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Beckctt, Samuel (1965). Three Noveh: Molloy. Malone Dies. The Unnamahle. New York: Grove Press. Bordwell, David (1985). Narration in the Fiction Film. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. Boyd, Brian (2009). On the Origin ofStories: Evolution, Cognition, and Fiction. C a m bridge, Mass.: T h e Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Borges, Jorge Luis (1962). Ficciones. E d . Anthony Kerrigan. New York: Grove Press. Chatman, Seymour (1990). Coming to Terms: The Rhetoric of Narrative in Fiction and Film. Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press. Cohn, Dorrit (1999). The Distinction of Fiction. Baltimore: T h e Johns Hopkins University Press. Currie, Gregory (1990). The Nature of Fiction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (1995). Image and Mind. Film: Phibsophy and Cognitive Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Durron, Denis (2008). The Art Instinct: Beauty, Pleasure, and Human Evolution. New York: Bloomsbury Press. Ferguson, Niall, ed. (1999). Virtual History: Alternatives and Coiinterfactuals. New York: Basic Books. Gaudreauh, Andr, and Franfois Jost (1990). Le Rcit cinmatographique. Paris: Nathan. Hamburger, Kate (1968). Die Logik der Dichtung. Stuttgart: Klett. Hellekson, Karen (2001). The Alternate History: Refiguring HistoricalTime. Kent, O H : Kent State University Press. Herg (1975). Cigars of the Pharaoh. Boston: Little, Brown. Hildesheimer, Wolfgang (1983). Marbot: A Biography. Trans.Patricia Crampton. New York: G . BraziUer. Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim (1984). Laocon: An Essay on the Liniits of Poetry and Painting. Trans. Edward A . M c Cormick. Baltimore: T h e Johns Hopkins University Press. Lewis, David (1978). "Truth in Fiction." American Philosophical Quarterly X V : 3 7 ^ 6 . Menoud, Lorenzo (2005). Qu'est-ce que la fiction? Paris: Vrin. Metz, Christian (1974). Film Language: A Semiotics of the Cinema. Trans. Michael Taylor. New York: Oxford University Press. Rabinowiz, Peter (2004). "Music, Genre, and Narrative Theory." In: Ryan, MarieLaure (ed.). Narrative Across Media. Lincoln: Nebraska University Press, 305-28. Roth, Philip (2004). The Plot Against America. Boston: Houghton Mififlin C o . Ryan, Marie-Laure (1991). Possible Worlds, Artificial Intelligence, and Narrative Theory. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Ryan, Marie-Laure (1997). "Postmodernism and the Doctrine of Panfictionality." Narrative 5.2: 165-188. Schaefifer, Jean Marie (1999). Pourquoi la fiction. Paris: Seuil, 1999. Searle, John (1975). "The Logical Status of Fictional Discourse." New Literary History 6: 319-32. Walton, Kendall (1990). Mimesis as Make-Believe, On the Foundations of the Representational Arts. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. Worth, Sol (1981). "Pictures Can't Say Ain't." In: Gross, Larry (ed.). Studying Visual Communication. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 162-184.

BRIAN MCHALE (The Ohio State University)

Narrativity and Segmentivity, or, Poetry in the Gutter

The general subject o f this paper is h o w narrative interacts w i t h other

forms o f organization i n complex "mixed" texts. Narrative theory tends to treat non-narrative organization i n narrative texts as supplemental, a little "something extra," auxiliary to n a r r a t i v i t y aruL-dogS-SQ-mea-ic cases o f mixed or h y b r i d texts, such as narrative poems or graphic novels, i n w h i c h narrativity competes w i t h other forms of organization, or may even be subordinated to them. I want to argue that this sort o f interaction should be regarded not as incidental to narrative theory, b u t rather as a

dimension o f narrative f o r m that a sufificiently capacious theory should be able to accommodate. T h e interaction between narrative and non-narrative organization becomes especially visible whenever textual materials undergo transformation into a different form for instance, i n cases o f translation and adaptation. Elsewhere I have investigated from this perspective a case i n v o l v i n g m u l tiple translations o f the "same" (verse) narrative; here I w i l l consider one particularly complex case o f cross-media adaptation. First, however, a few theotetical tools need to be placed i n readiness for use.

1. Clontemporary narrative theory has paid relatively little attention to narrative poetry,' and as a. consequence the interaction between narrative organization and the poetic organization o f texts remains woehilly underfheorized. T h i s is no m i n o r oversight, considering the cultural importance o f the corpus involved, n o t to m e n t i o n its sheer size. After all, a great iiiany poems, i n c l u d i n g some o f the most highly valued texts i n the canons o f w o r l d literature, narrare or i m p l y stories. To overlook poetic narrative is

There are honorabie exceptions to this rule, such as che work of Peter Hhn and his collei^ues on narrative in lyric poetry; see Hhn 2004 and 2005; Hhn and Kiefer 1992.

