Downhole Environmental Risks Associated with Drilling and Well Completion Practices in the Cooper/Eromanga Basins

Damien Mavroudis

March 2001

Report Book 2001/00009

 Department of Primary Industries and Resources South Australia This report is subject to copyright. Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part may be reproduced without written permission of the Chief Executive of Primary Industries and Resources South Australia.

CONTENTS
Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................................................6 Abstract .............................................................................................................................................................7 Executive summary ..........................................................................................................................................7 Drilling fluid impacts ....................................................................................................................................7 Effectiveness of cementing for zonal isolation .............................................................................................7 Section One: Drilling fluids .............................................................................................................................8 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................8 Mechanisms of drilling fluid filtration.....................................................................................................8 Filtration control materials and techniques..............................................................................................9 Bacterial contamination ..............................................................................................................................10 Drilling fluid contaminants .........................................................................................................................12 Mud recap reports ..................................................................................................................................12 Clay swelling..........................................................................................................................................15 Conclusion...................................................................................................................................................15 Recommendations .......................................................................................................................................16 Section Two: Cements....................................................................................................................................17 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................17 Annular gas migration............................................................................................................................17 Purpose of cementing..................................................................................................................................18 Primary cementing .................................................................................................................................18 Problems arising from poor primary cementing ....................................................................................18 Applications of API Cementing .............................................................................................................20 Current cementing practices...................................................................................................................21 Cement failure mechanisms ........................................................................................................................21 Carbon dioxide effects on cement in well..............................................................................................21 Migration of gas through cement pore structure....................................................................................22 Casing problem as part of the downhole risk study ...............................................................................23 High temperature chemistry of Portland cement ...................................................................................25 Case history............................................................................................................................................27 Microannular formation in cements.......................................................................................................27 Mechanism of shrinkage and expansion ................................................................................................27 Long-term leaking oil wells ...................................................................................................................28 Mud cake removal for cementing job ....................................................................................................28 Remedial cementing....................................................................................................................................29 Applications of the squeeze cement job.................................................................................................30 Cement plugs..........................................................................................................................................32 Reasons for cement plug failure.............................................................................................................32 Testing the quality of cement jobs ..............................................................................................................34 Hydraulic testing ....................................................................................................................................34 Temperature logging ..............................................................................................................................35 Communication tester ............................................................................................................................35 Noise logging .........................................................................................................................................35 Acoustic logging ....................................................................................................................................35 Cement bond log ....................................................................................................................................35 Limitations of cement bond log .............................................................................................................39 Cement evaluation tool ..........................................................................................................................39 Acoustic properties of cement ...............................................................................................................39 Channels.................................................................................................................................................41 Fast formations.......................................................................................................................................41
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Preventative techniques...............................................................................................................................41 Prevention of gas migration ...................................................................................................................41 Use of foamed cement............................................................................................................................41 Foamed cement limitations ....................................................................................................................43 Displacement properties of foamed cement...........................................................................................43 Use of flexible cements..........................................................................................................................43 Comparison of foam and flexible cements ............................................................................................43 Durable zonal isolation (new cements)..................................................................................................44 Downhole corrosion prevention.............................................................................................................45 Corrosive agents.....................................................................................................................................45 Prevention methods................................................................................................................................46 Corrosion testing....................................................................................................................................46 Conclusion...................................................................................................................................................47 Monitoring well integrity.......................................................................................................................47 Cement time-scale..................................................................................................................................48 Fluid loss ................................................................................................................................................48 Recommendations .......................................................................................................................................48 Appendix 1 ......................................................................................................................................................50 Appendix 2 ......................................................................................................................................................53 Appendix 3 ......................................................................................................................................................55 Appendix 4 ......................................................................................................................................................56 Appendix 5 ......................................................................................................................................................61 Appendix 6 ......................................................................................................................................................64 Appendix 7 ......................................................................................................................................................66 Appendix 8 ......................................................................................................................................................67 References .......................................................................................................................................................68

FIGURES
1 2 3 4a 4b 4c 4d 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 The effect of drilling fluid invasion on a permeable formation...............................................................9 Structure of the CMC polymer molecule...............................................................................................10 Effect of biocide treatment.....................................................................................................................11 Downhole drilling fluid loss as a function of depth...............................................................................13 Downhole drilling fluid loss as a function of depth...............................................................................13 Downhole drilling fluid loss as a function of depth...............................................................................14 Downhole drilling fluid loss as a function of depth...............................................................................14 Objectives of primary cementing technique ..........................................................................................17 Mechanism for annular gas migration ...................................................................................................18 Common one-stage primary cement job on a surface casing string.......................................................19 Cement bond log response at time of cement placement and some time after ......................................22 Slurry dynamics immediately after placement.......................................................................................24 Della 1 cross section ..............................................................................................................................24 Compressive strength and permeability behaviour of neat Portland cement at 446F ..........................26 The accumulation of debris in well 14, SW Pannoniam Basin in Croatia.............................................26 Defective primary cementing job...........................................................................................................31 The mechanisms for cement cake build up in borehole.........................................................................31
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15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 A1

Circulation of cement in squeeze cementing .........................................................................................32 The use of cement plugs for zonal isolation in the abandonment of a well...........................................33 The use of a cement plug to prevent fluid loss to a thief zone...............................................................33 Dry test expectations and results............................................................................................................36 Typical temperature survey showing the probable cement top..............................................................36 Temperature composite profile log before cement squeeze...................................................................37 The configuration of a normal CBL tool run in the hole .......................................................................38 CBL interpretation chart ........................................................................................................................38 CBL energy transmission as a function of microannulus wavelength...................................................40 Sonic wave paths....................................................................................................................................40 Facilities for the generation of foamed cements ....................................................................................42 Life of the cement sheath for the three primary types of cements used ................................................44 Typical downhole arrangement of continuous corrosion inhibitor........................................................47 Relative static and dynamic filtration in the bore hole ..........................................................................51

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank my parents, George and Katarina, for their support and encouragement during the research, preparation and writing of this report. I acknowledge my summer vacation employer the Department of Primary Industries and Resources South Australia (PIRSA) and Supervisor, Michael Malavazos in the Petroleum Group of PIRSA for providing me with the opportunity and encouragement to undertake this project. His constructive guidance and comments throughout this project have been most appreciated.

Damien Mavroudis 2 March 2001

REPORT BOOK 2001/0009

DOWNHOLE ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH DRILLING AND WELL COMPLETION PRACTICES IN THE COOPER/EROMANGA BASINS
Damien Mavroudis This project reviewed literature in order to: evaluate any downhole environmental risks associated with drilling fluids in the Cooper and Eromanga Basins; and assess the effectiveness of cementing practices in achieving long term zonal isolation between reservoir formations penetrated by a well in these basins. It was found that any potential drilling fluid contamination of Cooper and Eromanga Basin aquifers, in particular the Great Artesian Basin, is not a major concern. Cementing and completion practices in the two basins are the main risks to the downhole environment. Many mechanisms are present to cause the cement to deteriorate. As a result, sufficient zonal isolation cannot be guaranteed for an infinite amount of time. The major risk associated with cement failure is cement carbonation. A system employing the use of logging equipment was devised in order to evaluate whether the cement was meeting the criteria it was designed to achieve. Examples of the criteria that can be used to evaluate the integrity of the cement are postulated in this report.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This project reviewed literature in order to: evaluate any downhole environmental risks associated with drilling fluids and completion practices in the Cooper and Eromanga Basins; and assess the effectiveness of cementing practices in achieving long term zonal isolation between reservoir formations penetrated by a well in these basins.

microbial contamination in aquifers; contamination from biocides used to control microbial activity; poor mud cake removal.

From the review of the mud recap reports, the most significant areas of fluid loss were in the first 4000 ft of the well. The most likely reasons for these losses were: unconsolidated Sands; and Clay Swelling. In any event it was determined that due to the presence of the Bulldog Shale and its low permeability, an effective seal would be present to prevent the migration of drilling fluids into more environmentally significant formations. Although in deeper wells the fluid losses were difficult to quantify, it was concluded that the majority of the fluid loss was most likely to occur in to the producing zones of the formation. The main consequence of this is reservoir formation damage rather than an irreversible contamination of the aquifer. Once brought on-line a well will produce the majority of drilling fluid lost to the formation.

DRILLING FLUID IMPACTS

Although an area of concern, drilling fluid impact was found to constitute only a small portion of downhole problems. The use of drilling fluids was considered to be an issue because of the potential to invade freshwater aquifers, particularly those of the Great Artesian Basin (GAB). In order to determine the significance of fluid loss to the formations, mud recap reports were reviewed. These reports record drilling fluid losses and provide an estimate of the depth and formation where this occurs. Other potential impacts of drilling fluids include:
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EFFECTIVENESS OF CEMENTING FOR ZONAL ISOLATION

The major area of concern was the effectiveness of cements in achieving long-term isolation in the wellbore of individual formations penetrated by the well. Cements were identified as crucial because they are currently the only means for zonal isolation in the wellbore. Zonal isolation is deemed necessary in the wellbore because it provides a means for the prevention of cross-flow through the wellbore. Such cross-flow is considered to be a major risk for aquifer contamination. The effectiveness of cement zonal isolation in the wellbore was reviewed by investigating the potential mechanisms of cement failure. The mechanisms identified were: high temperature; sour conditions/sweet conditions; bacterial presence; cement shrinkage; formation damage; poor mud cake removal; high cement permeability; and cement carbonation (chemical reactions). The findings of this investigation concluded: cement carbonation and deterioration due to hostile environments was the major mechanism for cement failure; it is necessary to establish a cement timescale for which the cement should continue to provide zonal isolation to the formations isolated in the wellbore; current cement technology may not be able to provide long term zonal isolation and new technologies need to be considered; and wells drilled through a successful drilling program will not always be accompanied by a competent cementing job.

Apart from the potential to destroy the permeable zones, the real concern regarding drilling fluids was the possible contamination of underground reservoir formations, particularly freshwater aquifers such as the GAB in the Cooper and Eromanga Basins. Analysis of drilling fluid impact involved an investigation into the: filtration properties that contribute to fluid loss; zones in the wellbore where an increased rate of fluid loss may be present; rheology of the drilling fluids; study on the effects of different drilling fluids; typical mud composition; and permeability of the wellbore environment. It was realised at the outset of this project that an amount of drilling fluid is expected to be lost to the formation. In fact, it is good practice that a controllable amount of drilling fluid be lost to the formation because it enables the formation of a mud cake to prevent excessive fluid losses to the formation. The principal concern in terms of drilling fluids was to determine where the major fluid losses occur. That is, in the zones where freshwater aquifers may be present. In order to determine where fluid loss occurs, it was necessary to review mud recap reports. Formations with higher permeability's are expected to lose a greater amount of drilling fluid.

Mechanisms of drilling fluid filtration

The potential impact of the drilling fluids lost stems from their uncontrolled invasion into reservoirs penetrated by the well. In particular, from an environmental point of view, the fluids have the potential to contaminate any aquifer present. Drilling fluid invasion can occur through three main mechanisms: static, bit and dynamic filtration (see Appendix 1). Of these mechanisms, dynamic filtration has been identified as the major means of drilling fluid invasion. Its effect on a permeable formation is illustrated in Figure 1. If well integrity is maintained, fluid invasion will be confined to a small region in the formation. In cases where well integrity is lost, a significant invasion into the formation may occur.

SECTION ONE: DRILLING FLUIDS

INTRODUCTION
Selection of a drilling fluid is a major component in the drilling of a well. The success of a well often depends on the performance of a drilling fluid (Darley and Gray, 1991). As part of examining the downhole environmental risks associated with drilling practices in the Cooper and Eromanga Basins, consideration was given to the potential impact of drilling fluids.
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Figure 1 The effect of drilling fluid invasion on a permeable formation (Darley and Gray, 1991)

Filtration into the formation occurs in three steps: An external mud cake attached to the walls of the borehole. An internal mud cake, about 23 grain diameters into the permeable formation. A zone that has been invaded by smaller particles during the mud spurt period. This invasion zone can typically extend about an inch into the formation. This zone is typically damaged because of pore blocking by the finer invasive particles. This invasion makes the recovery of hydrocarbons very difficult due to the reduction of the permeability near the borehole. The mud cake will only form once a primary blockage of the pore spaces has begun. This then gives the finer particles a basis to form a mud cake. Particle size distribution has a very important role in forming a low-permeability filter cake. If there are too many large particles then the bridge will build too quickly and will form a filter cake that is shallow and thin. The subsequent filtration loss will be high. This is known as filtrate damage. If the particle distribution is too small then the bridge will not build quickly enough and the mud solids will penetrate deep into the formation and cause damage.

in the formation of a mud cake under the dynamic filtration mechanism. There are several colloidal materials available that can be used to control fluid loss properties of water-based mud. The following products are the most commonly used in drilling applications. Lamellar Lamellar material controls filtration by aligning themselves with the normal flow of mud into the formations. This helps to produce highly compressible filter cakes. Bentonite is an example of a lamellar material. Fibrous Fibrous material is squeezed into the formation where it helps to block the formation and create bottlenecks. This material tends to produce deep penetration and can be difficult to remove. Filter cakes from such materials are incompressible. Attapulgite is an example of a fibrous material. Granular Granular materials enter the formation and block any pores smaller than three times their size. This tends to cause shallow solid penetration but, because of their rigid structure, can also allow for deep filtrate invasion. They tend to form rather incompressible filter cakes. Barite is an example of such a material. Emulsion Emulsions tend to control filtration by entering pores and causing increases in capillary pressures for fluids to enter. These types of materials do not
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Filtration control materials and techniques

Where excessive fluid losses are likely to occur, material can be used to minimise fluid loss and maintain wellbore integrity. These materials assist

form filter cakes. For example, an oil emulsion will decrease permeability to water without affecting permeability to oil. As mentioned, mud additives provide protection against water loss through three basic mechanisms: binding of free water, blocking pores and forming a tight filter cake. The carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) polymer as well as bentonite has the ability to chemically bind water to the polar sites on the clay platelets or to the polymer molecules and form a tight impermeable layer. Mud additives are effective because they bond all of the free water and make it difficult for the water to escape from the drilling mud. By binding the water the viscosity of the mud also increases and the mud becomes more resistant to flow into the porous formation. The benefit of using bentonite and CMC is that both of these substances have the ability to build an impermeable membrane over the porous formation.

and may result in a loss in the rheological properties of the mud.

