Final Mannual Ppe

MERCHANT POLYTECHNIC, BASNA
DATE:
STUDY OF BASIC ELEMENTS OF VARIOUS POWER PLANTS
OBJECTIVE: TO STUDY ABOUT ELEMENT OF POWER PANTS
LEARNIG:
TYPE OF POWER PLANT BASIC ELEMENTS OF POWER PLANTS
INTRODUCTION :
Basically power plant is an energy transformation unit. In general the meanings of the words power plant & power station are same. But logically there is big difference. This difference can easily und er stood by definitions. a Power p nt : ) la Power plant is an arrang ement of various app ratus in which continu ously electrical/mechanical power is gained in bulk as output by utilisation of given form of ener gy as input and distributed to various consumers. b Power Station: ) Power station is complex unit wher e num er s of power plants are usually b located to generate mechanical and/or electrical power in bulk,continu ously and from wher e it is transmitted to various consumers. So, the object in design and operation of power plant (station) is to gener ate electrical power safely, efficiently and economically.
TYPES OF POW ER PLANTS: 1.
According to type of En ergy Sources: a) Thermal Power Plant I. St eam Power Plant II. D iesel Power Plant III. Gas Turbine Power Plant b ) c) d) e) f) g) Hy del Power Plant Nuclear Power Plant Solar Power Plant Wind energy Power Plant Tidal Power Plant Geothermal Power Plant
2.
According to Load: a) Ba se Load Power Plant b) Peak Load Power Plant
3.
According to types of Utilization: a) b) c) d) St and by Power plant. Em er gency Power Plant. To tal Energy Power Plant. Nursery Power Plant.
e) Pum p St or age Power Plant. f) Mobile Power Plant

4.
According to capacity and Ownership: a) Central Power Plant b) Captive Power Plant
5. According to location:
a) Peat Head Power Plant b) Load cent er Power Plant

BASIC ELEMENTS OF VARIOUS POWER PLANTS:
I. Basic elements of Steam Power Plant: a) St eam Generator b) St eam Turbine c) St eam Condenser d) Feed Pump e) Alternator(Generator) II. Basic elements of Diesel Power Plant: a) b) Diesel Engine Alternator (Generator)
III . Basic elements of Gas Turbine Power Plant: a) Compress or b) Combustion Chamber c) Gas Turbine d) Alternator (Generator)
IV. Basic elements of Nuclear Power Plant: a) Atomic Reactor b) St eam Turbine c) St eam Condenser d) Feed pump e) Alternator(Generator)
Her e some of the basic elements of steam power plantis explained in detail:
Steam Generator(Boiler):
A thermal power plant using steam as a working substance works basically on the Rankine cycle. Steam of desired quality and quantity is gener ated in the boiler (Steam generator).The St eam gener ator is a complex combination of economiser, evaporator, superheater, reheater and air preheater . In addition, it has various auxiliaries like furnaces, stokers, pulverising systems, burners; fans, stacks and ash handling equipements. Mordern power plant steam gener ator s are essentially of two basic types. 1. Sub Critical Steam Generator: Sub Critical steam gener ator oper ates below 22 5 bar,usually about 13 0 bar to 180 bar. 2 Super Critical Ste am Generator: . Supercritical steam gener ator oper ates above 225 bar. La Moun t, Be nson ,Loeffler,Schmidt-Hartmann ,Velox,sterlling,BHEL are some of high pressure steam gener ator used in mordern steam power plants.
Steam Turbine:
A St eam turbine is a prime mover which continuously conver ts the energy of high press ure,high tem er ature steam supplied by a steam generator,into p shaft wor k and the low tem er ature steam exhausted to a condenser.Thia p ener gy conversion ess entially occurs in two steps. 1) The high press ure,high tem er ature steam first expand s in nozzles p and comes out at a hogh velocity. 2) The high velocity jets of steam coming out of nozzle,imping on the blades mounted on a whee l,get deflected by an angle and suffer a loss of momentum,which is absor bed by the rotating whee l in producing torque.
There are mainly two types of turbines: 1. Impulse turbine: In this type of turbine,all pressure drop of steam occure in the nozzles and there is no pressure drop as steam flows through the passa ge betwee n two blades. 2. Reaction Turbine: In reaction turbine pressure drop occures both in the nozzles or the fixed row of blades,as well as in the moving row of blades.
Steam Condenser:
The exhuast steam from turbine is cond ensed at constant press ure in a cond enser to recover the high quality of feed wa ter for reuse in the cycle.There are tw obj ects of using a cond enser in a steam plant. o 1) To redu ce the turbine exhaust pressure so as to increase the specific output of turbine. 2) To recover high quality feed wa ter in the form of cond ensate and fee d it back to the steam gener ator without any furth er treatment. There are tw broad class es of condenser: o 1. Direct Contact Type C ondenser (Jet condenser): Wher e the cond ensate and cooling wa ter directly mix and comes out as a single stream. 2. Su rface Condenser: Which are indirect heat exc hanger ,wher e the two fluids do not come in the direct cont act and the heat released by the condensation of steam is transfered through the walls of the tubes in to the cooling water continously circulating inside them.
Fee d P ump:
Feed pump s are used to supply fee d w ter to the steam gener ator at a required rate and press ure.For small capacity,low press ure steam generator reciprocating pum ps a re utilized as fee d pum p and for high capacity,high press ure steam gen er ator s generally multistage centrifugal pu mps are utilized as fee d pumps.
Alternator(Generator):
The alternator (El ectric gener ator ) is the most important part of the power plant as all other un its in the power plant are installed for the pu rpose of driving alternator. The principle of electromagnetic induction is used for the generation of electric power with the help of generator.All moder n typed of alternating current gener ator s are ess entially of a fixed stator and revolving rotor.The stator core carries three phase wind ing in which alternating emf is induced when the shaft of the rotor is revolved with the help of the prime mover.The rotor is carrying field magnet and coils which provide the magnetic flux of the machine.The field is excited by a direct curre nt brough t in to the field circuit by means of two rotor slip-rings and set of brushes riding on them. The magnitude of the induced voltage in the single ph ase of the stator winding depend s up on the strengt h of the magnatic field,the spee d of rotation and num er of stator coils in series. b
DATE:
STUDY OF VARIOUS CIRCUITS OF MORDERN THERMAL POWER PLANT
OBJECTIVE:
STUDY OF VARIOUS CIRCUITS OF MORDERN THERMAL POWER PLANT COAL AND ASH HANDLING CIRCUIT AIR AND GAS CIRCUIT FEED WATER AND STEAM CIRCUIT CONDENSER COOLING WATER CIRCUIT STEAM TURBINE LUBRICATION CIRCUIT
LEARNING:
INTRODUCTION: A thermal power plant, using steam as working medium, works basically on Rankine cycle. Steam is gener ated in a boiler & expand ed In the a boiler & expand ed in the prime mover& then cond ensed in cond enser and feed back in to the boiler. However ,in practice, there are num erous modifications and improvements in this cyc le with the aim of achieving safety, economy and higher efficiency. For achieving easiness in operation and better control over various process es, th e whole sys tem of modern power station is divided in following main circuits, Coal and ash handling circuit. Air and gas circuit. Feed wa ter and steam circuit. Condenser c ooling wa ter circuit. St eam turbine lubrication circuit.
Coal and ash hand ng circuit: li
Coal in various forms is used as main fuel for steam power station,so careful consideration should be given to coal and ash handling circuit whil e designing power station. A hug e quantity of of coal (about 50 % to 60% of the total operating cost is invested in fuel purchasing) is required for large power station and huge quantity of ash is produced also. Coal handling and ash disposal sys tems are designed according to types
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& quantity of coal consumption and ash production. In coal handling system generally unloading,primary preparation,metal separation,transfer,final preparation,weighing and ot her required fun ctions are done. Coal receveing: First coal received by suitable transportation system (like sea,river,rail or road) is un loaded by appopriate mechanism like tower crane,grab bu ckets,car shak er ,rotarycar dampers,wagon tripplers,self unloading boats etc. St or age: Then coal is store d in coal ya rd either in open heaps or in bun kers.generally 10 % of annu al coal consumption quantity is store d in coal ya rdfor achiving continu ous coal availability to boiler furnac es and economy. Apporoximately 25 % land of power station is utilised for coal yard.
Figure : COAL & ASH HANDLING SYSTEM
Crushing:Before feeding coal to the combustion chamber some process es like primary crushing,metal removal,drying,weighing,pulverizing and scree ning are done in suitable equipements.
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Pulverising: Pulverising is the process of making powder of coal of required size to chieve rapid combustion rate and easiness in supplying coal to the boiler furnace. Scree ning: It is done to pass only the required size of coal to the combustion cham er the larger size particles is recycled for pulverising b again. Combustion: The pulverized coal is fed to the boiler furnace with the help of primary air flow,where combustion of coal tak es place.Thet will give ash as byproduct. Ash collection & disposal : Heavy ash is collected in the ash pit and is disposed off to suitable site by mechanical or hydraulic sys tem. Where as fly ash which travels with the flue gases,is coolected by suitable method and disposed off with the bottom ash.If the power station is located near sea ao river,the ash is disposs ed off in the water.But in the land stations ash is usually disposs ed off by auction of the contractors for use in buil ding construction, road construction, industrial process ing, etc.
AIR AND GAS CIRCUIT: Necess ity of Air: Air is necessa ry to appritiate and complete combustion of any type of fuel.In coal fired sys tem air also works as lifting agent of pulverized coal and carries it to the furnace from pulverizer.
Figure :
Air and gas circuit
Supply of Air: Air supplied to the combustion cham er of the boiler either b throug h F.D or I.D. fan or by using both.These fans are used to increase the press ure of airto achieve proper draft.This forced air is admittedin to air preheater ,where it is heated with the help of exhuast gases.This heated air is then sent to the boiler furnace for combustion of fuel. Gas path: The gas es, g ener ated du e to combustion, carry heat with it. This heat energy is absor bed in various parts like wa ter walls, evaporating coils,drum,super heater, reheater, economiser and air preheater, when these gas es pass es f rom those parts. Then the hot gases go to the dust collector,where flying ash is collected by suitable method and finally they are discharged to the atmosph er e by chimney at sufficient height.
FEED WATER AND STEAM CIRCUIT: Initially for the first cyc le the total circuit is filled with the w ter after a proper w ter treatment and for next incoming cycles the required quantity a of make up wa ter is added in to fee d w ter and steam circuit to a com onsa te the working medium loss . p
Figure:Feed water and steam circuit
steam gener ated in the steam gener ator with the help of combustion of fuel is admitted to sup er heater to sup er heat the steam up to required temperature. Then this sup er heated s team is introduced in to turbine wher e it is expand ed up to certain pressure and then further steam is carried out and it is then admitted in to reheater to reheat up to certain temer ature with the help of flue gases.Then tiis reheated steam is further steam is
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expand ed in to turbine up to cond enser press ure.Then the exhaust steam from the turbine is cond ensed in to the cond enser and then condensate formed is store d in to the hot well. To avoid erosion of turbine blades during expansion of steam in to turbine stages some amount of steam is carried out from the turbine as blee d steam.Here in this figure steam is blee ded in to two steps from two different stages of the turbine.One is higher pressure stage and second is lower pressure stage. The accumulated cond ensa te of hot well is pump ed by condensate pump in to the low pressure fee d w ter heater ,wher e condensate and blee d a steam from lower press ure stage are mixed to recover heat ener gy from blee d steam. Then this mixture of feed wa ter is mixed with blee d steam from high press ure stage.Then this feed water is carried to the economiser,where temer ature of the wa ter is increased with the help of heat ener gy of flue gases.After recovering heat energy from the fule gases in to economiser the heated fee d w ter ent er s back in to the steam generator. a
CONDENSER COOLING WATER CIRCUIT: St eam coming out from steam turbine is cond ensed in condenser with the help of cooling water.The latent heat of the steam is absor bed by cond enser cooling w ter and thu s the tem er ature of cooling water a p increases.
Figure:Condenser coo li ng w ter circuit a
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To reuse this w ter again and again for cooling purp ose,the cooling water a is cooled down with the help of atmospheric air in to cooling tower,cooling pond, spray pond or cooling canal. Figure shows conden ser cooling wa ter circuit.Hot wat er coming out from cond enser is taken in to cooling tower and cooled with the atmospheric air and then collected in to water pond of cooling tower. The circulating pump supplies this coo ler w ter back to the condenser.To a cond ensa te evaporation loss of water,required quantity of make up water is added to the circuit in the basin of cooling tower after doing required w ter treatment. a
STEAM TURBINE LUBRICATION CIRCUIT: St eam turbine is important com onent of steam plants run ning p continuously at high spee d.To reduce friction of its rubbing compenents like main bearing,thrust bearing and gearbox,lubrication sys tem is provided.
Figure:Steam turbine lubrication circuit
Due to continu ous hogh spee d,high temer ature and steam,rapid oxidation and wa ter mixing with lubrication oil are main problems of the lubrication
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sys tem o to prevent oxidation proper anti-oxidant agent is added to the .S lubrication oil,and to prevent emulsion special construction of lubrication sys tem is adopted,which prevent mi xing of steam and lubricating oil. Figure shows simple steam turbine lubrication circuit.Pump-1 pumps lubricating oil from oil sump (tank) to the cooler,where oil is cooled down to maintain proper lubricating properties and then this oil is pumped by turbine driven pum p to the distributor. Distributor supplies lubricating oil at regulated pressure in sufficient qaun tity to various rubbing com onenets like bearing,control relay and p gear box. Lubricating oil,coming out from those components,carries impurities and heat ener gy.So this oil is purified in oil cleaner and then supp lied back to the oil tank. During starting,stopping and abnormal conditions,auxiliary lubricating pum p supplies lubricating oil to the distributor.Vapour extrac tor is provided in to lubricating oil tank to remove oil vapour and gases formed du e to dehydration of lubricating oil.
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DATE:
STUDY OF HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS
OBJECTIVE: TO STUDY OF HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS. LEARNING: TYPES OF BOILERS