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to overlook an indispensable corpus. Moreover, the interaction o f narrative and poetic form i n narrative poems is i n many ways paradigmatic for other interactions i n "mixed" texts (as we shall see), so the neglect o f narrative poetry also threatens to impede progress i n theorizing other transgeneric and trans-media intetactions. Narrative theoty's neglect o f poetry means, among other things, that it isn't even clear how we should characterize the parties to the interaction: what exactly is interacting w i t h what? I f we assume that what makes a narrative a narrative is its quality o f narrativity (however that m i g h t be defined)^, then what is its opposite number, the quality that makes a poem a poem poetry's dominant, as narrativity is narrative's dominant? Presumably, i t is this quality, whatever i t might be, that narrativity interacts w i t h i n a mixed text o f narrative poetry. O n e particularly compelling answer has been offered by the poet and critic Rachel Blau DuPlessis, and corroboiated independently, i n somewhat different terms, by John Shoptaw. Poetry, according to DuPlessis, is defined by the criterion o f seipnentivitw segmentivity is poetry's d o m i nant, as narrativity is narrative's. Segmentivity, "the ability to articulate and make meaning by selecttng, deploying, and combining segments," is "the underlying characteristic o f poetry as a genre." Poetry is segmented w r i t i n g , "the k i n d o f w r i t i n g that is articulated in sequenced, gapped lines and whose meanings are created by occurring i n bounded units [...] operating i n relation to [...] pause or silence." Segments come i n a variety o f kinds and sizes, ranging from words, or even just letters, which may "hang alone i n an open space," through lines; up to "larger page-shapes" such as stanzas or other configurations o f language and spacing. The ends o f segments may be signaled by special devices, or not:
Line terminations may be rounded off by rhyme, or by specific punctuation marks, but they are basically defined by white space. Recurrent patterns of parallel sounds (rhyme) are not necessary to mark line ends, though rhyme is popularly taken to indicate poetry (or its lack), a fact which shouid actually draw our attention to the crucial importance of articulated segments in the definition of poems.

size or k i n d o f unit) or comes i n 'chords' o f these multiple possibilities for creating segments." _Shogaw[s name for what DuPlessis calls segmentivity is the more traditional-sounding tetm measure. Like DuPlessis, however, Shoptaw is committed to accommodating formally radical, "free" and even "prosaic" poetry alongside traditionally metrical, lyrical, and figurarive kinds, so his definition o f measure is more capacious than the traditional sense o f measure as meter. Shoptaw defines a poem's measure as "its smallest unit o f resistance to meaning" (212). Measure determines v^Vtxe: gaps open up in a poetic text, and a gap is always a provocation to meaning-making. I t is where meaning-making is interrupted by spacing, where the text breaks off and a gap (even i f only an infinitesimal one) opens up, that the readers meaning-making apparatus must gear up to ovetcome the resistance, bridge the gap and close the breech. Shoptaw specifies the scales ot levels o f measure that aie possible in poetry. Poetry can be word-measured, as i t is, for instance, i n certain m o d ernist one-word-per-line poems, such as WiUiam Carlos Williams's "The Locust Tree i n Flower"; i t can even be measured at the level o f the letter, as i n modernist experiments like e.e. cummings' poem "t-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-ag-r." Poetry can be measured at the scale o f the phrase, as i t is, for instance, in E m i l y Dickinson's poetry; i t can be measured at the scale o f the line, as it normally is i n most lyric poetry; it can be measured at the level o f the sentence, as i n prose-poetry or i n the Language poets' practice o f the "New Sentence"; and i t can be measured at the level o f the section, as in sonnet cycles or i n sequences like The Waste Land (about w h i c h I w i l l have much more to say below). I t can also be measured (though Shoptaw never explicitly says so) at the level o f the stanza, as i n stanzaic narrative foims such as ottava rima or the Spenserian stanza. W h a t DuPlessis calls "chords," Shoptaw chatacterizes i n terms o f the counterpoint o f measure and countermeasure. Poetry that is predominantly measuted at one level or scale say, the level o f the line i n Milton's blank verse, or of the phrase i n Dickinson's poetry ^may be countermeasured at other levels or scales: i n Milton's case, that o f the sentence, counterpointed against his blank verse lines; i n Dickinson's, the levels o f line and stanza, counterpointed against her poetry's predominant phrasc-segmentation. This concept o f countermeasurement, or o f "chords" o f segments, gives us a convenient tooi for beginning to talk about the interaction o f narrativity and segmentivity i n narrative poems. Narrative, too, is segmented w r i t i n g , i n a sense, though i t is not dominated by segmentivity, poetry is. Story may appear continuous, a "flow" o f events, but i f one only turns up the magnification high enough, sequence dissolves into the grantilarity o f kernels and catalyzets (or bound and free motifs, depend-

Segments o f one k i n d or scale may be played ofiF against segments o f another k i n d or different i n scale; for instance, "Sentence or statement may be draped, or shaped, across a number o f lines," as i n tradirional enjambement. I n general, DuPlessis concludes, "The specific force o f any individual poem occurs i n the intricate intetplay among the 'scales' ( o f

See, for instance, Fludernik 1996: 20-43; Herman 2002: 85-113; McHale 2001; Prince 1982 and 1999; Ryan 1992; Sternberg 1992.

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ing upon one's terminology). O n the level o f discoutse, nartation is segmented i n t o m u k i p l e , shifting voices, while point o f view is segmented by constant micro-shifts o f focalization. T i m e i n narrative is measured or segmented, speeding up or slowing d o w n from segment to segment, or shifting from present-time to flashback to flashforward, or from singulative to iterative mode. Narrative space, too, is segmented, as is narrative consciousness. Everywhere i n narrative, at all levels, the continuous and "smooth" can be broken d o w n into the segmented or measured, and gaps abound, o f various kinds, on all levels. I n poetic narratives, narrative's o w n segmentation interacts w i t h the segmentation "indigenous" to poetry to ptoduce a complex counterpoint among segments o f different scales and kinds "countermeasurement," i n Shoptaw's terminoiogy; "chords," i n DuPlessis's. Elsewhere ( M c H a l e "Beginning") I have demonstrated h o w segmentivity and narrativity interact in four English-language translations o f the "same" nattative episode from The Iliad o f Homer. I n this episode, from Book X V I o f the poem, Achaeans and Trojans battle literally over top o f the corpse o f the slain Trojan hero Sarpedon, while on a different plane o f action, Zeus debates w i t h himself whethet or not to allow the Trojan Hector to kill the Achaean Patroclus. Each o f the four translators George Chapman (early seventeenth century), Alexander Pope (early eighteenth century), and Richard Lattimore and Christopher Logue (both m i d - to late-twentieth century) must decide how to deploy the shifts o f focalization i n this passage relative to the segmentation o f their chosen versemeasure: long-lined r h y m i n g "fourteeneis" in Chapman's case, closed heroic couplets i n Pope's, long-lined free verse i n Lattimore's, and shorterlined free verse, eccentrically divided into sections, i n Logue's. Narrative segmentation and poetic segmentation intetact differently i n each o f these verslons. Line is countermeasured against sentence i n Chapman's and Lattimore's verslons (albeit somewhat diffetently i n each), and they both leave the focalization o f this episode ambiguous; not so Pope, i n whose version line and syntax strictly coincide, and the decisive shift i n focalization from battling humans to Zeus occurs between lines; while Logue also decisively shifts the focalization, b u t uses the spacing between sections o f lines to do so. Each version measures and countermeasures differently, both w i t h respect to poetic form and w i t h respect to the articulation o f narrative; each sounds a different chord o f segments.