Figure 2 Structure of the CMC polymer molecule (Darley and Gray, 1991)

BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION
The communication between surface and subsurface oilfield environments is, of course, initiated by the drilling process. Drilling requires the circulation of fluids from the surface to the bit to help carry cuttings out of the borehole and to control formation pressures in the borehole. In this process, chemicals and microbes from the surface are circulated into the deep subsurface energy-rich oil-bearing strata and hydrocarbonladen cuttings are brought into the oxygen-rich moderate temperature surface environment. Through this mechanical process microbiological activities can be initiated in surface and subsurface environments. This does not occur normally and can lead to the bacterial contamination of aquifers. Water-based drilling fluids often contain organic polymers which act as viscosifiers and fluid loss control agents. CMC is one example (Fig. 2). These organic polymers, which tend to be of plant or microbiological origin, can be degraded and used as a food source for the growth of naturally occurring oil-field bacteria. This can occur despite the addition of biocide materials for the hampering of microbial activity. Microbial growth in the mud can result in contamination of the well and near-wellbore zone (Ezzat et al., 1997). Fouling, corrosion and reservoir souring may then occur during subsequent operations. If bacterial growth is extensive, significant consumption of the organic polymers can occur
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Microbial activity in drilling muds can be influenced by several features in the drilling environment. Warm temperatures and high nutrient content in the mud tanks can have undesirable effects in which bacterial growth is enhanced. The process of removing the drill cuttings (shale shakers) can further increase the oxygen content of mud, which is favourable for the growth of bacteria. Ezzat et al. (1997) identified bacterial contamination as causing the following problems: microbiological corrosion of well tubulars and screens; biomass plugging in injection wells and in the formation; and hydrogen sulphide production deep in the formation, leading to reservoir souring. Apart from this, the potentially hazardous nature of the bacteria if they contaminate a freshwater aquifer needs to be addressed. This will be considered in a further investigation for the project. Given the additives present in the drilling muds, microbial activity is significant due to the presence of xanthan gums, starch, CMC, hydroxyethyl-cellulose etc. Biodegradation of drilling mud additives results in significant microbial growth within the mud. This can raise the bacteria to a level that may be harmful. This increase is known to affect the wellbore adversely. Even with a limited amount of fluid loss during drilling, the bacteria would accumulate in the near wellbore zone. Microbial activity would continue during shut-in periods and would be supported

by the soluble, carbon-based nutrients from the drilling mud. Under oxygen-depleted conditions the activity of anaerobic sulphate-reducing bacteria would increase, which might have a large effect on the wellbore. It is important to consider the long-term effects that bacteria may have on the wellbore environment. If left untreated, it is possible that the microbial activity may cause a breakdown of the downhole integrity. Bacteria can invade the formation in the close vicinity of the wellbore. Bacteria left here can result in a poor cementing job due to microbial activity. Thus there can be an adverse affect on the wellbore characteristics and the purpose of the primary cementing job would have been defeated. Therefore it is important to consider using mud that does not promote the increased activity of bacteria. Such drilling fluids employ high salinity, high pH and biocides to curb the microbial activity. The major concern with the presence of bacteria in the drilling fluid is with the potential contamination of freshwater aquifer supplies that could be consumed by humans or livestock. The

possible migration of water-borne bacteria should be considered in detail. A study of the methods for controlling bacteria should also be considered, with the intention of analysing the validity of bacteria control techniques for water treatment. The presence of bacteria can also be hazardous to the casing of a well through the introduction of sulphate-reducing bacteria. Hydrogen sulphide can cause corrosion of the casing (metal imbrittlement) (Ezzat et al., 1997). The effect of bacteria in freshwater aquifers used for agricultural use or consumption is not yet known. The use of bactericides for controlling bacteria should also be investigated. Bactericides are simply poisons that kill living organisms and kill micro-organisms, including sulphate-reducing bacteria, slime-forming bacteria and algae. These micro-organisms attack polymeric drilling muds, completion and workover fluids, slick waters and fracturing fluids. They can cause a deterioration of the fluid system and reduce the effectiveness of the well treatments. Figure 3 depicts the effect of biocides on general aerobic bacteria. After the prescribed biocide concentration has been reached, further increases in the concentration levels do not affect the bacteria.

Figure 3 Effect of biocide treatment (Ezzat et al., 1997)

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DRILLING FLUID CONTAMINANTS

The following is a list of the chemicals typically used in drilling fluids in the Cooper and Eromanga Basins (Bowyer, 1994), these compounds are considered to be non-toxic (Schlumberger, 2001). Aquagel Bentonite Barite Barium sulphate, a mineral used to increase the weight of drilling fluid Benex Bentonite extender Bentonite Clay containing smectite as the essential mineral presents a very large total surface area characterised either by the ability to swell in water or to be slaked and to be activated by acid used chiefly to thicken oil-well drilling muds CMC Carboxymethyl cellulose (sodium) Dextrid Organic polymer Durenex Resin additive/organic polymer Gel Bentonite Lignosulphonate Member of the lignin family of organic polyelectrolytes modified lignosulphonates may be sodium, calcium or chromium treated types as a direct consequence of the ability of lignosulphates to adsorb on clay surfaces, they are used as an anti-corrosion agent and stabiliser of oil-in-water emulsions. PAC Polyanionic cellulose a long chain polymer of high molecular weight can impart viscosity or reduce water-loss properties to the drilling fluid of either freshwater or saltwater muds PHPA Partially hydrolysed polycrylamide Polyacrylamide Organic polymer Q-Broxin Modified lignosulphonate Soda ash Commercial term for sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) Spersene Modified lignosulphonate Vertoil Primary emulsifier
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XC Polymer Xanthan gum biopolymer (bacterially produced polymer) XP-20 Chrome lignite

Mud recap reports

Mud recap reports were investigated to determine the areas where the most significant amounts of drilling fluids were lost (Appendix 2). Although the number of reports considered was a small sample of the total number of reports, they were a substantial aid to determining a perspective of where the major fluid losses occur. Consultations with field experts and other individuals tended to confirm the findings from those reports. As can be seen from the data set (Appendix 2) and the plotted charts, relatively large amounts of drilling fluids are lost in the first 4000 ft of a formation (Fig. 4 ad). Also, large losses occur between 8000 and 11 000 ft. The consequences of the losses are discussed in the conclusion of this section. Mud recap reports were used to determine: whether significant amounts of drilling fluids were being lost; and if major losses were occurring, that they were not in areas of environmental importance. The reports describe the surface and downhole fluid losses associated with drilling activities. Losses of 500 bbl or more of drilling fluid were not uncommon in some wells. Losses at this depth (4000 ft) may not be of major environmental concern as the Bulldog Shale should provide adequate isolation of the top formation layers. These large losses can be explained by: unconsolidated sands; and shales in the layers swelling and adsorbing a great deal of drilling fluid. Fluid losses beyond the GAB tend to vary with wellbore depth and the type of formation being drilled. In an environmental sense, losses to this section of the formation are not of major significance. The bulk of the fluid losses to this region are most likely to be produced when the wellbore is brought on-line. Therefore, little to no drilling fluid will remain in the formation. Moomba wells seem to have a fluid loss in the 60009000 ft interval, whereas losses in other wells can be expected in the 800011000 ft interval.

250

200

Downhole Fluid Loss (bbl)

150

100

Moom ba Moom ba Moom ba Moom ba

118 119 125 126

50

0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000

-50 Depth (ft)

Figure 4a Downhole drilling fluid loss as a function of depth

700

600

500

Downhole Fluid Loss (bbl)

400 Moom ba 128 Moom ba 134 Miluna 21

300

200

100

0 0 -100 Depth (ft) 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

Figure 4b Downhole drilling fluid loss as a function of depth

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300

250

200 Downhole fluid loss (bbl)

150

100

Burke East -1 Moom ba 114 Moom ba 115 Moom ba 116

50

0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000

-50 Depth (ft)

Figure 4c Downhole drilling fluid loss as a function of depth

160

140

120

100 Drilling Fluid lost (bbls)

80

60

Moom ba 98 Dullingari-50 Brum by-9 Grenache-1

40

20

0 0 -20 Depth (ft) 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

Figure 4d Downhole drilling fluid loss as a function of depth

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However, fluid losses in these regions are not as significant as those experienced in the surface formations due to the higher degree of compaction of this deep formation. Of interest, however, was the drilling fluids survey conducted by APPEA (Appendix 3). APPEA listed the volumes of drilling fluids lost downhole: it reported a value of 5789 m3 lost to formations drilled in 1996. However, independent research and a review of the mud recap reports indicated a value of 6015 m3 for 1996 for downhole fluid losses for Santos alone. The reason for this discrepancy is unclear. The GAB, on average, tends to start at around the 5000 ft mark. Shallow aquifers are found mainly in the upper formations. As they are not used as a potable water source, fluid losses in this area are not a major concern, particularly if the Bulldog Shale is effective in providing upper zonal isolation. Significant interest in possible contamination in the GAB exists and steps to avoid contaminating its aquifers are necessary because the GAB is important for commercial and life-supporting activities.

Evidence exists that water molecules adsorbed directly on clay mineral surfaces and for some distance outward have an organised arrangement, much like that of ice (Grim, 1968). The degree of bonding to the clay mineral surface reflects the degree of swelling of the clay. That is, the high water bonding between the clay and the water reflects a greater degree of clay swelling (Chilingarian, 1981). Consideration needs to be given to the clay swelling properties of rocks. Rock clays can block the wellbore and prevent the flow of hydrocarbons because of their relative large surface areas. The degree of hydration of clays in the vicinity of the wellbore can affect the efficiency of primary production and secondary recovery. Although clay swelling in the wellbore is not a consideration in the environmental sense, it does pose a problem for treating zonal isolation issues in any possible remedial action. In this case, swelling may be an issue by not permitting re-entry of the hole for log runs, maintenance or remedial work.

CONCLUSION
The effects of drilling fluid on the downhole environment are not of major concern. This conclusion was reached from the evidence relating to the zones where fluid losses occurred. The fact that large losses are encountered mainly in the top 4000 ft of the formation is not of major concern if the sealing qualities of the Bulldog Shale are adequate. Those properties need to be investigated further for a firm conclusion to be reached. In addition, losses into deeper producing formations are not considered environmentally significant because the majority of drilling fluid will be expelled from the formation upon the initiation of production. Furthermore, the components present in the drilling fluid do not raise any significant concerns regarding toxicity. However, when wellbore integrity is compromised a potential concern does exist because excessive amounts of drilling fluid could be lost. Fluid losses in the shallower formations (above 4000 ft) are a result of two primary mechanisms: unconsolidated sand; and clay swelling. It is postulated that the primary reason for fluid loss is the unconsolidated sand and lack of compaction in the upper formations. Compacting forces are a function of depth: they increase as
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Clay swelling
Clay swelling has been identified as a reason for fluid loss in the upper areas of a well. For this reason, it is important describe the method in which this water adsorption occurs. Clay properties are a function of: structure; quantities of exchangeable cations; and chemical composition. Barshad (1955) discussed the subject of the relationship between adsorption of water (and swelling) and properties of the claywater systems. Two types of clay swelling were realised. The first type is due to the crystal lattice itself (interlamellar or interlayer expansion). Namontomorillonite exhibits this type of swelling. The second type of swelling is due to the adsorption of water on the surfaces of the clay particles. Some clays, for example kaolinite, do not swell upon hydration. Na-montorillonite clays, conversely swell in water to many times their initial dry volume. Calcium and magnesium montmorillonites and illites have intermediate swelling characteristics.

depth increases. This means that it is easier for drilling fluids to penetrate surface formations because of the lack of overburden pressure. Therefore, relatively large amounts of fluid loss are expected. Clay swelling is also important, particularly in the thick shale areas encountered in the Cooper and Eromanga Basins. However, what should be considered is the proximity of oil wells to consumption water wells. Although drilling fluid lost to the formation is not likely to affect distant water wells, contamination may occur in water wells that are nearby. This is also a consideration when implementing the use of biocides. Some concern has been expressed (Ezzat, et al., 1997) over the possibility of bacteria growing in water storage tanks at well sites. It is possible that bacteria may have sufficient time to accumulate in stagnant water deposits. This could cause problems if introduced to the drilling mud. It may be necessary to use bactericides in these tanks to ensure that the bacteria is killed before the water is used with the drilling fluid. Acceptable control limits should be followed when using bactericides. Regulation may be necessary. Bacteria introduced to the aquifers can pose problems if the water is produced at some later stage by a water well intended for human consumption. The increased presence of bacteria could lead to health problems and could be significant, especially when bacteria levels exceed safe limits. Another difficult matter is the introduction of foreign bacteria into the wellbore environment. The effects of introducing surface-bound bacteria to the underground formations through the drilling process was not investigated in this study. The potential for problems arises since it is not known whether bacteria introduced to the wellbore may thrive in such conditions thereby increasing the risk of aquifer contamination.

Further study should be conducted into the types and use of biocides in the treatment of bacteria infected waters. This information should provide safe limits for human beings. It should also include a study into the amounts of biocide currently being used in the field with consideration being given to nearby water wells that may be contaminated by a biocide. Examining the hydrodynamics of the GAB may be useful for estimating potential dispersion rates. A study into the validity of slimhole technology should be considered. Use of slimholes is beneficial because smaller volumes of drilling fluids are used and thus the fluid losses to the downhole environment could be reduced. Furthermore, slim-hole rigs are likely to leave a smaller surface indications: this environmental consideration is outside the scope of this report. The use of underbalanced drilling muds in depleted sands should be considered as a means for reducing the fluid losses to the formation. It may be a consideration that in production, where the geology is known, underbalanced conditions could be used to prevent excessive losses in the first few formation layers, especially in the GAB. Production wells in the Cooper and Eromanga Basins are drilled into depleted sands. Typical virgin pressures in the Moomba area are 4200 psi: depleted sands in this region exhibit depleted pressures of approximately 2100 psi. Sufficient well control could be achieved with an underbalanced mud and an experienced drilling crew. The geology of the Bulldog Shale should be investigated further. Areas where the shale may be thin or not present are points of concern because they may lead to cross-flow in the formation. Such areas should be identified. There may be points in the shale where it is thin enough to cause problems of cross-flow and thus contaminate the formation itself. A more stringent means of fluid accounting should be maintained in the field. While it is realised that recording fluid loss to the formation is difficult, a more precise means of fluid recording should be investigated. A review on the use of bactericides in wells should be pursued. Standards need to be set so that biocides and bactericides are not used excessively. An excessive use of biocides would result in elevated concentrations in the drilling
16

RECOMMENDATIONS
Arising from these conclusions, a study should be initiated into the potential for aquifer contamination through bacterial activity. Also, the type of bacteria likely to be present in the wellbore should be investigated as those present may not pose a significant health risk. Such a study should also consider the mobility rates of bacteria which might enter a major aquifer such as the GAB.

fluids. If freshwater did become contaminated, harmful or lethal concentrations of biocides might be present in water intended for agricultural use or livestock consumption. It is not known what concentration of bactericides are harmful for livestock or human consumption. The potential for biocide-contaminated formation waters to transfer to a water well is also not known. Such issues warrant further study.

significant in well completions as well productivity is improved and more control over the well is achieved.

