THE IMPACT OF MOORISH RULE IN SPAIN

Submitted by Aman Rai Roll. No. 4B

INTRODUCTION When you think of medieval Europe, you usually think of knights, castles, and the church. Rarely, though, do you think of the Moors, the powerful, benevolent rulers of Spain for nearly 700 years. While the rest of Europe was still struggling with Feudalism and food shortages, Moorish Spain was a center of culture, science, and trade. The illustrious Moors brought to the dry Spanish plains irrigation systems imported from Syria, transforming the area into a rich agricultural cornucopia. Foods introduced by the Moors were pomegranates, oranges, lemons, aubergines, sugar-cane, cotton, rice, figs, grapes, and many others. The Moorish conquest and subsequent colonization of Spain had many effects on Spanish and European culture.

Expansion of Moorish rule In the early 8th century Moorish soldiers crossed over to Spain from North Africa. The 10,000 man army was lead by Tarik bin Ziyad, who in 711 AD won a major victory over the defenders of the Iberian peninsula. After this quick victory Tarik ran like a plague through the Iberian Peninsula and after a month had ended European dominance there. Musa bin Nusayr, the Arab governor of North Africa, crossed over with 18,000 men to help subdue the peninsula. In the aftermath of the Arab conquest thousands of eager Arabs flooded into the newly conquered emirate. This quick and easy conquest could not have been accomplished without the events of 755. At that time the current rulers of Spain were the Visigoths. In 755 the Visigothic King was engaged in a power struggle with his half- brother, who had claimed the thrown for himself. To subdue this usurper, the King asked for aid from the Witiza family, a powerful and influential clan in Morocco. The clan agreed and helped in capturing and beheading the usurper. Meanwhile, as the king was busy quelling the rebellion, he was not winning any popularity contests. The Arabs in turn made pacts with local nobles, who agreed that they would withhold support from the king when the Moors invaded. These agreements, together with the indigenous population's apathy, lead to the speedy take over of Spain.

Impact of Moorish Rule By the beginning of the 9th century, Spain had become the gem of Europe with its bristling capital at Cordoba. At a time when London was no more than a wide spot in the road, Cordoba boasted a half-million citizens, 700 mosques, 300 public baths, and over 70 libraries. The twenty-one suburbs had paved and lit streets, with marble and mosaic floors and balconies. Artificial gardens and fountains graced the city proper, and paper, still unheard of to the west, was in ample supply. Nearing the end of the 1st Millennium, Cordoba was the intellectual center of Europe. Students from all over Europe came to be taught by Arab, Christian, and Jewish scholars in the great Library of Cordoba, which held over 600,000 manuscripts. The rich and complex society had a tolerant view of other faiths. Jews, Christians, and Muslims lived together in harmony, and the society had a literary base. Private land ownership was encouraged, as well as banking among Jews. Non-believers in the Muslim faith were simply levied a special tax. Unfortunately, rifts began to form within Arabic Spain, and in 1013 Cordoba fell to a Muslim faction with fanatical religious beliefs. The great library of Cordoba was torched, and many inhabitants fled the once brilliant city. Luckily, most of the books were spared the flame and were dispersed among the surrounding towns. As the Moors were fighting and dividing, the Christians in the north were doing the opposite. In the northern areas of Spain, Christian kingdoms united to drive the Moors from the European continent. In 1105 the Christians captured Toledo, where the Muslims held vast libraries of Greek, Roman, and Arabic books on philosophy and mathematics. These books included the classics of Rome and Greece, lost to the west for hundreds of years. The intellectual plunder lead to scholars from all over Europe to come to Toledo. Using Jewish interpreters, the scholars translated the Arabic books, and these works left lasting jealousies on the scholars of Europe. The texts included medicine, astrology, astronomy, pharmacology, psychology, physics, physiology, zoology, biology, botany, mineralogy, optics, chemistry, mathematics, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, music, meteorology, geography,