2. Segmentivity is not l i m i t e d to verbal art. There are obvious analogues to the segmentation o f poetic narrative i n visual narrative forms, for i n stance i n cinema. Cinematic narrative pardy coincides w i t h , b u t partly counterpoints the r h y t h m o f film segmentation, its pattern o f editing or montage. A cut i n a movie is roughly analogous to the gap between one poetic segment or u n i t o f measure and the next, and as we k n o w from Shoptaw, i t is when a gap opens that we are provoked to intervene and bridge the gap by making meaning. Infinitesimal though i t may be, the space between one shot and the next is one o f the places where meaning is made i n cinema. I n some cinema traditions, notably i n classic H o l lywood cinema, the cut is designed to be as invisible as possible, and the viewers constructive role to be as automatic and subliminal as possible; in other traditions, especially those influenced by Eisenstein's aesthetics o f montage, the cut is meant to be conspicuous, and viewers are called upon to intervene more actively to make meanings. A n example o f the latter kind o f cinematic meaning-making is the famous match-cut i n Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), where, from one frame to the next, the ape-man's bone weapon, flung into the air, is replaced by a space-shuttle in free fall. T h e film's entire meaning, i t could plausibly be argued its Concepts o f time and evolution, its reflection on technology and ftiturism, and so on all hinge on that one match-cut. Instead o f narrative cinema, however, let me turn to another, perhaps more obvious analogue o f poetic segmentation, i n a different medium "sequential visual art," or comics. Just as the spacing between segments or units o f measute provokes meaning-making i n poetry, and just as the c j i r or edit does (more or less conspicuously, more or less subliminally) in. movies, so i t is the space between the panels that mobilizes meaningmaking i n comics. Scott M c C l o u d , i n Understanding Comics (1993), a poetics o f comics i n comic-book form, emphasizes the crucial fijnction o f che blank space that sepatates one panel i n a comic-book from the next, called i n comics-speak the gutter. "Despite its unceremonious title," M c CIoud writes, "the gutter plays host to much o f the magie and mystery that are at the very heart o f comics. Hete i n the limbo o f the gutter, h u man imagination takes two separate images and transforms them into a single idea" (66). M c C l o u d iliustrates the concept o f the gutter w i t h two juxtaposed panels: on the left, an image o f a man shouting " N o w you 4ie!!" as he threatens another man w i r h an ax; on the right, a city skyline i t night, over w h i c h the cry, "Eeyaa!" sounds. Every read w i l l infer that a m u r d e r has been committed, though we are shown no image o f it; the inurder occurs i n the guttet, as i t were, and we readers are accomplices

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to i t . T h e gutter is the readers domain; i t is here that we perform acts o f "closur^ that allow narrative to j u m p the gap between one panel and the next. "There's something strange and wonderful that happens i n this blank ribbon o f papet," M c C l o u d writes. "Comics ask the m i n d to w o r k as a sort o f in-betweener fiUing i n the gaps between panels as an animatot might" (88). "Sevetal times on every page," he continues, "the reader is released like a trapeze artist into the open air o f the imagination... then caught by the outstretched arms o f the ever-present next panel!" (90).^ To sample the sort o f gap-filling w o r k that we ate toutinely called on to do " i n between" the panels o f comics, consider Figure 1, a wordless page from a graphic novel. T h o u g h this sequence is a good deal more enigmatic than the ax-murder between the panels o f McCloud's example, I t h i n k i t still remains perfectly legible. We see rwo men i n a vacant landscape, the one nearer to us holding out a cricket i n his hand, the man further away gesticulating as though giving a speech. Between the first and second panels, the men move apart; herween the second and t h i r d , the man i n the hat approaches the other man, w h o has fallen to his knees; between the third and the fourth, the kneeling man lurches to his feet; between the fourth and the fifth, he topples full-length to the ground, Easily negotiating the gutters between the panels, we connect up these segments into a coherent ( i f somewhat mystetious) narrative sequence."^ There is nothing special about this; apart from the absence o f words to help us along, this page reflects a normal comics reading experience. W h a t is special about this example, however, is that it comes ftom a graphic-novel adaptation o f a narrative poem (or let's say, more circumspectly, a ^ ^ - n a r r a t i v e poem). T h i s is a page from M a r t i n Rowson's 1990 adaptation o f T.S. Eliot's modernist poem, The Waste Land (1922). Now, adaptations o f "classic" piose nairatives i n comics form are hardly a noveltythere is even a graphic-novel version o f Proust's Recherchebut adaptations o f poetry are few, so Rowson's adaptation o f Eliot gives us a rare o p p o r t u n i t y to reflect a little o n the possible parallels between segmentation in narrative poetry and segmentation i n comics.^

Figure 1. Image from The Waste Land by Martin Rowson (Rowson 1990, unpaginated). Copyright 1990 Martin Rowson. All images reproduced by permission of Rogers, Colerdige & White Ltd.