SECTION TWO: CEMENTS

INTRODUCTION
This section considers the cementing practices and techniques currently employed in the Cooper and Eromanga Basins. Cementing is the most important part of the well completion and abandonment phase of the well. The integrity of the cement and the properties that it exhibit are not only important at the time of cement placement but also for many years after abandonment. Ensuring adequate isolation within the wellbore of the reservoir sands that are known not to be in natural hydraulic communication within the reservoir is a key objective specified in the Statement of Environmental Objectives for Drilling in the Cooper/ Eromanga Basin (PIRSA, 2000). The use of cement is the only current means of establishing zonal isolation within wellbores, either through cement behind the casing or plugs between the zones. The number of ways identified for cement breakdown to occur means that cement is not an effective means for long-term zonal isolation. In areas where ideal conditions are present cements may provide sufficient long-term zonal isolation, although the period of time has not yet been identified. The following causes of cement deterioration identified by Marca (1990) are addressed in this section: high temperature; sour conditions/sweet conditions; bacterial presence; cement shrinkage; formation damage; poor mud cake removal; high cement permeability; and cement carbonation. Since the first use of cements in wells in 1903 (Smith., 1990), the use of cement has been very important in isolating different zones within oil, gas and water wells. Zonal isolation is very
17

Figure 5 Objectives of primary cementing technique (Smith, 1986)

Annular gas migration

Fluid migration may occur during drilling or well completion operations. Inadequate sealing of varying formations in the wellbore can lead to the migration of gas. This migration occurs through the invasion of formation fluids into the annulus and is caused by a pressure imbalance at the formation face. The fluids can flow to a lower pressure zone and, in some cases, to the surface (Fig. 6). Fluid migration from high pressure zones to those of lower pressure can lead to the contamination of these zones. However, extreme gas accumulation due to large pressure imbalances can cause blowouts. The severity of gas migration is not always apparent. Gas migration after primary cementing can adversely affect the wellbore and evidence may only be noticed some time later. Remedial cementing procedures are thus required to correct such problems. Gas migration between zones, which does not build up at the surface, is difficult to detect. Gas migration may cause the following problems (Sutton et al., 1989): impaired gas production; filling of the above depleted zones; and the effectiveness of stimulation treatments may be reduced.

Figure 6 Mechanism for annular gas migration (Parcevaux et al., 1990)

It is possible to evaluate the degree to which downhole channelling occurs by the use of logging tools such as noise and acoustic logs. Hydraulic communication testing is not recommended because the potential exists for creating communication across effectively cemented zones and minor defects in the primary cementing job can be aggravated. When the gas migration problem was first recognised it was thought that it resulted from poor mud removal properties. As has been seen, poor mud removal does not allow for adequate bonding at the casing/cement/formation interfaces. This can lead to the development of channels for fluid migration. Although other causes of fluid migration have been recognised, the principal cause stems from a mud removal problem. This is due to the continuous mud channels in the annulus between two permeable zones favouring annular flow.

Primary cementing
Primary cementing is the process of placing cement in the annulus between the casing and the formations exposed in the wellbore. The objective of primary cementing is to achieve zonal isolation. By this it is meant that the mixing of zones such as water and oil or a freshwater aquifer with a saline one is prevented. This is achieved by forming a hydraulic seal between the casing and the cement and between the formation and the cement (Fig. 5). At the same time it is necessary to prevent fluid channels in the cement sheath. In many instances the full production potential of a well may not be reached if complete zonal isolation is not achieved. Sufficient zonal isolation ensures that the environmental objectives in drilling the well are met (Appendix 3).

Problems arising from poor primary cementing

Several problems inherent in a poor primary cementing job have been identified by Burdylo and Birch (1990): the well will never reach its full production potential; subsequent efforts to repair the cementing job may actually end up causing irreparable damage to the formation;
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PURPOSE OF CEMENTING
This section of the report presents information on: the various purposes of cement, namely primary and remedial cementing; the failure mechanisms of cement; the testing quality of cements jobs; and the preventative techniques.

Figure 7 Common one-stage primary cement job on a surface casing string (Burdylo and Birch, 1990)

lost reserves; lower production rates; stimulation treatments may not be able to be confined to the producing formation; difficulty in confining secondary or tertiary fields to the pay zone; aquifer and reservoir damage from potential cross-flow; and potential contamination of aquifers utilised as a resource.

The latter two issues are relevant to this report. Zonal isolation The primary cementing job is intended to provide adequate zonal isolation of the formations penetrated. Inadequate zonal isolation provides a means for cross-flow between the communicating formations. This is not desired because it provides a means for aquifer contamination, continued cross-flow and, perhaps, a mechanism for natural pressure depletion. This report focuses on the downhole environmental risks, that is the risk of contamination of freshwater aquifers resulting from current and continued cross-flow in the formation. In particular, the possible contamination of the GAB is a very significant issue not only because of commercial interests but also because the basin has major environmental significance.
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Cement time-scale The cement time-scale refers to the period of time that the cement must provide an adequate hydraulic seal between the formations penetrated in the wellbore. What needs to be addressed is a suitable time-scale for the life of the cement. Imposing a time limit is difficult. However, as a minimum, the cement should provide adequate zonal isolation for the life of the producing well. In abandonment an inactive well will need to provide sufficient zonal isolation to prevent crossflow. If it is found that isolation is not achieved, then a means for providing continued zonal isolation should be considered. This may require a continued well maintenance program, especially for wells drilled in highly sensitive areas. Classes of cements The choice of the correct cement is crucial in achieving satisfactory isolation. The properties of these types of cements are detailed in Tables 1 and 2 (Course Notes PTRL 3017, 2000).

Table 1 Cement components used in typical class cement

API Class A B C D G H J C3S 53 47 70 26 52 52 53.8 Compounds % C4AF C3A 8 8 12 3 13 3 12 2 12 8 12 8 38.8 C2S 24 31 10 54 32 32 Fineness (sq cm/g) 15001900 15001900 20002400 11001500 14001600 12001400 12402480 Water/cement ratio 0.46 0.46 0.56 0.38 0.44 0.38 0.44

Table 2 Function of cement components

Compound Tricalcium aluminate/C3A (3CaO Al2O3) Characteristics Promotes rapid hydration Affects the initial setting and thickening time of the cement Makes the cement susceptible to sulphate attack Promotes low-heat hydration Major component produces most of the cement strength Responsible for the strength that the cement develops early in its life Hydrates slowly Has the properties of slow, small gradual gain in strength over a period of time

Tetracalcium aluminoferrite/C4AF (4CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3) Tricalcium silicate/C3S (3CaO SiO2)

Dicalcim silicate/C2S (2CaO SiO2)

Applications of API cements

In order to improve the chance of effective zonal isolation it is necessary to use the correct cement for the specific well environment. API cement A typically used a depth of between 0 and 6000 ft used at temperatures up to 170oF used when special properties are not required use of this cement favoured since it is the most economical of all cements

API cement D, E class D at a depth range of 6000 to 10 000 ft; E at depths of 10 000 to 14 000 ft class D used at temperatures of 170 to 260oF; and class E used at temperatures of 170 to 290oF used when fairly high temperatures and pressures are encountered more expensive than Portland cement available in types that exhibit high resistance to sulphate

API cement F used in the depth range of 10 000 to 16 000 ft used at temperatures of 230 to 320oF used in cases of extremely high temperature and pressure types include moderate and high resistance to sulphate

API cement B can be used at depths between of 0 and 6000 ft intended for use when moderate to high sulphate resistance is required (well conditions permitting) used at temperatures up to 170oF an economical cement

API cement G, H used in depths between 0 and 8000 ft temperature range up to 200oF without the use of modifiers basic cement compatible with accelerators or retarders additives can be blended in at bulk station or at job site

API cement C same depth and temperature range as class A and B cements used when high early strength is required high in tricalcium silicate

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API cement J used at depth ranges of 12 000 to 16 000 ft intended for use under conditions of extreme temperature and pressure 170 to 320oF unmodified properties are such that it will not set at a temperature of less than 150oF useable with accelerators and retarders Bentonite Litefill CaCl2 Anti-foam Dispersant Retarder

Lead Slurry 6% BWOC 25% BWOC 1% BWOC 0.01 gal/sacks 0 0

Tail Slurry 0.15 gal/sacks 0 0 0.01 gal/sacks 0.15 gal/sacks 0.04 gal/sacks

Current cementing practices

Cementing techniques in the Cooper and Eromanga Basins generally use class A cement in the surface casing and class G cement in the production interval. Two case studies are presented in this section to illustrate the cement properties utilised in the Cooper and Eromanga Basins. Both wells are located in the Della field: Della 7 reached a true vertical depth (TVD) of 6700 ft on February 1980 and Della 20 reached a TVD of 6623 ft on April 2000. Della 7 Surface cement 410 sacks of class A cement were used to cement the surface casing in place. This cement had the following properties: Slurry weight: 15.6 ppg Thickening time: +3 hours Water requirements: 4.87 gals/sack Slurry volume: 1.1 ft3/sack Production cement 200 sacks of class A cement were used to mix with: 4.0% Bentonite by weight of water This was followed by 160 sacks of class F cement mixed with: 15% salt by weight of water Production casing cement requires that the following properties are maintained: Class A Slurry weight 11.8 ppg Slurry volume 2.4 ft3/sacks Water requirements 15 gal/sacks Class F 16.2 ppg 1.0 ft3/sacks 4.3 gal/sacks

Production cement 219 sacks of class G cement followed by 179 sacks of class G tail slurry. Lead Slurry 35% BWOC 0.6% BWOC 16% BWOC 0.01 gal/sacks 0 0 0.06% BWOC 0.55% BWOC Tail Slurry 35% BWOC 0.7% BWOC 0 0.01 gal/sacks 0.1 gal/sacks 0.01 gal/sacks

Silica flour Uni-FLAC Bentonite Anti-foam Dispersant Retarder Retarder aid Stabiliser

The most significant difference in the cementing techniques between the two wells was the production cement. It is surprising to see that in the older well, Della 7, class F cement was used. Class F cement is used in areas of high temperature and pressure. It also offers moderate to high sulphate resistance. Class G cement, as used in Della 20, does not have the high temperature and sulphate resistant properties of class F cement, but it is likely that the cement additives are adequate in fulfilling the purposes for which the cement was designed. Class G cement is used because it offers faster thickening time and increasing versatility. Class F cement is more costly as it is imported and its use is now limited to wells that require the specific class F properties. Two questions arise from this finding. Does the current class G cement offer any advantages/disadvantages over the old class F cement? If so, what are they? Answers to these questions are beyond the scope of this report.

Della 20 Surface cement 174 sacks of class A and a tail slurry of 85 sacks of class A cement:

CEMENT FAILURE MECHANISMS Carbon dioxide effects on cement in well

Carbon dioxide can corrode cement through a series of chemical reactions. The process is known as cement carbonation and is often the most likely cause of cement deterioration. Over time the carbon dioxide can corrode the cement; Thus zonal isolation and loss of casing will occur.
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According to Bruckdorfer et al. (1986) the primary mechanism by which cement corrosion occurs, is: CO2 + H2O <-> H2CO3 <-> H+ + HCO3Ca(OH)2 +H+ + HCO3- -> CaCO3 + 2H2O C-S-H gel + H+ + HCO3- -> CaCO3 + amorphous silica gel CO2 + H2O +CaCO3 <-> Ca(HCO3)2 Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 <-> 2CaCO3 + 2H2O When excess carbon dioxide is present, calcium carbonate is converted to calcium bicarbonate, which is water soluble. Calcium carbonate can migrate out of the cement matrix because of this. The dissolved calcium bicarbonate can then react with calcium hydroxide which goes to form calcium carbonate and fresh water. The resultant water could go on to dissolve more calcium bicarbonate. Thus the overall result is a leaching of cement materials from the cement matrix. This leads to an increase in porosity and permeability and a decrease in compressive strength. Corrosion of the cement by carbon dioxide is thermodynamically favoured and it can not be prevented. Figure 8 the amplitude response data from the cement bond log clearly shows the loss in cement bonding. Although the cement bond indicated by the log (at time of placement) showed a relatively good bond, the later log at the same depth indicates poor cement integrity which ultimately results in poor zonal isolation behind the casing. The log can also provide evidence of cement degradation and deterioration and possible migration of crushed fragments from the annuli to the wellbore, leaving free space behind casing. The bond of the cement to the casing or the formation interface is affected by: the bulk volumetric shrinkage of the cement; the lack of casing and formation roughness; a mud film or channel at the interface; a free water channel or layer in deviated wells; excessive downhole thermal stresses; and excessive downhole mechanical stresses.

Figure 8 Cement Bond Log response at time of cement placement and some time after. Represents the difference in CBL responses at time of cement placement right, 1983 and some time after re-evaluation left, 1998 (Krilov et al., 2000)

The extent to which cement shrinkage is a significant problem is difficult to determine. The time factor is important because shrinkage is due to cement hydration which continues with time. As cement begins to set and the hydration accelerates, an increase in intergranular stresses is experienced due to the growth of calcium silicate hydrates. The mechanism for such growth is not be discussed in this report. Cement hydration is responsible for an absolute volume reduction of the cement matrix and is often known as chemical contraction. Normal Portland cement can typically expect a volumetric shrinkage of 4.6%. This phenomenon, reported in many civil engineering cases, is due to the volume of the hydrated phases being less than that of the initial reactants.

Migration of gas through cement pore structure

Guyvoronsky and Farukshin (1963) were the first to introduce the concept of gas migration through the pore structure of a very permeable gelled or set cement. Then Cheung and Beirute (1982)
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proposed a mechanism indicating that the gas first invades the cement pores and then permeates the entire cement matrix, consequently preventing the hydration process from closing all of the pore spaces. Parcevaux (1984) was able to prove the existence of free porosities. These were composed of well-connected pores which began to appear upon the initiation of the setting period. In fact, he stated that gas migration is driven by the unsteady permeability effect through the cement pores. Following the primary enlargement of the cement pores, a pseudo-steady state is achieved when communication has been established throughout the cement column and gas channels have reached a stable size. Figure 9 shows that immediately after placement the slurry behaves as a fluid and transmits hydrostatic pressure. A compensation of volumetric changes due to hydration and fluid loss is accomplished by a reduction in the height of the cement column. Continued fluid loss from the slurry, as well as hydration, results in the development of a gel structure that causes the cement to lose its ability to transmit fluid pressure. At this stage it is possible for the pressure to drop and become less than the gas pressure. A potential for gas flow now exists. During this stage the cement becomes selfsupporting and further hydration causes a further decrease in pressure. The gel structure restricts pressure as the cement slurry thickens with time. Gas flow can be inhibited by the formation of strong bonds between cement particles which reduces permeability. The critical area is indicated by the shaded region in Figure 9.

cemented in place over the bottom 1000 m. Production casing was suspended within the casing spool on the Christmas tree. The final step was running the production tubing down the production casing and centralising it with a packer. This acted as a barrier between the formation and the surface. On 16 September 1987 gas was seen venting through a 2 x 2.5 m crater about 30 m from the wellhead. As a result of a wireline run, it was possible to ascertain that both the production tubing and the production casing had parted at the 35 m mark. The degree of failure in Della 1 meant that it was not possible to remove the surface casing, the production casing or the production tubing for examination. What needed to be addressed was the issue of whether or not this was an isolated event or if concerns for other wells in the Cooper Basin were warranted. The factors leading to the blow-out needed to be determined and criteria for the assessment of other wells needed to be established. Martucci (1989) reported on the factors which could have put Della 1 at considerable risk: limited allowance for external corrosion due to the fact that no intermediate casing was present; the cement sheath around the surface casing was incomplete at between 15 and 90 m, leaving part of the casing open to corrosion from the formation; the steel in the N80 production casing used over the upper part of the well is more susceptible to carbon dioxide attack than J55 casing; it was an old well cased and suspended after drilling in 1970; and there was no system for cathodic protection present at the time of drilling the well. Based on of these factors, the following assessment criteria were recommended for other wells that are deemed to be at a potentially higher risk of critical failure (Martucci, 1989) no intermediate casing present; wells with production casing/production tubing annulus pressure that is less than 1.7 Mpa. wells more than five years old; and testing the nature of soils.

