Assignment No: 1 In this 1st chapter we read about the language and its form and function.

Language is used for communication, and the main function of communication between the people is a language. But we take a language as a tool and its main function is communication, but has some other uses as well, like-wise also language people can also be communicated e.g.: Sign languages (used for the deaf), facial expressions and styles of dresses also help people to communicate with no one another, but no one can call as languages. And as a tool, a language has form with its function; the form/structure of a language can be understood in terms of its basic function. There is a Form-Function composite in language which consists of symbols like words (linguistic forms) which are used to mean or refer our concept and also called as signifier that signifies a concept of something. A word itself is just a sound, but that intentionally spoken sound gives perception to receiver who gains a signified concept of that form/structure of sound. So it is assumed that the bond/relation between the form and signified concept is intentional, in general, speakers use linguistic forms to present concept to be communicated. And the relation between signifier and signified the concept is Form-Function composite. As we know that a language has its uncountable symbols and sounds, and people shape them according to their communicative needs daily. The words are inter-related parts of language those express the infinite number of ideas of speaker. And that skill of speaker is basically a creativity to shape imagination of speaker. But a question arises that how a limited mind could expresses the never-ending number of ideas and the answer of that finite input and infinite output is called as recursion. As a linguist Grammar is defined as a knowledge that a speaker of a language knows consciously or unconsciously, in other sense the grammar is a ability of a fluent speaker to distinguish between a sentence and a non-sentence most of the people use their grammar without thinking about it, they just use their Tacit. So it does not mean that the grammar is a sort of the book containing a detailed statement of any rules, but it only means that anybody who speaks or writes acceptable sentences in a language knows as its grammar. And grammar deals with the phonetics, morphology, syntax and semantics of a language. Morpho-syntax deals with the study that how the sounds which are systematically organized in a particular language combine to form words and sentences. The term morph-

syntax derived from two words Morphology and Syntax. Morphology means the study of forms/structure of words and syntax means the arrangement of words in phrase or sentence. Many linguists like to talk about morphology and syntax together is that sometimes a communicative job that is performed by word shapes morphology in one language is performed by combinations of words syntax in another, so if the linguists want to compare different languages it helps to be able to refer morph-syntax. We have described to sub-headings within the general domain of grammar in any language, the morphology and syntax. We have observed the communicational jobs that are accomplished morphologically in one language can be accomplished syntactically in another. There is another sub-heading and that is a Lexicon. Different linguistic theories have vastly different ideas for Lexicon of a language. In the broad sense, the Lexicon of a language consists of a list of all units in that language. Units in Lexicon are just images; they are not actual words, phrases, or sentences, but rather mental picture that can be thought-up from memory when needed for the purpose of producing actual words. Sometimes these pictures are referred as templates, and such units are called Lexicon entries. The lexicon entry for a linguistic unit consists of a cluster of all its characteristics. The term entry is based on the metaphor of the Lexicon as a mental dictionary. As we discussed before that the morphology is the study about the forms of words and those forms of words which give meaning are called as Morphemes. Morpheme is a minimal shape or piece that expresses meaning. For example a English word unkind contains two morphemes one is kind means generous and un shows its opposite of generous. The word kind cannot be divided into smaller meaningful pieces therefore kind is a morpheme (minimal shape). In most situations this definition works fine, however more current theories acknowledge that fact that particular meanings are not necessarily or directly linked to particular piece of form. Other problems with traditional definition of a morpheme such fact includes that

the meaning contributed by a morpheme may vary depending on other morpheme in the word, and whole message may be more, less than or simply different from the sum of the meanings of all morphemes in the message. For these reasons, it is appropriate to think of morphology as an established system of variations in the shapes of words rather than simply strings of meaningful piece.

Here are some types of morphemes, a bound morpheme and a free morpheme. Bound morpheme is a morpheme that must be attached to some other morphemes in order to be used naturally in discourse. Bound morphemes can affixes, roots. And free morpheme does not have to attach to some other form. As shown in above referred unkind example. Bound and free morphemes have further division; a bound morpheme may be in the form of prefix, suffix or inffix. These three are regarded with attachment of bound morpheme with root. Prefix comes before root, suffix comes after root, in unbelievable, in this un- is prefix and able is suffix of root believe. Now some little idea about root and stem, a root is morpheme that expresses the basic meaning of a word and cannot be further divided into smaller morphemes, we can say that a root is a free morpheme. And a stem may consist on just root or it may also be analyzed into a root plus derivational morphemes. Derivational morphemes may have some meaning as roots but these are not alone stand as complete word as re or un etc words in English. Inflectional are only present pronunciation, which also change the meaning as shown in above examples s is only inflectional morpheme. After all these processes we finally move toward stage. A word is a difficult concept to define. Word is the smallest structural pattern that can be delimited by pauses. Words may contain one or more morphemes, free morphemes can be words dog, but not all words are free morphemes, they may be morphologically complex (dogs). A prototype is the best example for the category for most English speakers a sparrow is probably close to the prototype for the category of Bird. Penguins in Turkey are treated also as a bird but they are not the best examples of this category. So, they are not normally the first thing that comes to an English speakers mind when someone mentions the word bird. In linguistics most definitions are based on prototypes. Nouns and verbs are