See Berlatsky, whose account of McCloud's poetics of the gutter is akin to my own; however, Berlatsky is mainly concerned withframesand jraming (in both the physically liminal and the cognitive scnses of those terms), not vj\\}n gaps ancd spacing, as I am. We also register a change of focalizacion, a shift from an objeccivc to a subjcctive point of view, in the last two panels: we view the falling man more or less from the perspective of the man in the hat. On Rowson's Waste Land, see Tabatchnik 2000, especially 84-5, where the author anticipates the analysis in terms of McCloud's poetics of the guttet than 1 am undettaking here. 1 would also like to acknowledge Paulo Campos, whose unpublished paper, "Whodunit?

As i t turns out, Rowson's adaptation is actually quite complex, and we will need right at the outset to give a little consideration to some o f the many dimensions o f its complexity. First o f all, the original on which it is based, The Waste Land, is a highly prestigious canonical text more than a n o n i c a l , ^j//^r-canonical, among the most canonical texts o f the m o d -

The Strange Case of Eliot and the Annotated Poem," deals in part with Rowson's Waste Land.

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ernist era, along w i t h Joyce's Ulysses. To recasr such a text i n the popular m e d i u m o f comics must inevitably result either i n inadvertent kitsch or deliberate parody; i n Rowson's case, i t results i n parody. A n act o f cultural iconoclasm, evidently malicious i n intent and animated by a spirit o f resentment,'' Rowson's Waste Land nevertheless is a serious parody. As w i t h all serious parodies, i n the process o f parodying the original the parodist also illuminates and clarifies aspects o f its poetics.-^ One aspect that Rowson illuminates is the narrative dimension o f The Waste Land. A m o m e n t ago, I backtracked and charactetized The Waste Land as a "^'-narrative" poem; another critic calls i t a "poetic (ZWft-natrative" (Kinney 180). Howevet you want to characterize i t , The Waste Land beats an oblique and difficult relationship to forms o f narrative coherence, and to the tradition o f narrative poetry. Rowson's graphic-novel adaptation i n effect narrativizes The Waste Land. I n other words, Rowson takes a text that, like many other modernist and avant-garde texts, is only sporadicallv. obliquely and problematically narrative, and supplies the missing ot "lost" narrative clements. "Lost" is the operative w o r d here, since, as we know, the poem i n its original version before Ezra Pound undertook to edit i t contained m u c h mote continuous narrative than the published text o f 1922. As we learn from the invaluable Facsimile and Transcript o f the Waste Land manuscript, the poem was drastically "de-narrativized" i n the course o f its collaborative composition by Eliot and Pound. Thtee long passages o f connected narrative were eliminated altogether, and other narrative passages rendered elliptical by editing. T h e result o f all this cutting was diastically to shift the proportions o f the poem away from narrative and toward lyric, and to open gaps where there previously had been none, or to widen and deepen the gaps that had been there all along.

This loss o f narrative coherence seems to have provoked an anxious reaction i n Eliot himself This is h o w I choose to understand Eliot's notorious annotations, appended to the end o f the poem: not as "fiUer" for a manuscript that was a little too slim to be published as a separate book,^ nor as an attempt to educate or bully his readers, or to condescend to them, but as compensation f o i lost narrativity. Eliot's notes seek to restore .u a different level the narrative bridges rhat had been destroyed i n the editing process.' I n the fitst o f these notes, Eliot tefets us to Jessie Weston's Trom Ritual to Romance, indicating that his fragmentary narrative should bc filled out or completed using materials from Weston's narrative. I n effect, From Ritual to Romance frames The Waste Land, supplying the masternarrative w i t h i n w h i c h Eliot's poem is inscribed. I n another note, perhaps the most notorious o f them all, to line 218 o f the poem, Eliot informs us that the mythological figure o f Tiresias, "although a mere spectator and not indeed a 'character', is yet the most important personage i n the poem, uniting all the rest [ . . . ] W h a t Tiresias sees, i n fact is the substance o f the poem" (125). This note seems to invite us to reconstitute a narrator/focalizer for the poem, and thus to take the first steps toward recovering its '"lost" narrative continuity. A n u m b e i o f the poem's commentator's have been w i l l i n g to foUow Eliot's lead here by inrerpolating a protagonist to w h o m the poem's experiences could occur, i n effect recasting The Waste I,anda& the "adventures o f Tiresias."'

See Rowson's own account of his motives, in The Independent on Sunday. "Petsonally, I'm still of the opinion that Eliot's Waste Land is obscurantist, mawkish, constipatedly pious, elitist, inconsistent, miserable over-rate nonsense which wouldn't look out of place on the innet sleeve of one of Led Zeppelins later albums." Parody serves invaluable heuristic and pedagogical functions, at its best rendering visible features and patterns that might otherwise pass unnoticed, taken for granted; defamiliarizing what is too familiar, it casts an alicnating light on what passes for "natural." It was with this sense of parody's value in mind that Viktor Shklovsky once called Stetne's Tristram Shandy "the most typical novel in world literature" (170). Obviously, he did not mean that most novels, or even very many of them, resemble Tristram Shandy, but that, in parodying the conventions of the novel. Tristram Shandy laid those conventions bare for our examination, as in a sort of x-ray. Coincidentally or perhaps not coincidentally at all Martin Rowson is also the author of an astonishing graphic-novel version of Tristram Shandy (1996),

