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Deals with site drainage issues at lower cost than with conventional engi-
neered systems;
Use models and studies of hydrology to predict how water ows will
interact with and react to development plans on-site. Design development
to preserve open vegetated spaces and contour, utilizing existing drainage
patterns on an undeveloped site; or design to create open vegetated spaces
and restore historical drainage patterns for previously developed sites. Site
plans should incorporate vegetated setbacks that are at least 100 feet (33m)
wide from all open waterways to allow adequate slowing and ltration of
runoff velocity before drainage reaches channels.
Or, where space is not sufficient and/or some drainage must be changed:
Use the hydrologic studies to maintain or restore shape and volume of the
major drainageways such as streams, rivers and creeks, for drainage capac-
ity from normal, baseline ow up to a 5-year storm event. Where new
drainage structures must be installed, stabilize new channels using vegeta-
tion, live stakes, or live mats (see engineering section).
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3
Channel storage capacity: The
volume of a stream network
within its banks.
4
Flow regimes: The seasonal
pattern or variation in the
amount and speed of water
flowing in streams or rivers.
Or, where existing site conditions eliminate shapes and flows of major channels
as well as potential for restoration, or where channels are subterranean:
Residential street widths can be limited to less than the conventional range
of 32 to 40 feet (10-12 m) in width, as little as 22 ft (7m) in many instances.
Cul-de-sac radii can be from 33 to 45 feet (10-14 m), rather than the con-
ventional 50 to 60 feet (15-18 m), or wider radii can incorporate vegetated
islands in the center of 15 to 20 feet (4.5-6 m) in diameter;
Public transit and shared parking credits can be applied to many sites,
reducing projected parking area estimates, and parking stall dimensions
can be sized for both compact and larger vehicles, as has been successfully
done in Oakland, CA, where demand estimates were reduced from 3 to
1.44 spaces per 1000 gross sq. ft. (93 m
2
);
Recommended parking demand ratios for common types of development:
Professional ofce space 2 spaces or fewer per 1000 sq. ft. (93 m
2
)
A variety of pervious
13
surfacing materials can be used for paths, drive-
ways, sidewalks, and parking lots (see engineering section for product pro-
les);
Green roof
14
systems can be installed, which have hydrologic function sim-
ilar to vegetated areas and thus can be used to reduce effective impervious
area typically included in building area cover calculations (see engineering
section for description).
land code guidelines: water quality and hydrology
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13
Pervious cover: Land surface,
such as grass, forest, or loose
soil, that allows water to pass
into it.
14
Green roof systems: Gardens
or vegetation installed over
normal roofing material that
collect rainwater and reduce
water runoff and heat build-
up in buildings, especially in
urban environments.
Supporting Literature
Over 100 studies have shown that the watershed percentage of impervious cover is
negatively correlated with watershed stream health, in terms of hydrologic structure
and stability, and in terms of water and habitat quality.
A compilation of these studies resulted in percentage benchmarks as follows:
On-site inltration of all stormwater from 1 to 1.5 year storm events. This
would be approximately 0.1 0.25 inches/storm event (0.25cm
0.65cm/storm event) for the eastern temperate climate, but would vary
with regional precipitation patterns;
Volume and velocity of runoff should be low enough at all times to reduce
channel erosion and ooding to levels occurring under undeveloped con-
ditions.
Benefits
Sites with less than 10% impervious cover should have less than 10% runoff
and 80-90% pollutant removal, if the following simple measures are taken:
Direct runoff from the few impervious surfaces, such as house roofs,
driveways, parking lots or paths, into pervious vegetated areas, such as
lawn or roadside swales, or natural or constructed inltration depressions
in the topography of the site;
Leave 100-150 foot (30-45 m) buffers between impervious surfaces and
watercourses, to ensure adequate bioretention
19
and ltering by existing
pervious area.
In order to be considered functional pervious areas, vegetated or other
pervious cover should have adequate soil hydraulic conductivity
20
to absorb
all stormwater from 1-1.5 year storm events. (This would be approximately
0.10.25 inches/storm event (0.25cm 0.65cm/storm event) for the eastern
temperate climate, but would vary with regional precipitation patterns);
Sites with more than 10% impervious surfaces and/or moderate space
constraints that do not allow for 100-150 foot (30-45 m) buffers to water-
courses or 90% on-site inltration can install a network of bioengineered
structures such as green roofs, roadside or lawn swales, detention/reten-
tion ponds, and constructed wetlands (see engineering section for descrip-
tions) to mimic these conditions. In concert, these structures should
achieve the same levels of pollutant and sediment removal, inltration,
and runoff reductions as the scenario above;
Raises prole and public awareness of the importance of water resources, and
the ways public and private decisions affect freshwater abundance and quality.
Strategies
Use engineered cistern and tank systems to collect rainfall from rooftops and
other site areas and use this water for non-potable uses, such as irrigation.
Supporting Literature
Fane S., Ashbolt N., and White S. Decentralized urban water reuse: The implica-
tions of system scale for cost and pathogen risk. Water Science and
Technology 46 (6-7): 281288.
Thompson J., and Sorvig K. 2000. Sustainable landscape construction: a guide to
green building outdoors. Island Press: 154-165.
U.S. EPA. 1997. A source book on natural landscaping for public ofcials.
Prepared by the Northeastern Illinois Planning Commission. URL:
http://www.epa.gov/greenacres/toolkit/about.html, accessed March 15, 2003.
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land code guidelines: water quality and hydrology
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A5. Erosion Prevention and Control
Recommendation
Prevent erosion and sediment suspension on-site.
Benefits
Reduces pollutant loading, because heavy metals and other toxic pollu-
tants bind to ne sediment particles and are carried into waterways, where
they threaten aquatic life and public health;
Clear and grade only those areas that will be included in construction area;
Do not clear land with greater than 10% slope; or, if slopes must be
cleared, maintain topography typical of the area and stabilize soils imme-
diately with mats, vegetation, etc.;
Clearly delineate on design plans areas that will not be cleared and use
protective fencing to keep equipment and vehicles out of the area;
lead
ozone
How will visitors get to the site and how will people move around the site?
What can be done on the site to help remove existing air pollutants from
the atmosphere?
What kinds of fuel are used to produce the electricity that will be used on
this site?
How does wind move across the site and how will wind move around
built features on the site? Does this change seasonally?
What factors of the site itself or of the development design will affect
ground surface temperatures at different times of the year? How will this
impact cooling costs in the summer and heating costs in the winter?
Increased property values: Studies show that sites with mature trees on
them have higher property values than those without trees;
Soil retention and stabilization: Tree roots hold soil, protecting it from
wind and water erosion;
Use signs to explain the site layout and the role of the construction enve-
lope to visitors.
Supporting Literature
Kaufman M., 2000. Erosion control at construction sites: The science-policy gap.
Environmental Management 26(1): 89-97.
Krenitsky E., Carroll M., Hill R., and Krouse J. 1998. Runoff and sediment losses
from natural and man-made erosion control materials. Crop Science 38(4):
1042-1046.
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B3. Site Vegetation I
Recommendation
Outside of the construction envelope, vegetate or retain existing vegetation on
100% of the ground surface of the site.
Benefits
Aesthetic values: Landscaping with retained plants ensures that the site
will not have an articial, new haircut look.
Strategies
Air quality: Site designs should consider how wind moves over the site in
order to avoid pooling of stale air. Anticipate pollution impacts from
upwind point sources;
Wind energy potential: On sites with steady prevailing winds and the
possibility of linking to nearby wind facilities, consider the potential for
wind energy generation on site.
Strategies
Wetlands are also targeted for preservation under this principle because of
the signicance of their ecological functions and the fact that they have
undergone considerable worldwide loss (Primack 2002b). Wetlands help
control ooding, promote groundwater recharge, lter and transform pol-
lutants, and provide habitat for a large diversity of plant and animal life.
Strategies
Perform a site analysis to identify pre-development ora and fauna species. Present
their distribution in a map format, with supplementary information describing
characteristics of the species such as density, age, general health, and native/non-
native/invasive status. Additionally, identify:
Any species found on the site that are threatened, endangered, considered
rare or uncommon for the area;
Any habitat found on the site that may be uncommon in the area due to
past development activities. Examples may include old-growth forest,
native meadows or prairies;
Wetland areas (include streams and rivers on the map, though they are
covered by recommendation C4., Buffers Around Critical Habitat).
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If any endangered or threatened species exist on the site, it must be shown (see rec-
ommendation C8. (Conservation Plans: Managing Species Habitat and Limiting
Factors) that they will not be adversely impacted by development. From this site
analysis, identify sensitive habitat areas dened as wetlands, areas of rare or
uncommon species, areas of endemic species, areas of rare or uncommon habitat,
and areas of unique topical features. For rare, uncommon or endemic faunal
species, identify the area of their expected home range.
Supporting Literature
Kent D. 2001. Applied Wetlands Science and Technology, 2nd edition. Lewis
Publishers, Boca Raton, FL
Laurance W., Lovejoy T., Vasconcelos H., Bruna E., Didham R., Stouffer P.,
Gascon C., Bierregaard R., Laurance S., Sampaio E. 2002. Ecosystem decay of
Amazonian forest fragments: A 22-year investigation. Conservation Biology
16(3): 605-618.
McCoy E., Mushinsky H. 1999. Habitat fragmentation and the abundance of ver-
tebrates in the Florida scrub. Ecology 80(8): 2526-2538.
Primack B. 2002a. Essentials of Conservation Biology, 3rd Edition. Sinauer
Associates, Sunderland, MA: 189-203, 227.
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C4. Buffers Around Critical Habitat
Recommendation
Preserve or create buffers to mitigate the effect human activities will have on
species and to provide additional habitat. Place buffers around important natural
resources such as riparian (riverbrook) areas, wetlands, shorelines and property
borders adjacent to natural preserves.
Benefits
Shoreline Buffers
To separate development from the aquatic environment, create a buffer with
a minimum of 75ft (23m) for lakes measured from the water line and 50ft
(15m) for oceans measured from the mean high water line (Schueler 1995).
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Additional buffer width may be needed for particular animal species that
inhabit the area. For example, a study in California recommends a minimum
distance of 30m in areas where shorebirds concentrate (Thomas et al. 2003).
Alternatives to Buffers
Not all sites may be able to accommodate these buffer requirements as a
result of concentrated urban development, site design constraints, or struc-
tures that already exist within the buffer area. In order to meet these buffer
requirements, particularly the minimum average width of 15m along ripar-
ian and wetland zones, an acceptable alternative is the purchase of an ease-
ment surrounding a similar habitat in a nearby location. Locate this ease-
ment as close to the original property as practical so that buffer benets
accrue to the local area. The length of the easement must be at least the
same length as would apply to the original property.
Urban areas can also incorporate a zoned approach to meet the base buffer
target of 30m. The inner 10m must be left naturally vegetated, and use is
restricted to stormwater channels, trails, and utility or roadway crossings.