prototype definitions, and these not changed over time, these are best examples of prototype. But here are many nouns that refer to things that do change significantly over time, such as sincerity, first or explosion. We know these are nouns because they have many grammatically properties or prototypical nouns, and few of the grammatically properties of prototypical words. The concept of prototypical is important at many levels of linguistic analysis. SUMMARY ON CHAPTER # 02 In second chapter we learn about some morphological processes and conceptual categories. We all know about language problems of labeling, so each language categorizes the universe in its own unique way, and each individual person categorizes the universe in his own

unique way, whether we are speaking the same language or not, as for example for labeling of past actions Spanish language has two past tenses, so, different endings on the Spanish verb categories the word differently then the tenses in English do, therefore English speakers must reconceptualize or re-organize their native categorization concept in order to become fluent speaker of Spanish. This example from Spanish clears that how categorization varies from language to language. And you can find out similar examples in Lexicon, Grammar and patterns of conversations. In a conceptual category a particular element of meaning must determine some pattern of grammatical (Lexicon, Morphological, or Syntactic) expression. Here an expectation that verbs in English can be tweaked Morphologically like in inflectional (ed) morpheme in past, if the event described happened prior to time the verb is uttered, therefore past tense is conceptual category in English, but location driver is not a category that is relevant to English grammar is that there is no regular exception that clause involve grammatical indication that an action happens downriver of the place of speaking .a large selection of the important conceptual categories known to exist in the worlds languages as well as the ways in which they are characteristically expressed .these conceptual categories are based on limited evidence. Here linguists make hypothesis regarding conceptual categories, they stand back and make an educated guess about the general function of any grammatical pattern based on evidence from the clear observation of native speakers .in a real field situation the linguist would want to select many forms form several speakers and observe how forms are used in natural discourse, these conceptual categories are truly relevant to native speaker, the actual term uses one chooses to label a category in important but choosing a term is not necessary analytically discussion in and of itself, rather it is a pedagogical decision .so a conceptual category may be so unusual that it needs a new term. There is complete continuum between conceptual category and easy to label and that are unusual that new labels need to be invented for them. For example plural and past tense are clearly distinguished conceptual categories in languages though even those can be problematic on the other hand end of the continuum every language has grammatical patterns that defy a straightforward and functional label, therefore linguists always strive for a balance between exclusivity and communicatively in the way they gloss and represent language data

labels for conceptual categories should be insightfully familiar but not overly particular so, we can summarize conceptual categories as: 1::A conceptual category exists when there is an expectation of patterned behavior, a recurring relationship between variation and variation in form. 2::Conceptual category labels are interpretations designed to help readers of a grammatical description understand and remember the function of particular structure. Here two other sub-categories discussed under the heading of conceptual categories: i- Derivational categories ii- Inflectional categories. Languages often exhibit an important contrast between inflection and derivation. This distinction is understood as a difference between types of morphological or lexical expression. It is not often applied to syntactic constructions. Usage of the term derivation is distinct from Morphophonemic Derivation which is quite a different notion, there is also a continuum between inflection and derivation. The difference between inflection and derivation is best characterized in terms of prototype and clusters of features that tend together. Prototypical derivational categories create new stems. Usually the new stems created by a derivational category belong to a different word clause than the stem that is the basis of the derivation and sometimes the derivational category just significantly changes the meaning of the base stem. Inflectional categories, on the other hand, do not change the word clauses, and do not adjust the meaning of roots in major ways. They simply add some important information that may be required by the syntactic or situational context. Now lets discuss about the Big Ten Morphological processes which help to patternize the change made with words. 1Prefixation:Prefixation involves the addition of a morpheme (a prefix) to the

beginning of a root in English the morpheme un- is a kind of prefix, often languages allow several prefixes to be attached tone root, an example of this in English would be a word like anti-disestablishment, in this word two prefixes anti, and dis, attached. Other examples, selfishunselfish ect.

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Suffixation:- Suffixation involves the addition of a morpheme (a suffix) to the end of the root. In English, the past tense is often expressed with a suffix spelled ed as in called. Other examples of suffix also possible rather then past tense. As establishments in this ment or -s are suffixes.