For an account of the complex history of The Waste Lands publication, see Rainey 1998: 77-106. 9 Another way to approach this would be to ask whethet the gaps in The Waste Land are located primarily at the level of story or at the level of discourse; if the latter, then presumably the "lost" story materials could be reconstructed, but if the former, then there is no story-level coherence to be recovered in any case. The answer, I think, is both: The Waste Land is certainly incohetent at the discourse level, but it is also incoherent at the stor)' level, more so in the edited version, pethaps, than in the original manuscript, but the original version is already drastically "deficint" as story. It is this dcficiency of coherence at the story level that Eliot's notes and cross-teferences seek to redress. 10 Of these, the most egregious is sutely Calvin Bedient, whose natrativization of the poem I can't resist quoting: "The plot itself might be Bunyanized [i.e, allegorized] as follows: After sufFering a loss of Romantic belief in the vicinity of the Hyacinth Garden, Pilgrim, hearing a voice reproach him with being the Son of man, and uncertain of his way, visits the fortune-telling booth in Vanity Fair, and is warned to Feat Death by Water. Hceding this baneful advice, he walks round and round in Heil in the Unreal City, where only the crowds fiow, sharing their quiet desperation. He marries Belladonna, the Lady of the Rocks a fiery Medusa who turns his penis to stone and wanders the banks of the Thamcs, a voyeur of the slimy rats' bellies, cigatette ends, horny London traffic, t)'pists scarcely forced. At length, no longet able to beat the absences of the Hanged Man, weary of the Blind Seers and Fake Goddesses of Vanity Fair, he ascends the Mount of Voluntary Dryness, praying foi rain, Successfully meeting the challengc of the Perilous Chapel, he receives a sign of acceptance from the Heavens, and with Divine Help gathers wisdom

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Rowson declines this particular narrativizing gambir o f Eliot's, and instead narrativizes The Waste Land differently, against the grain. H e does so by "translating" i t into the genre-code o f hardboiled detective fiction and film. Here, then, is yet another dimension o f this adaptations complexity: J t J ^ v o l v e s j n o ^ j u s W ^ also a third, the movies. Rowson draws narrative and visual motifs from the entire hardboiled detective genre, but especially from John Huston's film The Maltese Falcon (1939), based on a novel by Dashiell H a m m e t t (1930) and H o w a r d Hawks's The Big Sleep (1946), based on a Raymond Chandler novel (1939). Rowson narrativizes Eliot's poem by interpolating a protagonist a West Coast detective named C h i i s Marlowe and a conventional detective-story plot involving the search for a lost object the H o l y Grail itself, i n fact. I n other words, he overlays the plot o f The Maltese Falcon w i t h clements o f Eliot's mythological sub-texts.'' N o w finally we are i n a position to glimpse the full complexity o f Rowson's adaptation. O n e consequence o f "triangularing" among three different media poetry, comics and movies is that several different kinds o f segmentation or spacing are potentially relevant, and may be coordinated or counterpointed w i t h one another. T h e original poetic text o f Eliot's Waste Land involves one k i n d o f segmentation; the comic-boo^ m e d i u m i n w h i c h Rowson recasts the poem involves anothet k i n d o f segmentation; while the cinematic m e d i u m to w h i c h the comic-book alludes visually and thematically potentially i n t r o d u c s yet another k i n d o f

segmentation. We m i g h t even want to take into account the inttinsically "gappy" nature o f the detective story itself, a genre that is charactetized hy the opening and fiUing o f narrative and epistemological gaps a genre that asks the question, tuhodunit? I n the mterests ot keepmg complexity w i t h i n manageable limits, however, I propose to consider here only the relationship between poetic segmentation, on the one hand, and the poetics o f the guttet on the other. Let's begin w i t h Eliot's original poem. As we recall from Shoptaw, The Waste Land is the paradigmatic example o f a poem measured at the level t>f the section; i n other words, i t is segmented into groups or bloes o f lines, and i t is the discontinuity between sections, and the relationships among them that drives meaning-making i n the poem. The Waste Land is divided into five sections o f unequal length, each separately numbered and titled. Moreover, each titled section is i n t u r n divided into several sub-sections which differ from each other formally and i n terms o f the nattative situations they exptess ot evoke. Let's consider only the poem's first section, "The Burial o f the Dead" 'Eliot 135-7).'^ Leaving aside content f o i the moment, visual inspection alone tells us that "The Burial o f the Dead" is divided into at least four ^egments by three w h i t e spaces i n effect, the equivalent o f guttets i n ^lomics. T h e second o f these segments is fiirther sub-divided i n t o three by the intrusion o f a quatrain that is visually distinct deeply indented, italicized and even Hnguistically distinct (German instead o f English).'^ One section-division is not indicated visually: the one between lines 7 and 8, wheie b o t h f o t m (line-length, r h y t h m ) and content change abruptly, but w i t h o u t any corresponding spatial gap. Each segment differs from the others i n speaker, characters, and narlative situation. T h e first segment (11. 1-7) offers gnomic or proverbial sayings i n a coUective voice ("us"), and seems to lack a narrative situation altogether:
April is the cruellesr month, breeding Lilacs out of the dead land, mixing Memory and desire, stirting Dull roots with spring rain.

11

for a further purification. At the end, he sits fishing on the Shore of Beatitude, the Arid Plains safely behind him, his line baited for God-food" (Bedient 1986: 60). For skeptical views of Bedient's and others' narrativizations of Eliot's poem, see Litz 1973: 6; Brooker and Bentley 1990: 6. The conjunction of The Waste Landv/th the hatdboiled detective gente is less arbitrary and whimsical than it might first appear. First of all, Eliot belonged to the same generation as the founders of the hardboiled detective genre: Eliot and Raymond Chandler were exact contemporaries (as Rowson observed in his Independent on Sunday piecc), while Dashiell Hammett was only a few years younger. Hammett's first hardboiled detective stories appeared in the pulp magazine BLzck Mask in 1922 and 1923, exactly contemporaneously with The Waste Land, first published in Britain in October 1922, and in the United States in November, with book verslons appearing in December in the States and in Britian in 1923. it is a litde hard to imagine which bookstore or newstand would have carried both the December 1922 Black Mask, containing Hammett'sfirsthardboiled detective story, and the November 1922 issue of The Dial, containing the first American publication of The Waste Land; nevertheless, from a strictly chronological point of view, it's not out of the question. Such synchronicities aside, hardboiled detective fiction can be seen to reflect the same experience of modernity as high-modernist texts like Eliot's; as Paula Geyh writes, "hard-boiled detective fiction represents the popular version of literary modernism" (2001: 26). Besides Geyh, see also Christianson; Eburne. Of these three, only Christianson secnis to have been aware of Rowson's graphic novel, and even he encountered it too late to take it into account, mcntioning it only in the very last note of his articie.