La-Mont Boiler Benson Boiler Leflore Boiler Schmidt-Harman Boiler I NTRODUCTION: To increase the efficiency of thermal (steam) power plant and to redu ce the cost of electricity production utilization of high press ure, high temperature steam is necessa ry du e to this reas on, demand for high press ure boilers has increased . The high pressure and heavy dut y boilers are those s team gener ator s, which produ ce steam in the range of 30 to 65 0 tones per hour with a press ure rang e from 60 to Supercrtitical press ure and maximum steam temperature of about 540 C. SPEICIAL FEATURES OF HIGH PRE SSURE BOILERS : High press ure boilers have some special features over low and medium pressure boilers like forced circulation, small tubes, lack of drums, press urized combustion, Multiple tub e circuits, com ac tness and low weight . Some of these features p are discuss ed below: Method of w ter circulation : a In high press ure boilers the w ter circulation is maintained a by forced circulation with the help of pump . The forced circulation of w ter inside the a tub es ca uses increased rate of heat transfer. It also helps to redu ce tube diameter and hence provision of mor e num er of wa ter tubes in given space b is poss ible. It also helps to redu ce scale formation inside the tub es du e to higher w ter velocity. a
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Increase d area of Heating: The heat transfer area in high pressure boilers considerably increases du e to adoption of mor e num er of tub es of smaller diameter and du e to b costruction of water wa lls . Im ro ved Heating Method : p High steam generation rate can be poss ible du e to high steam generating press ure (above critical pre ss ure ). This is poss ible because no latent heat is nee ded to Evaporate the water. 2. H igh steam generating rate can be poss ible by direct mi xing of sup er heated steam To fee d w ter . a 3. With the help of high gas and w ter velocity high heat transfer rate a can be achieved. 4. Due to adoption of pulverizing firing sys tem high heat release can be poss ible.
1.
TYPES OF HIGH PRE SSU RE BOILERS: A wide v ariety of high press ure boilers are available. Some comm on high press ure boilers are as un der (A) (B) (C) (D) La- Mont Boiler: A for ced circulation boiler was first introduced in 192 5 by La- Mont. The arrang ement Of water circulation and different component s of La-Mont boiler is shown in figure: La-Mont Boiler Be nson Boiler Leflore Boiler Schmidt-Harman Boiler
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The feed wa ter from hot-well is supp lied to a storing and separating drum thoug h the economizer. The most of the sensible heat is supplied to the feed wa ter in economizer .A Centrifugal pump circulates the w ter equal a to 8 to 10 times the weight of steam generated. This wa ter is circulated through the evapor ator and the part of the water eva por ated is Separated in the separator drum .the large quantity of w ter circulated prevent s the tub es a from being overheated. The steam, separated in the drum, is further pass ed throug h the super heater and finally supplied to the prime mover. This boilers has bee n built to gener ate 45 to 50 ton s of superheated steam at pre ss ure of 12 0 atom. And at a tem er atures of 500 C p
Benson Boilers: Be nson in 1922 argued that if the boiler pressure w as raised to critical press ure (225 Atm), the steam and w ter have the sa me density and a ther e for the dang er of bubble can be eliminated.
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The arrang ement of benson boiler com onent s is shown in figure. p The wa ter after pass ing through economizer ent er s into the radiant eva por ator , where majority of the Wa ter is converted into steam .the remaining water is eva por ated in the final (convective) eva por ated by absorbing the heat of hot gas es by convection . the sa turated high press ure St eam at 225 atm. Is further pass es throug h the sup er heater and goe s to prime mover in su per heated condition. Major difficulty of salt deposition is experienced in the convictive eva por ator s, where all remaining w ter conver ted into steam. To avoid this a difficulty, the boiler (convective Evaporator) is normally flashed out after every 4000 working hours to remove the salt The maximum working pressure obtained in Be nson boiler is 5000 atm. With 15 0 tons per hour s team generation capacity.
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Loeffler Boiler: The major difficulty experienced in La-Mont boiler is the deposition of salt and Sediment on the inn er surface of the w ter tube s .this difficulty was a solved in Loeffer- boiler by preventing the flow of wa ter in to the boiler tubes.
In loeffer boiler most of the steam is gener ated outside of the boiler tubes from the fee d w ter using part of sup er heated steam coming out from the a boiler. The ar rangemen t of the different com onents and w ter and p a steam circulation are shown in figure. The feed pum p draws the wa ter through economizer and delivers it into the Evapor ator drum . about 65% to of the steam coming out of sup er heater is passed through the eva por ator drum is or der to eva por ate the fee d w ter coming from economizer. a The steam circulating pu mp draw s the sa turated steam from the eva por ator drum and is pass ed through the radiant super heater and then convective sup er heater about 35 % of the steam coming out from the sup er heater is supplied to the H.P. turbine. The steam coming out from H.P. turbine is pass ed throug h re-heater before supplying to L.P. turbine. The nozzles which distributes the sup er heated steam throug h out the w ter in to the a eva porator drum are of special design and avoid priming and noise .
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Loeffler boiler with generating capacity of 10 0 tons per hour and operating at 140 bar are already com iss ioned . m
S hm c idt Hartmann Boiler: The arrang ement of the boiler com onent s is as per Fig. the operation of p the boiler is similar to an electric transformer.
In the primary circuit the steam at 100 atm is produced from distilled wa ter . The gener ated steam is pass ed through a submerged gheatingp coil which is located in an eva por ater drum s of secondary circuit. With heat transfer rate of 25 00 Kcal/ sq.m hr.C Is gener ated in the eva por ator drum of second ary circuit. The steam produce in the eva por ator drum impure water is further pass ed throug h the sup er heater and then supplied to the prime mover. The high pressure c ond ensa te for m d in the submer ged heating coil is e circulated throug h a low pressure feed heater on its way to raise the fee d w ter temp . to saturation temp. therefore, only latent heat a is supplied in the eva por ator drum. Natural circulation is used in the primary circuit and this is sufficient to aff ect the desired rate of heat transfer and to overcome the thermo siphon head of about 2m to 10m in normal circumstances, the replenishment of distilled wa ter in the primary circuit is not required as every care is taken in design and construction to prevent the leakage bu t as a safeguard against leakage . a pre ss ure gauge a nd safety
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valve are fitted in the circuit.
DATE:
STUDY OF BOILER FURNACES
OBJECTIVE: TO STUDY OF BOILER FURNACES LEARNING: CLASSIFICATION OF FURNACES HAND FIRED FURNACE STUDY OF BOILER FURNACES SPREADER TYPRE TOKER FURNACE SINGLE RETOER FURNACE PULVERIZED FUEL FIRING FURNACE CYCLONE FURNACE FLUIDIZED BED FURNACE
INTRODUCTION:
At the heart of foss il-fueled power plant operation is the combustion process. Through the combustion process, moder n powe r plants burn fuel to release the ener gy that gener ates steam ener gy that ultimately is transformed in to electricity. So combustion or conversion of fuel in to useable energy m st be carefully controlled and managed. Only the heat released that is u success fully ca ptured by the steam is useful for generating power. Hence the ability of steam gener ator to success fully transfer energy from the fuel to steam is driven by the combustion process . Theoretically combustion can be defined as the rapid comical reaction of oxygen with the combustible elements of a fuel practically from enginee ring point of view combustion can be defined as the chemical un ion of the fuel combustible and the oxy gen of air controlled at a rate that pro du cts useful heat energy. Fu rnace provides closed space for combustion of fuel for controlled and efficient combustion of fuel within a f urnace following basic criteria must be satisfied: 1. Adequate quantity of air (oxy gen) supplied to the fuel. 2. Oxygen and fuel thoroughly mixed. 3. Fuel air mixture maintained at or above the ignition temperature.
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4. Fu rnace volume large enoug h to give the mixture time for complete
combustion. 5. Continu ous reliable ignition. 6. Satisfactory high flame temperature. 7. Minimum pressure loss . 8. Proper ash collection and disposal. Considering above criteria furnace should provide following fac ilities controlling efficient combustion of fuel. for
1. It provides facility of bu rner s for proper mi xing of air and fuel. 2. It is capable for generating flue gases at required tem er ature at p required rate. 3. It prevent s heat loss es to surroun dings by w ter walls, refrac tor y layer a and radiant sup er heater or evaporator. 4. Provided proper buffles to divert flue gases in prop er mann er with minimum pressure loss . 5. Give qui ck response by adjusting combustion rate against chang e of load. Hence furnace design depend s on parameter s like, . Types and quantity of fuel. Types of firing. St eam quality and generation rate. Gr ate area. Flame length. Ash fusion temperature. Temperature and flow rate of air. Flu e gases path and types of buffles.
Generally in modern s team (Thermal) power plants inn er layer of furnace wa ll is provided with a layer of refrac tor y material like fire clay, silica, alumina kreoline,etc. To prevent heat loss to the surroun ding by reflecting back the radiant heat ener gy inside the refrac tor y layer w ter (working medium).Tubes a are arrang ed in such a way that they form a wa ll as a known as wa ter wall which absorbs maximum amount of radiant heat librated from the combustion of fuel.
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CLASS IFICATION OF FURNACES:
According to method of firing for various types of fuel furnace can be class ified in following mann er: Since today coal in its various forms is widely utilized in steam (thermal) power plants. Some of the solid fuel firing furnaces is discuss ed in detail here. Hand fired furnace: These types of furnace a re utilized for medium and low capacity boilers in which coal is fed by shovel on the grate surface. This is the simplest method of solid bed firing but can not be used in modern power plants du e to lower combustion efficiency and poo r response against fluctuating load. Traveling grate or chin grate stoker:
The chain grate stoker consists of an end less chain made from cast iron links or bars which forms a supp ort f or the fuel bed . The chain travels over two sprocket whee ls one at the front and other at the rear of the furnace the front sprocket is conn ected to variable spee d drive mechanism. The coal is fed by gravity from a hopp er located in front of the stoker. The depth of fuel on the grate is regulated by hand adjusted gate. The speed of the grate varies at the rate at which the coal fed to the furnac e. The combustion controls automatically regulates the speed of the grate to maintain the required steam rate. The ash containing a small amoun t combustible material is carried over the rear and of the stoker and deposited in the ash pit. Chain grate stoker s are best suited for non-caking, high-volatile and high ash coals. The bar grate stokers are burn lignite and small size anthracite coal success fully.
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Vibrating grate sto ker furnace: In this types of furnace grate is vibrated at regular intervals. The clinkers adh ere d to grate are removed by vibration. This types of furnace are suitable for medium volatile bituminous coals an d lignite but at reduced burning rate. S rea er ty e sto ker furnace: p d p This is an over -feed type of stoker in which coal burns partly in suspension and partly on the grate.The spreader stoker installation consist of variable fee ding device for throwing the coal uniforml y on the grate and suitable opening for admitting air.The coal fee ding and distributing mechanicm is located in the front wa ll above the grate. A portion of coal supplied which contains fine particles of coal burns in suspension and remaining falls to the grate.
The air supplied by the F. D. fan enter s the furnace throw the openings provided in the grate. A portion of this air is used to burn the fuel on the grate and remaining air is utilised to bu rn the volatile matter and fine particles in the suspension. The s econdary air supplied throug h nozzles creates high turbulence and completes the combustion of susp end ed matt er.The unbu rnt coal and ash are deposited on the grate which is removed periodically both stationary as well as moving grate are utilized with spreader stoker. A fee der is a slow speed rotating drum on which large num er of blades is b mount ed is supplies coal to the spreader in a continu ous stre am. The speed of fee der can be chang ed as per load. The fee ders may be reciprocating ram, endless belt or spiral wa rm. The fee ders are oper ated with variable spee d drive mechanism.
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Sp reader consist of rapidly rotating shaft carrying blades to provide un iform distribution of the coal over the grate .A wide variety and poo r quality coal can be burnt efficiently with this type of stoker. S ngle retort/Multi reto s sto ker furnace: i rt T his is und er feed stoker furnace, in which coal is feed from und er meath the fire and moves gradually upwa rds. The primary air is supplied just below the level at which combustion tak es place. In this types of furnace fuel is placed in large hopp er on the front of the furnace and then it is further fed by reciprocating ram or screw conveyer in to the bottom of the horizontal through. The air is supplied throug h the tuyeres provided along the upp er edg e of the grate. The ash and clinkers are collected on the ash plate provided with dumping arrang enm ent. the coal fee ding capacity of a single retor t stoker varies from 10 0 to 200 0 kg/hr.
The increase of capacity in the under fee d can not be obtained simply by bui lding large single retort stoker due to inability to obtained even air distribution from the sides of retorts.Multi retor t stoker s are generally used for increasing the burning capacity of the furnace. P lverized fue l firing furnace: u In a pulverized fuel firing furnaces the coal is redu ced to a fine powder with the help of grinding mill and then proje cted in to the combustion chamber with he help of hot air curre nt. The amount of air required (Second ary air) to complete the combustion is supplied separately to the combustion chamber . The resulting turbulence in the combustion cham er helps for un iform mixing of fuel b and air. The amount of air used to ca rry the coal is know as primary air. n The efficiency of pulverized fuel firing furnace mostly depend s up on the size of
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the powder, abili ty of the bu rner s to produ ce un iform mi xing of coal and air and turbulence within the furnace.
Generally pulverize fuel firing furnace can be classified according to arrang ement of bu rner s like: 1) Long flame (U-flame) furnace. 2) Sh or t flame (turbulence) furnace. 3) Tangential bu rner furnace. In pulverized fuel firing furnace wide variety and low grade coal can burnt easily. It gives fast response to load chang es. Moreover the sys tem is perfectly free f rom clinkers and slugg ing troubles. Large am ount s of heat release are poss ible and with su ch rate of heat generation each boiler can gener ate as large as 200 0 tons of steam per hour.
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Cyclone furnace: The cyclone furnace is a new method of burning coal particles in suspension. Basically this furnace was designed to bu rn crushed low grade bituminous coal that normally has high cont ent of low fusing tem erature ash. p
The cyclone furnace is a horizontal cylinder of water-cooled construction.The inside part of the cyclone cylinder is lined with chrome ore.The horizontal axis of the cylinder is slightly deflected tow rds the boiler main furnace and the a cylinder is equipped with a single scroll type inlet at one end a nd a gas discharge throat in to the boiler main furnace at the other end. The c rushed coal of 6mm maximum size is blown tangentially in to a cylinder of cyclone furnace w ith primary air at outlet end .which creates strong and high turbulent vor tex. As the coal with air moves from the front to the rear, second ary air is introduced tangentially to complete the combustion. Extremely high heat liberation rate and the use of preheated air ca use high temperature 0 (200 0 C) in the cyclone. The fuel supplied is quickly con sum ed and liberated ash for ms a molten film flowing over inner wall of the cylinder. The molten ash flows to an appropriate disposal sy stem as the horizontal axis of bu rner is tilted. The cyclone furnace gives best results with low grad e fuels and high silica ratio (80 %).
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F uidi zed bed furnace: l
To reduce SO2 not NOX formation, this type of furnace designed was suggested in 1950 , w hich is also know as press urized flui dized bed combustion furnace. n In this type of furnace crushed coal of 6 to 20 mm size with lime stone and ash is spreaded over grate surface to form fuel bed.High velocity air is supplied from the bot tom of grates,which acts as rising agent an d levitates the fuellimestone mixture.Turbulence created thus helps for suspension firing of fuel.Temperature of about 800 c to 900 c is achieved due to boiler size and to achieve high heat transfer rate. The SO2 for med due to combustion is absor bed by limestone and due to low tem er ature NOX formation also reduces. Thus pollutants in the exhaust gases p redu ce greatly ,du e to this furnace.
0 0
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DATE:
STUDY OF COAL AND ASH HANDLING SYSTEMS OF MORDERN POWER STATION
OBJECTIVE: TO STUDY OF COAL AND ASH HANDLING SYSTEM.
LEARNING: COAL HANDLING SYSTEM IN PLANT COAL HANDLING SYSTEM OUT PLANT HANDLING SYSTEM ASH HANDLING SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
The coal and ash handling fac ility is the life line of a coal fired power station. Modern station have a high coal demand be ca use of ever increasing power demand and economic adva nt ag e of a single fuel handling facility sewing a multi unit power station. Thus this facility have had to become more flexibl e , mor e reliable & capable of handling larger amoun t of materials in less time than ever before. Coal and ash handling fac ilities normally require large ground areas & proper conveying systems to elevate the material from sys tem. Planning & designing of coal and ash handling facilities depend upon fuel burning rate, plant location coal source & transportation, environmental conditions, types & properties of coal, capacity of unloading sy stems, stor age & preparation facilities, drying facilities, weighing systems capacity & du st collection systems capacity etc. Proper coordination betwee n all above fac ilities required to balance the plant supply with the plant consumption. The coal handling sys tem of modern power station is divided in to two parts
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1. 2.
Out plant handling system. In plant coal handling system.
Out pla nt hand ng system: li The coal from the coal mines to the power station is transpor ted by out-plant coal handling sys tems like sea, rail or road transportations. The supply of coal by road is limited to a small capacity power plant & this method of handling coal doe s not suit with moder n power station. So foll owing means of t ransportations are adopt ed for moder n power station.
Transportation of coal by se a or river: If the power station is located on the bank of river or near the sea shore , it is often economical to transpor t the coal by ships or barges. Various un loading sys tems like clamshell back ed unloader, continu ous bucket ladder un loader, vertical screw un loader,are utilized to un load the coal from ships or barges. The un loaded coal is either sent to stor age ya rd or directly to the conveyer system. The loading & unloading of hug e amoun t of coal to the ships & barges are the major problems with this type of transportation. Transportation of coal by rail: Railway is the most important means of coal trasportation for interior power stations. A railway siding line is tak ento the pow station & coal is delivered to er the stor age yard,which is close to the point of consumption. Railcars are built to two basic designs to un load (1) the bottom dump car and (2)th e top dum p car.Bottom dum p car utilies door s at the car bottom for un loading,while the top dum p car is un loaded by turning the car over by rotary car dum er s (wa gg on tripp ers). p To minimise the time for transportation,loading & unloading,un it train sys tem is adopted,in which the train moves continuously round the c lock along the circular track.A circular trac k,know as Merry Go Round system,is arranged n betwee n coal field & power station. Transportation of coal by ro pe- ways: When the distance of coal mines to the power station to less than 10 kms,the ropeway is utilised to tras por t the coal.This sy stem supplies the coal continuously from coal mines to the power station. Transportation of coal by overland conveyers: When the coal mines are adj ac ent to the power station ,over load conveyers like belt conveyor is utilised to supply the coal to the power station.Overland conveyor s com only move material up to 16 km from the mines.Several types m
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of conveyor sys tems allow the belt to convey material aruond a horizontal curve & also completely enclose the material within the belt.
Transportation of coal by pipeline: Pip eline of coal slurry fromremote mines to strategically located power station is capable of tranporting continu ously very large quantity of coal slurry with less time.Slurry preparation system,pumping system and recovery sys tem are thre e main com onenets of this type of trasportation system. p Homogeneous slurry by mi xing crushed coal & water is made in to preparation system.The formed slurry is then pumped in to the pipe line.Coal is dewatered & recovere d for use in recovery system.The recovery sys tem includes slurry receiving tank,dewatering plant,drying sys tem and stor age bunkers.the dewatered& dried caol generally contains 9 to 10 % of surface moisture as further drying is uneconomical.
STOKEOUT,RECLAIM AND OUT- PLANT STO RAGE SYSTEMS:
After receiving coal from out-plant handling system,coal is store d in storage are a of plant site.Stoke out is the term for method & equipements used to palce in the s tor age area.Reclaim is the term for method & equipement used to retrieve the coal from the stor age area.St or age is the area where the coal is held from the time it is received to the time it is required for plant consumption.Car shker s,rotary car dampers,un loading tower s & bridges,self un loading boats,lift,trucks,cranes & bu ckets are utilised to un load the coal from outplant coal handling system. The coal is store d in stor age area which includes bot h active & reser ve coal storage.Coal from an active coal stor age is utilised for consumption within short time.to avoid use of mobile equipement to transfer coal from active storage,this stor age space is kept near to the point of application.The reser ve coal storage is a long ter m storage that provides an emer gency supp lyof coal for any un avilable delay in coal supply. The coal is store d by following methods to redu ce the chance of oxidation & combustion(1)stoking the coal in heaps (2)under w ter storage(3)covered a
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storage(4)bun kers.Faction like available ground area,risk of combustion,loss es on stor age,cost of stor age & handling local weather conditions,daily consumption& supply condition influence the stor age facility.
IN-PLANT COAL HANDLING SYSTEM:
From stor age space coal is transfered to the firing equipement throug h various equipement like crusher,sizers,dryers,magnetic seperators,weighing equipements,storage bun ker s & pulverising mi lls depending upon the firing
sys tem utilised.Transfer of coal from sys tem to system is done by various equipement like grab bu cket conveyor s,bu cket elevators belt conveyors,screw conveyors,flight coneyor s & skip hoists.These equipement are discuss ed in brief as un der. 1. Grab buck et conveyor:
When other alternative equipement are not poss ible to use,grab bucket conveyor is utilised to transfer coal with the help of crane or tower.Figure show the construction of grab bucket conveyor in wh ich vertical movement of s bucket is carried out with the help crane & the crane moves horizontally on track provided for the same. 2. Buck et elevator:
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For vertical movement of coal,bucket elevatora are used in which loading is done at bottom & discharging is done at the top.Buckets are fixed to a chain which moves over two whee ls as shown in figure.The bu cket elevators are class ified according to mann er of discharge as non-continu ous & continu ous.
3. Belt conveyors:
This is very suitable means of tranferring large quantity oa caol over large distance.It can elevate coal up to 20 to the horizontal & convey up to 400 meters,with ava rage spee d ao belt ranging from 60 to 100m/min.Belt conveyor consists of endless belt made of rubb er ,canvas or balata runn ing over a pair of end pulleys & suppor ted by series of rollers know as idlers,provided at regular n intervals. 4 S rew conveyors: . c
0
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It consists of an endless helioid screw rotating in a trough.The movement of screw drive the coal from one end to the other & discharge at any siutable point as shown in figure.Screw conveyors are w ell suited for small applications where space is limited. 5. F ht conveyors: lig
When filling of num er of stor age bins situated under the conveyor is b required,this type of conveyor is utilised.It consists of a series of sc rape rs or flights bolted to one or two endless chain moving on chain whee ls at tw ends o as shown in figure.The sc raper moves inside a truogh of cast-iron or stee l.Coal is also carried forwa rd during the movement & discharged at required point throug h suitable opening in the trough bott om.
6. S op hoist: k
For movement of coal for medium size plant hoist is the simplest device.It consists of a bu ck et moving betwee n guides with the power of a cable received roun d sheav es & drums which turn thruogh electric drive.The cable is provided
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for elevatating the bucket.The bu cket can be provided with referance to its cent er of gravity.A curve guide is located at the damping point near the top of the hoist way& engages a roller in each side of the bucket pulling it in to dumping position.
ASH HANDLING SYSTEM: High quantity of ash is gener ated from large power stations.Thu s hund reds of tons of ash may have to be handeled every day in large power station.Handling of ash includes its removals from the furnace,loading on conveyors& delivery to the dumping site. Following methods are adopt ed for ash handling in power stations: Manu al handling. Mechanical handling. St eam jet systems. Pnu metic-conveyor system. Hy draulic or gravity system. Same mechanical handling equipements,utilised for coal handling can be utilised for ash hopper is fed.The app lication of this system is limited to small & medium capacity power station. Stea je t systems: m This system utilizes jets of high pressure steam to convey ash in which ash from hopper is fed.The app ilication of this is limited to small & medium capacity power station. P u metic-c onveyor system: n This system has bee n developed for handling abrasive as well as fine dusty materials such as fly-ash & soot.
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As shown in figure,the ash and dust from all discharge point is picked up by high velocity air steam created by an exhauster.The collected ash of ash hopper is crushed in crusher & carried away by the air is seper ated in primary & second ary s eparator s & is collected in ash hopper as shown in figure.The separated clean air is removed to atmosph er e through top of the secondary separator and ash collected in hopper is disposed off by some suitable method. Hyd raulic or grav ity system: The hydraulic ash handling system carries the ash with the flow of w ter with a high velocity through chann el & finally dump ed to the sump.The ash is separated from w ter when it reac hes to the sump.The separated w ter is used a a again while the ash collected in the sump is sent out through carriages.
35
DATE:
STUDY OF GOVERNING SYSTEMS OF STEAM TURBINE. POWER STATION.
OBJRCTIVE:
TO STUDY GOVERNING SYSTEM OF STEAM TURBINE.