mechanics, hydrostasis, navigation, and history. These transcripts helped to light the fire of the renaissance. While the intellectual plunder of Toledo was being studied by European scholars, the Moors were being pushed back by Christian armies. As every new enclave was taken, more information was seized and translated. In 1234 the Moors were reduced into the Vassal state of Granada, which fell in 1492. With this victory, the intolerant Spaniards killed or exiled all Arab or Jewish people who had retreated into Granada. The Moors left a lasting impact on Spain as well as all of Europe. Because of the flood of information gained, the first universities sprang up and degrees were developed. Directly from the Moors we get the Arabic number system still in use today. Also, the concept of zero was gained. Arabic music spread giving us the keyboard, flute, and harmony. The new agricultural crops gave the Spanish reason to create vast sugar cane and cotton plantations in the new world. Mathematics and architecture were derived, and optics lead to the use of perspective in painting. The first lawyers began to practice, and food utensils were beginning to gain favor. As a result of centuries of Moorish domination, many words from Arabic, the language of Islam, are now used in Spanish. One example is "almirante," Spanish for admiral, derived from Arabic amir-al-bahr ("prince of the sea"). Many Spanish words beginning with "al" are derived from Arabic articles. Another example of Arabic influence on the Spanish Language is the word wadi, Arabic for river. Wadi is found in many Spanish river names such as Guadalajara and Guadalquivir. Altogether the Moors had major impact on Spanish and European culture.

The Fusion of Moorish Culture into Architecture and the Decorative Arts

Spain has a history of invaders, where the arts are concerned the most influential of these invaders were those who brought the Islamic traditions to the region. By the 11th century Spain had been under Islamic rule for over 800 years and was beginning to lose its grip over its northern territories to the power of unifying Christian forces. Despite this the early era of Spain was a time of peace where Christians, Muslims and Jews lived together amicably. This is reflected in the art and architecture of the period which demonstrates a fusion of Islamic and Christian traditions. The early signs of this fusion can be seen in the Mozarabic art of Spain, which demonstrate the Islamic influences that culminated in the 11th century under Moorish rule. Mozarabic The earliest synthesising of Christian and Islamic art in Spain can be seen in art and architecture from the Iberlian Christians living in Al-Andalus, known as the Mozarabs. The Christians in this Muslim conquered territory (under Muslim rule from 711 to the end of the 11th century) had adopted some Arab customs while preserving their religion and some ecclesiastical and judicial autonomy. The principal characteristics that define Mozarabic architecture are the following; Absence or sobriety of exterior decoration; diversity in the floor plans; use of the horseshoe arch in the Islamic style - very tight and with the slope being two-thirds of the radius; use of the alfiz; use of the column as support, crowned by a Corinthian capital decorated with very stylized vegetable elements; and eaves that extend outwards. An example of Mozarabic art and architecture can be seen in the Sant Quirze de Pedret in Catalonia, Barcelona: Moorish Influence By the 11th century Islamic influences had become much more dominant in Spanish art and architecture. Moorish architecture developed as Islamic civilisations came into contact with traditions such as those as Berber, Greco-Roman and Visigothic. The art form looked

backwards to masterpieces created during the golden age of Islamic rule, drawing on traditional methods, materials and forms. This is seen in architectural decoration, calligraphy and the decorative arts*. Al-Andalus became a great cultural centre for the arts as well as universities. and teachings, philosophies and sciences still unknown to Christendom. The most important examples of architecture of this period include the Great Mosque of Cordoba and the city of Medina Azahara. By the end of the 11th century influences from the Magrhebi entered the artworks produced. The most pre-eminent style that resulted from the peace fusion of cultures and religions was the Mudjar Style, which developed in the 12th century. The distinctive features of this style included, complex Islamic geometric patterns, tiles, brickwork and ornamental metals. Many of these features continue to be present in Spanish architecture. In particular the geometry dominant in Islamic art was reworked into tiles, woodcarvings and brickwork as well as ornamental metals. Some of the most distinctive features of this style were its use of brick and the complicated tiling patterns unsurpassable in its sophistication for the time. The Mudjar Style continued to reinterpret western styles throughout the 13th century, fusing the Gothic with Muslims styles. One of the clearest and most important examples of this can be seen in the numerous imposing Mudjar towers which were erected in the city of Teruel, including the tower of the church of La Merced, the tower of San Martn (1315), the tower of the church of San Pedro (14th C.), the tower of the church of El Salvador (12th-13th C.) and the towers of the Teruel cathedral. The square towers clearly display the characteristic glazed brick architecture and the decorative green and black azulejos (ceramic tile-work) of the Mudjar Style*. By the 14th century the peaceful and amicable relationship between religions ended along with Islamic rule, and Jews and Muslims were forced to convert to Christianity or leave Spain. The Alhambra Palace, which was founded during this period, stands as one of the last, and most famous, Islamic monuments erected in Spain. The palace, originally conceived as a fortress, served as the palace for the last Islamic ruler on the Iberian peninsular. A refuge for both artists and intellectuals during the last days of Islamic rule the palace is a