12 IS

I will not reproduce the entire section here, not only because it is widely available, but also because of the prohibitive cost of permissions. In the first published edition of 1922, this interpolated quatrain is set off by white space from the bloes of lines the precede and follow it: in the layout found in Eliot's Complete Poems and Plays, 1909-1950, these framing white spaces have been eliminated. 1 am gratefil to Murray Beja for calling this difference to my attention.

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I n the second (11. 8 - 1 8 ) , a w o m a n evidently named Marie reminisces about her aristocratie childhood: And when we were children, staying at the archduke's, My cousin's, he took me out on a sled. And I was frightened. T h e t h i r d segment (11. 19-30) is set i n a desert landscape: ... you know only A heap of broken images, where the sun beats. And the dead tree gives no shelter, the cricket no relif. And the dry stone no sound of water. Next comes the Getman quatrain (11. 3 1 - 4 ) , actually an excetpt from Wagner's Tristan und Isolde, evoking the narrative situation o f that opera; another fragment from Tristan appears i n line 42. I n lines 3 5 - 4 1 appear memories o f what seems to have been an etotic encounter w i t h someone called the "hyacinth g i i l . " After the next gap or gutter comes a rather fully narrativized scne (11. 4 3 - 5 9 ) involving a reading o f the tarot cards by the fortune-teller, Madame Sosostris. Finally, after yet anothet gutter, the section ends w i t h a scne on the streets o f L o n d o n (11. 6 0 - 7 6 ) , where the speaker accosts an acquaintance named Stetson, and asks h i m cryptic questions: "That corpse you planted last year in your garden, "Has it begun to sprout? Will ir bloom this year? "Or has the sudden frost disrurbed its bed? This is the disjointedly narrative material that Rowson adapts i n the first nine pages o f his graphic novel. H e begins by creating a framing situation w i t h no precedent i n Eliot's poem, one borrowed from the hardboiled detective genre: the ptivate detective i n his office, receiving a potential clint and listening to her story (see Figure 2). Rowson recognizes that the first seven lines o f the poem and the next eleven belong to different situations, even though they are not separated visually; so he distributes them to different speakers, assigning the first seven lines to his detective Marlowe's voice-over narrative (another detective-movie convention), the other eleven lines to the clint, Countess Larisch she becomes the "Marie" o f the childhood teminiscence. H o w is one to negotiate the gap or gutter herween the poem's first undivided bloc o f lines, w h i c h ends w i t h Marie and her cousin the archduke i n the mountains, and the beginning o f the second bloc, set in the "led rock" desert? Rowson does so by producing a narratological shift: ftom the external scne to an internal, mental one, and from the present m o ment to one i n the past. W h i l e half-listening to his client's story, Marlowe

flashes back to the last time he saw his partner Miles, w h o is now dead, at a burnt-out casino i n a desert t o w n (see Figure 3). T h e transition itself occurs at the top o f the new page, i n a triangular panel crowded into the upper left-hand corner or better, i t occurs as we cross the gutter between that panel and the next, accompanied by the voice-over narrative that helps us motivate the shift i n visual Imagery. In the panel at the b o t t o m o f the page, Rowson assigns lines 19-20 o f the poem to the voice o f Miles " W h a t are the roots that clutch, what branches grow/ O u t o f this stony rubbish?" and he iliustrates line 22 "A heap o f broken images." We have already looked at the next page (see

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Figure 1), where Rowson's panels coincide very closely w i t h Eliot's linemeasurement o f his material, w i t h each panel corresponding to one, rwo, or at most thtee lines o f Eliot's poetry. O n the following page, the transition to Eliot's next segment occurs once again i n the upper left-hand corner, as Marlowe returns from his flashback to the present scne i n his office (see Figure 4 ) . Countess Larisch is still there, still talking, and the quatrain from Wagner is assigned, plausibly enough, to het voice. T h e ttansition that follows is one o f the purest examples o f "closure," i n McCloud's sense: we leap from one scne to the next, from Marlowe's office to a rainy streetscene, across the w i d t h o f the gutter, filling in the intervening events our-

*elves. As usual, however, the voice-over helps us close the gap, informing us that the Countess has hired Marlowe to recover a lost object (he's not sure exactly what). O u t on the street, Marlowe encounters the hyacinth pirl, w h o claims to have k n o w n h i m in the past, and w h o sings the deliched line from Tristan. I o m i t the next page, where Rowson digresses from The Waste Land to scnes from other poems by Eliot ("The Love Song o f J. Alfred Prufrock" a i d the quatrain poems about Sweeney). The following two pages illusirate the scne o f the tarot reading at Madame Sosostris's (see Figure 5). Initially, Rowson follows the order o f Eliot's scne rathet faithfully, almost line-by-line, but as the scne progresses he diverges from Eliot i n