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Infixation:- Infixation involves that the addition of morpheme (an affix) in the middle of a root, in English the use of infix is very seldom.

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Circumfixation:-

Circumfixation is rare morphologic process in which one

morpheme has two parts, one that appears before the root and another after the root. Examples from Chukchee, a chukchee, a chutotko-kamchatkn language spoken in Northeastern Siberia, Russia. Some examples are given below; 1. Jatjol 2. Cakett 5fox ---- a-jatjol-ka (without a fox) sister-- a-cakett-ke (without a sister) Stem modification is a change in shape that does not

Stem Modification:-

involve the addition of any affix. The difference in form between sing song in English can not be called infixation because there is no specific form that has been added to the root. Rather the root vowel has just changed into something else. This also adopted in other languages too. 6- AUTOSEGMENTAL VARIATION: - This is a change in shape that does not involve consonants and vowels. Rather, it consists of adjustments in features such as STRESS, TONE, and NASALIZATION. The best example of auto segmental variation as a morphological process in English is the difference between some nouns and verbs that is signaled by nothing but a change in stress, as in the above example. This difference is not indicated in the regular English spelling system, so I have placed a stress mark in these words to highlight the difference between convert (a verb) and convert (a related noun).

7- Reduplication XE "reduplication":- It involves the repetition of part or all of a root. Plurality in Ilokano (another Austronesian language spoken in the Philippines) is expressed by reduplicating the first syllable of the root, as in the above example.

8- NON-CONCATENATIVE MORPHOLOGY:- This is common in Semitic languages, such as Hebrew and Arabic, but rare elsewhere. It involves superimposing a pattern of vowels, and possibly other morphological pieces, on a root that consists only of consonants. For example, 20 illustrate a few of the verb forms for the root, ktb in Biblical Hebrew. This root can never be pronounced on its own, but must appear in an inflected form (examples courtesy of David Andersen, as cited in van der Merwe, et al. 1999).

9- SUBTRACTIVE MORPHOLOGY: - This is another quite rare process, whereby one or more segments are omitted from a word in order to express a particular conceptual category. Murle (along with several other Nilo-Saharan languages of East Africa) is one of the few languages of the world that illustrate true subtractive morphology. In each of the Murle examples above, the stem-final consonant is omitted in order to form the plural. One has to be careful to distinguish subtractive morphology from simple zero realization of certain categories, especially when those categories have overt marking in another language the linguist is familiar with.

9- COMPOUNDING: - involves combining roots to form new stems. In the English example above, it is impossible to identify one part as the root and the other as an affix. Black and bird are both roots that clump together morphologically to form a stem. The new stem, blackbird, expresses an idea that is more than simply the combination of the meanings of the two roots this word does not refer to any bird that happens to be black, but rather to a specific species of bird. Even though this word is formed out of two roots, it functions just like other noun stems in the language.

Now we will discuss about methods for representing morphological processes. Many of the grammatical patterns in language may be expressed in ordinary prose. When we analyze morph syntactic, it is very important to explicit and sometimes grammatical patterns are so complex that explicit prose statements become difficult to follow. In these cases linguists have found it useful to employ various notational systems. Therefore, prose statements are often the most communicative way of expressing the facts about grammatical structure. The second method is a variation on a general approach to morphological structure that is called The Item and Arrangement model. It can be very useful for describing languages that tend to have lot of

morphemes per word, especially if the morphemes tend to fall into well defined sets of paradigms. Every linguist needs to be familiar with this method, at least as a beginning point for a full morph syntactic analysis of a language. Here are some steps to analyze those processing methods. There are, Isolate the roots means the expectations with similarity of meaning, to corelate with similarity in form Estimate the affix positions in this, material to the left and the right of these roots, we suspect that there are prefixes and suffixes. Begin to analyze prefixes, there are two prefix positions, since these kinds of prefixes are likely to be grammatical morphemes. Analyze the suffixes, the difference between most honored sir and most very honored sir, since there is some commonality. Label the Columns positions in highly

morphological structures tend to be associated with particular sets of conceptual categories, for example, verbs in a highly morphological language have one position for tense, other for aspect and for the person and number of the subject.

Some processes rules also additional for those methods. A process rule is a representation that describes relationship between the various shapes of words as though they were changing that the word undergoes. In this, all rules may gloss, which help for the formation of words in any language, like that how in English a verb changes its tense due to its inflectional morpheme and how plurality formats by inflectional morphemes. These all are also discussed in conceptual categories, a conceptual category exists when there is an expectation of patterned behavior a consistent relationship between variation in form and variation in function. In Conceptual category labels (or "glosses") are interpretations designed to help readers of a

grammatical description understand and remember the functions of particular grammatical constructions or units such as words, roots and affixes, the way of all these categories to change the form of words are processes or rules.