LEARNING: MAIN COMPONENTS OF STEAM TURBINE GOVERING SYSTEM OF STEAM TURBINE Nozz le control Governing. Throttle Governing. Bypass Governing. Throttle and nozzle control Governing. Throttle and bypass Governing.
INTRODUCTION: St eam turbine is a prime mover used in steam power plant and nuclear power plant. In steam turbine steam ener gy is converted in to resolving motion of the shaft of the rotor i.e. thermal energy is converte d in to mechanical energy. There are mainly two types of steam turbines: Impulse turbine Impulse-Reaction turbine. In a Impulse turbine, steam coming throug h nozzle impinge on the tip of the blades, mounted on the rotor of the turbine. Blade changes direction of
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steam flow without changing press ure of steam Due to change in momentu m . resultant motive force is created, which rotates turbine shaft. e.g. De-laval,Curtis and Rateau Turbine. In a reaction turbine,velocity of the steam coming thruogh nozzle increases relative to rotating disc of the turbine.As a result reaction for ce created which rotates disc and shaft.Shaft rotates opposite to jet . e.g. Parson turbine.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF STEAM TURBINE: Following are the main com onents of the turbine: p 1) Nozzle 2) Blades and vane 3) Rotor 4) Ro tor shaft 5) Casing 6) Sh aft glands 7) Bearings 8) Servomotor 9) Governor 10 ) Lubrication system.
GOVERING SYSTEM OF STEAM TURBINE: The actual consumption of electrical power at a particular time is known as load.(Electrical load).The outpu t of the turbine m st be adjusted u according to load,as electrical can not be stored.Electricalener gy is gener ated according to load demand otherwise it is wasted resulting in loss .Load changes according to power consumption.During variation of load it is necessa ry to run turbine at constant spee d.The control of output of turbine according to variation in load is known as governing of turbineand it is done by governing sys tem or Governor. The main functions of the Go ver nor are: It regulates shaft spee d of the turbine It regulates steam press ure in automatic extraction unit.
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The frequency of the outpu t (electrical power )of the turbine m st u be kept constant at 50 cycles/sec in india. Go vernor regulates opening of turbine inlet valve or bypass valve according to change in load.For operating valves ser vomotor is used.Primary elements of mechanical,centrifugal or hydraulic type are necessa ry to maintain sensitivity e.g. flyball type centrifugal arrang ement is primary element.Such element oper ates ser vomotor throug h pivot valve which provides necess ary motive for ce to oper ate pivot valve.
METHODS OF STEAM TURBINE GOVERNING: Following are the methods used for governing of steam turbine. Nozz le control Governing. Throttle Governing. Bypass Governing. Throttle and nozzle control Governing. Throttle and bypass Governing.
N ozz le control Governing:
In this method of control,the steam supp lied to the different nozzle group s is controlled by un covering as many steam passa ges as are necessa ry to mee t the laod by popp et valves.An arrang ement often used for large steam power plants is shown in figure.The num er of nozzless upplying the steam to the b
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turbine are divided in to groups as N1, N2 and
N3 and the supp ly to these
nozzles is controlled by valves V1, V2 and V3.In this way steam flow can be chang ed as load changes. This method is used in Impulse or Impulse reaction turbines.It ca nnot used for multistage turbines.
Thrott le Governing: It is a qualitative governing system.The arrang ement of this governing is shown in fig. The quantity of steam entering in to the turbine is dredu ced by the thrott ling of the steam.The throttling is achieved with the help of double of double heat balanced value which is oper ated by a centrifugal governor throug h the servo-mechanism.The effort of thr governor may not be sufficient to move the valve against the piston in big un its.Therefore an oil oper ated relay in incorporated in the circuit to magnify the small force produced by the gover nor to oper ate the valve. Let the piston of the gover nor (position of pil ot piston and relay piston)is
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shown in figure. Corresponding to the full load on the turbine and runn ing at full spee d.If the load on the turbine is redu ced,t he turbine will start to rotate at spee d gre ater that full load spee d as the ener gy supp lied is same.An increased spee d of the turbine shaft ca uses the gover nor slee ve to move up wa rd and this causes to move the pil ot piston upwards.The up wa rd motion of the pil ot piston allows the high pressure oil to ent er on the top side of the relay cylinder to come out through pilot cylinder. The downwa rd motion of the relay piston partly closes the throttle valve causing the reduction in steam supply.The reser ve operation tak es place when the load on the turbine increses. The thrott le governing is simple in operation but thermodynamically insufficient as the available heat drop is reduced in the irreversible thrott ling process .
B pa ss Governing: y
It is used in multistage impulse turbine to have full admission in to high press ure stages to redu ce the partial admiss ion losses. The arrang ement of by-pass governing is shown in fig.For high loads (higher than 80% full load) a by-pass line is provided for the steam from the first stage nozzle box in to the latter stage as shown in fig. The by pass steam is automatically controlled by the lift of the valve.The by-pass valve rremains und er the cotrol of speed governor f or all lods within its range. NOTE: In practice combination of throttle governing and nozzle
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control
governing or combination of throttle governing and by-pass governing is used. In reaction turbine where full admiss ion is required nozzle cotrol governing system can not used be used hance combination of throttle and by-pass governing system is used. Nozz le control governing can not be used with by-pass governing. There is a higher haet drop in nozzle control governing so it is not suitable for high press ure impulse turbine. High er loss es in nozzle control governibg du e to less er admiss ion. In throttle governing loss es are less due to low admission and ther e is low leat drop.
DATE:
STUDY OF CONTROL SYSTEM OF STEAM POWER PLANTS
7
OBJECTIVE: STUDY OF CONTROL SYSTEM OF STEAM POWER PLANTS. LEARNING: CLASSIFICATION CONTROL SYSTEM
INTODUCTION The power plant supp lies electrical power to various consumers.Load on the power plant varies moment to moment according to consumers demand & this effects on various parameter s of different equipments.To generate electrical power of constant f requ ency (50 HZ),turbine spee d should be kept constant.So operations of various equipements must be properly coo rdinated to mee t the demand of constant turbine spee d & electricity generation process m st be regulated to mee t the design condition.The palant control system u provides the necessary tools to enable proper regulation & co ordination of plant operation for reliable & efficient electricity generation. CLASS IFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM USED IN STEAM (THERMAL)POWER PALNT: St eam power plant is a complx combination of various sytem.Various control sys tem ranging from manu al control sys tem to automatic control sys tem are utilised for reliable,safe& economic generation of electrical power .In mordern
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power plant, general the control sys tems are classified as following: 1) According to logic of control mechanism. a) Open loop control system b) Closed loop control system. 2) According to location of control system. a Area control system ) b Centralised control sytem ) 3) According to the type of control action a) On- off control systems.(Digital control system) b) Modulating control systems(Analog control system) a) O en lo p contro l system: p o In this type of control sys tem after sensing variation in particular parameter,corrective action is done by the control system.But actual result of corrective action is fed back to the control sys tem.So acc urate controlling is only poss ible when condition is as good as the calibration condition.
b Closed loo p contro l system: ) In this type of control sys tem after sensing variation in particular parameter,corrective action is done by control system & then the actual result of corrective action are fed back to control sys tem for proper further corrective action.This type of sys tem is mostly utilised in mordern power plants du e to its accuracy. c Area control system: ) In this type of control sys tem operation of power plant is divided in to segm ent s & separate control sys tem is provided for each segm ent. It that there is separate control roo m for each segment.This type of sys tem is economical & simple in operation bu t coorination betwee n segm ent s is difficult. d Centralised contro l sytem: ) Now a days this type of control sys tem is mostly adopt ed due to automations & easiness in gathering informations.A central roo m is established from where whole operation of power palnt is being controlled.This type of control system requires less man power & proper coordination with different are as is achieved without delay. e) On-off contro l systems.(Digital contro l system): This type of control sys tem is known as digital control,binary control,discrete
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various means control various
control,sequential control or motor interlocks.The control sys tem produces either a start (running) com and or a stop command & controlled equipment m reac ts to com and with two distinct out comes either start or stop No m intermediate state exists betwee n the runn ing & the stop states. In power plant applications, the equipement controlled by this control action can be divided in to follo wing major categories. Motor driven rotating equipments like pumps, fans, compress ors & conveyors. Motor oper ated shu t off valves & dampers. Solenoid oper ated equipement such as pnu matic shu t off valves. The control action may be initiated by manu ally by oper ator com and or m automatically by the sys tem bas ed on the intelligence received from the process .
f) Modulating control systems(Analog contro l system): This control sys tem is known as analog control,continuous control or close loop control.Modulating control produ ces outpu t signal with a magnitude that varies smoothly from one value to another. The most important application of modulating control in the power plant are in the area of boiler control & other app lication involve controlling press ure,temperature,level & flow variables in the turbine cycles & plant auxiliary system. Following are the parameter s controlled by modulating control system. Firing rate control Load demand control Bulveriser coal and air flow control Second ary air flow control Fu rnace draft control Superheat& reheat steam temp. Control Feed wa ter flow control Sup er heater bypass & start-up system control Cooling wa ter flow control Feed wa ter heater level control Bo iler feed pum p recirculation control BASIC ELEMENTS OF CONTROL SYSTEM: Any control sys tem requires thre e basic elements (1) Primary element (2) Re laying element &
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(3)
Power element
1. Prim ry eleme t: a n
Primary elements of control sys tem do fun ctions like monitering,measuring & indicating of various parameter s of power plant like press ure,temperature,spee d,flow rate et c.It senses the deviation from given input value of parameter & produ ces a signal for control sys tem eg., change , in pressure is sensed by press ure gu age manometer ,change in temer ature is sensed by thermometers,thermocouples or by pyrometers.
2. R layi ng element: e Signal sensed by primary element for any deviation in particular parameter is converted in controlling impulse & sent to controlling device (control point) by relaying element of control system.The signal is transferred by various sys tems like mechanical,pnu matic,hydraulic,electrical or electronics system. 3 Power element: . Power element provide sufficient motive for ce to oper ate controlling system as per signal received from relaying element of the control system.So proper control action can be activated.generally electric,motor,hydraulic pump,pnumatic com ress or s are utilized as power element. p R quirement of contro l system: e Power plant is a complex combination of various systems,which run s continuously to gener ate electrical power as per consumers demand.Controlling the operations of such system efficiently,safely & economically within short time is the prime criteria to achieve proper coordination among such sys tems.So control of any power plant mustsatisfy following requirement. 1) Sensitivity: Sensitivity of control system is the ability to sense the minimum deviation in given value of parameter or input signal.This depend s on primary element of control system which monitors the input signal. 2) Sp ee d of response: It is the s peed to convert input signal in to out put signal.In
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otherwards,it is the time tak en to take corrective action after sensing any deviation in particular parameter.Generally it depends on relying element of control system. 3) Stability: It is the ability to produce specific ouppu t signal for specific input signal value at any time. In otherwords,it is the ability to produce sa me corrective action for same deviation in inpit signal ever y time. 4) Power: It is the ability to activate corrective action according to chang e in input signals. 5) Rugg edness : It is the ability to control sys tem to oper ate properly in any situation.
Main contro l system of steam power plant: Feed wa ter control system,combustion control sys tem,steam temerature control system,fuel & air flow control system,draft control system,condenser cooling water control sys tem,etc are the main control sys tems of steam power plant. Fee d w ter contro l system: a This sys tem controls the w ter level a in drum within specified specified range.The specified level of wa ter is known as set level.As the steam consumption increases,water level in the drum decreases.At that time control sys tem gives com and to fill water by fee d pump to maintain water m level within specific range.Various types of control sys tems like thermohydraulic system,regulator system,pneumatic system,electric sys tem,etc are utilised for feed wa ter control system. Three basic parameter s like drum wa ter level,steam generation rate & fee d w ter flow arte are tak en as primary elements by feed w ter control a a system.Depending up on nu mber of primary element selected from above,the sys tem is classified as: a) Single element fee d w ter control system: a b) Doubl e element fee d w ter control system: a c) Tr ipl e element fee d w ter control system: a Combustion control system: High er combustion rate is required to satisfy high steam demand & low