reflection of the previous 800 years of Islamic rule, displaying all the typical stylistic qualities that had developed over the centuries such as the Calliphal horse-shoe arch and the Almohad sebka, and infused with novelties such as stilted arches and the stylised column capitals (muqarnas). Likewise the decorations which covered the palace walls and ceilings were typical of what had developed of the Moorish style including calligraphy and complex geometric patterns (arabesques). The Fusion of European Arts As Christian influence and power spread through Spain so too did the influence of the European arts on the production of arts in Spain. This is first predominantly seen with the influence of the Romanesque in Christian dominated northern Spain and particularly in the region of Catalua and the school of manuscript illuminators at the Court of Alfonso X of Castile (1252-82), which demonstrate influence of the early French Gothic. The predominance of European art styles grew with the Flemish influence in Catalonia, and finally, as Spain became unified into a Christian Kingdom, the full effects of the Renaissance and the Baroque were seen as Spain entered its Siglo de Oro (golden age) of art production. After this point Spanish artists themselves became more influential on the European arts scene. Although largely acting abroad, it is the works of these modern 20th century Spanish artists who give momentum to the modernist movement. The Romanesque In the 11th century many of the forms developed by the Romanesque schools of the south of France were adopted for Spanish churches on the pilgrimage route from France to Santiago de Compostela. Typical examples include the collegiate Church of San Isidoro at Len (11th cent.), the Old Cathedral at Salamanca (begun in 1140), and the cathedral at Santiago de Compostela (11th-12th century), one of the most popular pilgrimage churches of the period and the most grandiose of the Spanish Romanesque buildings. Subsequent remodelling has obscured its original appearance*.

Northern Spain also produced some of the most splendid Romanesque wall paintings particularly in the region of Catalua. The spread of the Romanesque style brought Spain into more mainstream European development. This is most dynamically expressed in the colourful church frescos*. Spanish artists favoured formal symmetrical and hieratic compositions and strong, barely modulated colours. The human form and the stiff, banded drapery that encases it became more idealised and abstracted than in other European painting of the time. At their finest, these works possess a hypnotic spiritual power. The Gothic With the end of Islamic rule in the 14th century the Gothic style began to flourish in Spain. Fully Gothic buildings were erected based on the European style, such as Catedral de la Asuncin de Seville:

The most recognised western influence which crept into Spanish art at this time is the HispanoFlemish style which flourished throughout the century. The work of Flemish painter Van Eyck heavily influenced the paintings of Luis Dalmau. Meanwhile in Castile the taste for northern art was spreading as Flemish art was imported by the court and works were sold at the fairs of Medina del Campo. Local workshops adapted to this influx as is demonstrated in the works of Jorge Ingls (active 1450) and later Fernando Gallego (Salamanca). By the 16th Century the Renaissance brought the influences of Italy. This was a golden age or Siglo de Oro particularly in Spanish paintings and sculptures, many of which were produced for the ever-strengthening Church. Preeminent painters of this period include the first pronounced national character of Spanish art, Luis de Morales*. Dubbed the Divine Morales, due to both the spirituality and realism found in his work, his predominantly religious works were influenced by Italian painters such as Raphael and Leonardo.

Towards the end of the 16th century El Grecos dramatic and expressive mannerist paintings combined western styles with Byzantine traditions. A Greek who was trained in Italy El Greco settled in Toledo in 1577 where his works were highly regarded. Outside Toledo El Grecos works fell under criticism during and in the years after his lifetime and it is only in the 20th century that they have become fully appreciated. Spanish artists continued to be influenced by Italy such as Valencia based artist Francisco Ribalta (c. 1565-1628), who adapted the Italian style to produce a highly Spanish nationalistic quality, and the work of Jos de Ribera who heavily admired Caravaggio. Ribera however remained unique from other Spanish painters in his depiction of mythological scenes. Further Spanish adaption of the Italian, and particularly Caravaggio, schools of art can be seen in the pious images produced by Franciso de Zurbarn and Bartolom Esteban Murillo. The most obviously Baroque style work produced in Spain during this period was that of Juan Valds Leal (1622-1690) most notably in his Allegory of Death*. The introduction of foreign artists into the courts of the Bourbon Dynasty led to a waning of the regional development of Spanish art. The most apparent effects of this influence can be seen in the French and Italian influences on the ornate Bourbon architecture of Madrid, such as at the Royal Palace designed by Italian architects Juvarra and Giambattista Sacchetti*.