Casing problem as part of the downhole risk study

Casing corrosion in the cooper basin A consequence of the failure of a cement job behind casing is the exposure of the casing to corrosion mechanisms. To illustrate this the blowout of Della 1 in 1987 is discussed and the reasons behind this blow-out are investigated. At the time it was suspected that the production tubing, production casing and surface casing all failed at the 35 m mark below the surface (Martucci, 1989). In the Della 1 cross-section (Fig. 10), a 12 1/4 in; diameter hole is bored and the 9 5/8 in. surface casing, which has a depth of 300 m, was cemented in place. A concentric hole was then drilled within the surface casing to total depth and the 7 in. production casing was then set and
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Figure 9 Slurry dynamics immediately after placement (Bannister et al., 1983)

Figure 10 Della 1 cross-section (Martucci, 1989)

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In regards to the second point, the use of EUE tubing does not guarantee leak prevention of gas from the screwed joints. Over a lengthy period, gas would leak from the screwed joints into the production casing/production tubing annulus. A high annulus pressure would indicate the soundness of the production casing and a low annulus pressure could signify the possibility of a perforated production casing. In the case of the fourth point, the soils in the Della field were corrosive. In many instances buried flowlines have failed 3 to 5 years after operation. This indicates how quickly corrosion can take place. Under the criteria, 42 wells were considered to be at an elevated risk. Following further consideration this figure was revised to 67 wells. Because of this high figure, the following work program was employed to check casing integrity; pressure testing of the wellhead seals; obtaining samples of annuli gas, liquid and well scrapings for corrosion activity investigations; and topping up the casing annuli and pressure testing the production casing. Such activity meant that some wells were scheduled for workovers. Workovers were conducted to stop the substantial communication between the surface casing annulus and the production casing annulus. Many wells provided inconclusive information as to the need for a workover and were therefore placed into a separate category. Several wells required further observation. One such well, Della 15, was a poor producer: abandonment of the well was required to recover the casing and tubing for examination. External corrosion of the surface casing by groundwater was thought to be the most likely cause for the Della 1 failure. Recovered casing from Della 15 indicated that corrosion of the surface casing was from the inside and that the attack on the production casing was much more severe than that on the surface casing. This helped to indicate that the source of the problem was due to the surface casing/production casing annular space. These wells suffered externally corroded and parted production casing and some internal corrosion of the opposing sections of the surface casing. The attacks appeared to be more intense across the parted region. However, none of the corrosion logs indicated holes in the surface casings. No significant cement bond was present behind the surface casing in the top 100 m of these wells.
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It is likely that the corrosion was due to corrosive chemicals present in the drilling mud being left in the well at the time of completion. Formation waters containing corrosive compounds were also a possible reason for the failure, particularly lignosulphates in the mud which can decompose to release CO2 and H2S. It should be recognised that unless there are substantial amounts of CO2 and H2S, lignosulphates are not likely to cause the high corrosion rates observed.

High temperature chemistry of Portland cement

Portland cement is basically a calcium silicate material. When water is added, the tricalcium silicate (C3S) and dicalcium silicate (C2S), the two major components of Portland cement, form a gelatinous calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H gel). This gel is responsible for the strength and solid stability of the set cement at ordinary temperatures. At well temperatures of less than 446oF the C-S-H gel is a very good binding material: it is the first product to be formed from the hydration process. At higher temperatures the C-S-H gel is subjected to metamorphism, which decreases the compressive strength of the cement and increases the permeability of the cement once it sets. At the high temperatures the C-S-H gel converts to an alpha dicalcium silicate hydrate (C2SH). This is highly crystalline and is much more dense than the C-S-H gel. Because of this, the shrinkage that occurs adversely affects the integrity of the cement. The major concern is not whether the strength of the cement is sufficient to support the casing but whether a high permeability will be created as a result of these curing conditions. In order to prevent interzonal communication, the water permeability of well cements should be no more than 0.1 md. Nelson (1990) found that within one month of curing time, the water permeability of normal density class G systems was 10 to 100 times higher than the recommended limit. The compressive strength and permeability changes of neat Portland cement as a function of time is shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11 Compressive strength and permeability behaviour of neat Portland cement at 446 F. Plots 1 and 2 represent normal density class G cement. Plot 3 represents class H cement and plot 4 indicates cement of lower density. Furthermore, the permeability of the high density class H system was barely acceptable (Nelson, 1990)

Figure 12 The accumulation of debris in well 14, SW Pannonian Basin in Croatia (Krilov and Loncaric, 2000)

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Case history
The most severe case of permeability problems is seen in well 14 at the gas condensate field in the SW Pannonian Basin in Croatia (Fig. 12). Analysis of the well cuttings showed that it consisted of high bottom-hole temperatures (356oF at 3350 m) combined with sour gas and high salinity brine as formation fluids had the ability to cause significant problems in the well. In 1988 a break in production was encountered. At this point after a steady decrease in the production period the hydrocarbon content in a one-month period dropped drastically (gas from 250 000 m3/day to 100 000 m3/day; condensate from 20 m3/day to 10 m3/day). A sharp increase in water production was noted too. Approaching the end of 1993 the wellhead pressure dropped from 180 bar to 70 bar. The well was subsequently shut in. Log analysis data indicated that a formation of debris was present below the packer. Only 5 m of the 25 m of the perforated zone was left uncovered as a result of this debris. The debris could have resulted from: long-term exposure in a harsh downhole environment causing cement deterioration and opening the path for drastic water breakthrough after a loss in zonal isolation; and more intensive sour brine breakthrough causing a more aggressive cement corrosion process resulting in the deterioration. Debris recovered from the well were shown to be deteriorated cement, mixed with corrosion products and downhole scale fragments. It was concluded that these constituents were the result of a 15-year exposure to aggressive downhole environments (sour gas brine).

This type of microannulus is known as an inner microannulus. An outer microannulus is formed when there is cement bulk shrinkage. This is a worst-case scenario but a realistic one. A clear understanding of these mechanisms is essential in order to identify extreme cementing problems in some cases. The use of expanding cements can help to prevent the formation of microannulus. Theoretically, expanding cement will fill any gap and will ensure that good bonding is achieved between either the casing and the cement or the cement and the formation. Expanding cement is known to move only in the direction of the formation and not in the direction of the casing.

Mechanism of shrinkage and expansion

The primary mechanism behind the phenomena of shrinkage and expansion has to do with the formation of hydration products. These products have different volumes compared with the hydrating components. Changes in external cement sample dimensions are referred to as bulk shrinkage and bulk expansion. Cement chemical shrinkage Cement chemical shrinkage is the basic mechanism operating during the hydration of Portland cement. As the volumes of the water and cement are larger than the volume of the hydration products, a volume contraction occurs. Measurement of total chemical shrinkage is conducted by placing cement slurry in a reservoir under free water access. The amount of water that the cement adsorbs during hydration corresponds to the total chemical shrinkage. Experimental results have shown that the magnitude of the bulk shrinkage depends on the environment in which the cement exists. Free access to additional water might make up for the bulk shrinkage and a visible change in the volume will not be observed. But the absence of free water and pressure application makes excessive shrinkage possible. Chemical shrinkage is a linear function of the percentage of the four major clinker minerals. This shrinkage is therefore dependent on cement class. The water-cement ratio influences the magnitude and the rate of the chemical shrinkage. The shrinkage rate rises also with an increase in the curing temperature.

Microannular formation in cements

It is possible that a microannulus can be formed between either the casing and the cement or the cement and the formation. Such occurrences can be determined through the use of a cement bond log response or through the observation of gas migration problems. One example of microannulus formation is given in terms of the radial displacement of the casing resulting from wellbore temperature and/or pressure changes. This occurs predominantly when the wellbore pressure is decreased, ie. a change in mud weight when the cement has set.
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Cement expansion Cement expansion is an increase in bulk volume of the initial cement volume. This can be achieved by the addition of cement expanding agents to the Portland cement. Cement expansion of cement is related to the chemical and mineralogical changes which result from the hydration and recrystalisation of the expanding agents calcium sulphate, calcium sulphate hemihydrate or sodium sulphate. The magnitude of the expansion is dependent on the amount of expanding agent added, the cement powder, the slurry design and the curing conditions. Although expansion occurs, an overall total chemical shrinkage is still maintained. The general basis for using an expanding cement has to do with microannulus prevention. A problem arises if the properties of the cement are not adequately controlled. A cement may possess expansion properties that could damage the formation through excessive expansion. Unconsolidated formations limit the use of expanding cements in terms of inner annulus formation. Baumgarte et al. (1999) reported that an expanding cement in a soft formation may be at risk of creating an inner annulus. This would occur as the expansion moves radially outwards in the direction of the path of least resistance. Because of this observation, expanding cement systems tend to work best in hard formations which can accept the expanding force of the cement. The hard formations can pre-stress the cement and thus build a good hydraulic seal. The cement only begins to expand after the cement has set. It is therefore important to realise that the bond between the formation and the cement and the casing and the cement will only improve with time.

action of the slow-moving gas at high pressure behind the casing wall. Many different aspects must be considered when dealing with this as many factors can contribute to the long-term breakdown of the cement design. These further considerations consist of: workability; density; set retardation; mud cake removal; entrainment of formation gas; shale sloughing; pumping rate; and mix consistency. The consequences of cement shrinkage are only likely to be realised over time. In North America where tens of thousands of wells are either inactive or abandoned, some wells are leaking gas to the surface. This is a result of cement shrinkage and microannular formation. Some of the migrating gas can enter shallow aquifers where traces of sulphurous compounds can sour the water making it non-potable. Furthermore, it can cause the presence of corrosive waters that can deteriorate the cement and the casing. Escaping gas can cause further trouble by entering household systems and flowing when the taps are turned on or by entering agricultural wells and locking the well. This gas influx is likely to increase the concentration of gas over time. The extent to which this is a problem needs to be determined. It is the view of Dusseault (2000), that if these events are occurring then the standards for oilwell cementing and abandonment are either not well founded or are based on a flawed system. When the problem to be rectified has been established, practices can be based on correct physical mechanisms which might give a better chance of success.

Long-term leaking of oil wells

Oil and gas wells can develop leaks well after the borehole has been abandoned. Several mechanisms are believed to be the cause of such leaks: channelling; poor mud cake removal; shrinkage; and high cement permeability. These leaks are instigated by cement shrinkage which in turn gives rise to the propagation of fractures. These fractures propagate from the
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Mud cake removal for cementing job

Poor mud cake removal is another area of cement failure. In order to cement successfully, a complete displacement of the drilling mud during the placement of the cement must be achieved. Many methods of mud removal exist, including: pre-flushes; centralisers; casing movement; and conditioning of the drilling mud.

These procedures displace the mobile mud but really need to be applied vigorously in order to remove some of the gelled mud. There is some difficulty in removing the mudcake completely as shown in laboratory testing (Haberman et al., 1991). Even when it is partially removed by the tangential flow of fluids the filtration rate is not changed. An increase in filtration rate can be achieved by using mechanical scratchers or using turbulent spacers at high displacement rates. An interesting point to investigate is the strength of the mud cake during the cementing process. Is low permeability enough to control the fluid loss from cement slurries or do the filtration properties of the cement slurry dictate the overall fluid loss? An experiment by Haberman et al. (1991) determined the function of pressure using a regular HTHP mud fluid-loss cell at constant temperature (175oF). Haberman et al. found that the filtration rate was independent for the overbalance pressure as expected for a dispersed, compressible mud cake. During each test the fluid loss was assumed to be approximately constant over the short time intervals used. Haberman et al. were unable to supply any evidence as to the mud cake being removed mechanically during cementing. This supported the laboratory evidence which suggested the strong mechanical nature of the filter cake. The filter cake was held tightly onto the wellbore by the overbalance pressure. This test was conducted under conditions present in the Mississippi River Delta. Therefore the conclusions from this experiment only apply to wells drilled in this region. It is difficult to predict whether similar results could be expected in fields such as those in the Cooper and Eromanga Basins. The experimental conditions in the Mississippi region were: extensive sand intervals, commonly with permeability's greater than 100 md; typical (TVD) was in the vicinity of 10 000 ft and the casing was cemented up to a depth of approximately 5000 ft; the bottom hole circulating temperature was measured to be about 160oF; no scratchers were used; centralisers were used across production zones; and casing was reciprocated.

The following observations were made as a result of the experiment: cement placement did not alter the fluid loss substantially, indicating that the mud cake was not removed or even altered by the cementing process; in the absence of gelation effects, fluid-loss control additives in the cement slurries had no affect on the fluid loss after cementing fluid loss was controlled by the filtration properties of the mud cake; the significant reduction in fluid loss caused a large reduction in the overbalance pressure; downhole fluid loss can be determined accurately by measurements made at the surface; and the magnitudes of downhole fluid losses were equivalent to a low-temperature, low-pressure API drilling mud fluid loss of approximately 1 cc/30 min. when normalised to the same surface area as the API test. The experiment provided an insight to the long debate about whether fluid losses were dominated by mud filter cake or cement filtration properties. It was found that in an overbalance situation (most common) the integrity of the mud cake is quite high. Thus it indicated that mud cake was not removed by the cementing process. This experiment did not involve the use of scratchers: it is recommended that the effectiveness of scratchers to remove mud cake build up be investigated. The use of scratchers for increasing the effectiveness of the primary cementing job should be investigated also. It is likely that scratchers will improve cementing practices because they provide a mechanical means for mud cake removal. Perhaps the poor mud removal properties in some wells could be the reason for poor primary cementing. Brumby 9 is one well with poor cementing properties: it is discussed later in this report. Pre-flushes are not used before cementing in the Cooper and Eromanga Basins. Instead, two well volumes are circulated in order to remove the mud filter cake. The effectiveness of this technique is not known.

REMEDIAL CEMENTING
In many cases the primary cementing job fails and there is a need for a remedial cementing job to be performed in order to achieve the design requirements of the primary cement job (Fig. 13). Many remedial jobs involve the technique of squeeze cementing or cement plugs. Marca (1990) noted the purpose of the remedial cementing as:
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repairing a primary cement job that failed due to the cement by-passing the mud or an insufficient cement height in the annulus; eliminating water intrusion; repairing casing leaks caused by corroded or split pipe; sealing off lost-circulation zones; attempting to stop fluid migration into a producing zone; abandoning a non-productive or depleted zone; decreasing the producing gasoil ratio by isolating the gas zones from adjacent oil intervals; and plugging all or part of a zone in a multizone injection well so as to direct the injection into the desired intervals.

cross-flow between formations which are at different pressures; and potential contamination of freshwater aquifers.

