease the resistance over a shorter rod. However, doubling the depth of a rod only reduces the resistance by 40%. For example, a 1-m (3-ft) rod with a resistance of 60 when lengthened to 2 m (6 ft) would only reduce the resistance to (60 * 0.4 factor = 24 ; 6024 = 36 ) 36 .
Cost Effective and Efficient Method of Earthing

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H.G. Ufer discovered that concrete-encased reinforcing

1.1 / /

TABLE 2. ELECTRODE RESISTANCE [2]. Distance from Electrodes Surface 3.0 m 7.6 m 30.5 m 305.0 m % of Total Resistance

1.1 /
94% 100% 104% 117%

1
The interfacing resistance hemispheres.

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Ground Rods 3m Long

3 m Apart Area of Influence

Incorrect Triad Ground Rod Configuration

2
Triad ground rod electrode.

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bar made an excellent connection to earth. Starting in 1942, he studied 24 buildings in Tucson and Flagstaff, Arizona, with reinforcing rods in the foundations. Arizona is normally dry, with less than 0.3 m (1 ft) of rain per year. He checked the resistance reading to earth once every two months for over 16 years. The maximum reading was 4.8 with the minimum 2.1 , and the average value for the 24 buildings was 3.6 . He presented his findings in 1961 at an IEEE conference. A technical paper presented in 1970 by Fagan and Lee [3] proved the validity of the method. The NEC adopted the method, thus providing general acceptance of the reinforcing bar for an earth electrode [4]. Concrete above the earth acts as a semi-insulator, whereas concrete below the earth is a semiconducting medium. It has been shown that each footing or foundation has a resistance lower than a single driven rod of the same depth. With the large number of footings or the long length of a foundation, the total resistive connection to ground is lower than that provided by any other nonchemical electrode. In tests made in Las Vegas, Nevada, the most efficient method of connecting to earth, excluding the chemical earthing electrodes, was the concreteencased electrode for all types of locations [5]. The key to an efficient connection to earth is to have either the reinforcing rod or a length of bare copper conductor at the bottom of the concrete. The minimum length of rod or conductor needed is 6.1 m (20 ft). The conductor should be surrounded by at least 51 mm (2.0 in) of concrete. The reinforcing bar should be at least 12 mm (0.5 in) in diameter. If a bare copper conductor is used, it should be not smaller than 20 mm2 (#4 AWG). The reinforcing rod or bare copper conductor should be placed within the bottom of the

foundation, column or spread footing, or pad. It has been shown that it is not necessary to have the pressure and depth of a foundation or footing to be effective. A concrete pad with rebar or bare copper conductor poured for a transformer is just as efficient. It is necessary to make an electrical connection to the reinforcing rod and bring the connection out to the ground bus bar, electrical equipment, or steel column. One method is to connect a copper conductor to the reinforcing rod, overlapping the reinforcing rod with approximately 0.5 m (18 in) of bare copper conductor. The overlapped bare copper conductor can be fastened to the reinforcing rod with the same iron wire ties used to fasten the reinforcing rods together or plastic tie wraps. The copper conductor can then be brought out through a nonmagnetic sleeve, such as PVC, that will provide mechanical protection at the surface of the concrete. To eliminate the corrosive action of the copper conductor exiting from the concrete, an insulated conductor can be used, providing that the overlapping section is bare. The copper-earthing conductor can be connected to the necessary electrical equipment earthing-grounding terminals (Figure 4). The other method of connecting the reinforcing rod to the outside is to connect by overlapping the rods to one of the bolts that will hold the steel column. Again, the wire ties used to secure the reinforcing rods, or plastic wire ties can be used. The top of the bolt should be marked with paint or by some other means so that the grounding bolt can be identified later.

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5m Long Rod 6 m Apart 8+ m Apart 3m Long Rods

Depth Rod1 + Depth Rod 2 = Distance Apart 3+5=8 Effective Triad Ground Rod Configuration

3
Efficient spacing of ground rods.

Only foundations or footings at the perimeter of the structure are effective with respect to lightning conductivity. Interior grounding electrodes are ineffective. There have been reports of failures of the reinforcing rod method of earthing. This may stem from the IEEE Power Engineering standards on transmission tower foundations and the standard on transmission tower construction. Before 1996, neither standard contained any information on the grounding of reinforcing rods, the insertion of cop-

per conductors in concrete, nor the connection of steel towers to reinforcing rods, nor to any earthing method for the towers. These oversights might be the source of reports of problems with lightning and the cracking of the transmission tower foundations. Steel structures used in chemical industries have been reported to withstand direct lightning strikes without any visible signs of damage to the foundations. The Ufer grounding system is the second most effective earthing method. The chemical rods are the most effective, however, they need to have their chemicals replaced periodically, whereas the Ufer system has no maintenance requirements.
Other Methods of Connecting to Earth
Ground Loops

IMPROPER EARTHINGGROUNDING SYSTEMS CAN RESULT IN NOT ONLY ELECTRICAL INJURIES AND SHOCKS, BUT MAY HAVE ALSO RESULTED IN ELECTROCUTIONS.