Spanish Individualism Despite the heavy influences of various invaders over the centuries, Spanish art has largely adopted styles in a uniquely Spanish way. However it is not until the 18th century that Spain begins to produce personal and independent Spanish works. Spanish individualism was reawakened in the work of Francisco Goya (1746-1828). Both a painter and printmaker his

work demonstrates the first signs of expressionism. His deeply subjective depictions of internal emotion made him instrumental in the future Spanish modern artworks such as those of Picasso. In the climate of 19th century nationalism Spain developed fine art systems free from monastic and religious powers, and a new class of patrons evolved alongside the notion of the production of art for arts sake. In this atmosphere Romanticism and the Industrial Revolution left its mark in Spanish works, and social and material changes created momentous progression in the artistic development of many Spanish regions. Some of the more experimental of these artists, influenced by Goya, led them towards similar work to that of the Impressionists*. The most famous works of this period were created by Joaqun Sorolla y Bastida whose paintings hold elements of Romanticism, concentrated in his depiction of landscapes, social and historical themes. Another important artist is Mariano Fortuny (1838-1874) whose pictures hold both elements of the Romantic interest with Orientalist themes and brushwork similar to the style that the Impressionists would later develop. By the end of the 19th century the work of sculptor and architect Antoni Gaudi was likewise pushing the boundaries of Spanish art. His almost hallucinogenic structures pushed a brave new style of Modernism into Spain. As with previous Spanish art Gaudis work can be seen as a fusion of European influences with those of local traditions, in particular those of the Gothic and traditional Catalan models. It was however the injection of his own unique style into this fusion which created buildings such as La Sagrada Famlia, a building which physically altered the city of Barcelona endowing it as the centre for modern architecture in Spain. The Spanish Civil War and the oppressive dictatorship which followed meant that early 20th century Spain suffered a long period of political and economic isolation. Spanish artwork on the other hand was becoming an important force in European art, producing some of the most important figures of the century, namely the cubists Pablo Picasso and Juan Gris and the surrealists Joan Mir and Salvador Dal. Dividing his time between Barcelona and Paris,

in the first half of the century Picasso became one of the most well known representatives of modern art. He is best known for his role in the development of the Cubist movement, the influence and evolution of which can be seen in both the other leading figures of Spanish 20th century art, Mir and Dal. Salvador Dal who joined his fellow countrymen Picasso and Mir in late 1920s Paris had passed through many phases of cubism, futurism and the metaphysical to become one of the leading figures of Surrealist painting. Based on the idea of the unconscious, one of the most common features of Dals work was melting watches and burning giraffes FACE VEILING IN MOORISH SPAIN The evidence for face veiling in Muslim Spain is inconsistent at best. Translations of text sources poetry, histories, and juridical texts for the most part do refer to veils, but only the context indicates whether the veil under discussion covers the head and hair, or the face. Access to the original Arabic rarely helps, because so many different words existed for different garments for covering oneself. Moreover, the Hispano-Arabic word often described a veil different from what we might expect based on period usage in the Middle East. Other primary sources shed little more light on the question. Few figural depictions survive from Moorish Spain, in part due to the fundamentalist Berber regimes which invaded in the 11th and 12thcenturies, and in part due to the armies of the Reconquista, which destroyed much which they could not loot. Christian miniatures or carvings of Moors survive in greater numbers, and give the impression that face veiling was not, in fact, common in alAndalus. In addition to the direct evidence of surviving sources, we can also make educated guesses regarding face veiling in Spain based on clues from Andalusi society as a whole and veiling practices in the rest of the Muslim world. In the medieval Middle East, face veiling was a privilege of the women of the urban upper class, indicating a particular social status rather than a particular religion. Umayyads

A number of factors may have caused a hesitant start to the practice of face veiling in alAndalus. Perhaps the biggest contributor was the comparative lack of women specifically Arab women among the armies of the conquest and subsequent immigrations. The bulk of the armies were made up of Berbers not fully converted to Islam; they also formed the majority of the settlers as the Visigothic estates were parceled out. Those few Arab women who were brought to Spain to join their husbands may or may not have veiled, since the practice was not ubiquitous in the Middle East at this time. When the last Umayyad prince, Abd ar-Rahman I, fled to Spain from Syria in the 750s, he may have brought notions about veiling from his homeland. However, veiling would have been seen as a privilege of rank, relegated to the upper class Arab women rather than Berbers or native Spaniards. Given the deep racial tensions in the Peninsula at the time, the Berbers and Spaniards probably had no interest in adopting Arab costumes. Thus, in the eighth century, face veiling would have only been practiced in small segments of the population.