The middle zone must be at least 15m, retain natural vegetation, and may
include additional limited activities such as stormwater management and
bike paths. The outer zone is the remaining buffer width and may include
common residential backyard activities with the exception that no septic
systems or permanent structures may exist (modied from Holland 2000).
In recognition of the need to remove structures that currently exist in ripar-
ian zones, additional benet can be gained from the removal of permanent
buildings to create the recommended buffers.
Underlying Science
Riparian and Wetland Buffers
To promote pollution abatement that affects aquatic ecology, a minimum buffer of
30m should be implemented. Studies have shown that this average buffer width
results in approximately 70% or greater sediment and pollutant (nitrogen, phospho-
rous, and total suspended solids) removal (Desbonnet et al. 1994). Protecting stream
hydrology from increased storm runoff is critical for stream health, and is addressed
in the hydrology section of the LAND Code. In addition to aquatic ecological health,
the riparian zone contains a high diversity of resident species and serves as an impor-
tant migratory corridor.Desbonnet performed a literature review of studies to iden-
tify buffer width requirements for habitat value of various species. That information
is summarized in the table below and can be used as an initial guideline for setting
riparian buffer widths. Additional buffer width is often needed in order to preserve
targeted species. For example, a buffer of 100m has been recommended to support
neotropical bird communities (Hodges and Krementz 1996), and a buffer of 150m has
been recommended for freshwater turtles (Bodie 2001).
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Table 1.
Buffer Pollutant Removal Wildlife Habitat Value
Width Effectiveness (sediment and
pollutant removal)
10m (33ft) Approx. 60% or greater Minimally protects stream habitat; poor
habitat value; useful for temporary
activities of wildlife
15m (50ft) Greater than 60% Minimal general wildlife and avian
habitat value.
30m (100ft) Approx. 70% or greater May have use as a wildlife travel corridor
as well as general avian habitat.
50m (165ft) Approx. 75% or greater Minimal general wildlife habitat value
100m (330ft) Approx. 80% or greater Good general wildlife habitat value; may
protect signicant wildlife habitat.
200m (660ft) Approx. 90% or greater Excellent general wildlife value; likely
to support a diverse community.
Source: Desbonnet et al., 1994.
Small and Ephemeral Wetland Buffers
Amphibians require the conservation of the wetland-upland component because
their life cycles contain both an aquatic and terrestrial component. Adult amphibians
live in the terrestrial environment but migrate to aquatic environments to breed and
lay eggs. Temporary ponds, often referred to as vernal pools, as well as permanent
small wetlands (<4 ha) are important habitat for amphibians (Dodd and Cade 1998;
Preisser et al. 2000; Semlitsch 2000). Preservation of both these habitats and the con-
nection between them are important for amphibian survival. Site development caus-
es physical changes to the environment that can affect amphibian survival capabili-
ties either directly or indirectly. Roads can create barriers to migration (deMaynadier
and Hunter 2000), trafc can cause direct mortality (Carr and Fahrig 2001; Fahrig et
al. 1995), and compacted soils or sod can keep amphibians from burrowing into the
ground (Jansen et al. 2001).
Developed while actual buffer widths are species-dependent and site-dependent
(Semlitsch 1998), the following buffer recommendations were made using a review of
scientic studies evaluating the location and dispersal of amphibian and turtle
species surrounding wetlands.
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Table 2.
Wetland Species Distance Reference
Toad (fossorial) 73m maximum Eggert, 2002
Newts (great crested 95% of the newts fell within 63m Jehle, 2000
and marbled) of the pond
Frog (red-legged) 100m buffer recommended for adult frogs Bulger et al., 2003
Turtles (spotted and Nests within 1-120 m for spotted and
blandings) 70-410m for (blandings). Summer
dormancy 12-80m (spotted) and 30-110m
(blandings). Joyal et al., 2001
Frog (dark gopher) 1000 m buffer recommended Richter et al., 2001
Salamanders 50% of population within 125m Semlitsch, 1998
95% of population estimated to be
within 165m
*a literature review develops the 125m
mean value
Semi-aquatic reptile 15m minimum buffer recommended Brown et al., 1990
nesting (cited in Dodd and
Cade, 1998)
Edge Effect Buffers
Edges allow increased exposure of light and wind into fragmented landscapes. This
causes microclimate changes such as increased temperature variations, decreased
humidity, decreased soil moisture and increased wind turbulence. Overall changes in
habitat alter ecological communities by making it easier for invasive non-native
species to take the place of native species (Laurance et al., 2002). Numerous studies
have found large physical and community compositional changes within 50m from
edges (Young and Mitchell, 1994; Chen et al., 1995; Mesquita et al., 1999; Davies-Colley
et al., 2000; Rheault et al., 2003), moderate changes up to 100m from edges (Laurance
et al., 1998, 2002), and some alterations reaching 100-300m from the edge (Chen et al.,
1995; Gehlhausen et al., 2000; Laurance et al., 2002).
Supporting Literature
Riparian Zone
Bodie J. 2001. Stream and riparian management for freshwater turtles. Journal of
Environmental Management 62(4): 443-455.
Desbonnet A., Lee V., Pogue P., Reis D., Boyd J., Willis J., Imperial M. 1995.
Development of coastal vegetated buffer programs. Coastal Management
23(2): 91-109.
Hodges M., Krementz D. 1996. Neotropical migratory breeding bird communi-
ties in riparian forests of different widths along the Altamaha River, Georgia.
Wilson Bulletin 108(3): 496-506.
land code guidelines: plant ecology and population/community ecology
yale school of forestry & environmental studies
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Holland H. 2000. The architecture of urban stream buffers. In: T. Schueler and
H. Holland, Eds., The Practice of Watershed Protection. Center for
Watershed Protection, Ellicott City, M.D: 155-163.
Kent D. 2001. Applied Wetlands Science and Technology, 2nd edition. Lewis
Publishers, Boca Raton.
Naiman R., Decamps H. 1997. The ecology of interfaces: Riparian zones. Annual
Review of Ecology and Systematic, 28: 621-658.
Pusey B., Arthington A., 2003. Importance of the riparian zone to the conserva-
tion and management of freshwater sh: A review. Marine and Freshwater
Research 54(1): 1-16.
Schueler, TR. 1995. Chapter 5: The architecture of stream buffers, Site Planning
for Urban Stream Protection. Center for Watershed Protection, Ellicott City,
M.D. Prepared for the Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments,
Washington, D.C., URL: http://www.cwp.org/SPSP/TOC.htm, accessed
September, 2003.
Small Wetland and Amphibians
Brown M., Schaefer J., Brandt K. 1990. Buffer zones for water, wetlands, and
wildlife in east central Florida. Publication 89-07. Center for Wetlands,
University of Florida, Gainesville.
Bulger J., Scott N., Seymour R. 2003. Terrestrial activity and conservation of
adult California red-legged frogs Rana aurora draytonii in coastal forests
and grasslands. Biological Conservation 110(1): 85-95.
Carr L., Fahrig L. 2001. Effect of road trafc on two amphibian species of differ-
ing vagility. Conservation Biology 15(4): 1071-1078.
DeMaynadier P., Hunter M. 2000. Road effects on amphibian movements in a
forested landscape. Natural Areas Journal 20(1): 56-65.
Dodd C., Cade B. 1998. Movement patterns and the conservation of amphibians
breeding in small, temporary wetlands. Conservation Biology 12(2): 331-339.
Eggert C. 2002. Use of uorescent pigments and implantable transmitters to
track a fossorial toad (Pelobates fuscus). Herpetological Journal 12(2): 69-74.
Fahrig L., Pedlar J., Pope S., Taylor P., Wegner J. 1995. Effect of road trafc on
amphibian density. Biological Conservation 73(3): 177-182.
Jansen K., Summers A., Delis P. 2001. Spadefoot toads (Scaphiopus holbrookii
holbrookii) in an urban landscape: Effects of nonnatural substrates on bur-
rowing in adults and juveniles. Journal of Herpetology 35(1): 141-145.
Jehle R. 2000. The terrestrial summer habitat of radio-tracked great crested
newts (Triturus cristatus) and marbled newts (T-marmoratus).
Herpetological Journal, 10(4): 137-142.
Joyal L., McCollough M., Hunter M. 2001. Landscape ecology approaches to wet-
land species conservation: a case study of two turtle species in southern
Maine. Conservation Biology 15(6): 1755-1762.
Preisser E., Kefer J., Lawrence J., 2000. Vernal pool conservation in Connecticut: An
assessment and recommendations. Environmental Management, 26(5): 503-513.
balmori and benoit
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Richter S., Young J., Seigel R., Johnson G., 2001. Postbreeding movements of the
dark gopher frog, Rana sevosa goin and netting: Implications for conserva-
tion and management. Journal of Herpetology 35(2): 316-321.
Russell K., Guynn D., Hanlin H. 2002. Importance of small isolated wetlands for
herpetofaunal diversity in managed, young growth forests in the Coastal
Plain of South Carolina. Forest Ecology and Management 163(1-3): 43-59.
Semlitsch R., Bodie J. 1998. Are small, isolated wetlands expendable?
Conservation Biology 12(5): 1129-1133.
Semlitsch R. 2000. Principles for management of aquatic-breeding amphibians.
Journal of Wildlife Management 64(3): 615-631.
Microclimate Edge Effects
Chen J., Franklin J., Spies T., 1995. Vegetation responses to edge environments in
old-growth Douglas-r forests. Ecological Applications, 2: 387-396.
Davies-Colley R., Payne G., van Elswijk M. 2000. Microclimate gradients across
a forest edge. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 24(2): 111-121.
Gehlhausen S., Schwartz M., Augspurger C., 2000. Vegetation and microclimatic
edge effects in two mixed-mesophytic forest fragments. Plant Ecology 147:
21-35.
Laurance W., Ferreira L., Rankin-de Merona J., Laurance S. 1998. Rain forest
fragmentation and the dynamics of Amazonian tree communities. Ecology
79: 2032-2040.
Laurance W., Lovejoy T., Vasconcelos H., Bruna E., Didham R., Stouffer P.,
Gascon C., Bierregaard R., Laurance S., Sampaio E. 2002. Ecosystem decay of
Amazonian forest fragments: A 22-year investigation. Conservation Biology
16(3): 605-618.
Mesquita R., Delamonica P., Laurance W. 1999. Effects of surrounding vegetation
on edge-related tree mortality in Amazonian forest fragments. Biological
Conservation 91: 129-134.
Rheault H., Drapeau P., Bergeron Y., Esseen P. 2003. Edge effects on epiphytic
lichens in managed black spruce forests of eastern North America. Canadian
Journal of Forest Research 33(1): 23-32.
Young A., Mitchell N., 1994. Microclimate and vegetation edge effects in a frag-
mented Podocarp-broadleaf forest in New Zealand. Biological Conservation
67(1): 63-72.
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c5. Landscape Scale Connectivity
Recommendation
Promote connectivity and species migration in a fragmented landscape. Leave
areas undisturbed that connect to continuous habitat on adjacent properties.