These problems can impact on the environment. Other impacts such as those affecting the production potential of the well are outside the scope of this report. One of the most difficult tasks in performing a remedial procedure is determining where to perform the perforations. Once this has been established, correct circulation of the cement will help to provide a better remedial job. Figure 15 depicts the downhole circulation of cement after the location of perforations. Typically, two situations exist behind the casing: the mud channel to be repaired is against a permeable formation and during the squeeze job the cement filter cake builds so that over time it fills the void; and circulation is established between two sets of perforations and a circulation or channel squeeze is performed to replace the mud in the channel with cement. In order for these operations to be succeed it is necessary to maintain downhole pressure below the formation fracturing pressure. If a fracture was to occur then the ensuing path of least resistance would lead to large amounts of cement slurry being lost. This could not only damage the formation but could also contaminate hydrocarbon zones and/or fresh aquifers. The issue of damaging zones of commercial interest is not an environmental one. What is of concern is the possible reservoir damage that could lead to a loss in natural reservoir drive not only in the local field but also neighbouring fields. Damage that could deplete the reservoir pressure of neighbouring in fields is a cause for concern. In many cases it is not possible to perform a remedial operation: the integrity of the wellbore may not be strong enough to support such a job. Fracturing which could damage the formation may then occur. It is not always true that in order to achieve a good squeeze job a high pressure gradient is needed. A high pressure is likely to exceed the fracture gradient of the formation and lead to lost control of cement placement and
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The cement slurry in a remedial job is subject to a differential pressure against a filter of permeable rock. The physical considerations that must be acknowledged relate to filtration, deposition of filter cake and potential fracturing of formations. The differential pressure exerted on the slurry causes the cement to lose part of its water to the formation. As a result the slurry begins to dehydrate and a cake of partially dehydrated cement is formed. The rate of filter cake formation (Fig. 14) is a result of four factors: formation permeability; magnitude of differential pressure applied; capacity of the slurry to lose fluid at downhole conditions; and time. It is important to tailor the cement slurry to suit particular formation characteristics. For example, a cement slurry with high water-loss capabilities is likely to choke the wellbore with filter cake. The design of the cement slurry should depend upon formation characteristics. Ideally, the squeeze cement slurry needs to be constructed to control filter cake growth and allow uniform filter cake to build up over all permeable surfaces.

Applications of the squeeze cement job

One of the major reasons for a failed primary cementing job is poor mud displacement, which causes the cement slurry to channel through the drilling mud. Consequently, voids and pockets or channels are left behind the casing, resulting in insufficient hydraulic isolation between the various permeable zones. If this condition is left uncorrected more problems are likely to arise:

Figure 13 Defective primary cementing job (Marca, 1990)

Figure 14 The mechanisms for cement cake build up in borehole (Baret et al., 1990)

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Figure 15 Circulation of cement in squeeze cementing (Marca, 1990)

formation invasion. A fracture has the ability to extend across various zones and open unwanted channels of communication between previously isolated zones. Careful monitoring of the hydrostatic pressure can ensure that such damage does not arise. One misconception that exists concerning the cement slurry is that it penetrates the pores of the rock. If this was to occur the permeability of the rock would need to be in excess of 100 darcies (Marca, 1990)! The only way that the cement slurry can actually enter the formation is through fractures or vughs. Only the mix water and the dissolved substances in the cement slurry can enter the formation. The solids in the cement form a filter cake on the face of the formation (Fig. 14).

The use of lost circulation material is common also in the setting of plugs. It prevents the loss of excessive amounts of fluid to the formation (Fig. 17).

Reasons for cement plug failure

The basis for determining the success of a plugging is the depth of the top of the cement plug and the hardness of the cement. These are tested by cement bond logs and cement evaluation tools (CET) and also by radioactive tracers. Mud contamination is a major cause of cement plug failure as it affects the compressive strength of the cement significantly. Successful plugging involves the placement of the cement: the chances of success are greater when the plug is set in wellbores of near gauge. Furthermore, plugs have a better chance of meeting their design properties if they are set in hard rock formations. Plugs set in soft formations are not likely to bond strongly with the formation because insufficient resistance may prevent a good cement filter cake from forming.

Cement plugs
Another procedure used for controlling lost circulation areas and attempting to repair a damaged cementing job involves the plugging of the formation with a cement plug. Plugs are used to sidetrack a fish, initiate directional drilling, plug back a zone or a well, solve lost circulation or provide an anchor for openhole tests. They are also the main means for providing zonal isolation to wells that are to be abandoned (Fig. 16).
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Figure 16 The use of cement plugs for zonal isolation in the abandonment of a well (Marca, 1990)

Figure 17 The use of a cement plug to prevent fluid loss to a thief zone (Marca, 1990)

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Three principal means of plug failure have been identified as of for concern: Mud contamination This is a major cause of cement plug failure, as well as of cement failure in general. Mud contamination affects compressive strength. It generally results from a poorly centralised pipe. If tubing or drillpipe is not central in the hole it will rest against the side of the well and slurry coming out of the bottom will follow a path of least resistance. This causes cement channels in the mud and cement mixes with the mud when the pipe is pulled out of the hole. Insufficient cement volume If a plug is set in a poorly constructed part of a hole that may contain a washout it is likely that inadequate amounts of cement would be in place. This means that the top of the cement column would not have reached the required height. In large sections mud displacement is difficult and therefore the chances of contaminating the cement slurry are increased. The plug should be placed in the most well-calibrated part of the hole. To increase the chances of success Bradford and Dees (1982) and Spradlin (1982) recommended a minimum of 500 ft (152 m) for plug height. Smith et al. (1983) recommended that a plug should be between 300 and 900 ft. Bradford and Dees argued that the extra cement is economical, particularly when examining the cost of repeating the job, waiting on cement and retesting the plug. Water loss Water loss considerations are essential when determining the placement characteristics of cement. If filtrate invades a formation then formation damage is likely to occur. Water loss can prevent the complete hydration of the slurry which typically leads to weak cement. Furthermore it leads to poor cement-formation bonds. For a drilling operator it is extremely important to be able to calculate and control the water loss.

provide adequate zonal isolation; protect sensitive areas such a freshwater aquifers; provide good cement bonds between the casing and cement and between the formation and cement; support loading of casing sufficiently; and protect the casing against corrosion by preventing cross-flow of fluids behind the casing.

With the design purpose stated, it is possible to perform tests to determine how well the cement is performing. The evaluation of the procedure needs to be made after the job has been completed so that the level of attaining the objectives can be determined. Several techniques can be used to assess the integrity of cement behind the casing. A guide for assessing the quality of cement jobs (incorporating the results of some techniques discussed in this report) is in Appendix 5.

Hydraulic testing
Hydraulic testing of the degree of zonal isolation provided by the cement is a commonly done by either dry or pressure testing. Zonal isolation is intended to prevent cross-flow behind the casing and helps to prevent the corrosion of the casing by preventing formations penetrated in the wellbore from communicating. Pressure testing is typically performed after every surface or intermediate casing cement job after drilling the casing shoe. The pressure inside the casing is increased until the pressure exerted at the casing shoe becomes greater than the pressure expected to be applied. A casing shoe that does not pressure up indicates a poor cement job, and a remedial job is required to correct this. Dry testing (also known as a drill stem test [DST]) is a good tool for determining the effectiveness of a squeeze job or cement seal at the top of a liner (Jutten & Morriss, 1990). This test aims to show that upon a reduction of casing pressure the formation fluids do not invade the wellbore. A successful cementing job will show no downhole pressure change during the opening of the downhole valve or during the following shut-in period. Figure 18 shows the results expected from a test performed before cement squeezing and the result from a good DST run.

TESTING THE QUALITY OF CEMENT JOBS

A clear understanding of the design purpose of the cement is needed if accurate means of cement job evaluations are to be employed. Otherwise it is impossible to determine whether the cementing job has fulfilled its requirements. A good cement job needs to:
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Temperature logging
Temperature surveys are useful in detecting cement in the annulus several hours after cement placement (Jutten & Morriss, 1990). The reason for this is the exothermic nature of cement hydration. The heat generated during the curing of the cement raises the temperature of the wellbore which in turn induces a deviation from the normal temperature gradient (Fig. 19). The kinetics of cement hydration will be affected by the circulation of fluids prior to and during cementing. Thus the longer the circulation, the lower the temperature. This results in longer thickening times and smaller heat increases in the well. Temperature logs may not be all that suitable for evaluating the cement job in deep wells because of the large temperature differences between the top and the bottom of the well. Temperature increases are typically larger in a bigger annulus because the amount of heat generated is proportional to the volume of cement.

acoustic log is related to the acoustic properties of the surrounding environment. As a result it is possible to determine the quality of the acoustic coupling between the casing, cement and formation. Good acoustic coupling indicates a good bond. But it does not necessarily mean that adequate zonal isolation has been achieved. The lack of a reliable relationship between the acoustic coupling and hydraulic isolation is a major limitation on this technique. However, it can give a general idea of wellbore conditions when the acoustic properties of the cement and formation are known. According to Jutten and Morriss (1990), fairly reliable data is obtained from the acoustic log when there is: good quality control procedure of the field log; knowledge of the well and casing data; a good estimate of the relevant cement properties; and a clear understanding of the previous well history cases.

Communication tester
If channelling behind the casing is expected, the temperature logs can be effective tools in identifying the problem. Figure 20 shows a typical case where flow behind the casing is occurring. This is the first temperature survey prior to the injection of 80 bbl of diesel oil. The second temperature survey, run only a short time after injection, shows a large temperature decrease above the perforations and temperature variations down to the oil-water contact. Also, these variations indicate communication behind the casing. In such cases, remedial cementing must be performed to seal the annulus and reduce the water content.

Cement bond log

For the purposes of controlling fluid migration it is important that an effective bond between the cement and the formation and between the cement and the casing be achieved. One way to monitor this bond is through a cement bond log (CBL). When used originally the amplitude of the acoustic signal in a firmly cemented pipe was only a fraction of that of a free pipe. From their first use it was immediately established that a CBL is the primary technology in cement integrity monitoring (Fig. 21). A CBL has the ability not only to determine the bond between the cement and the casing but also between the cement and the formation. The accuracy of a CBL is sufficient for determining the compressive strength of cement under favourable conditions. Many factors can affect the amplitude measurement of the CBL (calibration of tool, pressure, temperature etc.). So it is necessary to speak of attenuation rates. The basic premise is that the attenuation rate helps to quantify the results as a function of cement. Attenuation rates are linearly related to the percentage of the circumference of the casing bonded by the cement. The concept of bond index (BI) was derived by Pardue et al. (1963). The validity of a BI was confirmed by Jutten and
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Noise logging
Noise logging is a means of detecting whether flow is occurring behind the casing (Jutten and Morriss, 1990). This tool works on the premise that flowing gas, water or oil produces noise. It can give an indication not only to what is flowing behind the casing but also of the magnitude of the problem. The tool relies on a succession of static noise measurements and so it is difficult to perform when the tool is moving. Therefore it has little use in the oil and gas industry.

Acoustic logging
Acoustic logging is a very popular means of cement evaluation in the oil and gas industry (Jutten and Morriss, 1990). The response from the

Figure 18 Dry test expectations and results (Marca , 1990)

Figure 19 Typical temperature survey showing the probable cement top (Jutten and Morriss, 1990)

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Figure 20 Temperature composite profile log before cement squeeze (Jutten and Morriss, 1990)

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Figure 21 The configuration of a normal CBL tool run in the hole (Jutten and Morriss, 1990)

Figure 22 CBL interpretation chart (Jutten and Morriss, 1990)

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Parcevaux (1987) for the percentage of cemented area, regardless of the shape and fluid of the noncemented area. A CBL interpretation chart in, was constructed from the attenuation rate variations as a function of the cement, casing size and thickness (Fig. 22). It presents a relationship between the CBL and the cement compressive strength. The chart was modified for lightweight cements by Bruckdorfer et al. (1983).

Cement evaluation tool

A CET has been utilised to overcome the CBL limitations (Ataya et al., 1987). This evaluation tool is intended to improve the ability to distinguish between good and bad cement bonds, as well as to identify the channels behind the casing accurately. This section comprises the predictions of the CET and the communication results. The CET is useful in determining whether primary or subsequent cementing operations are the reasons for communication. Remedial operations such as cement squeezing can be used to correct the problem. Like the CBL, the CET is limited to detection of fast formation arrivals. The pulse echo tool (see below) is useful in areas of fast formations. Good cementing jobs have competent shear and hydraulic bonds between the formation and the casing. The majority of cement jobs support the casing in the hole. It is the hydraulic bond that blocks the flow of fluid across a cemented interval and reduces the danger of casing corrosion. Effective hydraulic bonding means that cement seals the formation as well as the casing. The CET determines the degree of this bond. Typically, the CET is run in combination with the CBL to help provide a greater insight into the cement condition. The CET is a high frequency ultrasonic device with eight focused transducers arranged in a helical pattern on the sonde. A ninth transducer is aligned with the tool axis and is used to monitor the velocity of sound in the fluid. The transducers act as both transmitters and receivers, emitting an ultra-sonic pulse perpendicular to the casing wall and detecting the reflected wave. Figure 24 depicts the sonic wave paths through different medium in the wellbore.

Limitations of cement bond logs

Traditional cement bond logs are limited by the fact that in cemented sections a high amplitude can be the result of either channelling or microannulus formation (Sheives et al., 1986). Sometimes it may be difficult to determine the exact case. Detection of microannulus with cement bond logs Measuring of the CBL amplitude is a function of the shear coupling of the casing to the medium behind the casing (Fig. 23). If cement is present behind the casing and there is sufficient bond to provide a good shear coupling, a reduction in the amplitude will be recorded. An amplitude of 40 50 dB for a 3foot spacing can be expected, depending on the properties of the cement. The sensitivity of the CBL is such that even very small microannuli will indicate large amplitudes which is evidence of poor bonds. This would then indicate the potential presence of poor hydraulic seals even though zonal isolation may still be present. An advantage with the (CET) is that small gaps (<0.004 in.) have a relatively insignificant effect on the calculation of the bond. With such small bonds it is likely that the cement is still providing good hydraulic seals. Even though the microannulus may not appear to be a problem at the time of testing, its significance for future problems is not known. Determination of a microannulus using a CBL can be done by comparing a pressured log with an unpressured log. At a stage in the depth of the well the hydrostatic pressure will be sufficient to close the microannulus. This is noted by a decrease in the amplitude of the CBL log. Furthermore, CET logs have the ability to be sensitive to gas-filled microannuli because the acoustic impedance contrast between steel and air is very great. Due to this, the bond value drops below the free pipe value and most of the gas exists behind the casing.
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Acoustic properties of cement

Log responses in a cased hole primarily depend on the acoustic properties of the hardened cement. While acoustic properties of rocks are known, there are difficulties in cement acoustic properties because the physical properties of cement change with time. Thus the log responses also change with time. Also, cement is physically not the same along the entire casing string. This can produce a large difference in the log response on long strings where a large temperature difference exists between the bottom and top of the cement (Sheives et al., 1986).