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combustion rate is required to satisfy low steam demand.Three basic parameter s like steam press ure,fuel flow arte & air flow rate are monitored by combustion control sys tem & control signal to fuel supply controller,air supply controller,damper position controller & draft controller,are given to control combustion arte of fuel. Steam temerature contro l system: The steam temer ature is controlled by regulating he at given to the sup er heater by various methods or by spraying water flow in to superheated steam.The temer ature control sys tem a single element control sy stem that meas ures the steam outlet temer ature & com are it to a set values.The p controller outpu t provides corrective action to maintain temer ature of steam to a set value.
Condensers coo ling w ter flow contro l system: a The cooling wa ter supplies cooling wa ter to the condenser& various coolers.The cooling w ter sys tem employs a set of cooling wa ter pump s that a supply w ter to the equipements via a w ter supply header.The return water a a is supplied back to the pum s suction throug h a return header.Control valve p is installed betwee n tw header s with w ter bypass line.The control system o a controls the position of control valve to regulate water flow rate within specified range.
46
DATE:
STUDY OF DIESEL ENGINE POWER PLANTS
8
OBJECTIVE: TO STUDY OF DIESEL POWER PLANT. LEARNING : WORKING OF DIESEL POWER PLANT.
STARTING SYSTEM INTEC AND EXAUST SYSTEM FUEL STORAGE SYSTEM ENGINE COOLING SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION: Due to high thermal efficiency,qui ck starting,minimum standby loss ,low initial cost,mobility,multi-fuel ability and full flanged developement,the diesel engine power plant,in range of 2 MW to 50 MW,is utilized generally as peak load power plant,mobile power plant,standby power plant,emergency power plant,nu rsery station,starting station and even as central power station for electric power generation. The diesel engines,used for electric power generation,are mor e reliable for long period,but rapid developement of other sources foe electric power generation and pollution problems hav e made diesel engine power plants to disappear as thier generation cost was considerably high.So now a day ,use of large capacity dieselengine power plants is limited for un developed
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and remote area of the coun try.But small and medium capacity diesel engine power plants are widely utilized as emer gency power plants in public,industrial and institutional locations like hospitals,factories,cinema halls,shopping cent er s,etc. In absence of main grid power. DIESEL ENGINE POW ER PLANT: The schematic diagram of diesel engine power plant is shown in figure.The ess ential component s of diesel engine power plant are as under. 1) The Dies el Engine: This is the main com ent s of the plant which pn developespower. Generallyengine is coupled directly to the generator.Diesel engine may be a four stroke or a tw stroke engine. o
2 Engine Air Intake System:This system supplies required quantity of ) pu re air at required pressure and temer ature for combustion of fuel. 3 Exhaust G System:Gases coming out from cylinders,after combustion ) as of fuel,are carried out in proper mann er in to atmosph er e by this system. 4 Fu l Sto ag and Sup ly System This sys tem store s sufficient quantity ) e r e p : of fuel and supplies it to the engine as per load variation. 5 Coo ling System: This sys tem kee ps the tempe rat ure of various ) com onenets p of diesel engine in proper range by cooling effect. 6 Lubrication System: This sys tem provides lubricating oil to various ) runn ing com onenets of the engine to redu ce the friction. p 7 Start ing System: This sys tem helps to start the diesel engine from cold ) condition. 8) Governing System: This sys tem maintains the spee d of the diesel engine constant irrespective of load on the plant.This is done generally by varying fuel supply to the engine according to load. Explanation of Various S stem of D es el Power Plant: y s i When diesel engine is utilised for electric power generation,the diesel engine is generally coupled directly with gener ator by grid coupling.For generation of electric power of constant frequency,engine spee d m st remain u constant.So following sys tems of diesel engine power plant are designed
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according to the main considerations like plant capacity,type and period of use,working condition,etc.here the various sys tems of diesel engine power plant are discussed in details. Engine Air Intale System: Diesel engine generally requires 4 to 8 m /kwh of air mass flow rate.The main fun ction of air intake sys tem is to provide sufficient quantity of air of required purity at required press ure and temerature.Beside that,according to necss ity,following functions are done by air intake system.
3
i. Purify the air ii.Reduce noise pollution iii.Done supercharging to increase engine capacity iv.Increase air temer ature to redu ce mi sfiring of fuel in cold climates v.Done effective scavenging in two stroke engines Thu s, according to above various fun ctions,air intake sy stem consists of air filter,silencer,supercharger/turbocharger,heat exchanger,intake manifold and piping system. Exhaust G System: as Exhaust gas sys tem doe s following two opposite functions. 1) Discharging exhaust gas es to atmospher e by providing minimum press ure loss . 2) Re duce noise pollution.xhaust gas system is designed in such a way that
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proper satisfactions to both the above fun ctions are achieved.Besides following functions are also done by the exhaust system. i. Discharge exhausts gas at proper height to prevent accumulation pollutants in working zone.
that
of
ii. To pu t off the sparks c reated in exhaust gas es by spark arrester. iii. Kee p isolate the engine from vibrations arises du e to flow of exhaust gases. iv. Give haet energy to drive turbocharger or to other haet recover y system. Figure shows schematic diagram of exhaust gas sys tem of diesel engine power plant.It consists of exhaust manifold,silencer,piping conn ection and heat recover y system,etc e l stor ag and su p ly system: Fu e p The fuel supply and stor age sys tem generally depend on the type of fuel,size of the plant and type of engine used,etc. The fuel supply system generally class ified as: 1 ) S p im le su ction typ system: e In a simple suction type sys tem e fuel oil is taken by suction pump ,th driven by engines from service tank located above the engine level.Such pum p delivers constant volume of fuel;therefore,an overflow line is required bq ck to the tank.This sys tem is used for small capacity engines. Transfer type: In the transfer type sys tem e motor driven pum p takes the fuel oil ,th from main stor age tank and supply to the day stor age tank as show in n figure.This sys tem is generally utilised for medium size or large size power plants.
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2 )
The location of main stor age tank above groun d or below depend s up on local conditions.The over groun d tanks have the adva ntage of detecting the fuel oil leakage easily,low maintainance and easy cleaning.On the other hand,un der groun d tanks have the adva nt age of reduced fire hazards and use of groun d space. The heating requirement depend s up on the local climatic conditions and viscosity of the fuel oil.If the heating is required,then it is generally done in the main stor age tank by passing the hot jack et water throug h a coil dipped in the stor age tank. The fuel oil,which is tranfered to the daily consumption tank,which is located well above the engine level flows by gravity to the engine pumps. Engine coo ling system: Due to combustion of fuel and friction developed bet wee n moving surfaces,the temer ature of com onent s of diesel engine become high. So p for three main pu rposes,th e cooling sys tema re required in diesel engine power plant. i. To prevent over heating of various components ii. To prevent burning of lubrication oil film and iii. To prevent thermal stress developed du e to distribution.
un even
temerature
Generally,water cooling sys tem is adopted in diesel engine power plant.Proper cooling of engine is absolutely necessa ry to extend life of the plant.Therefore exit temer ature of cooling wa ter must be controlled.If it is too low,lubrication
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oil will not spread properly and wearing of moving surfac es tak es place.If it is too high,the lubricating oil burns.Therefore,the maximum exit temer ature of 0 the wa ter is limited to 70 C. A comm on wa ter cooling sys tem used in diesel power plant is shown in figure.
The cooling wa ter is soften in w ter treatment plant to control the scaling in a different parts of the sys tem and also chlorinated to prevent growth of algae.Generally,the quantity of cooling wa ter required is 35 to 60 lit/kwh. As the circulation of wa ter in the cooling sys tem is concer ned,th ese are divided in to a single circuit and double circuit system as shown in figure.
The single cuircuit sys tem may be subj ected to corrosion in the cylinder jack ets beca use of diss olved gases in the cooling water.The double circuit sys tem largely eliminates internal jack et corrosion,but the corrosion may
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exist in tht raw wa ter circuit. Lubricating system: The lubricating system of diesel engine doe s fun ctions like lubrication,cooling cleaning,sealing and noise reduction.The life of the engine,the overall efficiency of the plant and poss ible continuous service of the plant are depend ent on the effectiveness of the lubricating system. Lubricating system of diesel engine power plant works in two parts: 1. lubricating system inside the diesel engine. 2. lubricating system outside the diesel engine.
Generally,splash lubrication sy stem outside the diesel engine provides flow of sufficient lubricating oil to the diesel engine and purify the lubricating oil.It consists of stor age tank,oil filter,oil heating/cooling system,oil pumps,control valves,etc. As shown in figure. Cooling is done by oil cooler before supplying the lubricating oil to the engine to maintain proper lubricating proper ty of the oil and heating is done by heater before supp lying the lubricating oil to the oil cleaning sys tem to redu ce viscisity of the oil. Lubricating oil consumption is nearly 3 lit/1000 kwh gen er ated at full load condition.Thu s,lubricating oil consumption is nearl 1% of the fuel oil consumption. Start ing system: It is difficult to s tart even smallest diesel engine by hand cracking as the compress ion ratio is high. Therefore some mechanical sys tem m st be used to u
53
start the engine. Generally, compress ed air, electric motor and auxiliary petrol engines are used for starting purpose. Compress ed air system is com only m used in diesel engine power plant.
Air starting sys tem uses valve arrang ement to admit press urised air about 20 atm. To a few of the cylinders,making them to act as reciprocating air motor to turn the engine shaft.Admitt ing fuel oil to the remaining engine cylinder helps the engine to start inder its own power.
During the normal working of the plant, the power from the main shaft is used to drive the compress or, which accumulates air in to the accumulators. Once the accumulators indicate the rated press ure, th e com ressor is automatically p disconn ected from the power shaft. For automatic starting sys tem, th e ordinary air starting equipments are arrang ed to open in the corre ct sequ ence and close when the engine starts runn ing. The automatic starting sys tem is also used to prime the lubricating oil sys tema nd to start the automatic flow of the cooling wa ter also. Governing system:
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The governing of diesel engine is done by varying the quantity of fuel supplied to the engine.Generally,constant stroke with variable suction or variable bypass method is used to control the quantity of fuel supp lied according to load.Centrifugal governor as shown in figure Is used . Efficient governing sys tem controls spee d of the engine by changing fuel supply according to load,from no load condition to full load condition without hu anting with high sensitivity and stability.
DATE:
STUDY OF GAS TURBINE POWER PLANTS
9
OBJECTIVE: TO STUDY GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT LEARNING: WORKING OF GAS TURBINE CYCLE ELEMENTS OF GAS TURBINE CYCLE IMPROVEMENT IN GAS TURBINE CYCLE APPLICATION OF GAS TURBINE CYCLE
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INTRODUCTION: A gas turbine is a rotary machine,similar in principle to a steam turbine.It consists of main com onent s,a compress or , a combustion cham er and a p b turbine.The air after being,compress ed in to com ressor ,is heated either by p directly burning fuel in it or by burning fuel externally in a heat exchanger.The heated air with or without produ cts of combustion is wx panded in a turbine resulting in work outpu t,a substantial part about tw third of which is used to o drive the compress or.Rest,about one third,is available as useful work output. The gas turbine is the most direct in converting heat in to usable mechanical energy,i.e. the rotary motion.The steam turbine introduces an intermediate fluid,so the produ cts of combustion do not act directly on the mechanism creating motion.Piston engines ini tially convert heat in to linear motion which m st be transmitted through a cranks haft to produ ce usable shaft u power.But,the gas turbine,in its simplest for m conver ts thermal energy in to , shaft power with no intermediate heat or mechanical redirection. Es ential G Turbine Components: s as 1 Compres or: ) s The key to successful gas turbine operation is an efficient compress or.All com ressor s in gas turbine applications are of axial flow or centrifugal flow p or a combination of these two flows. Figure show the constructions & flow s patter ns of various dynamic compress ors. In the centrifugal flow com ress or tha air is imparted a high velocity and p press ure rise by a row of moving blades,i.e. impeller.The increase in kinetic energy is conver ted in to further pressure rise by a diffuser.Single stage centrifugal com ress or s are capable of producing pressure ratio of about p 4:1.But,they have large frontal area.Multi-stage centrifugal com ressor s are p capable of producing press ure ratio of about 14 -16 with 15 -40 0 m /min.flow