Promote species movement through the presence of ecological corridors.
Benefits
Preserving sections of the property that connect to adjacent preserved areas on bor-
dering properties can maintain regional habitat. This is particularly important for
animal species that require large territories in order to nd shelter, mates and food
resources. Where fragmentation does occur in highly developed areas, a path of
migration along ecological corridors helps mitigate the effects of the fragmentation.
Corridors support increased population densities, promote gene ow, and promote
colonization of new areas.
Strategies
Ecological Corridors
Preserve ecological corridors that connect habitat areas surrounding the develop-
ment site. Important corridor parameters are connectivity, width, and continuity
(Dramstad et al. 1996). Corridors must connect two areas of quality habitat. Quality
in this case is dened as a patch with at least 50% interior habitat. A patch of at least
25-acres (10 hectares) that is regularly shaped, such as a circle or square shape, will
fulll this requirement (Collinge 1996). The corridor may also connect on either end
to another corridor of eligible dimensions. A linear corridor with a width of at least
10m is a minimum. Better is a width of 30m and best is width of 50m or more. To pro-
mote continuity, the cumulative distance of breaks in the corridor must be limited to
10% of its total length. An individual break in the corridor cannot be greater than
30m.
Underlying Science
Connecting isolated populations in small fragments helps avoid extinction processes
discussed in recommendation C2., Preserve/Restore Habitat. Studies have generally
supported the theory that ecological corridors promote movement across the land-
scape (Debinski et al. 2000). This is particularly supported for animals that are less
mobile and that require specialized interior habitat (Debinski et al. 2000; Mech and
Hallett 2001). Corridor width requirements were developed using Desbonets litera-
ture review study mentioned in recommendation C4., Create Buffers Around Critical
Habitat (Desbonet et al. 1994), a study of birds use of corridors by Sieving suggested
a minimum of 10-25m (Sieving et al. 2000), and a study of mammals by Laurance
suggested a minimum of 30-40m (Laurance and Laurance 1999). Breaks in the corri-
dor are discouraged in general, but site design limitations may require such gaps. A
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maximum gap of 10% was set to limit discontinuity. The maximum gap distance of
30m was set as gaps of this distance have been shown to create a barrier to the move-
ment of many species in continuous forest areas (Laurance et al. 2002).
See recommendation C4. (Buffers Around Critical Habitat) for a discussion of edge
effects and the distance to which they penetrate into interior habitat. For LAND Code
purposes, this is set to a distance of 50m.
References
Collinge S. 1996. Ecological consequences of habitat fragmentation: Implications
for landscape architecture and planning. Landscape and Urban Planning
36(1): 59-77.
Debinski D., Holt R. 2000. A survey and overview of habitat fragmentation
experiments. Conservation Biology 14(2): 342-355.
Dramstad W., Olson J., Forman R., 1996. Landscape Ecology Principles in
Landscape Architecture and Land-Use Planning. Island Press, Washington
D.C.
Laurance S., Laurance W. 1999. Tropical wildlife corridors: Use of linear rainfor-
est remnants by arboreal mammals. Biological Conservation 91(2-3): 231-
239.
Laurance W., Lovejoy T., Vasconcelos H., Bruna E., Didham R., Stouffer P.,
Gascon C., Bierregaard R., Laurance S., Sampaio E. 2002. Ecosystem decay of
Amazonian forest fragments: A 22-year investigation. Conservation Biology
16(3): 605-618.
Mech S., Hallett J. 2001. Evaluating the effectiveness of corridors: A genetic
approach. Conservation Biology 15(2): 467-474.
Sieving K., Willson M., De Santo T., 2000. Dening corridor functions for
endemic birds in fragmented south-temperate rainforest. Conservation
Biology 14(4): 1120-1132.
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C6. Infrastructure Placement and Design
Recommendation
Place infrastructure to minimize habitat loss and fragmentation and to avoid cut-
ting off migration routes. Mitigate a roads barrier effect by minimizing road
width and by including appropriately designed tunnels, pipes, underpasses and
overpasses.
Benefits
Utilities
Follow at least two of the following recommendations when designing
utility infrastructure: (Thompson and Sorvig 2001):
Combine the utility zone with a trail or bike path. In more populated
areas, utilities can be placed beneath sidewalks and roads.
Roads
Identify site locations that contain unique and high value habitat and
route roads away from these areas. These locations may be interior forest
habitat, wetlands, identied rare-species areas, wetland-upland connec-
tions and known animal migratory routes. Place roads at least 20m distant
(Trombulak and Frissell 2000) from these locations to avoid potential
heavy metal contamination associated with roads.
To mitigate the barrier effect of roads:
Place at least one passage per species home range. This can be deter-
mined by a scientic site analysis and literature review or professional
judgment. For small- and medium-sized mammals, a general mini-
mum guideline would be one passage per 150m;
Choose:
Ideal: 100% native plants.
Strive for: More than 70% native plants with local provenance.
Possible means to implement this option include (Burrell 2001):
Obtain sources within 250-mile radius;
Contract with a nursery to grow natives from cuttings;
Collect and store vegetation from the sites development footprint.
Since the following strategies are site dependent, they must be supported
by professional documentation explaining the sites surrounding natural
structure and how that is reected in the landscape design:
Include the natural vertical structure of the habitat over at least 70%
of landscaped area include multi-levels as appropriate (e.g. trees,
shrubs and groundcover for forested areas);
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Reect natural plant diversity and density of surrounding undisturbed
environments for at least 70% of landscaped area;
Preserve or create composite elements such as snags (standing dead
trees) and coarse woody debris as appropriate for the surrounding
natural area. These important environmental elements provide cover
and shelter for native fauna. Articial cavities may replace natural
snag cavities.
Do not select:
Plants that have been shown to be invasive in the region or exotic plants
for which invasive information is limited or unknown for the region.
A number of organizations exist to help landscape designers to identi-
fy both native and invasive plants. Many local native plant associations
may exist and can be identied through contacting local arboretums
and searching the Internet. A number of national resources are listed
in the reference section below.
Underlying Science
Analysis of rural to urban gradients has shown that the diversity of species
decreases and the proportion of non-native species increases towards an
urban center. Much of this is a result of vegetation loss closer to urban cen-
ters, but also as a result of non-native plant cultivation within homoge-
nously designed landscapes (McKinney 2002). Instead of reecting the
structural diversity of forested areas surrounding many suburban proper-
land code guidelines: plant ecology and population/community ecology
yale school of forestry & environmental studies
50
ties, landscapes are usually designed to approximate sparsely forested
savanna or grassland communities (McKinney 2002: 887). It is important
to include natural variety in landscaping design as this increases the num-
ber of resources, or niches, available to support native species (Rickefs 1977;
Carey and Harrington 2001; Tanabe 2002). It is also important to preserve
or create elements such as woody debris piles within the aquatic and forest-
ed environment. These piles should not be removed to clean up the
ground, as they provide valuable shelter, predator protection and feeding
areas for various species (Gurnell et al. 1995; Carey and Harrington 2001).
Additionally, standing dead trees, referred to as snags, should not be
removed from a forested area as they provide similar functions of shelter
and protection (Carey and Harrington 2001). Studies have shown that pre-
serving or recreating natural landscape variety may decrease microclimate
changes within edge habitat, increase species use of surrounding edge habi-
tat, and increase the migration of species between fragments (Fahrig 2001;
Ricketts 2001; Laurance et al. 2002).
Supporting Literature
The Matrix and Heterogeneity
Carey A., Harington C. 2001. Small mammals in young forests: implications for
management for sustainability. Forest Ecology and Management, 154(1-2):
289-309.
Fahrig L. 2001. How much habitat is enough? Biological Conservation, 100(1):
65-74.
Laurance W., Lovejoy T., Vasconcelos H., Bruna E., Didham R., Stouffer P.,
Gascon C., Bierregaard R., Laurance S., Sampaio E. 2002. Ecosystem decay of
Amazonian forest fragments: A 22-year investigation. Conservation Biology,
16(3): 605-618.
Link R. 1999. Landscaping for Wildlife in the Pacic Northwest. University of
Washington Press (in association with the Washington Dept. of Fish and
Wildlife), Seattle.
McKinney M. 2002. Urbanization, biodiversity, and conservation. Bioscience,
52(10): 883-890.
Ricketts T., 2001. The matrix matters: Effective isolation in fragmented land-
scapes. American Naturalist, 158(1): 87-99.
Ricklefs R. 1977. Environmental heterogeneity and plant species-diversity-
hypothesis. American Naturalist, 111(978): 376-381.
Tanabe S. 2002. Between-forest variation in vertical stratication of drosophilid
populations. Ecological Entomology, 27(6): 720-731.
balmori and benoit
yale school of forestry & environmental studies
51
Native/Invasive Species
Burrell C. 2001. Specifying native plants Exercise caution in sourcing plants
and seeds. Landscape Architecture 91(3): 22-24.
McKinney M., 2002. Urbanization, biodiversity, and conservation. Bioscience
52(10): 883-890.
New T., 2000. Conservation Biology: An Introduction for Southern Australia.
Oxford University Press, Oxford: 239-285.
Prieur-Richard A., Lavorel S., 2000. Invasions: the perspective of diverse plant
communities. Austral Ecology 25(1): 1-7.
Primack B. 2002. Essentials of Conservation Biology, 3rd Edition. Sinauer
Associates, Sunderland, MA: 276-285.
Reichard S., White P. 2001. Horticulture as a pathway of invasive plant introduc-
tions in the United States. BioScience 51(2): 103-113.
Wasowski A. 2000. The landscaping revolution: Garden with Mother Nature, not
against her. The Contemporary Gardner. Midas Printing Company, Hong
Kong.
Resources for Identifying Native and Invasive Species
Federal Interagency Committee for the Management of Noxious and Exotic
Weeds. Invasive Plants, Changing the Landscape of America: Fact Book,
Washington, D.C.
National Invasive Species Council, URL: http://www.invasivespecies.gov,
accessed September, 2003.
National Park Service, Alien Plant Invaders of Natural Areas: Fact Sheets, URL:
www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact.htm, accessed September, 2003.
Nature Conservancy, Wildland Invasive Species Program, URL: http://
tncweeds.ucdavis.edu, accessed September, 2003.
Wildlife Habitat Council website, native plant resources by state, URL:
http://www.wildlifehc.org/managementtools/backyard-stateresources.cfm,
accessed September, 2003.
land code guidelines: plant ecology and population/community ecology
yale school of forestry & environmental studies
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C8. Conservation Plans: Managing Species Habitat and
Limiting Factors
Recommendation
Create conservation plans to actively manage native species in the region that have
not adapted well to human-disturbed habitats.