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Figure 5

Figure 6

order to prepare for the tiext, rather elaborate transition (see Figure 6). W h y does this ttansition need to be so elaborate? Rowson has complicated matters for himself, spatially, by m a k i n g his protagonist a West Coast detective, but needing to relocate h i m to L o n d o n , where Eliot's poem is mosdy set. Even w i t h o u t introducing this arbittary complication, howevet, the poem itself already has plenty o f abrupt spatial displacements o f its own, as we have seen: from the mountains to the deseit, ftom the desert to the hyacinth garden, from the garden to the scne o f Madame Sosostris's forrune-telling, and still to come, from this indoor scne to L o n d o n Bridge. This time Rowson solves his spatial problem not by introducing

a flashback, but by recourse to conventional narrative motifs o f the hardDed genre. W h i l e attending the session at Madame Sosostris's, Marlowe served a druggcd drink; he is loaded unconscious into a packing-crate, dien flown to L o n d o n . N o t e the panel i n the lower right-hand corner show ing the map o f the plane's itinerary from Los Angeles to L o n d o n , a d k h i o f adventure movies from Casablanca (1942) to Raiders of the Lost (1981) and beyond. ^ I'his panel, i n effect, corresponds to the gap or gutter between Eliot's next-to-last segment and the last one. A t the top o f the next page Marlowe ns on a street in L o n d o n (see Figure 7).

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m
LLorc f i '

suxfK

SS/W rm rnii '

Wm voQi m mm

eiitn piot -me pieai m

M

Of wHiot ieK0iWiiw6 nmtemfHsr.

Figure 8

The panels on this page illusttate the visual and auditory mateiial i n Eliot's lines 6 1 - 8 . O n the next page comes the encounter w i t h Stetson (see Figure 8), w h i c h Rowson converts into a classic chase-scene, borrowing his visual imagery this time not from The Maltese Falcon or The Big Sleep but from Carol Reed's The Third Man (1949). The example o f Rowson's Waste Land adaptation is so complex that conclusions are hard to draw. Nevertheless, I can venture a few tentative generalizations. Firsr o f all, Rowson's adaptation confirms what we ^ already knew, namely that the principle o f segmentivity organizes both poetic texts and "sequential visual art" (McCloud's definition o f comics), 2^ even though the kinds o f segmentivity differ. Secondly, this difference i n kinds o f segmentivity means that Rowson often segments his version i n

iOerent places than Eliot does; he rf-scgments The Waste Land, filling i n 'here Eliot left: gaps, and opening gaps where Eliot's text was continuous d unsegmented. Rowson throws a narrative frame around the poem, l-aming i t ; he cieates new characteis, and distribures the poem's lines l o n g them; he i n t r o d u c s flashbacks to motivate certain discontinuis i n the poem, and spatial displacements to motivate others. I n othet cds, he nairativizes the poem, and i n doing so he fiUs i n some o f the ps that Eliot left. But narrativizing also opens gaps, especially when one narrativizes usthe comics medium. Rowson's narrative, like all comics narratives, is o f gaps literally ftill o f gutters, in-between spaces where the w o r k o f sure is left to the reader. Rowson's Waste Land is at least as full o f gaps

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as the notoriously "gappy" poem that he is narrativizing. Nevertheless, we cannot map the gaps o f Eliot's Waste Land one-fot-one ditectly onto the gutters o f Rowson's version; one version is n o t homologous w i t h the other. But the t w o verslons are analogous: Rowson's comic-book is gappy just as The Waste Land is gappy, t h o u g h sometimes i n different places. Hete, then, is one reason w h y Rowson's parody is such an i l l u m i n a t i n g one: despite the manifest indecorousness o f c o u p l i n g a hyper-canonical poem like The Waste Land w i t h a low-art m e d i u m such as comics, the analogy between t h e m proves to be a sound one the " f i t , " i t turns out, is surprisingly good. B o t h Eliot's verse Waste Land and Rowson's comics adaptation o f it are mixed or h y b r i d texts i n w h i c h narrativity and segmentivity interact, though they interact differently i n each case. T h e narrativity o f Eliot's text is weak or muted, i m p l i e d by the poem's ancillary materials (its infamous notes) b u t present o n l y obliquely i n the text proper. Here segmentivity measurement at the level o f the line and especially o f the section d o m i nates. Rowson's adaptation narrativizes The Waste Land, restoring its "missing" or effaced narrative, though the story i t restores is a different one than we m i g h t have inferred from Eliot's notes. Rowson also re-segments Eliot's poem i n the ptocess o f adapting i t as a comic book, using the gutters o f the comics m e d i u m analogously to the way Eliot used spacing i n the verbal m e d i u m . Here, though the h y b t i d i t y o f Eliot's original is preserved, narrarivity and segmentivity are m u c h more evenly balanced than i n the verse Waste Land, and i t w o u l d be difficult to say w h i c h is d o m i n a n t . O n e surprising finding o f this analysis is that comics appeat to be more akin to poetry, even to ptestigious avant-garde poetry, than we m i g h t have supposed. Comics, too, like poetiy, ate measured and countermeasured; they sound chords o f segments. A n d comics, also like poetry, elicit meaning i n the place where meaning stalls out i n herween, i n the gutter.