Figure 23 CBL energy transmission as a function of microannulus wavelength (Jutten and Morriss, 1990)

Figure 24 Sonic wave paths (Jutten and Morriss, 1990)

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Channels
The pulse echo tool (PET) is useful for the detection of channels in cement. PETs have the advantage over the CBL in being able to isolate the channels and to give a better circumferential resolution for the bond value. Instead the PET gives a low average bond amplitude over a 3foot interval (Sheives et al., 1986)

Fast formations
CBLs are not favoured in fast formations because they do not give accurate data relating to bond formation. In fast formations the sound velocity of the formation is more than the casing sound velocity and therefore the formation arrival signals can interfere with the normal CBL casing arrivals. The PET only measures the cement casing bond. This results in less interference from the formation signals on the measurement. However, consideration must be given when the cement sheath is small and the acoustic impedance of the material behind the casing is different to that of the cement. Reflections from this boundary can interfere with the resonance window, thereby causing inaccurate bond measurements.

formations that may contain fractures, have a low fracture gradient, be highly permeable, or are vuggy or cavernous (Davies & Hartogl, 1981). The cement column in the wellbore exerts a weight on the formation that is dependent on the weight of the cement being used and the height of the cement column. In many cases the formation may be too weak and thus the anticipated pressure exerted by the mud column may exceed the fracture gradient of the formation. As a result, some of the weaker formations can fracture and fail. Low-density cements have been developed for use in these type of environments. Such cements are typically created by mixing conventional cement slurries with microspheres or even gas. The lowest probable conventional cement slurry density is 11.0 lb/gal. Anything lower than this value will have a permeability that is too high and a compressive strength that is too low for adequate zonal isolation. Although hollow ceramic or glass spheres are used in ultra-low density cements, they require special handling techniques. Also, rheological cement properties must be maintained accurately to prevent the spheres from floating. In addition, the collapse pressure of these microspheres is about 7250 psi. This implies that only limited depths can be used for such slurries, as the collapse pressure may be exceeded. For these reasons foamed cements are often preferred. They are less expensive and much easier to design that microsphere systems. Furthermore, it is possible to mix foamed cement at lower densities and yet maintain better properties. Davies and Hartog (1981) noted that foamed cements have the following advantages: they can develop a relatively high density in a short period of time; they can cause less damage to water-sensitive formations; they can reduce the chance of annular gas flow; and they allow cementing of thief zones. The addition of gas does not affect the cement placement properties. Also, the density can be varied easily by changes in the gas concentration. Because the reduced chance of cement loss to potential producing zones, the prospect of increased well productivity and adequate zonal isolation is a benefit. Nitrogen is the most commonly used gas in a foamed cement. Along with a surfactant to act as
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PREVENTATIVE TECHNIQUES Prevention of gas migration

By reducing the critical zone it is possible to reduce the possibility of gas migration (Bannister et al., 1983). This can be achieved by: preventing large amounts of water loss from the slurry to a permeable formation; decreasing initial hydrostatic pressure exerted by the fluid column; limiting/preventing the annular pressure drop until sufficient interstitial cement bonding has occurred to prevent gas flow; and mechanical or chemical modifications, near the gas zone, helps the cement form an impermeable barrier against gas migration: filter cake inhibition: formation of an impermeable cement filter cake against the gas-bearing zone; and gas-induced inhibition: chemical modification of the cement slurry by the incoming gas to form an impermeable barrier to additional gas flow.

Use of foamed cement

In some situations foamed cement can be a solution for cement problems that are related to

a foaming agent, chemicals are used to improve foam stability. Foamed cements are characterised by their quality which is the ratio of the gas volume to the total foam volume. Figure 25 shows the process for mixing and creating of foamed cements. Two extreme structural situations can arise depending on the quality of the cement being used. Foamed cements are compressible fluids and thus the quality of the cement will change through the process of circulation. This occurs through severe pressure variations. Expected values would see a 1000 psi pressure decreasing when flowing down the casing where pressures may exceed 10 000 psi. The quality will again decrease as it flows up the other side of the annulus. Thickening time does not depend on the quality. It is possible to estimate the quality of the foamed cement by taking into account the compressibility laws for nitrogen and its solubility in the base slurry. Foamed cements made in field conditions which involve high pressure and high shear rates have been found to be more stable than those created in laboratory conditions. It has also been shown that higher pressures promote the creation of smaller bubbles (Kopp et al., 2000). Pressure is not the only parameter that is important when considering foamed cements,

which are three phase systems with many changes taking place at the interfaces. Foamed cement is in constant evolution due to the reorganisation of the bubbles that may shrink, grow or coalesce. As a result it is virtually impossible to produce two samples with the same initial bubble-size distribution. Cured cement has a cement matrix with a network of pore structures. With a sufficient quality, each gas bubble is adjacent to several other gas bubbles. Outside forces such as dehydration will cause some interfaces to rupture; as a result the adjacent bubbles will form a channel of two or more bubbles. Foam stability is of major importance not only to the bonding properties of the cement but also to the ability of the cement to perform the task it was designed for. Unstable structures result in a pore structure that is imperfect and interconnected. Typically this occurs during the setting of the cement and is caused by the rupture of unstable nitrogen bubbles upon contact with other bubbles. This results in coalescence and larger gas pockets. A sponge-like structure is encountered that has lower compressive strength, higher permeability and poor bonding properties.

Figure 25 Facilities for the generation of foamed cements (Rozieres, et al., 1990)

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Foamed cement limitations

Rozieres et al., (1990) imposed the following boundary conditions on the design process of foamed cement: fracture and pore pressure profile; permeability of the formation; density of the lead slurry; safety factors; and length of the foam column. The foamed slurry should be designed to have a permeability less than one-tenth than that of the critical formations. In order to support the casing, the compressive strength of the cement needs to be in excess of 100 psi (and even above 500 psi if it is required by regulations). The slurry must also be able to contain the pore pressure of the formation. Because of these limits, a lower limit is placed upon the foamed cement density. However, it is the fracture gradient of the formations that determines the upper limit of the foamed cement density. The main advantage of foamed cement is that it has ductile properties that allow it to deform as the casing is pressurised. Unlike conventional cement it will not crack. Furthermore, foamed cement can have very favourable tensile strengths and displacement properties. Thus it is very effective in zonal isolation as demonstrated in wells drilled in Wyoming (Kopp et al., 2000). The cost of foamed cement is often higher than that of conventional cement. However, improved zonal isolation practices means that considerable cost savings could be made over the life of the well.

Use of flexible cements

The lack of ductility from conventional cements has been identified as a major reason for the failure of primary cement jobs (Faul et al., 2000). Flexible cements have been used to prevent cement sheath cracking. Using of cements with vulcanised rubber is very costly: foamed cements are an alternative. Foamed cements exhibit improved ductility over conventional cements and have the ability to stay at least one magnitude more ductile than normal cements. This ductility enables the cement sheath to flex as the casing expands, thereby helping to protect it from cracking. Limits apply to the cement quality: above 35% the quality is too porous for zonal isolation and below 20% it becomes too brittle. As the pressure in the reservoir decreases, the effective stress action on the reservoir sand increases: the increased stress can cause large compaction strain. This strain can deform the casing. Even if the casing is not breached it can prevent workovers and recompletions. Foamed cement is also chosen for primary cementing purposes because it exhibits excellent displacement properties and is especially useful when there are concerns over reservoir compaction or salt-formation flow.

Comparison of foam and flexible cements

The tensile strength of foamed cement make these low-density cements excellent for zonal isolation in many operations. The low compressive strength of the foamed cement does not increase the risk of fracture initiation and propagation during hydraulic-fracturing treatments. Increased wellbore pressure during casing pressure tests or fracture stimulation treatments are tensile in nature. The sheaths ability to withstand these stresses is evaluated by the cements mechanical properties and tensile strength. The cements, compressive strength is of minimal importance (Deeg et al., 1999). Flexible cement is one of the most durable cements that can be used (Fig. 26). Flexible cement has a much longer life than foamed cement. But the limiting factor in its use is the major cost involved and so it is unlikely to be adopted for regular use. Strong reasons are needed to justify using this cement. Vulcanised rubber cement can offer a longer life in sour/sweet well applications.

Displacement properties of foamed cement

During pumping foamed cement has the ability to develop higher dynamic-flow shear stress than normal cements. This increases the muddisplacement properties of the cement. Slurry density is determined by the gas content or quality and depends on the pump rate of the base slurry, foamer, stabiliser rates and nitrogen rate. The volume of gas used to foam the cement decreases, allowing slurry pressure to remain almost constant during the systems transition period. This helps to control gas migration and formationfluid influx, which limits migration channels in the set cement sheath.

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Foamed cement is a good system as demonstrated in Wyoming where six wells were analysed (Kopp et al., 2000). Two wells were cemented with conventional high-strength, non-nitrified cement across the formations. Tracer tags indicated poor zonal isolation and stimulation treatments caused communication between the high and low pressure zones Foamed cement was used in the other four wells and this helped to obtain good zonal isolation. Furthermore, the stimulation treatment remained in the zone, little fracture growth occurred outside the target formation and communication did not occur between the high and low pressure zones. In the conditions present in Wyoming, foamed cement proved to be beneficial for zonal isolation. No work has been done to establish the validity of using foamed cement in wells in the Cooper and Eromanga Basins.

both mechanisms are highly likely to create a path of potential fluid conductivity. Many mathematical models have been proposed to account for cement properties that will prevent the loss of integrity (Le Roy-Delage et al., 2000). In order to avoid mechanical damage, cements with a ratio of a high tensile strength to Youngs modulus and a low Youngs modulus compared with that of the rock are the best cements in terms of mechanical durability. However, these requirements are functions of the downhole specific well environment (well geometry, casing properties, rock mechanical properties and expected loading history). It is possible that mechanical damage can be caused by: large increases in wellbore pressure (pressure testing, mud weight increase, perforating and gas production); increase in wellbore temperature (steam injection and geothermal production); and formation loading (compaction and faulting). Weaker formations generally result in poor cements because the environment is not likely to support cement deformation. In cases of a temperature increase, the thermal properties of steel, cement and rock need to be considered. Furthermore, mechanical damage can also be due to cement shrinkage. Therefore non-shrinking cements should be used.

Durable zonal isolation (new cements)

Downhole changes may cause sufficient stress to alter the cement sheath and remove the zonal isolation that was created upon primary cementing. Apart from chemical changes, mechanical failure is the single biggest reason for failure of a cement job. Mechanical failure leads to the formation of cracks while debonding leads to the creation of a microannulus. Regardless of whether the failure is mechanical or chemical

Figure 26 Life of the cement sheath for the three primary types of cements used (Kopp et al., 2000)

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Microannuli formed between the casing and the cement are referred to as inner microannulus and those between the cement and the formation as outer microannulus. Detection of microannuli involves the use of CBL. Prevention of microannular formation is limited simply to the use of non-shrink cements. Cements that expand upon hydration are often preferable in conditions that can accept such a physical change. Research has shown that expanding cements actually expand towards the formation and not in the direction of the casing (Baumgarte et al., 1999). This annulus experiment tried to determine the behaviour of an expanding cement sheath and whether or not it provided an acceptable approach to microannular prevention. An intention also was to determine the optimal conditions for using such cements. The experiment indicated that cased wells cemented with expanding cements in soft formations (for example, unconsolidated sandstones) were at significant risk of experiencing debonding between the cement and the casing string as the cement moved radially outwards in the direction of least resistance. The optimal condition when using expanding cements was in hard formations that could provide resistance to the expanding cement. The success of the cement bond in part has to do with the elastic properties of the cement sheath.

In some cases corrosion cannot be detected until the damage is done. This is disturbing because the casing is the last line of defence in the well system. The type of corrosion under consideration is the oxidation of the iron metal. This does not mean that oxygen is present. However, it does refer to the loss of electrons by the metal to gain a positive charge. Fe 2e <-> Fe2+ When this reaction occurs the metal loses an atom to the electrolyte and a void in the metal can occur. This decreases the inherent strength of the metal and thus presents serious problems to the integrity of the casing design.

Corrosive agents
Corrosive components in a reservoir environment include hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide and organic or inorganic sulphide. Oxygen accelerates corrosion. It rarely exists in the wellbore environment but is introduced through injecting water, gas or fire floods and circulating drilling fluid. The use of acids for well stimulation can have an effect on corrosion. Carbon dioxide CO2 not only has an affect on the well casing, but is also can cause leaching of the cement in the wellbore. CO2 forms a corrosive environment when it reduces the pH of water to below 7.0. CO2 testing is difficult primarily because it must be measured at system conditions: CO2 may escape when the system temperature is raised or the system pressure is reduced. Hydrogen sulphide Difficulties arise in predicting corrosion through hydrogen sulphide because the iron sulphide produced by corrosion is insoluble at the normal pH level. This can form a film which protects the metal. However, in the presence of CO2 the pH level is lowered and the increased solubility of iron sulphide prevents the formation of the protective film. The presence of oxygen can accelerate the corrosion by either an aeration cell being formed (the oxygen-free environment results in a pitting of corrosion) or carbon dioxide may lower the pH sufficiently to make the ferric hydroxide somewhat soluble and fresh metal available for corrosion. Hydrogen sulphide can react with dissolved oxygen to form free sulphur which is also corrosive.

Downhole corrosion prevention

Part of successful well completion planning relates to the casing protection. If the failure of the cement is known or anticipated, techniques can be utilised to enhance the longevity of the casing. Metals in the wellbore corrode when they come into contact with corrosive gases in the presence of water. The primary means of control is to remove the contact that exists between the gases and the metal. Further controls rely on metallurgy, the wellbore environment and cathodic protection. In general these techniques are used in combination or even to obtain the best possible type of protection. As demonstrated, problems can occur if effective corrosion prevention methods are not in place. Uncontrolled corrosion can lead to the replacement of equipment, lost production time, contamination of subsurface formations, blowouts and well abandonment due to casing leaks. In terms of the downhole environment the major concern lies with the possible contamination of subsurface formations, particularly freshwater aquifers.
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Prevention methods
Once the corrosion problem is identified, it is possible to implement a prevention or treatment plan. Corrosion prevention plans should be in place before a well is drilled. Well programs implemented without regard to corrosion control can make it a very costly matter should corrosion set in. The existing means of corrosion prevention or treatment are outlined below. Fluid mechanics In wells handling highly corrosive gas at high velocity, care must be taken to ensure that turbulent effects are not created by sudden reductions in pipe diameter or flow direction. Weeter (1982) showed that larger tubing strings with low flow velocities may have less corrosion than a smaller sized tubing handling the same amount of fluid. Fluid additives to prevent or inhibit corrosion Inhibitors are often used to prevent the oxidation of bare metal. Typically they tend to be oilsoluble organic chemicals that prevent water and corrosive compounds from reaching the bare metal surface. Removal of corrosive gases Corrosive gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and oxygen present problems. But it is extremely expensive to remove these gases from the wellbore. Correct selection of materials for tubular goods and fittings Corrosion resistant materials should be used in all potentially corrosive environments. However, their use is governed by cost. It is often too expensive to justify their use. Furthermore, corrosion resistant materials may not provide the correct mechanical properties required for the job. For example, many stainless steel applications, which are in fact corrosion resistant, often lack the physical strength as well as the malleability a required. Coatings Protective coatings may be applied in instances where it is not practical to use non-corrosive material. The coating can be an application of cement or various kinds of plastics to the inside of the tubing. It is difficult to apply the coating evenly to eliminate small gaps in the coating surface. If areas of the metal are left uncoated
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then the metal will corrode at those points thereby defeating the purpose of the protective coating. Cathodic protection Corrosion can be avoided by electrically preventing the oxidation of iron. This is done by applying an electrical charge that actually forces electrons on to the pipe. The current is supplied by a voltage source such as a transformer rectifier. The well casing acts as the cathode on the negative side and the positive side is a piece of metal that helps to complete the circuit after grounding through earth. Sufficient amounts of electrons supplied to the casing prevent corrosion. Platinum and graphite electrodes are recommended because they can last between 10 and 20 years if correct operational procedures are followed. Figure 27 shows a typical downhole cathodic protection arrangement.