Benefits
Conservation plans that analyze the existing habitat on the site and which identify
and manage specic characteristics can be benecial in maintaining or even increas-
ing biodiversity. One or more specic resources referred to as limiting factors
often limit species survival on a site. A site analysis combined with a scientic litera-
ture review can identify habitat size requirements and limiting factors that may exist
for species that are endangered, threatened, or disturbance-sensitive and therefore in
decline in the local area. Individual landowners, corporations and homeowners asso-
ciations have the potential to implement conservation plans that actively identify and
minimize the loss of these species limiting resources.
Strategies
Strategy Recommendations:
Implement plans that are regional in scale.
When loss of species is expected, estimate the number of species killed
and/or the area of habitat lost with an estimate of the number of
species killed per unit area;
Relate the quantity of species killed to an estimate of the total local
population that this represents. A local population should not fall below
50 individuals, and preferably not below 500 individuals to ensure
genetic variability (Primack 2002);
Preferentially choose well-tested mitigation procedures;
If minimization and mitigation measures will not compensate for
species loss, document why additional remedial actions are not practical
or reasonable;
For mitigation measures that are unproven, evaluate their effectiveness
in the eld before implementing the measure on the whole site and
before development alterations begin.
land code guidelines: plant ecology and population/community ecology
yale school of forestry & environmental studies
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Begin mitigation measures before undertaking development alterations.
If this is not possible, begin mitigation measures at the same time as
development alterations:
Develop and clearly document monitoring provisions that are
statistically sound and based on scientic principles;
Include adaptive management procedures so that minimization and
mitigation measures can be altered if monitoring indicates they are
not effective;
Publish data regarding the effectiveness of the minimization and
mitigation measures to make this information available for future
decision-making.
References
Kelly J., Hodge M. 1996. The role of corporations in ensuring biodiversity.
Environmental Management, 20(6): 947-954.
Kareiva P., Andelman S., Doak D., Elderd B., Groom M., Hoekstra J., Hood L.,
James F., Lamoreux J., LeBuhn G., McCulloch C., Regetz J., Savage L.,
Ruckelshaus M., Skelly D., Wilbur H., Zamudio K., and NCEAS HCP work-
ing group. 1999. Using Science in Habitat Conservation Plans. Sponsored by
National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis University of
California Santa Barbara and American Institute of Biological Sciences,
URL: http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/projects/hcp, accessed September, 2003.
Malcolm L. 1996. Fundamentals of Conservation Biology. Blackwell Science,
Cambridge, MA: 293-323.
Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) National Biology Handbook.
This handbook contains a long list of biological resources to help include
wildlife habitat factors into habitat conservation plans.URL:http://
www.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/ECS/wildlife/, accessed September, 2003.
Peck S. 1998. Planning for Biodiversity: Issues and Examples. Island Press,
Washington D.C.
Pike R. 1995. Habitat Conservation Plans, 1984-1994. Council of Planning
Librarians Bibliography, No. 327. Council of Planning Librarians, Chicago.
Primack B. 2002. Essentials of Conservation Biology, 3rd Edition. Sinauer
Associates, Sunderland, MA: .306.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and National Marine Fisheries Service. 1996.
Endangered Species Habitat Conservation Planning Handbook.
Washington, D.C: U.S. Government Printing Ofce.
Wildlife Habitat Council, URL: hlttp://www.wildlifehc.org, accessed September,
2003.
balmori and benoit
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LAND Code Plant Ecology 9/13/04 11:31 PM Page 56
LAND Code Guidelines:
*
On-Site Energy and
Transportation
recommendations Page
On-Site Energy 58
D1. Building Siting 58
D2. Renewable Energy 60
D3. Outdoor Lighting 62
D4. Lawn Areas and Shade Trees 63
On-Site Transportation 64
D5. Access to Public Transportation 64
D6. Locating Commonly Used Facilities 66
D7. Walking and Biking 67
D8. Non-Motorized Recreation 68
introduction
Two major environmental impacts result from the use of fossil fuels for energy: the
production of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that is contributing to global climate
change, and air pollution from particulate matter, sulfur oxides, heavy metals, nitro-
gen oxides, and smog precursors. The following recommendations are intended to
minimize the overall energy requirements of a site, to minimize fossil fuel use in par-
ticular, and to maximize the proportion of energy requirements that comes from
renewable sources.
The recommendations focus on two separate areas: energy use on-site (that is, rec-
ommendations regarding the overall energy requirements of the site), and energy use
in terms of transportation within and to and from the site. The recommendations do
not consider energy requirements of individual buildings, or energy use associated
with choices of building materials, since LEED guidelines cover both of these topics
comprehensively.
balmori and benoit
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* The LAND (Land and
Natural Development) Code
lays out steps through
which to achieve
sustainable development of
land of many types,
whether rural or urban. It
was created by a joint
group of Yale School of
Forestry & Environmental
Studies and Yale School of
Architecture faculty and
students for use by town
officials, developers,
architects, engineers and
interested individuals.
Whenever possible, each
chapter is composed of a
series of comparable rec-
ommendations, each fol-
lowing the same format: 1)
the recommendation, 2)
benefits, both for the envi-
ronment and in fostering
cheaper and faster develop-
ment, 3) strategies to
achieve the recommended
goals (since sites vary enor-
mously, several alternatives
are provided whenever pos-
sible, listed in order of pref-
erence) 4) literature cita-
tions that provide the sci-
entific basis for the recom-
mendations, and can be
consulted for further
details.
land code guidelines: on-site energy and transportation
yale school of forestry & environmental studies
58
recommendations
D1. On-Site Energy: Building Siting
Recommendation
Buildings should be sited according to the American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) standards, given the
site and climate conditions, in order to optimize solar gain and loss of heat
between buildings.
Benefits
Appropriate siting of buildings ensures maximum solar gain for daylighting (i.e., nat-
ural lighting of buildings) and passive solar heating, while minimizing unwanted
solar heat gain under high sun conditions. In temperate climates, appropriate siting
can minimize heat loss between buildings. Thus, appropriate siting can help keep
buildings warm in the winter and cool in the summer with minimal use of heating or
air conditioning. This lowers both energy costs and the production of carbon diox-
ide and air pollution through the burning of fossil fuels.
Strategies
Use of ECOTECT or DOE2 (or similar) software can analyze site conditions (i.e.
proximity to water, shade from other buildings or trees, albedo) to recommend siting
for optimal balance between solar gain and energy loss between buildings. Users can
choose to maximize or minimize solar gain as well as maximizing or minimizing heat
loss between buildings, depending on climate and site conditions.
Supporting Literature
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
Inc. URL: http://www.ashrae.org, accessed September, 2003.
Square One Research, Environmental Design Website, ECOTECT Software.
URL: http://www.ecotect.com/ecotect.html, accessed September, 2003.
Energy Efciency Best Practice Programme. 1997. Passive solar estate layout.
General Information Report 27. URL: htp://www.actionenergy.org.uk/
ActionEnergy/default.htm, accessed September, 2003.
Energy Efciency Best Practice Programme. 2000. The Hockerton Housing
Project designing lessons for developers and clients. New Practice Prole
119. URL: http://www.actionenergy.org.uk/ActionEnergy/default.htm,
accessed September, 2003.
EnerLogic and James J. Hirsch & Associates. DOE-2 Building Energy Use and
Cost Analysis Software Website. URL: http://www.doe2.com/, accessed
September, 2003.
balmori and benoit
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59
Focus On Lighting. 2002. Ofces in a new light. Energy & Environmental
Management. June, 2002: 6-7.
Focus On Solar Energy. 2002. PV in Buildings. Energy & Environmental
Management. Jan-Feb, 2002:6.
Housing and Development Association of Canada (HUDAC), Ontario Ministry
of Energy, 1980. Builders Guide to Energy Efciency in New Housing.
Toronto: HUDAC.
Housing Energy Efciency Best Practice Programme. 2002b. Energy efciency in
new housing a guide to achieving best practice. Good Practice Guide: 79.
URL: http://www.est.org.uk/bestpractice/, accessed September, 2003.
Watson D. 1979. Energy Conservation Through Building Design. New York:
McGraw Hill.
land code guidelines: on-site energy and transportation
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D2. On-Site Energy: Renewable Energy
Recommendation
Utilize renewable energy sources on site.
Increasing customer support for green energy will eventually reduce prices.
Strategies
Twenty-four states now allow electricity consumers to purchase renewable electricity
from a competitive supplier. In states where renewable electricity is not available,
renewable energy certicates can be bought through programs like the Bonneville
Environmental Foundation (which markets Green Tags). Purchase of renewable
energy certicates involves paying a premium for electricity produced locally (possi-
bly from fossil fuels) to offset the cost of renewable production elsewhere, thus reduc-
ing overall fossil fuel use nationwide. On-site or nearby/shared renewable energy pro-
duction may come from PV, wind, geothermal, low impact hydro or biomass power
sources. Work with local developers/developments to lower the cost and increase the
feasibility of renewable energy production by sharing.
Supporting Literature
Bonneville Environmental Foundation website. URL: https://www.greentag-
susa.org/GreenTags/index.cfm, accessed September, 2003.
Environmental Protection Agency eGRID website. URL: http://www.epa.gov/
cleanenergy/egrid/index.html, accessed September, 2003.
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Focus On Solar Energy. 2002. PV in buildings. Energy & Environmental
Management. Jan-Feb, 2002:6.
Interstate Renewable Energy Council 2001. August 2001. Municipal guide to pur-
chasing renewable energy. URL: http://www.irecusa.org/municipal/ munici-
pal_guide.pdf, accessed September, 2003.
Sustainable Energy Authority. 2001. Renewable energy application in commercial
buildings. 7th Commercial Building Energy Forum. Victoria, Australia. July,
2001. URL: http://www.seav.vic.gov.au/index.asp, accessed September, 2003.
land code guidelines: on-site energy and transportation
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D3. On-Site Energy: Outdoor Lighting
Recommendation
Provide outdoor lighting that is powered by renewable energy.
Next best: lighting that is 50% (or more) powered by renewable energy;
Extra benet: lights that are full cut-off to reduce energy loss and light
pollution.
Benefits
Solar-powered lights are inexpensive to run. Federal tax credits and some state tax
credits are offered for use of solar powered lighting. Powering outdoor lights with
renewable energy reduces fossil fuel consumption and air pollution, including carbon
dioxide production. Preventing light pollution by using full cut-off lights allows night
skies to be seen more clearly.
Strategies
Consider joining the U.S. EPA-sponsored Green Lights Program, in which corpora-
tions can sign a memorandum of understanding which commits them to upgrade to
energy-efcient lighting whenever it is protable while maintaining or improving
lighting quality. Solar powered outdoor lights are widely available. Investigate suppli-
ers as close to the development as possible. Outdoor solar lights can be motion-con-
trolled, which can help conserve energy when the lights are not needed.
Supporting Literature
Electric Power Research Institute website. 2003. URL: http://www.epri.com/,
accessed September, 2003.
Green Lights. US Environmental Protection Agency. Contact Information:
401 M St., SW, Washington DC 20460, tel. (202) 775-6650, fax (202) 775-
6680.