3
rate. Due to high frontal area and less engine length,these types of com ressor s are utilised in small industrial gas turbine power plants. p Centrifugal com ress or s are cpable to give high efficiency of compress ion p with large mass flow rate rang e and have litt le effect on efficiency of dust particles in the working medium,i.e. air.
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In the axial flow compress or, blades on the rotor have aerofoil shapes to provide optimum air flow transmiss ion. Moving blades draw in entering air,spee d it up and for ce it in to following stationary vanes. These are shaped to for m diffusers; those conver ts the kinetic ener gy of moving air to static press ure.For one stage of axial flow com ress or , p ressure ratio up p to 2:1 is 2 obtained and for multi stage of axial flow compressor,10 kg/cm press ure with 150 -30 00 m /min. or mor e mass flow rate.Axial flow com ressors have p small frontal area and large air handling capacities,but due to this type of compress ors, engine length increases but frontal area reduces com are to p centrifugal compressors. Axial flow com ressor s are able to give nearly constant mass flow rate with p large press ure ratio range. But they have shor t opening range for maximum efficiency.For this reas on and du e to aerofoil blades,they are utilised in aviation field and large capacity power plants. The mixed flow com ressor s combine the adva nt ages of both centrifugal and p axial flow compressors. Proper type of com ressor is selected considering capacity of un it,dust p particles in the working medium,engine size,press ure ration,cost,etc.
3
2 .
Comustion Chamber (Combuste ): r For efficient combustion,the combustor or combustion cham er must b ass ure low press ure loss ,minimum carbon formation,proper mi xing of fuel and air,positive ignition und er a ll atmospheric conditions,flame stability,with un iform outlet temerature and high combustion efficiency. A wide numb er of configurations are used for combustion chamber depending up on the gas turbine engine and its applications to mee t the specific requirements.The three main types are: a) Tubular or can type b) Ann ular type c) Tubo-ann ular or can-ann ular type.
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For all these,the design is such that less than a third of the total volume of air entering the com stor is permitt ed to mix with the fuel,the reminder is bu used for cooling.The ratio of total air to fual varies among engine types from 40 to 80 parts of air by weight to one of fuel. Figure show the constructions of tubular type combustion chamber. s 2 Turbine : This com onent is an energy converter,tranferring ener gy of high p temerature,high press ure gas es in to shaft outpu t.Gas turbine follow impulse and reaction designs,terms, which describe the blading arrangement.The distinction depend s up on how the pressure drop at each stage is divided.If the entire drop takes place across the fixed blades and none ac ross the moving blades,it is an impulse stage.If the drop takes place in the moving blades,as well as in the fixed blades,it is reaction stage.
The gas turbine mu st work with high inlet temerature.manu fracturers continu ously strive to build turbine that can be acc omodate higher tem er ature either throug h new designs or throug h new p blade materials. IMPROVEMENTS IN SIMPLE GAS TURBINE CYCLES: The efficiency and the specific work outp ut of the simple gas turbine are quite low. Therefore, following modifications are necessa ry in three main processes of the cycle, i.e. compress ion, heat supply and expansion.
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G turbi ne cycle w th regeneration: as i
The regenerative cyc le was designed to make use of exhaust heat.The regener ator receives hot turbine exhaust gas es at 5 and rejects at 6.Compress ed air pass es throug h the un it in a counter-flow direction and picks up heat from turbine exhaust gas es,then the heated air leaves the re gener ator at 3 and pass es in to the combuster.Hotter air in the combustor nee ds less fuel to reach maximum temer ature befor e flowing in to the turbine.Thus,thermal efficiecy can be improved,generally excee ding 30 % against drawback of pressure loss es in regenerator. I .Gas turbi ne cycle w th intercoo ling: I i Intercooling is used for decreasing the wor k done on the compress or.The total compress ion is divided in to a numb er of stages and working fluid is withdrawn and cooled betwee n stages as shown in figure.
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Intercooling gives mor e net wor k pe r kilogram of working fluid,allowing a smaller turbine plant for the same output. III . G turbi ne cycle w th reheating: as i Another method of increasing the net wor k out-p ut of the cyc le is to use reheating to increase turbine work.The total expansion is divided in to a num er of stages and the working fluid is withdrawn and reheated in seperate b combustion chamber betwee n stages as shown in figure. Reheating gives mor e net wor k pe r kilogram of working fluid with little increase in the plant size. Closed cy cle g as turbine: In the closed cyc le gas turbine ,the air is heated in an air heater by burning fuel externally.The hot air expand s in the turbine and then cooled in a precooler and supp lied back to the compress or.The same working fluid circulates over and again in the system. Due to closed cyc le gas turbine,poss ibility of using high pressure throug h out the cyc le and gases other than air having mor e desirable thermal properties is incresed.Besides adva nt ages of the smaller plant and efficient control,the closed cyc le also avoid erosion of the blades and oth er ditrimental effects due to produ cts of combustion. Auxili aries syste m of g s as turb ne power plant: i Following auxiliary sys tems are utilised for better per for mance and safety of the gas turbine power plant. start ing system Gas turbine is not self-starting prime mover.Diesel : engine or electric motor is utilised to start the gas turbine up to 25 % spee d of its normal runn ing spee d.After achieving stable flame condition in combustion cham er at this spee d,the spee d of the gas turbine starts b
to increase and at the 30 % of its normal spee d starting equipement becomes seper ate from gas turbine shaft by clutch mechanism.During warming up to 2-3 minutes at this speed all the speed of the plant are cheked and after satisfactory result fuel flow rate is increased gradually to achieve normal running spee d. B rr ing gear system: a To avoid thermal stre ss es, at the time of cold starting and stopping conditions, gas turbine plant is kept in runn ing condition at the spee d of 24 rpm by barring gear system. During this running condition lubrication
60
process is achieved by auxiliary lubricating pump. Lubrication system: Generally, white metal bearings are used in gas turbine .So, Press urised lubricating oil is provided to these bearing by lubricating system to produce hydrodynamic w dge shape film lubrication. e This system is consists of main lubrication pump, Auxiliary lubrication pump, Oil filter, Oil cooler, Solenoid valve, Oil reservoir, etc. Air filter system: In open cyc le gas turbine hug e quantity of air from atmospher e is sucked by compress or.To redece erosion and other s detrimental effects by dust particles,fiber particles,etc.air filtering sys tem is provided at the inlet of compress or.
S en cer system: il Due to continuous flow of hug e quantity of air in the gas turbine,continu ously sharp noise is produced.To reduce this noise pollution,silencer system is provided.Generally,ait filtering sys tem works as silencer sys tem at inlet.But,due to high pressur e loss ,this sy stem is adopt ed in rare ca ses,wher e the gas turbine plants are near to populated area. Pro ectiv system: t e To avoid break dow n and other loss es du e to abnormal conditions,protective sys tem is used in the gas turbine plants.Low lubricating oil press ure at the time of starting,failure of fuel ignition,failure in achieving normal run ning spee d are com on abnormal m conditions during starting the plants.While over-spee d,high turbine inlet temerature,low lubricating oil press ure,high bearing temerature,etc.are comm on abnormal conditions during runn ing condition of the plant.
Fue l supply system: According to typ es of fuel,air fuel ratio,design of combustion system,turbine inlet temer ature requirement,unit capacity,etc.suitable fuel supply sys tem is adopt ed in the gas turbine po wer plant.This system supplies fuel to the combustion sy stem as per load condition. Governing System: To achieve constant turbine spee d,governing sys tem is used.This system controls the fuel and air flow rate and maintain con stant spee d. This sy stem is designed considering types of fuel,variation in
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load,sensibility,speed of response,etc. G Turbine Ap lication: as p Gas turbines,in size from 50 hp TO 50000 HP,h ave wid e applications in various fields today.Following broad a reas of usa ge indicate the gas turbines versatility and suggest its wide ranging potential as an efficient power source. 1. El ectric power generation 2. Pip e line transmission of crud e oil. 3. process operation in various chemical and petrochemical industries. 4. Marine application 5. Military vehickes 6. Rail-road locomotives 7. Aviation 8. Blast furnace use.
62
DATE:
1 0
STUDY OF NUCLEAR REACTOR
OBJECTIVE : TO STUDY NUCLEAR REACTOR LEARNING : NUCLEAR FUSION PROCESS CLASSIFICATION OF NUCLEAR REACTO
INTRODUCTION: Cheap and hug e amount of power is ess ential to modern world in coming years. The rapid increase in industry and living stand ard of the people advance the press ure on conventional sources of power like coal, oil, and gas. It is now obvious that these sources will soo n be un able to mee t demand s of power. Today the nu clear ener gy has opened new horizons to man kind for power. Nuclear power is the large amoun t of ener gy that can be released from a small mass of active material. The nu clear reac tor may be regarded as a substitute for the boiler fire box of steam power plant or the combustion cham er of a gas turbine b power plant. The heat produced in the nuclear power plant is by fiss ion process, where as in steam and gas turbine power plants, the heat produ ced by combustion. The other cyc le of operation and com onent s requires are exactly p sa me either as steam plant if the steam is gener ated by using the heat of fission or a gas turbine power plant if gas is heated by using the heat of fission. The steam or gas may be used as working fluid in nuclear power plant. The nu clear power plant may be of steam driven turbine or gas driven turbine as per choice of the fluid. NUCLEAR FISS ION PROCESS : When un stable heavy nu cleolus of radioactive element is bom arded with high b ener gy neut rons, it spits in to two fragments and en or mous amoun t of energy is released. This process is known as nuclear fiss ion.
63
The ess ential condition for the practical utilization of nu clear energy is that a self sustaining chain reaction should be maintained. Once the fission process is initiated in a few nu clei of fissible material,it should be able to continue through out the remaining material without external influence. Nucl ear reac to r and its components: For controlled nu clear fission process nu clear reactor is utilized. n a nu clear reac tor , the conditions are such that fission energy is released at a controlled rate. The fission energy is conver ted in to heat energy in the reactor and this heat is utilized to raise steam directly or indirectly. The general arrang ement of nu clear reactor is shown in figure. Following are the general essential com onent s of nuclear reactor p Fuel: 235 23 9 23 3 The nu clear fuels which are generally used are 92u , 94u and 92u .the fuel is shaped and located in reactor in such a manner that the heat production within the reactor is uniform. The fuel elements are designed taking in to acc oun t the heat transfer, corrosion and structural strength. In homogeneo us reac tor s, the fuel and moder ator a re mixed to for m a un iform mixture,i.e. Uranium and Ca rbon, and then it is used in the form of rods or plates in the reac tor core. In homogeneo us reac tors, the fuel is used in form of rods or plates and moder ator surro und s the fuel elements. This arrang ement is com only used in most of the re ac tors. The fuel rods are clad m with Aluminum, Stainless stee l or zirconium to prevent the oxidation of Uranium. Moderator: Moderator is the material which reduces the kinetic ener gy of fast neutrons (1 Mev or 13 200 km/sec) to slow neut rons (0.25 eV or 2200 m/sec) and this is done in the fraction of second. The fission chain reaction in the reactor is maintained due to slow neut rons when ordinary Uranium is used as fuel. The fun ction of moder ator is to increase the probability of reaction. The slowing down of neut ron is effectively done by the light elements as H2, D2, N2, O2, C and Be . The Graphite, heavy wa ter or beryllium can be used as moder ator with natural Uranium. The ordinary wa ter is used as moderator only with the enriched Uranium. The desirable properties of goo d moder ator are listed below. i. It m st be light as poss ible as beca use slowing down action is more u effective in elastic collision with light element. ii. The moderator mu st not absor b neutrons. iii. It m st have high resistance to corrosion. u iv. It mu st have good mach inability if it is in solid form and mu st have high melting point.