Duplessis, Rachel Blau (1996). "Codicil on the Definition of Poetry." Diacritics 26. 3/4: 51. Eburne, Jonathan P. (2003). "Chandler's Waste Land." Studies in the Novel 35.3: 366-82. Eliot, T S . (1971). The "Waste Land: A Facsimile of the Original Drafts including the Annotations of Ezra Pound, ed. Valerie Eliot. London; Faber and Faber. Fludernik, Monika (1996). Towards a Natural' Narratology. London: Routledge. Geyh, Paula E . (2001). "Enlightenment Noir: Hammett's Detectives and the Genealogy of the Modern (Private) T . " Paradoxa 16: 26-47. Herman, David (2002). Story Logic: Problems and Possibilities of Narrative. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Hhn, Peter (2005). "Plotting the Lyric: Forms of Narration in Poetry." In: Theory into Poetry: New Approaches to Poetry, ed. Eva MUer-Zettelman and Margarete Rubik. New York: Rodopi. (2004). "Transgeneric Narratology: Application to Lyric Poetry." In: The Dynamics of Narrative Form: Studies in Anglo-American Narratology, ed. John Pier. Berlin and New York: de Gruytcr, 139-158. Hhn, Peter and Jens Kiefer (2005). The Narratological Analysis of Lyric Poetry: Studies in English Poetry from the 16'^ to the 20"' Century, transl. by Alastair Matthews. Berlin and New York: de Gruyrer. 'Kinney, Claire Regan (1992). Strategies of Poetic Narrative: Chaucer, Spenser, Milton, Eliot. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Litz, A. Walton (1973). ''The Waste Land Fifty Years After." Eliot in His Time: Essays on the Occasion of the Fiftieth Anniversary o / T h e Waste Land, ed. A . Walton Litz. Princeton N J : Princeton Universiry Press. McCloud, Scott (1993). Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art. New York: HarperCollins. McHale, Brian (2001). "Weak Narrativity: T h e Case of Avant-Garde Narrative Poetry." Narrative 9.2: 161-67. Prince, Gerald (1982). "Narrativity." In: Narratology: The Form and Functioning of Narrative. Bedin: Mouton, 145-61. (1999). "Revisiting Narrativity." In; Grenzberschreitung-engen: Narratologie im Kontextl Transcending Boundaries: Narratology in Context, ed. Waker Grnzweig and Andreas Solbach. Tbingen: Gunter Narr, 43-51. Rainey, Lawrence S. (1998). Institutions of Modernism: Literary Elites and Public Culture. New Haven: Yale University Press. Rowson, Martin (1999). "Martin Rowson recalls his wrangles with the Eliot estate over his version of The Waste Land? The Independent on Sunday. 12 December 1999. http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books-stealing-tomsplunder-this-on-two-1131983.html. Last accessed 25 August 2009. , (1990). The Waste Land. New York: Harper and Row. .yan, Marie-Laure (1992). "The Modes of Narrativity and Their Visual Metaphors." Stylel(,.y. 368-87. optaw, John (1995). "The Music of Construction: Measure and Polyphony in : Ashbery and Bernstein." I n : The Trihe of John: Ashbery and Contemporary Poetry, ed. Susan Schultz. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 211-57 Sternberg, Meir (1992). "Telling in Time (II): Chronology, Teleology, Narrativity." Poetics Today 13.3: 463-541.

References Bedient, Calvin (1986). He Do the Police in Different Voices: The Waste Land and lts Protagonist Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Berlatsky, Eric (2009). "Lost in the Gutter: Within and Between Frames in Narrative and Narrative Theory." Narrative 17.2: 162-87. Brooker, Jewel Spears, and Joseph Bentley (1990). ReadingThe Waste Land; Modernism and the Limits of Interpretation. Amherst MA: University of Massachusetts Press. Christianson, Scott R. (1990). "A Heap of Broken Images: Hardboiled Detecrive Fiction and the Discourse(s) of Modernity." In: The Gunning Craft: Originat Essays on Detective Fiction and Contemporary Narrative Theory, ed. Ronald Walker and June M . Frazer. Macomb I L : Yeast Printing, 135-48.

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Tabatchnik, Steve (2000). "The Gothic Modernism of T.S. Eliot's Waste Land ind What Martin Rowson's Graphic Novel Tells Us about It and Other Matrers." Readerfy/Writerly Texts 8.1/2: 79-92.

WlLLIAM KUSKIN (University of Colorado at Bouldet)

Vulgar Metaphysicians: William S. Burroughs, VUan Moore, Art Spiegelman, and the Medium of the Book
Current critical opinion regards comics as a unique m e d i u m . ' T h e classifiCation suggests comics' special authority and offers a governing definition: based i n the assembly o f individual cattoon panels into nattative strips, str(ps into pages, pages into pamphlets, and pamphlets into books, the medium of comics is defined by sequence.^ I n the shott tetm, this emphasis has served comics studies well, creating a field o f popular and academie vriting w i t h an increasingly defined history and terminoiogy. Obviously, comics differs from prose and poetry; nevertheless, the claim that i t is a nique m e d i u m obscutes the ways i n which it participates in literary form, ating a problem that cuts both ways: once i t is established that comics nti generis, i t is easy to pass over its relationship to established modes o f ' erary experimentation; just so, once isolated from the literary canon, it easy to dismiss comics as merely a popular form o f entertainment o f no at historical significance. Further, by defining comics as a m e d i u m o f ique semiotic codes, i t is easy to imagine that the physical m e d i u m does Ot matter, easy to imagine that a comic book is essentially a vehicle for story told w i t h pictures, interchangeable w i t h a storyboard for a film or page on a screen. Yet i f the term media emphasizes any one point, it is

I w i s h to thank Austin Trunick of D C Comics and Kathtyn Barcos of the Steven Barclay Agency for help in securing permissions for the visual images. 1 r e v i e w comics criticism in Kuskin 2008: 5-12; see also Chute and DeKoven 2008. The m a i n source for this definition in American comics studies is Will Eisnet's Comics and Sequential Art: Principles & Practice of the World's Most Popular Art Form (2005), elabotated by Scott McCloud in Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art, where he defines c o m i c s as "juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence intended to convey I n f o r m a t i o n and/or to ptoduce and aesthctic response in the viewer" (1994: 9). Thierry Groensteen's 1999 Systme de la bande dessine, translated for English readers as The System of Comics (Groensteen 2007), provides the most detailed working out of the relationship b e t w e e n s e q u e n c e , medium, and semiotics.