International Dark Sky Association website. URL: http://www.darksky.org/
links/energy.html, accessed September, 2003.
Solar Outdoor Lighting, Inc. URL: http://www.solarlighting.com, accessed
September, 2003.
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D4. On-Site Energy: Lawn Areas and Shade Trees
Recommendation
Avoid or minimize lawn areas and maintain shade trees (see Ecology and
Micrometeorology sections).
Benefits
Shade trees near buildings can reduce the need for air conditioning during
the summer.
Strategies
See Ecology and Micrometeorology sections.
Supporting Literature
Corbett J. and Corbett M. 2000. Designing Sustainable Communities.
Washington DC. Island Press.
Wilson A., Seal J., McManigal L., Lovins L., Cureton M., and Browning W. 1998.
Green Development: Integrating Ecology and Real Estate. Hoboken, NJ.
John Wiley & Sons.
land code guidelines: on-site energy and transportation
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D5. On-Site Transportation: Access to Public Transportation
Recommendation
Maximize access to public transportation.
Best: Site is within 1/4 mile of public transportation (bus stop, train or
subway station);
Good: Bike paths on-site and facilities for bikes around the site (bike
racks);
Bike paths;
Tree-planting strips (curb strip) at least ve feet (1.5m) wide alongside the
sidewalk;
Sidewalks wider than ve feet (1.5m) and bordered with trees to encourage
walking;
Sidewalks and bike paths made from permeable materials (see Hydrology
and Engineering sections).
Benefits
Walking and biking on-site reduces the energy consumption and local air
pollution produced by car use.
Strategies
Keep/plant trees and vegetation in the curb strip to make walking a more
pleasant experience and to provide shade in the summer.
Supporting Literature
Corbett J. and Corbett M. 2000. Designing Sustainable Communities.
Washington DC.: Island Press.
Lessee, M. and McCormick, K., Eds. 1999. Charter of the New Urbanism. New
York.: McGraw Hill.
Schueler T., and Holland H. 2000. An introduction to better site design. The
Practice of Watershed Protection. Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott
City, MD: 623-632.
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D8. On-Site Transportation: Non-Motorized Recreation
Recommendation
Encourage non-motorized recreation on land and water through the following
measures:
Pre-grown plant carpets provide wide coverage for immediate habitat and
erosion protection.
Fiber rolls stabilize banks and permit the establishment of vegetation. The
Coir ber accumulates sediment and biogrades as plant roots develop and
become the stabilizing element. (Goldsmith 1992)
Live Stakes
Live stakes stabilize shoreline after rooting. They can be used to anchor other erosion-
control devices, such as fascines, log toes, brush mattress, and erosion control fabric.
Live stakes, which are often very inexpensive, are cut from hydrophilic plants whose
cuttings have good rooting abilities can be used as live stakes. (Simon and
Steinemann 2000)
land code guidelines: environmental engineering
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Fiber Logs
Fiber logs can also be installed around the perimeter of exposed soils to prevent sed-
iment runoff. Coir ber (see above) can be used and is expected to be more durable
than a straw blanket (see below). Logs are typically more expensive than silt fences
but are much more attractive. However, they may require more maintenance and may
not perform as well as a properly installed and maintained silt fence.
Mats and Blankets
Mats and blanket are used to stabilize large areas of exposed soil where seed growth
or general erosion control is desired. They can be made of both woven synthetic
(plastic) and natural (coconut ber) materials and are useful on steep slopes or in
channels. Mats and blankets cover the soil and water should not be allowed to ow
freely beneath it. Metal stakes and/or staples are used keep mats and blankets in place
and proper installation to insure this condition is crucial. Recent innovations include
a spray on application made of interwoven bers. (Schueler 2000)
Mulches
Mulches are typically used in combination with seeding to prevent runoff during the
initial stage of vegetation establishment. Mulches are effective in preventing large sed-
iment runoff because they absorb the rains impact that typically suspends solids.
Mixes typically consist of cut up organic matter such as straw, ber, and wood chips.
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Fiber mulch includes chopped up paper and wood bers and should only be used in
combination with seeding (vegetation establishment desired) or as a tack, or glue,
to stick straw mulch to the surface. Straw mulch should be tacked down with a string
grid, tackier, or mechanically punched into the ground. Fiber and straw mulching is
not appropriate for slopes exceeding 1.5:1 and 3:1 respectively. (Schueler 2000)
Silt Fencing and Straw Bales
Silt fencing consists of a geotextile fabric that is staked to the ground at the base of an
area of exposed earth. It takes up little space, is easily installed, and is cheap. These
factors have made it perhaps the most widely employed strategy but it often fails due
to improper maintenance and installation. The fabric and stake method chosen lim-
its the strength and users must be sure that sediment loads will not overwhelm the
application. One method is to reinforce the fence with a chain link fence or use a
stronger woven material. Straw bales serve the same purpose and care must be taken
to insure that bales are well connected. (Schueler 2000)
Underlying Science
Barrett K. 1998. Ecological engineering with water resources: the benets of col-
laborating with nature. Submitted to Water International, the Journal of the
International Water Resources Association.
Carr W. Erosion and Sedimentation Before and After Residential Construction.
URL: http://www.forester.net/ecm_0203_innovation.html, accessed October,
2003.
Goldsmith W. 1992. An overview of bioengineering for shore protection.
Proceedings of Conference XXIII. International Erosion Control
Association. February 18-21, 1992. Reno, Nevada, USA.
Li M-H. and Eddleman K. 2002. Biotechnical engineering as an alternative to
traditional engineering methods: A biotechnical streambank stabilization
design approach. Landscape and Urban Planning 60 (2002): 225-242.
This study was conducted primarily via literature review and analyzed
biotechnical engineering as a viable alternative to traditional channelization
methods of streambank stabilization. Strengths and weaknesses of tradition-
al engineering, uvial geomorphological, ecological and biotechnical engi-
neering are presented and a cost-strength matrix of biotechnical techniques
is introduced.
Simon K. and Steinemann A. 2000. Soil bioengineering: challenges for planning
and engineering. Journal of Urban Planning and Development 126(2): 89-
102.
Stormwater Managers Resource Center. URL: www.stormwatercenter.net.
Accessed October, 2003.
land code guidelines: environmental engineering
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E2. Stormwater Management
Recommendation
To prevent contamination from pollutants in stormwater runoff entering water
bodies, utilize applications for on-site treatment and/or attenuation of
stormwater.
Benefits
Stormwater runoff is an effective transporter of pollutants that accumulate on imper-
vious surfaces such as rooftops, parking lots, and roads. Typically, storm volumes are
directed into a municipal underground piping system that delivers it to a wastewater
treatment facility or outfall water body. During large storms treatment plants are
unable to accommodate heavy storm volumes and polluted runoff is rerouted to a
designated outfall water body without treatment. Pollutants typically found in
stormwater are comparable to raw sewage: hydrocarbons, BOD, COD, sediments,
temperature, and bacteria among others. In an effort to prevent these contaminants
from entering water bodies a number of applications exist that enable onsite treat-
ment and/or attenuation of stormwater. The following is a suite of options for achiev-
ing these worthy objectives.
Soil Permeability Water Table Application Comments
Impervious Low Dry Well Dont address water
Underground quality
Vault Do address water quality
Harvest Can supplement
(non)potable water uses by
Permeable Paving building
Groundwater recharge, no
space requirements, low-
trafc areas
Low High Wet Swale/Wet High rate of pollutant
Pond/Constructed removal, habitat, aesthetic
Wetland amenity
Harvest
Medium-High Low Inltration Basin Flood control, large
drainage areas, ground-
water recharge
Strategies
Soil Aeration
Soil aeration may be necessary in previously developed or other areas where soil com-
paction inhibits inltration. Designating selected areas where construction equip-
ment can travel and rest, covering soil with a thick layer of coarse aggregate rock to
absorb weight, or using equipment that is distinguished by its ability to disperse its
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weight over a large surface area can prevent the need for soil aeration. Already com-
pacted soils can be aerated by technologies ranging from perforated pipe installation,
crushed rock, and pneumatic soil aerators (for example, see www.terrvant.com).
Benets of pneumatic aerators include the ability to inject fungi into the soil that are
benecial for root systems.
Dry Well
In a highly urbanized area, a dry well application should consider local development
codes, underlying utilities, and soil quality. Their function is dependent on high per-
meability, which can be created by augmenting existing soil conditions. Soil aeration
strategies can rectify inhibited inltration due to soil compaction. Pre-existing man-
holes can be retrotted to drain to a dry well for smaller drainage areas. Advantages
of this strategy are minimization of infrastructure, ground water recharge, and no
aboveground space requirements.
(www.seagrant.sunysb.edu)
Underground Vault
Underground vaults are manufactured to capture and treat on-site stormwater. They
are typically installed underneath parking lots that are graded to drain to the vault.
Inside the vault, the water undergoes a series of settling and ltration treatments
prior to discharge. Advantages include increased water quality and minimal above-
ground space requirements. Disadvantages include cost and routine maintenance.
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(URL: http://www.stormwatermgt.com/pdfs/StormFilter.pdf, accessed October, 2003.)
Harvest
Capturing on-site rainwater from impervious surfaces for irrigation or other build-
ing needs reduces demand for potable water. Systems are typically designed to cap-
ture rooftop runoff and direct it via downspout to a rain washer (sand lter) that is
connected to a storage tank located inside or outside the building (above or below
ground). The water can then be used for irrigation or treated for building use.
Treatment technologies exist that are sized to t in a home or building including the
Homespring UF 100 Water Filtration System (www.zenonenv.com) and SafeRain
(www.saferain.com) among others. Harvesting reduces the need for municipal infra-
structure and elaborate piping systems. The effectiveness of this strategy is regional-
ly specic and maintenance is required. See also Texas Guide to Rainwater
Harvesting URL: http://www.twdb.state.tx.us/publications/reports/RainHarv.pdf,
accessed October, 2003.
(URL: http://users.easystreet.com/ersson/rainwatr.htm, accessed October, 2003.)
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Permeable Paving
Permeable paving can substantially reduce runoff and promote inltration in park-
ing lots, walkways, and other typically impervious areas. The following are some
examples of products that may be used in certain applications to replace traditional
impermeable paving materials.
Pervious concrete
(URL: http://www.tarmacamerica.com/tarmac/products/readymix/pervious.
html, accessed October, 2003.)
Structure
Pervious concrete has popcorn-like consistency. Specify y-ash (a
by-product of coal burning) for up to 40 percent of Portland
cement to increase the strength of the application.
Installation
Application requires roughly eight inches of compacted three-
quarter minus gravel as a subgrade upon which the pervious con-
crete can be laid. Pervious concrete should only be applied by a
certied contractor.
Maintenance
Maintenance needs include annual power washing to maintain porosity.
Performance
Microbes in the pore spaces have been proven to metabolize and
break down hydrocarbons from leaky cars. Spread enzymes over
the surface to increase biological activity in times of particularly
high trafc. In general, pervious concrete is best for low-trafc
areas and walkways although it can be designed to handle high
volumes of trafc.