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v. It m st have high chemical stability and should not be decomposed u du e to radiation. vi. It m st have goo d thermal conductivity. u vii. It m st be cheap an d easily available in pure form. u Reflector: It is always necessary to conser ve the neut rons as much as poss ible in order to redu ce the consumption of fissile material and to kee p the size of the reactor small. The neutrons which are released in fission process can be absor bed by the fuel itself, moder ator , coolant or structural materials. Some neut rons may escape from the cor e without absorption and will be lost for ever. To redu ce the loss of esca pe, the reac tor inn er surface is surro und ed by a material which reflects the escaping nu etrons back in to the core.This material is called the reflector. The required properties of a goo d reflector are low absorption and high reflection for neutrons,high resistence to oxidation and irradiation as well as high radiation stability. Many times the material used as moder ator is also used as reflector beca use the moderating materials have goo d reflecting characteristics.The H2O, D2O and ca rbon are also used as reflectors.The amoun t of fiss ionable material required can be redu ces with the use of good reflector. Coo lant: The main pu rpose of the coo lant in the reactor is to transfer the heat produced inside the reactor.The sa me heat carried by the coolant is used in the heat exchanger for further utilisation in the power generation.Some of the desirable properties of a goo d coolant are listed below. b) c) d) e) f) It m st not absor b the neut rons and it m st be non corrosive. u u It m st have high chemical and rediation stability. u It m st have high boiling point and low melting point. u It m st be non-toxic and non oxidising. u The above mentioned properties are ess ential to keep the reac tor cor e in safe condition as well as for the better fun ctioning of the coolant. g) It must also have high density,low viscosity,high conductivity and high specific heat.These properties are ess ential for better heat transfer and low pumping power. The w tre,heavy water,gases(H2,CO2),a metal in liquid form( Na) and organic a liquid are used as coolants. The coolant not carries large amoun t of heat from the cor e bu t also kee ps the fuel ass embly at a safe temer ature to avoid thier melting and destruction.
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Control Rods:
Some type of control is absolutely necessa ry to fulfill following fun ctions: a) To start the nu clear chain reaction when the reactor is strarted from cold. b) The chain reaction should be maintained at steady state at required level. c) To shutd ow the reac tor automatically und er emer gency condition i.e. n pum p circulating the coo lant through the reac tor fails. The control is necessa ry to prevail the melting of fuel rods, distingration of coolant and destruction of reac tor as the amount of ener gy released is anormous. The control of the chain reaction is possible either by removing the fuel rods or the neut rons continuing the chain reaction from the c or e of the reac tor .It is always easy to get rid of the neut rons.It is generally done by inserting the control rods in to the fuel tub es as shown in fig. The material used for control rod m st have ver y high absorption capacity of u neutrons.The common materials used for control rods a re cadmium,Boron and hafnium. The action of the control rods can be com ared with the action of the blotting p paper,which absorbs extra ink without spreading. R ac tor Ves el: e s The reactor vessel encloses the reactor core,reflector core , reflector and shield.It also provides the ent rance and exit passages f or directing the flow of coolant.The reac tor vess el has to withstand the press ure as high as 20 0 kgf/cm or more . The holes at the top of the vess el are provided to insert the control rods.The reactor core is generally at the bottom of tyhe vess el. Shielding: The reactor is a s ource of intense redioactivity and these radiations are very harmful to living creatures,plants and hum an beings.The comm on rediations from the reac tor are X-rays,-rays, -rays and fast neutrons.To prevent the effects of these rediations,it is necessa ry to absorb them befor e emitting to the atmosphere. Neutrons, -rays and all other rediations are effectively absor bed by the concrete and stee l.The inn er lining of the core is made 50 to 60 cm thick stee l plate and it is further thickened by few meter s using concrete.The linin g of steel plates absor bs these energies and becomes heated but prevent s the adjacent wall of reac tor vessel from becoming heated.The thermal shield is coo led by the circulation of water.
2
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Clas ification of reactor: s The nu clear reac tors are class ified on the following basis: 1. On the basis of neutro n energy: a) Fast reac tor : In these reac tor s,th e fission is affected by fast neut rons without any use of moderators. b) Thermal Reactor:In these reac tor s,th e fast neutrons are slowed with the use of moderator.The slow nwutrons are absor be d by fissionable fuel and chain reaction is maintained. 2. on the basis of fuel used: a) Natural Fuel: In this reac tor ,th e natural Uranium is used as fuel and generally heavy wa ter or graphite is used as moderator. b) Enriched Uranium: In this reac tor ,th e uranium used contains 5 to 235 10% U and ordinary w ter can be used as moderator. a 3. on the basis moder ator used: a) W ter moderated a b) Heavy wa ter moderated c) Graphite moderated d) Ber ylliu m moderated 4. on the basis coolant used: a) W ter cooled reactors a b) Gas cooled reactors c) Liquid metal coo led reactors d) Organic liquid cooled reactors 5. on the basis fuel regeneration: a) Breeder Reactor: If fuel for reactor is produced as by-product form this reactor only then this reactor is known as bree der reactor. b) Conver ter Reactor:If by-product produced from reaction is a stable material ot her than nu clear fuel in the reactor the n this reac tor is know as conver ter reactor. n 6. On the basis of geo metry of fuel bun dle: a) Homogeneo us Reactor: Fuel material and moder ator are mixed homogeneously in this type of reactor. b) Hetrogeneous Reactor:Fuel material is surro und ed by moderator material in this type of reactor.
67
DATE:
1 1
STUDY OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
OBJECTIVE : TO STUDY NUCLEAR POWER PLANT LEARNING : SCHEMATIC ARANGMENT OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT ARANGMENT OF NUCLEAR REACTO
INTRODUCTION: A nu clear power plant (NPP) is a thermal power station in which the heat source is one or more nu clear reactors.
A nuclear powe r plant work as sa m way as any thermal powe r plant e (coal, oil, or gas) exc ep t that the reac tor uses uranium fuel to produce the heat required to generate electricity. The heat is collected in heat exchange r and used to produ ce steam that drives a turbine. The turbine spins a generator to produce electricity.
N UCLEAR FACTS
Nuclear techn ology has existed since Dr. Enrico Fermi achieved the first controlled nuclear reaction on Dec. 2, 1942 . Since these nuclear power generation has becom the clean air resource for generating electricity e
The worlds firs t n cl ear power station, u (England) on O tober 1 , 1 5 . c 8 96 open ing of Calder Hall
How it work
Nuclear Fiss ion Electricity Makes Heat Sent Heat W ter to a Make Steam St eam Turns Turbine Turbine turns Generator
Chemical En ergy
Heat En ergy
Mechanical Energy
Electrical Energy
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SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
(1) (2) (3) (4) Nuclear reactor Heat exc hanger (Steam Generator) St eam turbine Alternator
Following reac tor s are foun d to be useful for power generation. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Press urized w ter Reactor(PWR) a Bo ilin g Water Reactor(BWR) Press urised Heavy Wa ter Re actor(PHWR or CANDU Reactor) Sodium Cooled Graphite Moderated Reactor(SCGMR) Fast Bree der Reactor(FBR) Gas Cooled Reactor a) High temer ature Gas Cooled Reactor(HTGCR) b) Gas Cooled Graphite Moderated Reactor(GCGMR) 7. Peddle bed reactor(Thorium high tem . Reactor-THTR) p
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Pre ssu rized w ter Reactor(PWR): a The arrang ement of press urised wa ter reactor in nu clear power plant is shown in figure.Inits simplest for m a press urised wa ter reactor is a light w ter cooled , a and moder ated re ac tor .It uses enriched Uranium as fuel. The press urising tank,included in the circuit,Maintains the constant pressure in the circuit throug hout the load range.Electric heating coil in the press urizer boils the w ter to for m the steam which is collected in the dom and a press urizes the entire coolant circuit before starting reac tor . To redu ce the press ure,w ter spray is used to cond ense the steam. a
The fuel which is generally used is UO2. The Uranium Oxide is highly resistant to irrediation damage and is very well adopt ed t o the high bu rn- ups.It is also hig hly resistant to corrosion by high press ure w ter in the event of a break-up a in the fuel cladding. The wa ter in the primary circuit gets heated by absorbing the fission energy in the reactor core and same energy is given in the he at exchn ager to generate the steam.The w ter coming out of the heat exc hange r is circulated by the pum p to a maintain the press ure in the circuit in the range of 10 0 to 130 atm. The wa ter becomes radioactive in passing through the reac tor ; therefore,entire primary circuit includin g heat exc hanger m st be shielded to produ ct the opening u persons.The radioactive coolant doe s not make the steam radioactive in the boiler. Advantages: 1. The wa ter which is used as coolant,moderator and reflector is cheap in the first cost and available in plenty. 2. The reactor is comp act and with higher power density (65 kw/liter).Fuel loading of 190 tons can be made in mordern PWR.
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3. Requirement of control rods are less in nu mbers.Maximum 60 control rods are required in 100 0 MW plant. 4. Second ary circuit is not aff ected by radiation,so normal turbine maintenance technique can be used. 5. Operation is safe and stable.The control rods normally nee d not be used for load change. Disadvantage: 1. High primary circuit press ure requires strong pressure vess el and so high capital cost occurs. 2. The thermodynamic efficiency is as low as 20 % du e to low pressure (60 70 kgf/cm ) in the second ary circuit. 3. The corrosion problems are mor e severe as the corrosion is accelerated in the presence of high pressure high temp. W ter. Therefore,use of a stainless stee l for vess el and cladd ing is necess ary. 4. It is necessry to shut dow the reactor for fuel charging which requires a n couple of months. 5. Fuel suffers rediation damage and therefore its reprocess ing is difficult. Boili ng W ter Reactor(BWR): a In this type of reac tor enriched Uranium is used as fuel and wa ter is used as coolant.The arrang ement of BWR is shown in figure. In this type of reactor steam is gener ated in reactor core itself and then this steam is expand ed in turbine.After expansion steam is cond ensed in condenser.Fee d pum p is used to circulate cond ensate back in to reactor core.
2
71
Advantages: 1. The pressure inside the reac tor vess el is considerably smaller than PWR as wa ter is allowed to boil inside the reactor. Therefore, the reac tor vess el can be m ch lighter than PWR and reduces the cost of pressure vess el u considerably. 2. The metal surface tempe rat ure is lower than PWR as boiling is allowed inside the reactor. The tempe rat ure of the fuel surface is 240 C to get the 32 0 C and pressure is 115 kg/cm
2 o 2 0
in PWR,to supply the steam to the
turbine at 30 kgf/cm . 3. This reactor does not require steam generator, pressurize, circulating pum p and connecting piping. 4. The boiling wa ter reactor is more stable than any oth er typ e of reac tor as increase in reactivity increases the steam formation and reduces the hydrogen cont ent per un it volume. The reactivity automatically redu ces as the vapour is not dense enoug h to moder ate the neutrons effectively and reac tor goe s sub-critical. Therefore, BWR is known as self controlled reactor. 5. The thermal efficiency of this reactor is 30 %. Disadvantages: 1. The BWR can not mee t a sudd en increase in power dem and because as the power outpu t of the turbine increases,the pressure in the reactor falls and the specific volume increases.The steam bubbles within the reactor would expand the moder ator and tend to shut dow the reactor.Therefore,un less n it is properly designed,the BWR might have nagative power demand coefficient. 2. The steam laeving the reactor the reactor is slightly radioactive therefore,light shielding of turbine and piping is necess ary. 3. The power density of BWR is 33.6 kw/liter,so the size of the vess el will be considerably large com ared with PWR. p CANDU Reactor: (Heavy w ter cooled and moderated reactor) a The long for m of CANDU is canadium Deuterium Uranium.The Candu reac tor s are more economical to those nations which do not produce 235 enriched uranium.In this type of reactor.The natural Uranium (0.7 % U ) is used as fuel and heavy wa ter as moderator. This type of reac tor w first designed and developed in as Canada.The arrang ement of different com onent s of CANDU reac tor is p shown in figure.
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73 7
The coo lant,heavy wa ter is pass ed throug h the fuel pressure tub es and heat changers.The heavy wa ter is circulated in the primary circuit in the same way as with a PWR and the steam is raised in the secondary circuit transferring the heat in the heat exchang er to the ordinary water. The control of the reactor is achieved by varying the moderator level in the reac tor and therefore,control rods are not required.For rapid shutdown pu rposes,th e moder ator can be dum ed throug h a ver y large area in to a tank p provided below the reactor. Advantages: 1. The major adva nt ag e of this reactor is that the fuel nee d not enriched. 2. The reactor vess el may be built to with stand low pressure com ared with p PWR and BWR. Only the fuel tub es are designed to withstand high press ure. 3. No control rods are required,so control is mu ch easier. 4. The moderator can be kept at low temer ature which increases the effectiveness in slowing down reactors. 5. Heavy wa ter being a goo d moderator, this type of reactor has higher multiplication factor and low fuel consumption. 6. A shor ter period is required for erection com ared with PWR and BWR. p Disadvantages: 1. The cost of heavy wa ter is extremely high. 2. The leakage is major problems as ther e are tw mechanically sealed o
closure per fuel chann el.Canadium designs are generally bas ed on
receiving high proportion of heavy w ter leakage as absolute leak a tightness can not be suu red. Very high standard of designs, manufacture, inspection and maintenance are required. 4. The power density is considerably low as 9.7 kw/lit,therefore,reactor size is extremely large.
TABLE OF DIFFERENT REACTORS : FUEL , COOLANT & MODERATOR Reactor type Press urized Water Reactor (PWR) Bo iling Water Reactor (BWR) Gas-coo led Reactor (Magnox & AGR) Fuel Enriched Uranium Enriched Uranium natural U (metal), enriched UO2 Coo lant Light water Light water CO2 Moderator Light water Light water Graphite
Press urized Heavy Water Reactor 'CANDU' (PHWR) Light Wat er Graphite Reactor (RBMK) Fast Neutron Reactor (FBR)
natural Uranium heav y water
heav y water
Enriched uranium Press -urised Graphite boiling water PuO2 and UO2 liquid sodium None
Nucl ear Power Station In Gujarat