Berber Dynasties Most evidence regarding face veiling in medieval Spain seems to come from the Berber dynasties, first the Almoravids (1090-1147) and then the Almohads (1147-1250ish). The Almoravids, in fact, provide the first evidence regarding veiling for men. Among these people, the men covered their faces with the litham, which we previously saw as a veil for women. In fact, the litham was such a distinguishing feature of their appearance that the Almoravids were also known as al-mulaththamun, those who wear the litham. In the 12thcentury, Ibnc\Abdun wrote that non-Almoravid men should not wear the litham because of the fear it struck among the native Spaniards; rather, other Berbers and men who were mounted soldiers or armed guards should only cover their faces with the khimar or the mizar. Despite the comparative rarity of the litham by the late 13th century, the practice of face veiling seems to have impacted Castillian fashion. The pleated tall hats, tocas, worn by upper class Castillian women, began to make an appearance in the 12th century. In the late

13th century, these tocas sometimes included pieces that crossed the womans face underneath her nose, effectively hiding her mouth. The effect is much like the litham worn by the Moorish women in the Libro de Ajedrez, and the fashion may have been based on Andalusi face veils. It does seem odd that Castillian women should start this at a time when the litham was apparently a rarity in Moorish Spain. Given that Moorish women veiled for religious reasons (at least in the Almohad period), why would Castillian noblewomen have adopted a similarly restrictive and confining fashion? Mudejars Theres no way to know for sure whether or not Mudejars thos e Mus lims who chose to live under Christian rule as the Reconquista swept south wore face veils. In fact, sources for what the Mudejars wore are slim, and come exclusively from Christian sources. Sumptuary laws were enacted forcing them to clothing in colorsor fashions that announced their status as second class citizens in the Christian kingdoms. But these restrictions say nothing about face veils, which cannot be construed as evidence either for or against the wearing of veils among Mudejar women. Given the apparent decline in veiling in the 13th century though, it seems reasonable to suppose that Mudejars probably did not cover their faces. Nasrids It is not clear what happened to the practice of face veiling in Muslim Spain after the Almohads. Given the evidence of the Libro de Ajedrez, it seems likely that the veil had permanently fallen out of favor, at least among the majority of the population. Very little is said about the practice in Nasrid Granada. In the 14th century, "in summertime [Granadans] affect garments of the most expensive striped Persian linen, silk, cotton, or mohair, African jellabas, and Tunisian chiffon so fine that veils made of it must be worn doubled. The context suggests that these were face veils of some sort; the original Arabic used is the plural of mizar, which we saw in use in the 12 th century. Unfortunately, there is no indication

as to how common it was for this sort of veil (if indeed it is a face veil) to be worn. By the end of the 15th century, face veils as a separate garment appear to have vanished entirely. In 1494, a traveler to Granada described how the women cover themselves with white fabric held in front of the face with one hand. A wood carving from the beginning of the 16th century shows Moorish women at a mass-baptism with their faces hidden behind the folds of their long head scarves, draped over their hands.

Moriscos The practice of wearing a separate face veil apparently enjoyed no revival after the fall of Granada.The pictures in the Trachtenbuch of Christoph Weiditz (1529) depict Morisco women wearing long scarves over their heads, without a separate face veil. Likewise, neither of two Moriscan girls nor a married Granadan woman wear face veils in the 16thcentury engravings by D. Ghisi. While the Pragmatica of Felipe II in 1568 stipulated that Moriscas should not cover their faces, this does not necessarily mean they wore separate face veils.One of Weiditzs figures shows a Granadan woman in street clothing, with one side of her head scarf pulled across her face below the eyes, and travelers to Granada remarked on how the women covered themselves with a large white piece of fabric of linen, silk, or cotton, in such a way that no one knew who they were, or so that only one eye showed. Face veils may still have been worn for dramatic effect, however, as in the case of a Morisca from Purchena who danced and sang wearing a veil so delicate that it did not hide the charms beneath.

Conclusions

Based on the erratic evidence that survives from medieval Islamic Spain, women veiled their faces, probably with a veil called the litham, in the 10th,11th, and 12 th centuries. Veiling may have been a religious obligation or an indicator of social status, or both, depending on who was in power in al-Andalus. Men also might also cover their faces, depending on their tribal affiliation or occupation. For some as yet unidentified reason, the 8practice of wearing a face veil disappeared almost completely in the 13th century. From the 14th century through to the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1610, covering ones face was no longer accomplished by a separate piece of fabric dedicated to that purpose; rather, a larger piece of fabric was used which covered the head and most of the body, as well as the face.

References http://www.moorishmaiden.org http://spanish.about.com http://www.ask.com http://jamesjkrefft.hubpages.com http://www.essortment.com