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Stormwater modeling system used for the analysis, design, and documen-
tation of complete drainage systems using standard hydrograph tech-
niques.
Models surface runoff, open channel ow, pipe ow, water quality, and
sediment transport for urban drainage systems, storm water sewers, and
sanitary sewers.
http://www.citilabs.com/tranplan
Urban Transportation Planning System (UTPS)
Urban locations may reduce the need for the developer to provide
proprietary parking;
Provide adequate staging areas for separated waste streams during con-
struction and demolition activities (e.g. for cardboard, wood, concrete,
carpet, recyclable plastics, etc.);
Provide space for waste containers to enable hygienic and safe separation
of waste streams within kitchen areas and other facility areas;
Drains from all loading areas must connect to sanitary sewer or graywater
systems;
Using recycled material can reduce contractor costs for virgin asphalt by
up to 80%;
Recycled cold-in-place asphalt is less dusty than gravel and is suitable for
low-trafc areas;
Recycled concrete can be cheaper than virgin aggregate and is suitable for
similar applications;
Increasing product use efciency and reduced material costs aim for 95%
of material inputs to end in the merchantable product versus waste streams.
Strategies
Contract with materials suppliers for packaging takeback (e.g. pallets, con-
tainers, shrink-wrap, etc.);
Grind rubble, shingles, and wood waste on site for use as a base for hard
surface. Use wood chips as a temporary insulator of soil to prevent ground
from freezing pre-development, or for nal-phase landscaping mulch;
Separate waste streams for salvage and recycling separate wood, con-
crete, drywall and plastics at a minimum. Other streams to be identied
depending on local contractors and the availability of reuse/recycling
facilities for those other materials in the region;
Make sure the waste dumpsters are very clearly marked and are easy to
access;
Reducing the negative air quality and greenhouse gas impacts of trans-
porting construction materials over long distances;
Source local suppliers for materials available close to site to reduce trans-
portation requirements;
Draw up contracts with waste haulers so waste is removed from site when
the waste containers are full, as opposed to regular weekly or daily service;
Record total used volume and capacity of vehicle upon arrival (for deliv-
ery) or departure (for waste). Keep a running total of utilization levels and
quantify vehicle miles traveled (VMT) for truck transport to have an idea
of the contribution of truck transport to the environmental impacts of
site development.
Supporting Literature
The tare (empty or unloaded) weight of the vehicle makes up 29% of a fully loaded
tractors mass. Because of the inherent inefficiency of this mode of transport, it is
doubly important to use as much capacity as possible on each trip.
World Resources Institute. Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Protocol Initiative. URL:
http://www.ghgprotocol.org/standard/mobile.doc, accessed October, 2003.
Jacobsen Easyloader Tiltbed Trailer Specications. URL: http://www.jacob-
sentrailers.com/easyloaderspecs.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Liberty Kenworth Truck Information. URL: http://www.libertykenworth.
com/t2000.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Central European University. Environment and Regional Transport
Planning Document. URL: http://www.ceu.hu/envsci/sun/SUN_
EnvImpacts.ppt, accessed October, 2003.
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F5. Regional Context and Local Support: Local Stakeholders
Recommendation
Collaborate with local stakeholders in nalizing some or all elements of site
design to build local support for the project.
Benefits
Creating social capital that can improve relations, and increase the desir-
ability of the development;
Creating positive publicity surrounding the project, adding value for both
the developer and future tenant.
Strategies
Certify buildings through the LEED program for 90% of structures on site;
Enroll in one or more recognized national programs that address the fol-
lowing management areas: wildlife habitat; energy consumption; solid
waste recycling; organic waste composting; employee/customer transit use;
Existing and proposed location of public and private utilities and infra-
structure;
Specic policies and strategies for improving the local economy in coordi-
nation with other plan topics;
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Any and all other items which are consistent with the orderly growth and
development of the municipality.
Supporting Literature
Pace University School of Law. Local Land Use Law Center. Planning website.
URL: http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/comppl.html.\, accessed October,
2003.
Nolon J. 1993. Comprehensive land use planning: Learning how and where to
grow. Pace University School of Law. Local Land Use Law Center. URL:
http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/nolona.html., accessed October, 2003.
New York Planning Federation. 1996. The practical guide to comprehensive plan-
ning. Address: 488 Broadway, Albany, New York 12207. Phone: (518) 432-
4094.
Examples of Model Plans
Woodbury, CT. 1999. Plan of Conservation and Development. URL:
http://www.woodburyct.org/conservation.pdf, accessed October, 2003.
Chatham County, NC. Land Use Development Plan. URL:
http://www.co.chatham.nc.us/PlanningBoardItems/Land%20Use%20
Development%20Plan.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Town of Bethany, CT. Plan of Conservation and Development. 1999. URL:
http://www.munic.state.ct.us/BETHANY/townplan.htm, accessed October,
2003.
Town of Canton, CT. Plan of Conservation and Development. URL:
http://www.townofcantonct.org/2002%20Draft%20POCD.PDF, accessed
October, 2003.
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Zoning
Recommendation
Make zoning code more environmentally friendly. For example, towns might
include incentive zoning, performance zoning, mixed-use development, cluster
development, and designated growth zones.
Rationale
Zoning laws were originally intended to ensure the most appropriate use of the land
within a municipalitys jurisdiction. However, traditional zoning is often inadequate
for the increasing need for suburban development, city revitalization, and natural
resource protection. Several strategies can be used to update and modernize zoning
laws to allow for controlled development in designated growth areas and resource
protection in environmentally sensitive areas.
Strategies
Incentive Zoning. Incentive zoning allows for more intensive development of land
in a particular zone in exchange for community services, such as natural resource
protection, to be provided by the developers. Some of the incentives that may be
offered to developers include increased development densities, changes to building
height or set back requirements, or adjustments of other requirements specied in
the underlying zoning ordinance.
Performance Zoning. Performance zoning bases land use in a zone on the impact
the development will have on the surrounding environment. Instead of banning or
requiring certain types of land use performance zoning gives developers and munic-
ipalities more exibility to allow any type of development that meets specied per-
formance requirements. It is similar in spirit to performance based water quality
standards (as opposed to technology based standards).
Overlay Zoning. An Overlay Zone can be used to protect a natural resource or devel-
opment area by specifying provisions that apply in that area in addition to the origi-
nal zoning ordinance. These provisions may be more stringent than those contained
in the underlying zoning district.
Cluster Development. Cluster development can be used to allow developers to
group buildings in one location on a site, while leaving other portions available for
open space, wetlands protection, stormwater management, communal land, or some
other purpose. In this way, smaller lot sizes and increased density may be used in
areas previously zoned for larger lot sizes.
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Planned Unit Development (PUD). A PUD zone allows for some exibility when
developing large lots. For example, a development within a PUD zone might include
mixed uses, cluster development, or another innovative type of development. This
type of development requires close partnerships with the local community, as devel-
opers are often required to compensate for the impacts of their projects by setting
aside public open space or providing necessary infrastructure or other community
services.
Supporting Literature
Incentive Zoning
Murphy M. and Stinson J. 1996. Incentive Zoning. Pace University School of
Law. Land Use Law Center. Incentive Zoning website. URL: http://www.law.
pace.edu/landuse/incent.html, accessed October, 2003.
Examples
Arlington County, VA. Available from U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL:
http://cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=789, accessed October, 2003.
Pace University School of Law. Land Use Law Center. Incentive Zoning website.
URL: http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/bincent.html, accessed October, 2003.
Performance Zoning
Abalos R. Investing in Land. URL: http://www.investinginland.com/perform-
ance_zoning.htm, accessed October, 2003. Discussion of the pros and cons
of performance zoning.
Exner M., and Sawchuk R. 1996. Performance-Based Zoning Model.
Steppingstones Partnership, Inc. Edmonten, Alberta, Canada. URL:
http://www.steppingstones.ca/library/pbzoning.doc, accessed October, 2003.
Nolon J. 2002. Shaping land development patterns: The case for performance
zoning. New York Law Journal. October 16, 2002.
Examples
Bucks County, PA. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://cfpub.
epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=174, accessed October, 2003.
Town of Breckenridge, CO. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL:
http://cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=170, accessed October, 2003.
Town of Cary, NC. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://
cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=383, accessed October, 2003.
Town of Havana, FL. Freiden S. and Winters R. 1997. Performance zoning helps
key citys comeback. American City & County, June 1, 1997. URL:
http://www.americancityandcounty.com/ar/government_performance_
zoning_helps/, accessed October, 2003.
Town of Largo, FL. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://
cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=172, accessed October, 2003.
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Overlay Zoning
Bavoso M. and Jones T. 1996. Overlay zoning: Application and implementation
in New York State. Pace University School of Law. Land Use Law Center.
URL: http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/overla.html , accessed October, 2003.
Pace University School of Law. Land Use Law Center. Overlay Zoning website.
URL: http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/boverlay.html, accessed October, 2003.
Example
Annapolis, MD. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://cfpub.
epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=167, accessed October, 2003.
Cluster Development
Murphy M. and Stinson J. 1996. Cluster Development. Pace University School of
Law. Land Use Law Center. URL: http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/cluste.
html, accessed October, 2003.
Pace University School of Law. Land Use Law Center. Cluster Development web-
site. URL: http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/bcluster.html, accessed October,
2003.
Example
Burnett County, WI. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL:
http://cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=61, accessed October, 2003.
Planned Unit Development
Murphy M. and Stinson J. 1996. Planned Unit Development. Pace University
School of Law. Land Use Law Center. URL: http://www.law.pace.edu/
landuse/pud.html, accessed October, 2003.
Pace University School of Law. Land Use Law Center. Planned Unit
Development website. URL: http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/bpud.html,
accessed October, 2003.
Examples
East Greenwich, RI. Planned Development and Mixed Use Planned
Development Ordinance. URL: http://www.riedc.com/mcds/rimcdrame.
html, accessed October, 2003.
Town of Bellevue, WA. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://
cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=167, accessed October, 2003.
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Environmental Impact Statements
Recommendation
Require environmental impact statements for all development projects.
Rationale
When potential environmental impacts are readily identied, they can more easily be
avoided or mitigated. Also, when developers are required to perform an environmen-
tal impact study, they might be more conscious of the projects intended and unin-
tended effects on natural ecosystem functions.
Strategies
Include a requirement for environmental impact statements in the municipal code.
This regulation can be more stringent than state and federal laws and, therefore, can
reduce the time and money needed to produce several different reports. Some munic-
ipalities require fees for adverse environmental impacts.
Supporting Literature
Information on preparing an Environmental Impact Statement. The Concord
Consortium. Concord, MA. URL: http://www.concord.org/~barbara/guide/impact/,
accessed October, 2003.
Examples
Barnstable County, MA. Environmental Impact Fee Regulations. U.S. EPA.
Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.
cfm?policyid=139, accessed October, 2003.
City of Beacon, NY. Environmental Impact Statement requirement. URL: http://
www.cityofbeacon.org/Beacon/BeaconCharter.htm, accessed October, 2003.
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Natural Resources
Recommendation
Adopt individual ordinances to protect natural resources.
Rationale
When a town has identied and highlighted signicant local natural resources, it can
employ specic ordinances to protect these areas.
Strategies
Use overlay zones or separate ordinances to protect natural resources such as aquifers,
wetlands, ridgelines, scenic areas, trees, beaches, mountains, etc.
Examples/Tools
Nolon J. 2001. Preserving Natural Resources Through Local Environmental
Laws: A Guidebook for Local Governments. Land Use Law Center. Pace
University School of Law. White Plains, NY: 78-337. Contains a collection of
sample natural resource protection ordinances.
Examples of Open Space and Natural Resource Protection Ordinances
Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission. Municipal Natural Resource
Protection Tools. URL: http://www.dvrpc.org/planning/Protection%20
Tools/ordinances.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Newton, MA. Tree preservation. URL: http://www.ci.newton.ma.us/trees/
052003.htm,accessed October, 2003.
Mashpee, MA. Wetlands protection. URL: http://www.ci.mashpee.ma.us/
departments/conservation/wetinfo.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Gloucester, MA. Watershed Protection Overlay Zone. URL: http://www.ci.
gloucester.ma.us/comdev/zord-part5.pdf, accessed October, 2003.
Fitchburg, MA. Stormwater and Erosion Control. URL: http://www.ci.
tchburg.ma.us/dstreb/conservationord.pdf, accessed October, 2003.
Newport, RI. Open Space District. URL: http://www.riedc.com/mcds/
rimcdrame.html, accessed October, 2003.
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Quick Fixes: Floating Zones
Recommendation
Use Floating Zones to promote a particular land use.
Rationale
Floating zones can be used on any parcel of land that meets specied requirements,
and they act as separate small zoning districts. Therefore, they can be used to promote
a particular type of land use, such as the type of natural development specied in the
LAND Code.
Strategies
Floating zones can be added to a towns zoning code and they apply to special types
of land use, such as mixed-use development, waterfront development, or green devel-
opment projects. For example, a oating zone could be established for any develop-
ment project that contains the principles specied in the LAND Code. These zones
can override existing zoning and subdivision regulations.
Examples/Tools
Pace University School of Law. Local Land Use Law Center. Floating Zones web-
site. URL: http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/boatin.html, accessed October,
2003.
Murphy M. and Stinson J. 1996. Pace University School of Law. Land Use Law
Center. URL: http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/zone.html, accessed
October, 2003.
Examples of Floating Zones
City of Beacon, NY. Waterfront Development Zone. URL: http://www.cityof
beacon.org/Beacon/BeaconCharter.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Encourages the natural development practices suggested in the LAND Code.
Town of Ames, IA. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://
cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=103, accessed October, 2003.
Montgomery County, MD. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL:
http://cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=329, accessed October, 2003.
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Development Rights
Recommendation
Allow for Transfer of Development Rights (TDR).
Rationale
Sensitive environmental areas can be protected by transferring development rights
from those locations to areas more suitable for growth.
Strategies
Municipalities can adopt an ordinance that allows for the transfer of development
rights from one zoning district to another. This legislation establishes the sending
areas (areas to be protected) and receiving areas (areas that can accommodate higher
development density). Property owners in sending areas can sell their development
rights, and then developers who purchase those rights can increase development den-
sities in designated receiving areas.
Supporting Literature
Examples of Development Right Transfers
Boulder County, CO. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://
cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=377, accessed October, 2003.
Calvert County, MD. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://
cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=283, accessed October, 2003.
Central Pine Barrens, Long Island, NY. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database.
URL: http://cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=292, accessed
October, 2003.
Chester County, PA. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://
cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=296, accessed October, 2003.
Montgomery County, MD. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL:
http://cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=302, accessed October, 2003.
San Luis Obispo County, CA. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL:
http://cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=266, accessed October, 2003
South Burlington, VT. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://
cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=300, accessed October, 2003.
Thurston County, WA. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://
cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=378, accessed October, 2003.
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Incentives
Recommendation
Provide incentives for developers to undertake natural development projects
within the municipality.
Rationale
Towns that reduce the amount of time and money it takes for developers to go
through the permitting process in exchange for meeting certain environmental
requirements will benet from increased natural development.
Strategies
Develop a fast-tracking program to reduce the time and money needed from devel-
opers to go through the local permitting process. In exchange, developers would have
to prove that their developments meet certain specied criteria, such as those pre-
sented in the LAND Code.
Supporting Literature
NJ Department of Environmental Protection. Silver and Gold Track Program for
Environmental Performance. Guidance Document. URL: http://www.
state.nj.us/dep/special/silver/fulldoc.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Project Excellence and Leadership (XL). U.S. EPA. Ofce of Policy, Economics,
and Innovation. URL: http://www.epa.gov/ProjectXL/, accessed October,
2003. Allows state and local governments, businesses and federal facilities to
develop innovative strategies to test methods of environmental and public
health protection. In exchange, EPA allows regulatory, program, policy, or
procedural exibilities to conduct the experiment.
Redevelopment of Atlanta Steel property in Atlanta, GA. U.S. EPA. Smart
Growth Policy Database. URL: http://cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?poli-
cyid=623, accessed October, 2003.
References for Municipalities
Barnett J. 2001. Regional design: Local codes as cause and cure of sprawl.
Planning for a New Century. Island Press. Washington, D.C.
Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicot City, MD. URL: http://www.cwp.org,
accessed October, 2003.
Municipal Code Corporation. Municipal Ordinance Retrieval Site. URL: http://
www.municode.com/Resources/online_codes.asp, accessed October, 2003.
National Association of Counties. County Code and Ordinance Search. URL:
http://www.naco.org/Content/NavigationMenu/About_Counties/Codes_and
_Ordinances/Codes_and_Ordinances.htm, accessed October, 2003.
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New York State Legislative Commission on Rural Resources. 1995. Local Planning
and Zoning Zurvey: New York State Cities, Cowns and Villages. Second
Edition. Legislative Ofce Building, Albany, N.Y. 12247; (518) 426-6960.
Nolon J., Ed. 2002. New Ground: The Advent of Local Environmental Law.
Environmental Law Institute, 2002. URL: http://www.pace.edu/lawschool/
landuse/, accessed October, 2003.
Nolon J. 2002. Open Ground: Effective Local Strategies for Protecting Natural
Resources. Environmental Law Institute. URL: http://www.pace.edu/
lawschool/landuse/, accessed October, 2003.
Nolon J. 2001. Well Grounded: Using Local and Land Use Authority to Achieve
Smart Growth. Environmental Law Institute. URL: http://www.pace.edu/
lawschool/landuse/, accessed October, 2003.
Nolon J. 2002. In Praise of Parochialism: The Advent of Local Environmental
Law. Harvard Environmental Law Review. Available at http://www.pace.
edu/lawschool/landuse/, accessed October, 2003.
Nolon J. 2002. Discovering Local Environmental Law. Zoning and Planning Law
Report. URL: http://www.pace.edu/lawschool/landuse/, accessed October, 2003.
Nolon J. 1998. Flexibility in the Law: The Re-engineering of Zoning to Prevent
Fragmented Landscapes. New York Law Journal. URL: http://www.law.pace.
edu/landuse/reengine.html, accessed October, 2003.
Pace University School of Law. Land Use Law Center. URL: http://www.pace.
edu/lawschool/landuse/, accessed October, 2003.
Smart Growth America. URL: http://www.smartgrowthamerica.com/links_
states.html, accessed October, 2003.
U.S. EPA. Browneld Cleanup and Redevelopment Program. URL: http://www.
epa.gov/brownelds, accessed October, 2003.
U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/
browse.cfm, accessed October, 2003.
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Community Relations
Recommendation
Build personal relationships with community members.
Rationale
The face of local law is made up of individual citizens and policy-makers. Therefore,
personal relationships and effective communication can encourage more exible
interpretation or adaptation of local regulations if common goals are identied.
Strategies
At the beginning of the planning stage, prepare a sketch of the potential development,
a brief statement of principles, and a list of environmental and economic benets.
This is also an excellent time to seek out partnerships with environmental organiza-
tions and other community groups (as recommended in the economics section).
Another strategy for both building community support and exploring how the devel-
opment can more closely meet the needs of the community is through a charrette, an
intense multi-disciplinary workshop designed to facilitate discussions between stake-
holders of a development project.
Supporting Literature
Arendt R. 1999. Growing Greener: Putting Conservation into Local Plans and
Ordinances. Island Press. Washington, D.C. Includes guidelines for design-
ing and promoting conservation subdivsions.
Charrette Center, Inc. Design Consulting and Information Services for New
Urbanism. URL: http://www.charrettecenter.com/, accessed October, 2003.
A detailed list of the stages and roles of the charrette process.
National Charrette Institute. URL: http://www.nationalcharretteinstitute.org/,
accessed October, 2003. Training materials, case studies and resources.
University of Louisville, KY. Sustainable Urban Neighborhoods Program. The
Neighborhood Charrette Handbook. URL: http://www.louisville.edu/
org/sun/planning/char.html, October, 2003.
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Education
Recommendation
Be prepared to educate.
Rationale
Green development practices are often perceived as risky and untested, and are thus
avoided. The rst step of an innovative project involves educating town ofcials and
community members.
Strategies
Educational strategies range from advertising through the mass media, to meeting
with schools and community groups, or screening anti-sprawl documentaries at the
local independent movie theater. The LAND Code can also serve as an excellent edu-
cational tool, as each recommendation includes citations of the latest academic
research and professional experience supporting the claim. In addition, a one-page
fact sheet on natural development with a list of the developers experience in green
design should be circulated in the community. The ultimate educational strategy cho-
sen should be based on the resources and time available for education and the resist-
ance to the project you perceive in the community.
Supporting Literature
There are numerous sources for information on environmentally responsible land
development. Many of the following have detailed examples and case studies of suc-
cessful projects.
Documentaries
Paving the American Dream: Southern Cities, Shores and Sprawl. URL:
http://www.uncwil.edu/smartgrowth/, accessed October, 2003.
Save Our Land, Save Our Towns, URL: http://www.saveourlandsaveourtowns.
org/, accessed October, 2003.
Subdivide and Conquer: A Modern Western. URL: http://www.subdividelm.
com/, accessed October, 2003.
The Sprawling of America: Inner City Blues. URL: http://www.gltv.org/, accessed
October, 2003.
Books
Duany A., Speck J., and Plater-Zyberk E. 2002. Smart Growth Manual. McGraw-
Hill Professional Publishing.
Duany A., Speck J., and Plater-Zyberk E. 2000. Suburban Nation: The Rise of
Sprawl and the Decline of the American Dream. North Point Press.