KAKARAPAR AUTOMIC POWER STATION GUJARAT, NEAR SURAT
Location: Kakrapar, near Surat, Gujarat Reactor type: Pressu rized Heavy W er Reactor (P.H.W.R) at Capacity: 2 x 220 MWe Da te of Commercial Operation Unit-1: May 6, 1993 Unit-2: S temb r 1, 19 5 ep e 9
DATE:
1 2
STUDY OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS
OBJECTIVE : TO STUDY OF HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT LEARNING : WORKING OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT ELEMENTS OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT
I NTRODUCTION: In hydro-electric power plant kinetic ener gy of flowing water or potential ener gy of store d wa ter is conver ted in to electric energy. Today 25 % of total electric power is gener ated by hydro-electric power plants in the world. India has great potential for hydro-electric power plants due to series of high moun tains and num ber of big rivers. B sic Elements of Hyd ro -Electric Power Plants: a Comm only rain water is stored in artificially constructed water reservoir in large quantity and this water is utilized to produ ce electrical power roun d the year.Fig. shows basic elements of hydro-electric power plants. The main fun ctions of these elements are as under.
Energy-Conversion in Hydro-Elec tric Plant

Po ntia l Energy te Electrical Energy Kinetic Energy Mechanical Energy
(R servoir W ter) e a (Alternator) 1 Reservoir: .
(F ow W ter l a
in
P nstock e )
(Turbine)
This is the artificially constructed water reservoir in which rain w ter is a collected in monsoon and this reservoir is utilised to supply required w ter to a w ter turbines. a 2 Dam: .
It is artificially constructed wall to stor e w ater inside the reservoir. Due to this wa ll wa ter level increases up to required level depending upon wa ter quantity collected in the reservoir. 3 Trace-Rack: . It is the specially constructed stee l scree n, placed at inlet of penstock, which prevent s ent ry of impurities like living animals and other floating impurities in the penstock of the power plant. 4. For e bay : It is a tem or ary reservoir, which store s w ter whe n load in the wa ter turbines p a decreas es and provides sufficient quantity of wa ter when load on the water turbine increases beyond design value.
5 Surg tank: . e It is artificially constructed w ter tank near w ter reservoir,which controls the a a w ter flow in penstock .It prevent s the chances of water ham ering and occurance a m of vac uum condition in penstock. 6 Penstock: . It is a pipeline which connects the reservoir and w ter turbine inlets.Water flows a through penstock in required quantity from reservoir of w ter turbines.Head gates a are provided to control w ter flow in pen stock according to demand of w ter a a turbine. 7 Spill way: . It is atrificially constructed curvature of dam,which allows overflow without damage of dam structure from impact for ces of w ter flow. a 8 Power house: . It is the civil structure,which is constructed for foun dation and sheltering of various electric and hydraulic equipements of the power plant. 9 Prim mover: . e It is ener gy conver ter which converts kinetic energy of water to mechanical energy.Pelton turbines,Francis turbines,Kaplan turbines an d propeller turbines are generally utilised as prime mover in hydroelectric power plants 10. Draft tubes: It is the diverging discharge passa ge which connects the turbine outlet and tail race wa ter in reaction turbines.
Clas ification O Hyd ro-Electric Po wer Plants: s f Hydro-electric power plants can be classified according to various considerations as un der. 1 Acc ording to sourc of w ter : . e a a) Run- off river plant without pondage b) Run- off river plant with pondage c) Reservoir plant d) Pum p stor age plant. 2 Acc ording to h a avilable: . e d a) Low head plant (head less than 30 M) b) Medium head plant(head 30M TO 100M) c) High head plant(head > 100 M) 3 Acc ording to ty es of load: . p a) Base load power plant b) Peak load power plant 4 Acc ording to p nt capacity: . la a) Micro hydel power plant( Capacity < 5 MW) b) Medium capacity plant(5 MW <Capacity < 10 0 MW) c) High capacity plant(capacity=100 MW) d) Sup er plant(capacity > 1000 MW) = 5 Acc ording to loca tion of power house: . a) Su rface power house plant. b) Undergroun d power plant house 6 Acc ording to turbine soecific speed: . a) High Specific Speed plant(NS >340 ) b) Medium specific speed plant(50 <NS <340 ) c) Low Specific Speed plant(NS<50 ) P m Stor age Hyd el Power Plant: u p These types of hydro electric power plants are constructed wher e limited w ter supply is available and high moun tains and velleys are available to a construct high dam.These types of power plants is utilized to supply electricity for peak demand time foe various consum er s to supp ort other base load power plant.During und er load condition of base load power plants pump storage power plant gains surplus electric power from base load power plant and utilize
to lift w ter to high level. a
As shown in figure tw w ter pond s are constructed o a 1. At high level, sy head wa ter pond and 2. At low level,say tail w ter pond. a Bo th these two wa ter reservoirs are conn ected to reversible turbines by penstock.During peak load demand period,water flow throug h turbine from head w ter pond thu s by producing electric power from hydel power plant we a can s uppor t other base load power plant for its peak load demands. During und er load condition of base load power plants,the surplau electric power of base load power plant is utilised to drive electric motor which drives the reversible turbines in such a mann er that it works as a pum p and lifts water from tain w ter pond to head w ter pond.Thu s we can utilise surplus capacity a a of base load power plants during its und er load condition and make provision for peak load demand. Micro hyd el power plant: In the water sources like canals,rivers,water flows on large quantity at little head difference. Thus wa te in available at high mass flow rate with high kinetic ener gy bu t with low potential ener gy.so by utilising micro hydel power plant,this ener gy can be conver ted in to electrical energy. As shoen in figure ass embly of gener ator set and propeller,with water proof capsule aroun d gener ator set,is immersed in flowing wa ter of such above water sources.so kinetic ener gy of flowing water is conve rted in to mechanical energy by propeller,which drives the gener ator sets and small quantity of electric power can be generated. Micro hydel power plant are available in range of 1000KW to 5 MW capacities
by adopting these types of power generating met hod.We can gener ate large amoun t of electric power from above mentioned w ter sources. a
W ter turbi n s used in Hyd ro -electric power plants: a e W ter turbines are utilised to conver t kinetic energy of water in to mechanical a ener gy.th ese turbines are class ified according to three main consideration: 1. Accroding to effect of wa ter on Turbine Baldes: a) Impulse Turbine b) Reaction Turbine 2. Accroding to direction of W ter flow in turbine: a a) Tengential flow Turbine b) Radial inward/ Outwa rd flow Turbine c) Mi xed flow Turbine d) Axial flow Turbine 3. Accroding to to turbines specific spee d: a) High Specific speed turbine (NS>340 ) b) Medium Specific speed turbine(50 <NS <340 ) c) Low Specific speed turbine(NS<50 ) P lto n Turbine: e The most com nly used impulse turbine is the pelton whee l.It consists of m a runn er with spoo n shaped buck ets aroun d the circumfurence of the whee l.Water from high level is discharged throgh a stationary nozzle and imerges as a high spee d jet.The potential ener gy of the water is thus converted in to k inetic ener gy of the jet. The wa ter jet is directed at the bu ck ets and impulse ca uses the runn er to rotate about its axis. The buckets have a central ridge which improves the operation by spliting the jet in to two streams.The spee d of the turbine can be controlled by varying the size of the w ter jet by a governing mechanism. This types of turbine are generally employed in hydro electric power plants wher e the w ter he ad exc ee ds 300 M. a Francis Turbine: Francis turbine,a reaction turbine,is used for w ter heads from about 30 m to a 30 0 m.The runn er is horizontal and it rotates about a vertical shaft.Generally 12 to 16 slightly curved vertical blades are attac hed to the hu b of the runn er.Water ent ers the turbine in a radial inward direction from spiral casing throug h an arrang ement of moveble wicket gates that controls tye w ter supply a and acts as stationary nozzle. The wa ter flows betwee n the runner blades initially in a radial inward direction and is then discharged downwa rd in axial
direction.Thus the w ter flow in the Francis turbine is of mixed flow type. a
Draft tub e is provided at turbine outlet which is always im ersed in tailrace m w ter .So it discharges the w ter used by runn er s and regains the energy a a throw aw n ay at exist by runner.Thu s,draft tube increses the thermal efficiency. Runn er s pee d can be controlled by adj ucting wicket gates by governing system. Kaplan Turbine: Kaplan turbine is one type of propeller turbine which consists of 3 to 6 movable blades. This turbine have ver y high spee d runn er especially suitable for low head and high w ter flow rate. The runner is horizontal and it rotates about a a vertical shaft. Water ent er s the turbine casing is radial inward direction and moves vertically downwa rd in casing only. Thu s the w ter flow in the turbine a runn er is perfectly axially downwa rd. The turbine blades are adj ustable because they are pivoted at the hu b a nd the angle is change d automatically to suit the operation conditions. Draft tube is provided at turbine outlet which is always im ersed in tail race m water. The capital and maintenance cost of the Kaplan turbine is mu ch higher that fixed blade propeller turbine.