ing. It allows detection of stray multigrounded neutral current flowing through and across the earth.
Metal Underground Water Piping

The conclusion reached from having been involved in design and construction for over 35 years is that the least effective and most expensive design is the ground loop. The ground loop ends up being broken from actions of other trades and not repaired. When the price of scrap copper is high, it is amazing how the copper conductor will cut itself into lunch box size pieces and disappear. A ground loop consists of a number of ground rods installed around a process facility, building, or area. Each ground rod has a clay tile around it to allow for testing the resistance of either the rod or the loop. All the rods are interconnected, looped together. The most common method is to use a bare copper conductor. The ground loop is connected to pipe racks, supports, vessels, and all other major metallic process equipment. Excluding isolated vessels, the large use of conductive metal supports, columns, and girders negates the waste of burring copper in the earth as long as the Ufer grounding system is used and will serve as a lightning grounding point. One must remember that the knowledgeable person designs using a ground return conductor in each and every circuit. Return fault current will flow adjacent to the outgoing current conductor. Motors and other electrical devices are connected to the equipment grounding conductor through the supply conductors, thus connecting the metallic frame of the motors and other devices to a ground path. Note: There is a manufacturer that offers a device that injects a current into a multiple-connected ground loop with multiple rods that will measure individual rods in the system. It is used extensively by utilities on multigrounded neutral distribution systems. The authors tests using an early model on single rods was less than satisfactory. However, the present-day ground-resistance ammeter is being used extensively. A novel application of a ground ring is under development, which has no relationship to electrical system earth-

Before the use of plastics, metallic water piping was installed in residences and other facilities. With the water piping in intimate contact with the earth, it was natural to make use of it as a grounding electrode. Problems developed with the use of the water pipe as an earthing electrode. Where houses are in close proximity to each other, connected by underground metallic water piping, stray current could and does flow from one house to another because of the NEC and the NESC requirements to multiground the neutral conductor. With a singlephase, three-wire service, the messenger also serves as a neutral conductor and grounding conductor which is wrong. Should the messenger-neutral-grounding conductor become corroded and develop a high resistance, the return current will seek a lower impedance path. The current could and does flow over the water piping to adjacent houses. The neutral return current flows back to the transformer over the neighbors messenger-neutral-ground conductor. Overloaded conductors are the result. Electric water heaters could and do burn out. Persons taking showers could and have experienced electric shocks. In addition, water meter personnel removing the water meter for inspection and repairs could and have placed themselves in the ground current circuit and experienced electric shocks. The advent of plastic piping and the installation of ground-fault current interruptors (GFCIs) have reduced these problems. However, all metallic water and firewater piping within a building should be connected to the electrical grounding system.
Building Steel

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This discussion defines building steel as a structure consisting of a steel skeleton, with the steel columns bolted to the foundation piers, and the foundations having steel reinforcing rods. It has been found that in such constructions, the steel columns are inherently connected to earth through the column bolts in the footers contacting the steel reinforcing rods. One of the four bolts installed to hold the steel column in place is usually either deliberately or accidentally making contact with the reinforcing rods, or the bolt is physically wire tied to the reinforcing rods. The multitude of parallel electrical paths within a steel building reduces the impedance to a low value.
Plate Electrodes

Although the NEC details the specifications for plate electrodes, which includes the requirement that the plate be buried 0.762 m below the surface, plates laid on the surface of a South American solid stone mountain top

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conducted lightning strokes, as reported by Mariani in an NFPA meeting of Standard 780.

Butt Pole Electrode

The wooden pole used to support utility lines usually has a bare, spiral-wound copper conductor attached to the bottom of the pole that acts as a grounding electrode. With the weight of the pole pressing down on the bare copper wire on the bottom of the pole, the copper wire is placed into intimate contact with the earth. Tests have shown that this is the least effective earthing electrode [5].
Ground Grid (Power Distribution and Transmission Substations)

often placed in shallow depths above a ground grid or elsewhere at the earth surface, in order to obtain an extra protective measure minimizing the danger of the exposure of personnel to hazardous step or touch voltage. Grounded metal gratings placed on or above the soil surface or wire mesh placed directly under the crushed rock are common forms of a ground mat [6]. A ground grid is usually installed in utility substations where persons standing to operate equipment could encounter a hazard step or touch potential resulting from high fault currents.
Chemical Rods

A ground grid is a system of horizontal ground electrodes that consist of a number of interconnected, bare conductors buried in the earth, providing a common ground for electrical devices or metallic structures, usually in one specific location [6]. The object of installing a ground grid is to reduce step and touch voltage, provide a ground plane for connection of computer grounds, and to make a low impedance connection to earth.
Ground Mat

Chemical rods consist of a porous tube containing chemicals that continuously condition the surrounding soil. Specially formulated chemicals, mineral salts are evenly distributed along the length of the porous tube. They are the most effective method of connecting to earth, though they will need recharging. Measuring Resistance of the Earth or Electrode After an earthing electrode system is installed, it should be tested and the values of the resistance of the electrodes recorded. Ideally, the measurement of each electrode should be made during construction. For instance, if there is any doubt about the resistance of individual footers, for first time users of the Ufer electrode, the mea-

A ground mat is a solid metallic plate or a system of closely spaced bare conductors that are connected to and

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Earthing Conductor Coiled Up Waiting Connected to Building Steel Column Alternate Method Fasten J Bolt Used to Anchor Steel Column to Reinforcing Rod Identity Bolt Nonferric Conduit Sleeve to Protect Wire

Wire Cage Foundation for Column

Wire Ties or Tie Wrap

Must Be in Direct Contact with Earth Footer

Not Less than 50.8 m (2.0 in) Concrete Overlap Bare Copper Wire 0.46 m (18 in)

Not Less than 6.1 m (20ft) Bare or Electrically Conductive Reinforcing Rod not Less than 12.7 mm (1/2 in) Diameter Reinforceing Bar Cage Before Concrete Pour

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4
Ufer ground electrode using reinforcing bar.

surements should be made before any grounding interconnection between footers is completed. Details on measuring the resistance of earth or of an electrode are well covered in IEEE Standard 142, The IEEE Green Book.
Misconception 2: Inexperienced persons have used the above method to measure the total grounding system of a building. As the diagonal of the earthing system increases, so do the distance of the test electrodes.

Assume there is a fenced area 43 m (140 ft) square. The diagonal would be 61 m (200 ft), the current probe would extend out to a distance of 217 m (710 ft), the potential probe would extend out to the 62 % point from the grounding system under test, and the voltage probe would be 134 m (440 ft) from the fence [2]. Types of Low Voltage (Less Than 600 V) Electrical System Earthing
Object of Grounding Electrical Systems

advantages are freedom from power interruption on the first phase-to-earth fault and lower initial costs. With a single-phase fault to earth, a small charging current will flow, and the protective devices will not operate, since a circuit is not completed. As long as none of the other phases contacts earth, the operation can continue. However, when one of the other phases contacts earth, a phase-to-phase short circuit occurs. The available fault current flowing into the phase-to-phase fault can result in severe damage to equipment and flash hazards to personnel, and the operation will terminate. In order to insure the operation will continue without interruption, a ground detection system should be installed.
Misconception 3: Most installations make the error of placing lamps across the phases to the ground. As long as all phases are isolated from earth, the lamps will burn at less than full brightness and equally, provided the lamps are the same wattage and voltage rating. When a single-phase fault to earth occurs, the lamp on that phase will dim and the other two will burn brighter, at full voltage. The problem with lamps is that an incipient fault will not be detected. Voltmeters should always be used as they are much more sensitive than trying to determine the relative brightness of any lamp.

The object of connecting an electrical system to earth is to protect personnel from serious injuries or fatalities and to improve the system reliability and continuity of service. The object is to control the voltage to ground, or earth within predictable limits. Grounding of the electrical system will limit voltage stress on cable and equipment. Proper installation will facilitate the protective device operation, removing hazardous fault current from flowing uncontrolled over the earth until the protective device operates. This time is extremely short compared with continuously flowing uncontrolled stray current. Each electrical system grounding method has its advantages and disadvantages. In addition, proper earthing will also conduct and convey lightning currents. When the decision is made to earth an electrical system, the characteristic features one must evaluate are [8]: suitabilty for serving the load grounding equipment required for the method of system grounding selected first costs continuity of service fault current, for bolted line-to-ground fault probable level of sustained single-phase line-to-line arcing fault level shock hazard no ground fault ground fault on phase conductor advantages disadvantages area of applications.
Ungrounded Electrical System

When the voltmeters indicate a difference in voltage between the phases, the weak, high impedance, phase-toground fault or the incipient fault should be located. By not locating the phase-to-ground fault as soon as possible, the potential exists for a phase-to-phase fault to develop, resulting in a potentially hazardous condition. The disadvantage of an ungrounded system is when an arcing fault occurs, it can raise the system voltage to levels where motor windings and cable can be stressed beyond their limits. If the motor control circuits are at full voltage without the benefit of a control transformer, the extended circuit conductors increase the potential for an arcing fault. Where an operation is required to run continuously, a high-resistance grounded system should be used. For additional detailed information, see [9].
Generating a System Neutral

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In an ungrounded electrical system, neither the phase nor the neutral conductors are directly connected to earth. However, the ungrounded system is connected to earth by the distributed phase-to-ground capacitance of the phase conductors, motor windings, etc. The cited

There are times when it is desirable to have a system neutral when there is no neutral available. This may occur where the secondary system connection is a delta, which lacks any neutral. This may result where an old distribution system is to be upgraded or the cost of a delta secondary is less than that of a wye-connected transformer. A neutral can be generated by the use of a zigzag, Tconnected, or a wye-delta transformer. Usually, these transformers are sized to carry rated current for a limited time, typically 10 s or 1 min. The sizing in kilovoltamperes is the line-to-neutral voltage in kilovolts times the neutral current. These transformers are much smaller than a fully rated transformer. The neutral generating transformer system should be connected directly to the bus. With the neutral generating transformer system connected directly to the bus, the

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possibility of being disconnected is remote. The transformer should be considered as part of the bus protection scheme.
Solid Grounded Neutral System

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Electrical systems should be grounded by some means, not necessarily solidly grounded. Numerous advantages are attributed to any electrical system that is connected to earth by one of the many means. The advantages can be greater personnel safety, excessive systems overvoltages are eliminated, and phase-to-ground faults are easier to detect and locate. The solidly grounded neutral system has the source transformer neutral point directly connected to earth through an adequate solid ground connection. The connection between the transformer and the earth has no impedance or resistance intentionally inserted. The neutral should be connected to earth at only one place, preferably at the transformer. This will reduce uncontrolled, potentially hazardous circulating currents over the earth and metallic conducting paths. The solidly grounded neutral system is the most widely used in the United States for not only residential, but also commercial and industrial service. The solidly grounded neutral system is the most effective for three-phase, fourwire, under 600-V, distribution systems. The solidly grounded neutral system is effective in controlling overvoltage conditions and the immediate opening of the protective device when the first phase-to-neutral or phase-to-earth fault occurs, providing the impedance is sufficiently low enough to allow adequate fault current to flow to operate the protective device. Low voltage arcing faults do not permit sufficient current to flow to open the protective device(s). The continuous arcing can destroy electrical equipment. However, low-level arcing ground faults can be detected using ground-fault protection devices to open the protective device(s). The low cost of the solidly grounded neutral system, with the features of immediate isolation of the fault protection against arcing fault burndown and overvoltage control, account for the wide use of the system. Some of the reasons for the use of the solidly grounded neutral systems are the benefits of protection of faulty equipment and circuits and the ability to locate the faults. To gain the same benefit of protection against arcing fault burndown, one has to add additional equipment at a cost. One can find rave reviews on the benefits of solidly grounded neutral systems that stretch the point. The disadvantages are that the first phase-to-ground fault opens the protective device(s), shutting off the power, lights, control, etc. With a medical operating room or a continuous process, the sudden loss of electrical power can be catastrophic. A severe flash hazard can exist with a phase-to-ground fault. Severe damage can occur to electrical equipment because of the high available fault current. It can be extremely danger-

MOST GROUNDING PROBLEMS CAN BE RESOLVED IF ONE DETERMINES THE CIRCUIT ASSOCIATED WITH THE PROBLEM.

ous to work on live electrical systems. The immediate removal of the electrical power with the first phase-toground fault is considered by some as a major detriment, especially when a critical process or service is considered. To avoid disorderly and abrupt shutdowns, when the first phase-to-neutral fault happens, one should consider a highresistance grounded system, which has the advantages of a solidly grounded neutral system and none of the disadvantages. For additional details, see [9].
Corner-of-the-Delta Grounded System

The corner of-the-delta grounded system is one in which one corner of the delta, a phase conductor, is intentionally connected through a solid connection to earth. The connection from the phase conductor to the ground has no intentionally inserted impedance. For the safety of the electrician, the grounded phase should be identified and marked throughout the system. In the United States, the grounded phase conductor must be located in the center of any three-phase device, such as a switch, meter socket, etc. As mentioned previously, the ungrounded delta system is used in some manufacturing facilities to allow for continuous operation. When such an ungrounded delta system is encountered, and it has been decided to convert the ungrounded system to a solidly grounded system, the corner-of-the-delta can be and has usually been selected. All motor control overload relays and instrumentation must be connected to the ungrounded phases. The motor control may have only two overload relays in the motor circuit. These two relays must be installed on the two ungrounded phases to assure proper operation. Should the grounded conductor, such as the grounded neutral, contact earth or a grounded conductive material; a parallel path will result, allowing the current to flow over the earth uncontrolled. The ground-fault current can go undetected, resulting in a hazardous flow of uncontrolled continuous current flowing over the equipment ground conductors, the earth, metallic piping, etc. With the corner of the delta grounded, the other two phases will have 173% insulation stress. Usually no problem exists, since these systems are predominately used on systems with voltages of 600 V or less. If the system voltage was 380 V, then 300-V insulation could be used, as the two phases would see a stress of 277 V. When 480-V and 120/208-V systems are installed in the same building, it is normal for a 600-V rated insulation conductor to be used for both systems. However, where costs are to be strictly controlled two different conductor insulations could be used: 600 and 300 V. Unless there are strict safeguards to prevent intermingling of the conductors insulation, severe problems could develop over time. The mixing of insulation on the same project is not recommended [8].

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Other reasons are: The midphase grounded (neutral) system is one where Arc blast or flash hazard to personnel is reduced when the three-phase delta transformer has one side tapped in a phase-to-ground fault occurs and the personnel are the middle. This tap, the so-called neutral, is connected in the area of the fault. to earth. This connection came into expanded use in the The continuous phase-to-ground fault currents are mid 1940s in the United States in residential neighborreduced and limited. hoods where small corner stores existed. The typical The destructive burning of phase-to-ground fault curservice was from a large, single-phase, three-wire, rents is reduced, resulting in less destruction of elec240/120-V transformer. With the advent of air conditrical equipment. tioning, the local store needed three-phase power. Stress is reduced in electrical equipment when a It was simple to add a single-phase transformer phase-to-ground fault happens. with a secondary of 240 V connected to one end of the No voltage dip occurs, as happens when a phase-tolarge, single-phase, three-wire, 240/120-V transformer in an opendelta configuration. This resulted in a 240/120-V, three-wire, one-phase service from the single, large transformer Three-Phase and from the two transformers, wired 208 V Utility Service 240 V Load as an open delta, a three-phase, 240-V, Entrance 240 V three-wire service. Line 1 The open delta transformer connecM 120 120 Single-Phase tion is limited to 58% of the 240-V, Neutral Loads 240 V single-phase transformer rating. By closing the delta with a third single-phase, 240-V transformer, full rating of the Line 2 Earth/Ground two single-phase, 240-V transformers Ground could be supplied. Electrode The midpoint on the one phase is 5 sometimes called a neutral for that winding. However, the middle point is not in Three-phase, open delta, with one phase center tapped. the middle of the electrical system as a pure neutral would be. For our discussion, it will be called a neutral for ease of identification. The phase leg opposite the midpoint will have an elevated voltage with respect Solidly Resistance Reactance to earth or neutral. If the three-phase voltGrounded Grounded Grounded age is 240 V, the voltage from either phase on either side of the midpoint of the cen6 ter-tapped phase will be 120 V. Since the midpoint of the centered tapped phase is Ground-fault current detection methods. grounded, the phase leg opposite the midpoint to the neutral or earth will be 208 V. This voltage from the phase opposite the phase that is tapped ground fault occurs in a solidly grounded system. in the middle, to the neutral or earth is referred to as the Continuous process operation during a single phasehigh leg, red leg, bastard leg, etc. (Figure 5). to-ground fault is allowed. (A phase-to-phase fault The hottest high leg must be positively identified will develop if either of the other two phases contact throughout the electrical system. It should be the center leg earth. The fault current from the first phase-toin any switch, motor control, three-phase panelboard, etc. It ground fault will flow through the earth to the point was usually identified by red tape; however, today, the NEC of the second phase-to-ground fault.) requires orange color tape. For additional, detailed informaThere are two methods of resistance grounding. tion, see [6] and [9].
Midphase Grounded (Neutral) System High-Resistance Grounded Neutral System Resistance-Grounded Neutral Systems

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Resistance-grounded neutral systems offer many advantages over solidly-grounded systems. As with all electrical systems, destruction results when a phase-to-phase fault occurs. The resistance grounded system limits the amount of fault current that can flow when a phase-to-earth fault occurs (Figure 6). Destructive transient voltages are also controlled.

This system typically uses a resistance, which will limit phase-to-ground fault current to 5 A. When a phase-toground fault occurs, little, if any, damage occurs when the electrical system is grounded using the high-resistance grounded neutral method.
Misconception 4: Lighting systems using 277-V fixtures can

be used on a 480/277-V high-resistance grounded system.

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No phase-to-neutral loads are permitted on any resistance-grounded systems. A separate transformer is used to serve single-phase loads. For instance, on a 480/277-V system, a separate transformer-connected 480 delta primary to 480/277-V wye secondary would be used for the 277-V lighting and other loads. The resistor in the neutral-to-earth connection prevents excess ground-fault current from flowing. Because of the capacitance effect between the phase conductors and earth of the conductors connected to the loads, a charging capacitance current will flow. The trip value of the detection relay has to compensate for the charging current. The charging current can be measured by methods described in [11]. It is important to find the phase-to-ground fault as soon as possible. Should either of the two other phases contact earth, a phase-to-phase fault would occur. This would result in the operation of the protective device(s) and the cessation of the operation. When a single phaseto-earth fault occurs, the potential to earth on the other two phases rises to the phase-to-phase potential. Depending on the conductor insulation, this may cause a problem. The high-resistance grounded system has been tried on high-voltage systems (15 kV) with less than satisfactory results. The system has been used on 5 kV without any adverse results. For additional detailed information, see [9] and [11].
Misconception 5: It is not necessary to install a neutral disIEEE INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS MAGAZINE NOV|DEC 2003 WWW.IEEE.ORG/IAS

fault is detected and removed within 1 min, 100% insulation cable can be used. 133% Cable Insulation Level: When the phase-toground fault is expected to remain on the system for a period not exceeding one hour, 133% cable insulation level should be used. 173% Cable Insulation Level: If the phase-to-ground fault will remain on the system for an indefinite time before the fault is de-energized, 173% cable insulation level should be used. Cable with 173% insulation level is recommended to be used on resonant grounded systems. Low voltage construction wire is normally rated lineto-line. Thus, a 600-Vac cable has a line-to-ground rating of 346 V, which is less than the phase-to-ground rating of

Phase C

Phase A Neutral

Grounding Resistor V Pulsing Contract R Phase B

VoltageRelay Method

Current Transformer Method

connect in the generator circuit when two or more generators are used on offshore platforms and connected using a high-resistance grounded system. A second part of this misconception is an isolation transformer is not needed to supply 277-V lightning loads. Should a phase-to-ground occur with solidly grounded 480/277-V source generators without an isolating tranformer for 277-V lighting, the platform can be raised to 480 V. If, in addition, the neutrals to the generators are not opened along with the phase conductors, there can be a voltage fed through the neutral, energizing the generator winding terminals when the disconnect is opened. A person touching the neutral connection in an offline wye-connected generator, expecting the generator neutral to be at ground potential or touching the unenergized phase conductors at the terminals of the generator, and at the same time touching a grounded conducting surface can experience a voltage of 277 V, which can and has been fatal.
Insulation Methods of connecting electrical systems to earth.

a high-resistance grounded system.

Phase-to-Ground Faults, Detection, and Location Methods

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This section applies to all ungrounded and resistance grounded systems, particularly to high-voltage cables. When a phase-to-earth fault occurs, the potential to earth on the other two phases rises to the phase-to-phase potential. Depending on the conductor insulation level and the time that the fault remains on the system, this may cause a problem. Medium-voltage cables are rated as 100, 133, and 173% voltage insulation level. The guidelines for fault duration are: 100% Cable Insulation Level: If the phase-to-ground

It is imperative that a phase-to-ground fault on electrical systems other than solidly grounded systems be detected, found, and repaired as soon as possible. Resistancegrounded systems can have one of two detection methods installed (Figure 7). Resistance grounded systems can have a relay installed that responds to changes in voltage between phase and ground across the resistor. Commercial equipment is available that will place a high-frequency signal on the system. This high-frequency signal can be traced to the fault. A current relay can be connected to a current transformer installed around the conductor connected to the transformer neutral terminal and run through the resistance/impedance device to the earth connection. Any flow of current returning to the transformer neutral, would be an indication of a phase-to-ground fault, which the relay can detect. Because of patents on the current transformer method,

another method using the principle of voltage differential was developed. When phase-to-ground fault current flows through a grounding resistor, a voltage will be developed across the resistor. A voltage-sensing relay can detect this fault current flow and operate the alarm system. High resistance grounded systems can have a square wave pulsing system installed. A timer operating at a rate of about 2030 equal pulses per minute shorts out part of the high resistance-grounding resistor. With part of the resistance removed from the circuit, the flow of phase-toground fault current will increase. This increase in fault current will generate a square wave. To find the fault, a clamp-on-ammeter with a large opening is used. The phase-to-ground fault current will be flowing on the phase that is faulted. By placing the large opening clamp-on ammeter on the outgoing raceways, if the fault current is flowing within the raceway being checked, the ammeter will pulse. The other raceways without any fault current flowing will not disturb the ammeter. Tracing the fault current to the exact point of the phase-to-ground fault is an art, not a scientific method. A person must be able to determine the extent of the deflection of the ammeter and recognize the possibility of parallel ground fault return paths. Some of the newer solid-state smart starters have the ability to detect and alarm on high resistance ground fault.
Low-Resistance Grounded Neutral System

restriking of ground faults, and static charges. The system cannot control overvoltages from contact with a higher voltage system, such as may occur when a pole line contains on top a 138-kV circuit and a distribution circuit under the 138-kV circuit. The 138-kV circuit conductor breaks and fall onto the lower voltage circuit. This method of grounding is used where the capabilities of the mechanical or electrical equipment requires reducing the ground-fault current. The main applications have been with generators less than 600 V, to limit the ground-fault contribution of the generator to a value no greater than the three-phase bolted fault current. This type of grounding system is not practical on systems requiring phase to neutral loads as there may not be sufficient fault current to operate the protective device(s). For additional information, see [9].
Separately Derived Systems

The low-resistance grounded neutral system has a low value resistor intentionally inserted between the transformer neutral terminal and the grounding electrode similar to the high-resistance system. This resistor limits the fault current to a range of 251,000 A. This low resistance limits the fault current under ground fault conditions to a level that significantly reduces the fault point damage. It still allows sufficient current to flow to operate the protective device(s). The fault can be isolated by ground-fault detection devices. This grounding method is usually used on industrial systems of 525 kV. Initially, this system was hampered by the lack of sensitive, low-cost, ground-fault protective device(s) for application on downstream circuits. The application, in industrial facilities for the powering of large motors, and the distribution of power in the 525 kV range, has become commonplace. (Caution: The neutral can become energized without warning. Proper phase insulation and guarding is required for the neutral-to-earth connection.) The low-resistance grounded system with sensitive ground fault sensing, allows the application of 100% level conductor insulation. For additional information, see [9].
Low-Reactance Grounded Neutral System

The NEC defines a separately derived system as a premises wiring system whose power is derived from a battery, a solar photovoltaic system, or from a generator, transformer, or converter windings, and that has no direct electrical connection, including solidly connected grounded-circuit conductors, to supply conductors originating in another system. The major application of a separately derived system is the installation of a transformer to supply lighting and appliance loads. An example would be where the electric service to the building or facility is 380/220 V, three phase, four wire, and a load requiring 120 V is needed, perhaps to supply a computer system or other special loads. A transformer with a 380-V, single-phase primary and a secondary of 240/120V, single-phase, three-wire is used. The 240/120-V system has no secondary connection back to the primary. For safety and code requirements, this separately derived electrical system will need to be connected to earth or to an effectively grounded building structural member. The key to a proper installation is to connect only the transformers neutral terminal to the grounding electrode. The grounding electrode should be as near as practical and in the same area as the transformer. In order of preference the connection should be made to: the nearest effectively grounded building steel the nearest available effectively grounded metallic water pipe other electrodes that are not isolated from the main electrical system. If necessary, the grounding conductor should be connected back to the system ground for the building.
Resonant Grounding (Ground-Fault Neutralizer)

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The low-reactance grounded neutral system is one with a low-value reactor inserted between the transformer neutral terminal and the ground electrode. The low-value reactor limits the fault current to a value not less than 25% to 100% of the three-phase bolted fault current. It is not used very often. The low-reactance, grounded-neutral system effectively controls the overvoltages generated in the power system by resonant capacitive induced circuits to a safe level,

This method of system grounding is used for distribution and/or transmission lines, primarily on systems above 15 kV. The resonant-grounding (ground-fault neutralizer) system consists of a reactor connected between the transformer neutral terminal and the grounding electrode, which is connected to earth. The reactor is selected to have a relative high value of reactance and is tuned to the systems capacitive charging current. This results in the ground-fault current having a low value. Being a resistive fault current, it is in

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phase with the line-to-neutral voltage, and the current zero and the voltage zero occur at the same time. A built-in feature of this method of grounding is with transmission line insulators experiencing a flashover, the flashover may be self-extinguishing. For additional, detailed information, see [8] and [12].
UPS Grounding

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An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is considered a separately derived electrical system. The separately derived neutral will need to be connected to earth. The grounding electrode should be as near as practical and in the same area as the UPS. In order of preference the connection should be made to: the nearest effectively grounded building steel the nearest available effectively grounded metallic water pipe other electrodes that are not isolated from the main electrical system. If necessary, the grounding conductor should be connected back to the system ground for the facility. Most UPSs have the incoming power supplying a rectifier, which converts the ac into dc, charges batteries, and supplies the inverter. The inverter converts the dc back into ac. The inverter generates a separate and new neutral that is not connected back to the building neutral, unless through the alternate source bypass transformer. In addition, there is usually an alternate power source for the UPS. The UPS can switch from the inverter to the alternate power source should the inverter fail. This assumes that the neutral is not connected to the UPS load through the alternate power source to the building earthing connection. If the UPS load neutral is solidly connected to the alternate power supplys neutral without any switching, then no connection of the UPS derived neutral should be made to earth. The alternate power supply may have a transformer on the line side of the UPS alternate supply. The UPS neutral may be solidly connected to the UPS load side neutral and the alternate transformers neutral. Because of the ease of access and checking, the UPS neutrals connection to earth should be made within the terminal compartment of the UPS, even if transformers are associated with the UPS. Only one connection of the neutral to earth should be made.
Autotransformers

and transformers winding connected in a four-wire wye configuration with the primary and secondary neutrals connected together. This connection is not recommended using three single-phase transformers for commercial or industrial installations, as currents can circulate between the primary and secondary circuits. When the wye-wye connection is used, the transformer needs to be constructed with five cores (shell-type core) to reduce the possibility of ferroresonance. This is an additional cost. Utility distribution systems that are solidly grounded, and which require the primary supply switches to be opened one phase at a time, may generate ferroresonance. In addition, to minimize the neutral to earth potential throughout the length of the distribution system, the utilities usually multiground the primary neutral point.
Misconception 6: It has been noted that less knowledgeable

consulting and engineering firms specify wye-wye transformers with five cores since the local utility uses wye-wye transformers. Unless there is a valid reason, other than that the local utility uses them, the more costly wye-wye transformation with the fivecore transformer should not be used. A delta-wye transformer should be used instead. Typically, utilities have used bare concentric neutral cables in underground primary distribution circuits for residential areas. Bare concentric neutrals contribute to the uncontrolled flows of stray current over the earth and should not be used. What type should be used is a cable that has an outer insulating jacket over the bare concentric neutrals [10]. In order to supply zero-sequence current, with secondary neutral connected to earth, the primary neutral of the wye-wye transformer will be required to be connected to the secondary neutral. The wye-wye transformer is not a source of zero-sequence current, unlike a delta-wye connection. On the other hand, if a delta tertiary winding is added to a wye-wye transformer, it will supply the zerosequence current.
Special Applications

Autotransformers have the line-side neutral connected solidly to the load-side neutral. Since the line-side neutral should have been connected to earth within the originating transformers terminal block Xo , no additional connection to the neutral should be made. Any second connection to the neutral, for instance at the secondary neutral terminal of the autotransformer, will afford the parallel path through the earth of uncontrolled current. On any power system with a neutral, only one connection to earth should be made.
Wye-Wye Transformer Grounding

Both ac and dc separately derived power supplies should have one conductor connected to earth. Should the object containing the power supply be a car, a plane, space vehicle, computer, etc., the earth can be the metallic enclosure, the metallic base plate, or the equipment ground conductor contained in the cord supplying power to the device. Under no case should the neutral, which is connected to earth back at the supplying power transformer, be used for the connection to earth.
Misconception 7: Since the supply neutral is connected to earth

at the originating transformer, the neutral can be used as the source of earth. It is not uncommon to inspect a piece of electrical equipment built by a less than knowledgeable electrician or instrumentation person and find the neutral connected to the case of the device and used as the equipment-grounding conductor or as the grounding point for a dc system.
Instrumentation

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A wye-wye transformer is one with both the primary

The dc or ac separately derived power supply needs to have one conductor connected to earth.
Motor Control Circuits

All motor control circuits should have the control circuit powered by either a common control circuit or a separate individual control power transformer in each motor circuit. The latter is the preferred method as the failures on the common control circuit will jeopardize all the motors. A motor control circuit, using one phase of the motor circuit, will unnecessarily extend the power circuit susceptibility to conductor insulation failure. Should the system-grounding method be ungrounded, any arcing on the control circuit can raise the floating midpoint of the ungrounded system to voltage levels twice or more of the base voltage. This high-voltage excursion, because of the arcing combined with the capacitance of the conductors to earth, can damage equipment insulation, especially motors. It is not unusual for the motors to fail some period after the arcing. One side of the control transformer should be grounded, connected to the grounded equipment enclosure. There have been many debates on the advantages and disadvantages of which side the pushbuttons should be located. The agreed-upon method is that the ungrounded side of the control power transformer should be protected by either a fuse or circuit breaker, and then supply the operating devices in the circuit such as pushbuttons. The grounded side of the controlpower transformer should go the motor running overload relays. The other side of the motor running overload relays should be connected to the operating coil of the motor contactor.
Isolated Power Systems or Supplies

complete understanding of earthing-grounding theory and approaches earthing-grounding with the same intensity, vigor, and rigid attention to detail that is applied to the electrical distribution system design, a safe and efficient design of the earthing-grounding system will result. References
[1] American Heritage Talking Dictionary. The Learning Company, 1997. [2] Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems (IEEE Green Book), ANSI/IEEE 142, 1991. [3] R.H. Lee and E.J. Fagan, The use of concrete-encased reinforcing rods as grounding electrodes, IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 6, pp 337348, July/Aug. 1970. [4] National Electrical Code, NFPA 70, 1999. [5] T. Lindsey, D.W. Zipse, and T.J.K. Krob, Grounding/earthing electrode studies, 1, in Conf. Rec. Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Tech. Conf., 1994, pp. 163174. [6] Guide for Safety in Substation Grounding, ANSI/IEEE Std. 80, 1996. [7] Standard Nominal System Voltages and Voltage Ranges, ANSI C84.1-1982. [8] F.J. Shields, System grounding for low-voltage power systems, General Electric Company, Industrial Power Systems Engineering Operations, Schenectady, NY, Rep. 12345GET-3548B, 1978. [9] Fred A. Leutcher Associates, Inc., Boston, MA., private communication, 1978. [10] D.W. Zipse, Are the National Electrical Code and the National Electrical Safety Code hazardous to your health? in Proc. IEEE Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Tech. Conf., 1999. [11] B. Bridger, Jr. High resistance grounding, IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 19, pp. 1521, Jan/Feb 1983. [12] Recommended Practice for Electric Systems in Health Care Facilities, ANSI/IEEE 602, 1996.
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Isolated power systems or supplies are used in hospital operating rooms using certain anesthetizing chemicals, wet locations, and life support equipment which must continue to operate when one phase-to-ground fault exists, such as intensive care areas, coronary care areas, etc. Isolated power systems consist of a motor-generator set, isolation transformer or batteries, and a line isolation monitor, monitoring ungrounded conductors. For approximately the last 30 years, the components comprising the isolated power system have been packaged together in one assembly referred to as an isolated power package. The package is less costly than assembling the components. All of the wiring in the system is monitored for leakage current and voltage differential. The maximum safe current leakage limits range from 10 A for catheter electrodes inside the heart to 500 A for appliances, lamps, etc. The maximum safe voltage differential is 20 mV. The advantages, disadvantages, and limitations are different for healthcare facilities than for the normal electrical system grounding. For additional detailed information, see [12]. Conclusion If a person develops the concepts and insight to gain a

Bibliography
AIEE Committee Report, Application of ground fault neutralizers, Elec. Eng., vol. 72, p. 606, July 1953. Recommended Practice for Grounding and Powering Sensitive Electronic Equipment (The IEEE Emerald Book), ANSI/IEEE 1100, 1999. Getting down to earth..., Biddle Instruments, Blue Bell, PA, Tech. Pub. 25Ta, 1990. Guide for Measuring Earth Resistivity, Ground Impedance and Earth Surface Potentials of a Ground System in Part 1: Normal Measurements, IEEE 81, 1983. J.P. Nelson, High resistance grounding of low voltage systems in IEEE Petroleum and Chemical Industry Committee Tech. Conf. Rec., 1996, pp. 1323.

Don Zipse (don.zip@ieee.org) is with Zipse Electrical Engineering in Wilmington, Delaware. Zipse is a Life Fellow of the IEEE. This article first appeared in its original form at the 2001 IEEE Petroleum and Chemical Industry Committee Technical Conference.

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