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Hall K. and Portereld G. 2001. Community by Design: New Urbanism for
Suburbs and Small Communities. McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing.
Kay J. 1998. Asphalt Nation: How the Automobile Took Over America, and How
We Can Take It Back. University of California Press.
Kunstler J. 1994. The Geography of Nowhere: The Rise and Decline of Americas
Man-Made Landscape. Touchstone Books.
Websites
Congress for New Urbanism. URL: http://www.cnu.org/index.cfm, accessed
October, 2003. An organization founded by architects promoting livable
communities and participatory design.
Smart Growth America. URL: http://smartgrowthamerica.org/, accessed
October, 2003.
U.S. EPA. Smart Growth website. URL: http://www.epa.gov/livability/, accessed
October, 2003.
United States Green Building Council (USGBC). Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating System. URL:
http://www.usgbc.org/LEED/LEED_main.asp, accessed October, 2003.
Municipal Codes
Recommendation
Take a close look at municipal codes during the initial planning stages.
Rationale
Undertaking a comprehensive study of the municipalitys code will save time and
money in the long run by enabling developers to anticipate potential problem areas
and come up with solutions.
Strategies
Thoroughly read all of the towns laws and locate all areas that would potentially
affect the green development project. Pay careful attention to things like minimum
road widths, wetland and watercourse buffers, road curb and pavement require-
ments, storm-water treatment requirements, parking lot specications, etc. If vari-
ances are needed, try to bundle them together and apply for all at the same time to
expedite the permitting process.
Examples/Tools
See the rst assessment recommendation for municipalities for more information on
auditing local laws. Particularly useful may be the Codes and Ordinances work-
sheet on the Center for Watershed Protections website, available at URL:
http://www.cwp.org/COW_worksheet.htm, accessed October, 2003.
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The LAND Code:
*
Approaches to
Green Development Saving
Time and Money
recommendations Page
Partnerships 141
Beacon Landing Partnership, Beacon, New York 142
The Civano Project, Tucson, Arizona 144
Builders for the Bay, Maryland 145
Fast Track Approvals 146
Tax Credits, State and Corporate Grants 147
Site Selection 149
Brownelds Development 149
Inll Development 150
Greeneld Development 151
Site Assessment 153
Site Planning and Design 154
Materials Selection 154
Permeable Surfacing Materials 154
Drainage System 155
Sustainable Drainage System (SUDS) 155
Landscape Design 155
Natural Landscape Design 155
Engineered Landscape Design 156
Site Construction 158
Construction Waste and Recycling 158
Site Promotion and Education 159
Future Considerations 160
Non-Point Source Pollution Trading 160
balmori and benoit
yale school of forestry & environmental studies
139
* The LAND (Land and
Natural Development) Code
lays out steps through
which to achieve
sustainable development of
land of many types,
whether rural or urban. It
was created by a joint
group of Yale School of
Forestry & Environmental
Studies and Yale School of
Architecture faculty and
students for use by town
officials, developers,
architects, engineers and
interested individuals.
Whenever possible, each
chapter is composed of a
series of comparable rec-
ommendations, each fol-
lowing the same format: 1)
the recommendation, 2)
benefits, both for the envi-
ronment and in fostering
cheaper and faster develop-
ment, 3) strategies to
achieve the recommended
goals (since sites vary enor-
mously, several alternatives
are provided whenever pos-
sible, listed in order of pref-
erence) 4) literature cita-
tions that provide the sci-
entific basis for the recom-
mendations, and can be
consulted for further
details.
introduction
It is a general misconception that investing in the environment is a nancial drain and
that the impetus for doing so is to simply fulll regulations. To the contrary, investing
in environmental technology has numerous benets including increasing real estate
asset values. (Trevisani 1998) Innovest Strategic Value Advisors, a research rm based
in New York, Toronto, and London created a ranking system EcoValue 21 which
ranks companies based on 62 variables within each industrial sector for relative eco-
efciency. The concept is that companies with superior management of environ-
mental issues often outperform their competitors in general and are rewarded by the
market.
For example, in an analysis by Innovest of 12 companies in the real-estate sector
between June 2000 June 2002, companies in the real-estate sector with above aver-
age energy management performance outperformed the below average companies by
over 3,400 basis points in the stock market. In addition, stock market performance of
companies participating in EPAs Energy Star program outperformed non-partici-
pants by over 1,200 basis points during the same period (June 2000-June 2002).
Supporting Literature
Blank H. and Carty C. 2002. The Eco-Efciency Anomaly. Quantitative
Evaluation and Development International Associates, Inc. New York, NY.
URL: www.QedInternational.com, accessed October, 2003.
Innovest Strategic Value Advisors. October 2002. Energy Management &
Investor Returns: The Real Estate Sector.
Trevisani C. 1998. The Effects of Environmental Technology on Real Estate
Development How to Increase Asset Value Through the Implementation
of Environmental Technology. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
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yale school of forestry & environmental studies
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balmori and benoit
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Partnerships
The formation of public-private partnerships is a potential mechanism that can be
used to nance green development projects. Public dollars can be obtained for devel-
opment projects that provide public benets. Partnerships between environmentally
conscious non-prot organizations can also aid in the nancing of green development
through tax avoidance vehicles, donations, and infrastructure development. (Rocky
Mountain Institute (RMI) 1998) Additional advantages include benets in the form of
preferred nancing by lending institutions, expertise related to local and/or environ-
mental matters, and increased public support of the development. See examples in
following pages.
Example
Beacon Landing
A partnership between Scenic Hudson Inc. (nonprot environmental organiza-
tion), Ned Foss of CGI & Partners (a for-prot development group) and the City
of Beacon, New York, enables 23 acres of waterfront land to be developed into an
ecologically sound yet economically feasible green hotel, marina and waterfront
park. Scenic Hudson Inc.s mission to protect and enhance the scenic, natural, his-
toric, agricultural and recreational treasures of the Hudson River and its valley has
attracted Ned Fosss for-prot development group to satisfy their overlapping
goals. Scenic Hudson Inc. owns the 23-acre site and is nalizing a 99-year land lease
with the development group. In addition to stimulating Beacons economic devel-
opment, the partnership will yield city tax revenue and provide waterfront open
space and river access to Beacon residents.
Major Partners
Scenic Hudson Inc. and Ned Foss, CGI & Partners
Project Cost
Approximately $30 million for land acquisition, environmental resource assess-
ments, community planning, and construction of a 90-room hotel and incidental
facilities (160,000 square feet of building on several levels with built space covering
two acres) (Linder 2003). The majority of site area will be parkland (Wolf 2002).
Economic Benefits of the Partnership
Beacon Landing site plans are coordinated and endorsed by Scenic Hudson
Inc., which reduces the City of Beacons fear of greenwashing by the devel-
oper. Enhanced local public support and reduced opposition for the green
developer as Scenic Hudsons involvement has set the table for a ground
breaking environmentally responsive project.
Scenic Hudson invested signicantly on the front end of the process before
the developer was selected. They assembled the site, held it, and voluntar-
ily left the property on the tax rolls. The developers purchase and holding
costs were eliminated.
Scenic Hudson retains the land and the prestige to seek public funds for
environmental projects as solar energy systems and waterfront redevel-
opment proposals for Beacon Landing receive hundreds of thousands of
dollars from New York State energy and environmental protection grants
(Ofce of the Governor of NY 2003). Developer benets from cost sav-
ings from grant money, which further enhances the green projects like-
lihood of nancial success.
Some initial site planning and all site remediation have been paid for by
Scenic Hudson Inc. All subsequent community based review will be paid
by the developer. Developer accrues cost savings and time savings as less
capital is used by the developer for site study.
Economic Hurdles faced by the Partnership
The developer lost some prot from the imposition of a lower density
project by Scenic Hudson compared to what was allowable by zoning.
However, the protability of the hotel market for the region could cover
the lower density prot trade-off. Green development has long-term prof-
itability and as a result the payback of the green investment is sometimes
slower than other types of investment under current market conditions.
Supporting Literature
Berger C. and Johnstone Q. 1993. Land Transfer and Finance: Cases and
Materials, 4th ed., Aspen Publishers, Inc.
Linder L. 2003. American Institute of Architects (AIA) Development Partner
of Longdock at Beacon. Personal Communication. April 23, 2003.
Ofce of the Governor of New York. Press Release. March 26, 2001. Governor:
$1.8 million for Mid-Hudson parks, preservation
Polgreen L. April 22, 2003. City on Hudson adds a jewel: River research. New
York Times. Sect. B p.9.
Rocky Mountain Institute.1998. Green Development: Integrating Ecology and
Real Estate. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, NY.
Scenic Hudson. URL: www.scenichudson.org/, accessed October, 2003.
Wolf, C. August 18, 2002. Vistas to circle green hotel. Poughkeepsie Journal.
the land code: approaches to green development
yale school of forestry & environmental studies
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Example
The Civano Project
The Civano Project, a 916-acre sustainable urban village in Tucson, Arizona, was
initially a partnership between Case Enterprises and the Trust for Sustainable
Development based in British Columbia. Ultimately, Case Enterprises bought out
the Trusts shares of the project and formed a partnership with the City of Tucson
for risk sharing and some nancial support. This partnership alleviated some of the
developers concerns, primarily, that building conservation-oriented structures
would price themselves out of Tucsons sprawling suburban market by directing
growth to specic locations (RMI 1998).
Major Partners
Case Enterprises, Trust for Sustainable Development (initial partner), and the City
of Tucson, Arizona.
Project Cost
Approximately $2.3 million for land, $30 million for site development, $400 mil-
lion for construction costs of which $38 million will be nanced through munici-
pal bonds issued by the City for infrastructure. The City will also spend $4 million
in future general obligation bonds for parks and recreation and an additional $3
million for other infrastructure improvements (RMI 1998).
Economic Benefits of the Partnership
The City of Tucson, as a nancial and political partner of the project, is able
to reduce high future infrastructure costs of sprawling development, saving
$500,000 annually, while proactively direct[ing] growth into high-density,
clustered development in areas where growth is already occurring. (RMI
1998) The developer does not need to spend time convincing lending institu-
tions of the benets of compact development, as the City is a major lending
partner. The project also benets from a low interest rate on tax-exempt
nancing. Additionally, up to 10 percent of the Civano projects prots will be
placed into a fund for sustainability research on Tucson and the region (RMI
1998). This research could enhance the regions efcient use of resources, pro-
viding additional infrastructure and energy savings for the city.
Economic Hurdles Faced by the Partnership
This common ground approach signicantly reduces the costs of lobby and
litigation for both environment and development groups and enables com-
munity needs to become more of a focus of the development process. Jointly
supported recommendations provide signicant time savings for the devel-
oper due to minimal environmental and community opposition. The up-
front participation of the NAHB has made local building associations more
willing to participate. Ultimately, this consensus-development with commu-
nity support will minimize the longer-term environmental damages to the
Chesapeake Bay shery, water quality, and recreation opportunities.
Economic Hurdles faced by the Partnership