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MERCHANT POLYTECHNIC, BASNA

STUDY OF BASIC ELEMENTS OF VARIOUS POWER PLANTS

OBJECTIVE: TO STUDY ABOUT ELEMENT OF POWER PANTS

TYPE OF POWER PLANT BASIC ELEMENTS OF POWER PLANTS

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According to Load: a) Ba se Load Power Plant b) Peak Load Power Plant

e) Pum p St or age Power Plant. f) Mobile Power Plant

a) Peat Head Power Plant b) Load cent er Power Plant

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MERCHANT POLYTECHNIC, BASNA

MERCHANT POLYTECHNIC, BASNA

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STUDY OF VARIOUS CIRCUITS OF MORDERN THERMAL POWER PLANT

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Figure : COAL & ASH HANDLING SYSTEM

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Air and gas circuit

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Figure:Feed water and steam circuit

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Figure:Condenser coo li ng w ter circuit a

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Figure:Steam turbine lubrication circuit

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STUDY OF HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS

OBJECTIVE: TO STUDY OF HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS. LEARNING: TYPES OF BOILERS

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valve are fitted in the circuit.

STUDY OF BOILER FURNACES

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MERCHANT POLYTECHNIC, BASNA

CLASS IFICATION OF FURNACES:

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F uidi zed bed furnace: l

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STUDY OF COAL AND ASH HANDLING SYSTEMS OF MORDERN POWER STATION

OBJECTIVE: TO STUDY OF COAL AND ASH HANDLING SYSTEM.

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Out plant handling system. In plant coal handling system.

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MERCHANT POLYTECHNIC, BASNA

IN-PLANT COAL HANDLING SYSTEM:

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STUDY OF GOVERNING SYSTEMS OF STEAM TURBINE. POWER STATION.

TO STUDY GOVERNING SYSTEM OF STEAM TURBINE.

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N ozz le control Governing: