Joints, or articulations, are sites where two or more bones meet.

Functional classification is based on amount of movement allowed at the joint. Synarthroses immovable Amphiarthroses slightly movable Diarthroses freely movable Structural classification is based on material binding bone together and whether a joint cavity is present. Fibrous Bones joined by dense fibrous connective tissue. No joint cavity present. Sutures Occur only between bones of the skull. Once they ossify and close in middle age they are called synostoses. Syndesmoses Bones connected exclusively by ligaments, which are cords or bands of fibrous tissue. Fibers are of variable length but are always longer than those of sutures. EXAMPLE: The junction of the distal ends of the tibia and fibula. Gomphoses Peg-in-socket fibrous joint. EXAMPLE (the only one): Articulation of a tooth with its bony alveolar socket. Cartilaginous Articulating bones are united by cartilage. Synchondroses A bar or plate of hyaline cartilage unites the bones. EXAMPLE: Epiphyseal plates of long bones in children. Immovable joint between costal cartilage of first rib and the manubrium of the sternum. Symphyses Articular surfaces of the bones are covered with articular (hyaline) cartilage, which in turn is fused to an intervening pad, or plate, of fibrocartilage. EXAMPLE: Intervertebral joints. Pubic symphysis of the pelvis. Synovial Articulating bones are separated by a fluid-filled joint cavity that permits substantial freedom of movement. Distinguishing features Articular cartilage Joint (synovial) cavity Articular capsule comprised of both: Fibrous capsule external layer of dense irregular connective tissue Synovial membrane inner layer of loose connective tissue Synovial fluid Reinforcing ligaments. Three types: Capsular, or intrinsic, ligaments thickened parts of the fibrous capsule Extracapsular ligaments remain distinct and are found outside the capsule Intracapsular ligaments deep to the capsule, they are covered with synovial membrane and do not actually lie within the joint cavity Nerves and blood vessels

[Some synovial joints also have fatty pads, as in the hip and knee joints, and articular discs, or menisci, as in the knee joint.] Bursa Flattened fibrous sac lined with synovial membrane and containing a thin film of synovial fluid Tendon sheath Elongated bursa that wraps completely around a tendon subjected to friction, like a bun around a hot dog. Factors influencing stability of synovial joints: Shape of articular surfaces Number of positioning ligaments Muscle tone most important stabilizing factor for the majority of joints Movements allowed by synovial joints Skeletal muscle has at least two points of attachment: Origin the attachment to the immovable, or less movable, bone. Insertion the attachment to the movable bone. Defined in directional terms relative to: The lines, or axes, around which the body part moves. The planes of space along which the movement occurs. Range of motion Nonaxial Slipping movement only Uniaxial Movement in one plane Biaxial Movement in two planes Multiaxial movement in or around all three planes of space or axes Types of movement Gliding Occurs when one flat or nearly flat bone glides or slips over another. EXAMPLE: Intercarpal and intertarsal joints. Between flat articular processes of the vertebrae. Angular movement increases or decreases the angle between bones Flexion Bending movement, usually along the sagittal plane, that decreases the angle of the joint and brings the articulating bones closer together. Extension The reverse of flexion. Movement along the sagittal plane that increases the angle between the articulating bones. Typically straightens a flexed limb or body part. Abduction Movement of a limb away from the midline or median plane of the body, along the frontal plane. Includes splaying of the fingers. Adduction The opposite of abduction. Movement of a limb toward the body or midline. Includes orienting fingers as if to deliver a karate chop. Circumduction Moving a limb so that it describes a cone in space. Rotation Turning of a bone around its own long axis

Medial rotation EXAMPLE: rotation of the anterior surface of the femur toward the median plane of the body Lateral rotation EXAMPLE: rotation of the anterior surface of the femur away from the median plane of the body Special movements Supination and pronation refer to movements of the radius around the ulna Supination Palm faces anteriorly, as in the anatomical position, or superiorly. Radius and ulna are parallel. Pronation Palm faces posteriorly or inferiorly. Radius and ulna are crossed. Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion of the foot Dorsiflexion Lifting the foot so its superior surfaces approaches the shin Plantar flexion Depressing the foot (pointing the toes) Protraction and retraction nonangular anterior and posterior movements in a transverse plane Protraction EXAMPLE: jutting out your lower jaw law Billy Bob Thornton in Sling Blade Retraction EXAMPLE: pulling in your lower jaw like Bart Simpson Elevation and depresson Elevation lifting a body part superiorly, as when shrugging your shoulders Depression moving the elevated body part inferiorly, as when you open your mouth wide Opposition touching your thumb to the tips of your other fingers on the same hand Types of synovial joints Plane Flat articular surfaces allow short, nonaxial, gliding movements. EXAMPLE: Intercarpal and intertarsal joints. Joints between vertebral articular processes. Hinge Cylindrical end of one bone conforms to trough-shaped surface of another. Uniaxial movement. EXAMPLE: Elbow. Interphalangeal joints. Pivot Rounded end of one bone conforms to sleeve or ring composed of bone (and possibly ligaments) of another. Uniaxial movement. EXAMPLE: The joint between the atlas and the dens of the axis. The proximal radio-ulnar joint. Condyloid (ellipsoidal) Oval articular surface of one bone fits into a complementary oval depression in another. EXAMPLE: Radio-carpal (wrist) joints. Metacarpo-phalangeal (knuckle) joints. Saddle Resemble condyloid joints but allow greater freedom of movement. Each articular surface has both concave and convex areas. EXAMPLE: carpo-metacarpal joints of the thumbs.

Ball-and-socket Spherical or hemispherical head of one bone articulates with the cuplike socket of another. EXAMPLE (only ones): shoulder and hip joints.