Corrosion testing
There are a several means of determining whether corrosion is taking place in the wellbore. Metal coupons A metal coupon is essentially a piece of metal that is as close to the metal present in the wellbore as physically possible. This method has limitations: it is not convenient to place these coupons downhole; and coupons need to be placed in areas where the water can be trapped so that readings are accurate. Surface measurements are not indicative of the extent of corrosion at the bottom of the hole or of corrosion at any intermediate depth in the hole. Corrator probes Corrator probes are used to monitor a continuous electrolyte. If connected to a recorder the probes can provide a measure of the continuous corrosion rate for both general and pitting types of corrosion. However, they are limited in the same way as the metal coupons: they can only monitor corrosion at the installation point.

Figure 27 Typical downhole arrangement of continuous corrosion inhibitor (Weeter, 1982)

CONCLUSION
The major concern for cement deterioration is leaching which is a thermodynamically favoured reaction. Concern increases because additives are not present to prevent or eliminate cement carbonation in hostile environments. The rate at which the cement is worn away is not known. This is an area for further study. Also, the formulation of a cement carbonation model in differing downhole environments needs further investigation. The good bonds detected at the time of casing in the case history had deteriorated substantially some 15 years later and had caused a plunge in productivity. Cross-flow issues were also a concern. There was a substantial loss of cement integrity behind the 7 in. casing along the perforated interval. Log responses indicated poor bonding or free pipe. This indication followed the good bonds in the first stage of cementing. The log indicates cement degradation and deterioration and possible migration of crushed fragments from annuli to the wellbore, leaving free space behind the casing. However, the case history shows the need for continued cement monitoring and highlights the fact that cements are not a permanent solution. The case history was one of the more extreme condition wells. Conditions in this well were favourable for cement deterioration. Cement in wells exposed for long periods of time to formation brine saturated with sour gas (rich in CO2) under high temperatures (>180oC/ >356oF)
47

is at major risk. Furthermore, high temperatures help to intensify carbonic acid leaching which affects cements in these conditions and increases the rate of degradation. This will lead to cement deterioration with a loss of compressive strength. The conditions in the Cooper and Eromanga Basins may not be as severe as that expressed in the case history. However, with time it is likely that cements exposed to even moderate conditions will deteriorate. It is important to understand that the risk of cement failure increases over time: once initiated the risk is most likely to grow exponentially.

Monitoring well integrity

An array of tools exists for the evaluation of a cement job. At this stage the CBL seems to be the most accepted tool for the evaluation of zonal isolation in the wellbore. Pulse echo logs have also been considered. There seems to be some success in their use with enhanced channel resolution, suitability in fast formations and sensitivity to a gas-filled microannulus. While such equipment may not be 100% accurate, it is satisfactory for providing evidence of the integrity of the cement job. The most conclusive test for evaluating how effective a cementing program has been is time. The effective evaluation of the cements used should involve the study of already cemented wells.

Cement time-scale
The well in the case history started to fail 15 years after the cement had been put in place. Deterioration most probably occurred long before this time. So what timeframe for the isolation of a formation is required? This report does not address the timeframe for the life of cement but one possible outcome concerning cement life may be that the technology does not exist to be able to provide isolation timeframes. Absolute favourable conditions would need to be present to ensure that cement integrity is maintained for an infinite time after well abandonment. This is never likely to occur since wellbore cement is exposed to dynamic conditions and streams of potentially corrosive compounds. Della 1 indicated that the majority of older wells lacked cement in areas near the surface and in other sections of the well. This allowed formation fluid direct communication with the casing string. The risk of external corrosion would be increased without sufficient means of corrosion prevention. Modern-day cementing involves running cement well into the surface casing which allows for better protection of the casing from contact with a formation.

consider filling the abandoned hole with shales and clay similar to those originally encountered in the wellbore. Such a technique will need investigation. Zones exist in some older wells that have formations exposed directly to casing. This poses problems, especially in cases where the cement was the primary means for corrosion prevention. The risk of corrosion increases if sufficient casing protection is not offered. This was a case in Della 1 where the casing was not cemented between 15 and 90 m. Many older wells have received some treatment (cathodic protection) for corrosion. However, the adequacy of this practice needs investigation. It is possible that corrosion may have jeopardised the integrity of the casing to point where failure is imminent. Further study needs to be conducted into the rates of cement leaching. It is necessary to construct a model that indicates the rate of cement leaching that can be expected in given environments. One expected outcome from the study would be to provide a means for evaluating the degree of cement deterioration. This study should also investigate the level of cement deterioration and provide a point at which the cement is likely to be prevented from fulfilling the zonal isolation requirements. Such a point will most likely represent a percentage weight reduction or thickness loss at which the properties of the cement are affected. A study should be conducted into the validity of the mud removal procedures. No pre-flushes are used in the Cooper and Eromanga Basins. Instead the two hole volumes are circulated. The use of scratchers for mud cake removal is minimal. Is this procedure adequate in removing the mud cake from the wellbore? Wells that encountered problems with the cementing job should be investigated to determine the effectiveness of the mud removal program. Practices such as preflushes and scratchers need further investigation. The practices may require changing or the rheology of the mud properties may need to be altered for more favourable removal. Examining the validity and cost effectiveness of foamed and vulcanised rubber cements should be considered. A means for increasing cement life could reduce the costs involved in remediation work. A study should be made of this cement technology to conditions specific to the Cooper and Eromanga Basins. The use of foamed cements
48

Fluid loss
The loss of fluid from the cement has never been a real concern. Only mix water and dissolved substances have the ability to enter the formation. Very large permeability's must exist in order for the cement to invade the formation. Furthermore, the cement slurry does not contain any compounds of known toxicity and fluid losses are so small as to not constitute a need for concern.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Any disputable formation penetrated in the wellbore which is likely to be subject to contamination should be isolated until sufficient evidence can be obtained to confirm or negate this need. Present cementing technology does not to provide adequate zonal isolation for long periods. As a result, it is recommended that further work be conducted into the adequacy of cementing practices. The research should include a model for predicting the relative time-scale for cement integrity in certain environments (for example, corrosive and high temperature environments). Consideration should be given to well abandonment practices. It may be viable to

is gaining interest, particularly in areas where the formation is known to be weak. Continued cross-flow from poorly isolated wellbores is likely to provide a mechanism for the depletion of natural reservoir energy and is potentially a source of contamination of fresh water aquifers. Is there a stage where the pressure in the sands reaches an equilibrium and crossflow ceases? Will the natural reservoir energy continuously be supplemented by gas cap or water drive mechanisms and thus enable cross-flow for an indefinite period of time? Answers to these questions will be useful in helping to address the problems associated with cross-flow. Current cementing technology is not sufficient in providing an indefinite zonal isolation. New methods need to be considered, particularly when considering the abandonment of the well. These conclusions were some of the outcomes arising from this detailed investigation into the downhole environmental risks associated with drilling and completion practices in the Cooper and Eromanga Basins. By pursuing these lines of enquires, benefits may become apparent to the oil and gas industry.

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APPENDIXES
Appendix 1 Types of filtration
STATIC FILTRATION
The static filtration equation represents Darcys law of fluid flow. This is the same equation that is used where there is a pressure-induced flow of fluids through. In this case the mud cake is visualised as being a thin cylinder.

dV f dt

kAP hmc

where dVf /dt = filtration rate (cc/s) k = mud cake permeability (Darcies) A = flow area (cm2) = filtrate viscosity (cp) P = pressure drop across the mud cake (atm) hmc = mud cake thickness (cm) This is not a perfect model because it does not account for permeability, mud cake thickness and the filtration rate (which is not constant). The greatest variation in permeability occurs early in the filtration process where the only resistance to flow is caused by the filter paper. This means that there is a large initial permeability that decreases quickly as the mud cake develops and reaches a steady value when the mud cake has developed to the point where its growth is balanced by its erosion. This initial large permeability results in what is known as spurt loss. To improve the model it is necessary to express the effect of changing filtration rates as the filtration proceeds. Considering a relationship between the volume filtered and the thickness of the filter cake does this. The volume of solids filtered from the mud is equal to the volume of solids in the mud cake: fsmVm= fschmcA where fsm = fraction of solids in the mud Vm = volume of mud that has been filtered fsc = fraction of solids in the mud cakes The volume of the mud that has been filtered is equal to the volume of the mud cake added to the volume of the filtrate: Vm = hmcA + Vf where Vf = volume of filtrate Then rearrange the equation in terms of hmc.

hmc =

Vf f A( sc 1) f sm

Then by using hmc in Darcys law and combining the equations the result will give:

V f = 2kP(

f sc t 1) A f sm A

This equation has the advantage because at a constant fraction of solids in the mud cake the volume of mud filtered through it can be determined. This means it is a useful way of determining the tendency of a drilling mud or cement mixture to lose water into a permeable formation. It is possible to determine the solid fraction in the mud cake by either drying the mud cake and measuring the density of the filtrate or assuming
50

that the filtrate has a zero solid fraction. It is then possible to rewrite the filtrate volume/time relationship in terms of

t and constant c:

Vf = c t
By using this equation it is possible to make a quick estimate of how much fluid will be lost when drilling though permeable formations. This equation is most useful, however, for determining the water loss properties of a drilling mud as well as the determining the spurt loss. The disadvantage of the equation is that it does not take into account pore plugging effects or formation permeability. Spurt loss is the volume intercept on a graph of filtration volume plotted against root time. Also, API water loss is defined as the volume filtered through an API filter press under 100 psig in 30 min. The square root relationship (as above) means that the API water loss and spurt loss is also equal to twice the volume flowing through an API filter press and a spurt loss of 7.5 min: V30 Vsp = 2(V7.5-Vsp).

Bit filtration
Bit filtration, the first filtration type is due to the action of the drill bit. Very little filter cake forms on the bottom of the hole because the action of mud jets is highly erosive. In addition, the action of the bit is such that every time a bit tooth strikes, a fresh surface of rock is exposed. Beneath the bit filtration is restricted due to an internal filter cake that forms in the pores of the rock just ahead of the drill bit.

Dynamic filtration
Under dynamic conditions the growth of the filter cake is limited by the erosive behaviour of the drilling fluid. When the rock is first exposed the rate of filtration is very high and the mud cake grows quickly. The rate of growth decreases with time until eventually the erosion rate equals the formation rate and the thickness of the mud cake remains constant. In dynamic conditions the rate of filtration depends on the thickness and permeability of the cake: these are governed by Darcys law. However, under static conditions the cake thickness increases to infinity (Fig. A1).

Figure A1 Relative static and dynamic filtration in the bore hole (Outmans, 1963)

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The filtration rate for dynamic filtration is given by the following equation.

k1 ( / f ) +1 Q= ( + 1)
where k1= cake permeability = shear rate exerted by the mud stream f = coefficient of internal friction of cakes surface layer = thickness of the cake subject to erosion (-v+1) = is a function of the cakes compressibility Q = dynamic filtration Permeability varies the most early in the filtration when the only resistance to fluid flow is from the formation. The permeability is greatest initially and it decreases gradually as the mud cake develops on the filter paper. The permeability of the filter paper reaches a constant value when the mud cake has reached a relevant level. This effect is known as mud spurt. Mud spurt occurs when the drilling mud comes into contact with the filter paper. The particles in the mud range from large to small. The smaller particles pass through the filter paper easily yet the larger particles become trapped in the pore spaces of the filter paper and in a sense block it up. Gradually the finer particles in the mud stick to the larger particles in the pore space and start to clog the pores. It should be noted that particles of a critical size are needed to initiate the clogging of the pores. If the particles are too big then they will not enter the pores. Particles that are too small will simply pass through the pores and not get stuck. Once the pore space has been completely clogged by the particles a bridge is formed and no more solids can pass through the pore, no matter how small they are. At this stage only filtrate can invade the formation. The mud spurt time is very much dependent on the size and amount of bridging particles present. A region of three zones is identified in the permeable formation (Fig. 1).

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Appendix 2 Mud recap report data Drilling fluid lost to the formation
Depth (ft) 994 2525 3530 6432 6615 6950 7550 7964 8469 8825 8825 8825 8825 8825 8825 8825 8825 8825 8825 8825 8825 8825 8825 8825 Total Fluid Loss (bbl) 591 Dullingari 50 2484 3016 3016 3026 3681 4280 5141 5734 Total Fluid Loss (bbl) 1592 Brumby 9 Total Fluid Loss (bbl) 2188 Grenache 1 3522 9726 10014 10082 10329 10738 10738 10738 Total Fluid Loss (bbl) Moomba 98 Volume (bbl) 67 35 33 5 3 4 37 23 68 98 64 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 513 60 150 78 56 0 62 66 65 30 567 20 20 48 150 29 60 17 20 40 80 70 514 Depth (ft) 5406 5970 6386 7375 7946 8331 8627 8698 8698 8698 8698 8698 Total Fluid Loss (bbl) 2470 Moomba 114 3020 4270 5500 6487 7136 7348 7847 9047 9047 9047 9047 Total Fluid Loss (bbl) 577 Moomba 115 3020 3020 4699 5500 6330 7092 7300 7456 7991 8640 8640 Total Fluid Loss (bbl) 0 Moomba 116 1733 1733 1733 3310 5485 6212 6718 6946 7153 7513 7835 7835 7835 Total Fluid Loss (bbl) Burke East 1 Volume (bbl) 34 89 149 183 187 91 78 17 150 30 34 2 1044 261 27 10 10 34 111 108 79 129 18 26 15 828 19 105 114 51 10 57 52 108 55 20 93 15 699 20 191 40 0 202 136 103 190 106 21 75 52 115 13 1264

53

Depth (ft) 811 1710 1710 1710 3465 5023 5051 5426 5192 6397 6566 6771 6858 7070 7201 7481 7824 7824 7824 Total Fluid Loss (bbl) 5849 Moomba 119 6416 6850 6946 7462 7588 7588 7588 Total Fluid Loss (bbl) 5357 Moomba 125 6530 7220 7400 7675 8541 9092 Total Fluid Loss (bbl) 6282 Moomba 126 6919 7092 7236 7373 7442 8125 8275 8275 8634 8634 8634 Total Fluid Loss (bbl) Moomba 118

Volume (bbl) 36 192 11 8 145 236 29 143 61 161 72 76 125 57 50 86 63 70 30 1651 92 95 129 67 130 16 24 27 580 186 140 79 100 116 70 48 739 1 2 0 0 0 0 1 4 70 36 20 0 134

Depth (ft) 6465 7145 7460 7988 8670 9069 9069 9069 9069 Total Fluid Loss (bbl) 6171 Moomba 134 6815 7153 7394 7766 8589 8671 8835 9109 9110 9110 9110 9292 9400 9580 9713 9836 9942 10112 10202 10434 10507 10507 10507 10507 10507 Total Fluid Loss (bbl) 1820 Miluna 21 1820 Total Fluid Loss (bbl) Moomba 128

Volume (bbl) 46 86 0 113 17 185 0 0 0 447 5 266 75 86 84 177 113 95 61 134 39 40 105 31 30 78 127 106 137 35 39 76 40 8 48 0 2036 594 33 627

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Appendix 3 Environmental objectives and assessment criteria

Minimise loss of reservoir and aquifer pressures and contamination of freshwater aquifers. This objective seeks to protect the water quality and water pressure of aquifers that may potentially be useful as water supplies, and to maintain pressure in sands that may host petroleum accumulations elsewhere. To address this objective, the risks of crossflow between formations known to be permeable and in natural hydraulic isolation from each other, or where there is insufficient information to determine that they are permeable or in hydraulic communication, must be assessed on a case by case basis and procedures implemented to isolate these formations. The following geological formations in the Cooper-Eromanga Basins may contain permeable sands (aquifers) which may be in natural hydraulic isolation from each other (from shallowest to deepest): Eyre formation; Winton formation; Mackunda formation; Coorikiana sandstone; Cadna-owie formation; Namur sandstone; Adori sandstone; Hutton sandstone; Poolowanna formation; Cuddapan formation; Nappamerri Group formations, Walkandi and Peera Peera formations (multiple sands); Toolachee formation (multiple sands); Daralingie formation (multiple sands); Epsilon formation (multiple sands); Patchawarra, Mt Toodna or Purni formations (multiple sands); Tirrawarra sandstone or Sturat Range formation; Merrimelia Boorthanna and Crown Point formations (multiple sands); Basement reservoirs. Drilling and Completion Activities Casing design (including setting depths) have been carried out in accordance with company defined procedures which satisfy worst case expected loads and environmental conditions determined for the particular well. Casing set in accord with design parameters and company approved procedures. Sufficient isolation between any of the formations listed in the adjacent column where present is substantiated (eg through well logs, pressure measurements or casing integrity measurements). For cases where isolation of these formations is not established, sufficient evidence is available to demonstrate that they are in natural hydraulic communication. Producing Wells Monitoring programs, carried out in accord with company approved procedure(s), demonstrate no crossflow or fluid migration occurring behind casing. Casing integrity and corrosion monitoring programs, carried out in accordance with company approved procedure(s), show adequate casing condition to satisfy the objective. Inactive Wells In the case where a well is suspended for a prolonged period of time: Monitoring methods for detecting fluid migration, carried out in accord with company approved procedures for this purpose, are in place and show no fluid migration. Well Abandonment Activities Plugs set to isolate aquifers through the well bore, designed and set in accord with defined procedures to satisfy worst case expected loads and downhole environmental conditions. Plugs have been set to isolate all aquifers which are present which are not in natural hydraulic communication nor have been isolated by cement behind casing.

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Appendix 4 APPEA 1996 drilling fluids survey

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Appendix 5 Goal attainment scaling for oil-well cements

Goal attainment scaling for oil-well cements is proposed as method in which the downhole integrity of the wellbore can be investigated and evaluated. It is similar to the assessment concept used to assess the restoration of abandoned wellsites in the Cooper Basin. A scale for assessing the cement can be used to grade the cement on the basis of how well it is fulfilling the task it was intended for. The grading of the cement will be based:
Score -2 -1 0 Outcome Much less than expected Less than expected Expected

Objectives of the cement job

In order to grade the level at which the cement is fulfilling its task, it is necessary to identify the purpose of a cementing job. The purpose of a cement job in the abandonment of the well is to provide: zonal isolation for formations penetrated in the wellbore (zonal isolation is essential for formations that are not naturally in hydraulic communication; timeframe for such isolation needs to be provided on a case-by-case basis; some structural support to the wellbore and help maintain the integrity of the formation; and protection of the casing through formation fluids not coming into direct contact with the casing. When the cementing job does not meet the lowest level that it was expected to reach, concerns arise as to its effectiveness in isolating the formations. In an environmental sense it is very important that the zones be isolated to prevent cross-flow and the potential contamination of freshwater aquifers. The aim of this assessment is to grade the level at which the objectives of the well abandonment are achieved. For objectives that are not reached an outcome of at least 0 means appropriate corrective measures can be taken.

What constitutes a good cement job?

The most important part of a cement job is the adequate isolation of zones penetrated in the wellbore. A good cement job isolates these areas by means of a valid hydraulic seal and provides protection from crossflow. Furthermore, a good cement job fulfils the objectives of well abandonment. In order to achieve a quality cement job it is necessary for the cement to create a sufficient bond with the wall of the formation. The cement must also have a permeability low enough to inhibit migration and have sufficient properties to quench the formation of a microannulus. A good cement job should also have reached the required height in the wellbore and achieved a hardness that has the required shear strength to support the casing in the wellbore.

Evaluation of the cement job

CBL and CET are the most common means of evaluating the quality of the cement job. These tools are used to determine the degree of contact between the formation and the cement. In part this determines the degree of zonal isolation present within the wellbore. The CBL provides a reasonable determination of the cementto-formation bond. The CET provides a comprehensive determination of the cement-to-casing bond. These tools, when used in conjunction, are extremely good at determining the effectiveness of the cement bond. Another method for testing the effectiveness of the job is to use temperature sensitive logs. These are most commonly used to detect the cross-flow behind the casing. In order to grade the quality of the cementing job it is recommended that an independent body carry out the tests. While PIRSA should be required to survey the data and impose a grade, cost incurred by this process should be borne by industry: it should form part of a competent well completion program.

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What tests should be performed?

In order to grade the cement system, a series of tests based on the same grading system should be concluded. In the event that a grade indicates that the job has been completed poorly, a remedial program should be submitted by the relevant operator. This program should address the problems identified by the independent body and how they are to be corrected. If a remedial program cannot be conducted due to a poor formation or other factors, another party should be contracted to assess the validity of the situation. Tests should be conducted on those wells that have problems known to be associated with the cementing program or wells drilled into hostile environments. The tests could be implemented at the time of well abandonment and then at 5 and 10 year intervals. Follow-up tests could be conducted if a concern regarding the cement properties existed. However, cost considerations could make such an exercise prohibitive: testing over a long period remains the only method for determining the integrity of the cement but the cost would not make this a viable option. The following tests should be performed: Zonal isolation This test is conducted to evaluate the degree to which the cement is providing sufficient zonal isolation. Formation temperature testers should be used to detect the potential cross-flow of formation fluids behind the casing. The following scale provides a grading system:
Score -2 Outcome No zonal isolation due to a complete failure of the cement design. Little to no cement exists in areas that were marked for zonal isolation. Extremely poor cement job. Cement did not reach required height. Zonal isolation is minimal. Failure of cement system with small amounts of cement existing in areas identified for zonal isolation. Poor cement program. Zones identified for zonal isolation have been isolated. Cement program was of a satisfactory level. Cement reached expected height.

-1 0

DST may be a another tool that can be implemented to test the quality of the cement seal. A successful cementing job will show no downhole pressure change during the opening of the downhole valve or during the following shut-in period. The expected dry test results are in Figure 18. Cement bond The purpose of this test is to evaluate the degree of bonding present between the cement and the formation and between the cement and the casing. This is investigated by CETs and CBLs.
Score -2 -1 0 Outcome No bonding between the cement/casing and cement/formation. Severe channels allowing the migration of fluids between formations. Some bonding, but formations are still able to communicate hydraulically. Formation of microannulus has occurred. Cement bond is sufficient to prevent cross flow. The bond achieved by the cement is satisfactory.

Cement durability Cement durability only has validity as a test for some time later in the well time-scale. It is acceptable to neglect the first test at the time of well abandonment as cement durability is really a measure of how well the cement is able to combat the downhole environment and ensure continued zonal isolation. It is expected that the score of the cement durability in a wellbore will decline as time proceeds. Action should be taken to correct the level of durability before it becomes unacceptable. The grading system could be applied here but the guidelines are difficult to impose.

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Costs of programs
The remedial programs and wellbore assessments are not only costly but also are time consuming. Testing each well is certainly not proposed. However, wells that have had problems at the time of completion, or are in an area known to accelerate the degradation of cement, need to be checked. It is recommended that this process be included in the operators abandonment program. The operator has a responsibility to prove that cementing procedures are meeting the requirements they were designed for. Goal attainment scaling for oilwell cements should be used in aging wells as a means of demonstrating the effectiveness of the well procedure in place.

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Appendix 6 Mud program

The function of the mud is to: cool the bit and drill string to prolong bearing life and reduce pipe damage from the heat; bring cuttings produced by the drill bit to the surface (a good mud will keep cuttings from sticking above the bits of the collars: it is important to maintain a clean hole); suspend the cuttings when the pump is shut off so that the cuttings are prevented from falling down around the bit and collars; build a mud cake in the bore so that the borehole is prevented from caving in and losing drilling fluid; reduce formation invasion and improve electric logging conditions for formations; and control downhole pressures through the weight of the mud column. In the field barite is used to provide weight to the mud: this helps to control any pressure kicks. Gels are used to help build viscosity in the mud. They help form mud cakes in the borehole as well as suspending cuttings in the mud system. A good mud cake must prevent the mud flowing into the formation. Adding lost circulation material (mica, cellophane flakes and plastic) can do this. It is important that in zones of lost circulation the drilling mud is monitored continually in order to prevent any loss of mud that could lead to a blowout. There are five main types of mud: freshwater, saltwater, oil-based, surfactant and emulsion. The best mud for drilling the formation needs to be chosen. This is done by evaluating the formation in which the drilling is going to take place. The mud is required to have turbulent flow in the wellbore as opposed to laminar flow. Turbulent flow enables the cuttings to come to the surface flat rather that tumbling up the annulus. It also helps to increase the annular velocity and aids in cleaning the wellbore. In petroleum engineering the characteristics of the drilling fluid are essential because they not only help to control penetration rates and extend the life of the bit but they also help to prevent any pressure kicks caused by any unexpected drilling regions. The following properties must be known in order to form a reliable drilling mud.

Viscosity of the drilling fluid

The resistance to flow of a drilling fluid depends on friction between: solids; solid and liquid phases; liquid phases; and the particles of the drilling fluid. The first component that affects resistance to flow is known as viscosity. This is caused by the solid clay particles in the mud rubbing together (mechanical friction). There are two types of viscosity: effective and plastic. The second component that affects resistance to flow is known as the yield strength. This is caused by the intermolecular attraction that exists between the clay molecules which tend to bind together to form structures. This tendency depends upon: the surface properties of the mud; the concentration of the solids in the mud; and the electrochemical environment of the solids in solution. Another important property of the mud is the gel strength. This is the minimum energy required to start the mud to flow (setting properties).

Components used in drilling fluids

Many clays and additives can be used to create a drilling mud. The major components used are bentonite and barite.

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Bentonite Bentonite is used not only because it is cheap and readily available, but it also: increases the hole cleaning ability; it reduces the water seepage or the filtration into formations that are permeable; it forms thin mud cakes that have low permeability; it help to keep the hole stable when the cementing is poor; and it helps to avoid, and in some instances to overcome, the loss of circulation. Barite The main purpose of barite in a drilling fluid is to increase the density of the mud. Barite has a high specific gravity and because it is not soluble in water it does not react with other components in the mud.

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Appendix 7 Effect of temperature on the rheology of drilling fluids

The rheological properties of drilling mud under downhole conditions may be very different from those measurements made at ambient pressures and temperatures. Temperatures in downhole conditions depend on the geothermal gradient. Elevated temperatures can influence the rheological properties of drilling fluids in any of the following ways: physically an increase in temperature decreases the viscosity of the liquid phase; chemically all hydroxides react with clay minerals at temperatures above 200oF (and temperature does not disturb low alkalinity mud but high alkalinity mud can react at temperatures above 200oF); and electrochemically an increase in temperature increases the ionic activity of any electrolyte and the solubility of any partially soluble salt that may be present in the mud.

Flocculation
A mud consists of many colloid particles that have the ability to remain indefinitely in suspension because of their extremely small size. In pure water they cannot agglomerate (form a mass) because of the interference between the highly diffuse double layers. But if an electrolyte is added, in this case salt, then the particles can approach each other so closely that the attractive forces predominate and the particles can thus agglomerate. This phenomenon is known as flocculation. If the concentration of clay in suspension is high enough, flocculation can cause the formation of a continuous gel structure. The gels commonly observed in aqueous drilling fluids are the result of flocculation by soluble salts.

Temperature effect on water loss

An increase in temperature could also work to decrease the plastic viscosity by decreasing the amount of free water bound to the clay and polymer particles. This effect can only occur at temperatures that are high enough to break the bond between the particles.

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Appendix 8 Effect of cement additives

Cement slurry has poor fluid retention properties and can lose a significant amount of water to a formation rapidly. Cement additives provide protection against water loss and help to control other properties of the mud. They also: vary cement density; increase or decrease cement strength; accelerate or retard setting time; control filtration rate; reduce or increase slurry viscosity; provide bridge for lost circulation control; and improve the economics of production.

Cement density
In some cases long cement columns may be constructed without risking formation breakdown. Typically there are three methods that can be used in order to decrease the density of the cement slurry. The first involves adding lightweight materials such as bentonite and attapulgite, which permit an increased mix with water and at the same time prevent the separation of water. Secondly, it may be possible to add hollow ceramic spheres that have a low specific gravity which can provide reduced density slurries. Thirdly, foam cements are sometimes used: for example, the addition of nitrogen plus a surfactant can create a mud with a density of 78 lbs/gal.

Slurry viscosity
Sometimes it is necessary to use friction-reducing additives to assist the cement slurry in removing annular mud. Also, viscosity of the cement mixture may be required in order to ensure that it does not invade the formation. Interparticle friction reducers are basically dispersing agents that can reduce the apparent viscosity of the slurry. Salt is an example of a friction reducer.

Control of filtration rate

In order to control the filtration rate it is helpful to form a very thin, tight filter cake. This can be achieved by adding materials such as bentonite and CMC to reduce the fluid loss from the cement slurry. Bentonite and CMC both have the ability to bind water chemically to their polar sites on the clay platelets or polymer molecules. Such additives help to provide protection against water loss by binding the free water in the slurry. It is common to run tests on the additives to ensure that they will meet the requirements of the specific situation.

Rheology of cement slurries

It is important for a drilling operator to know the properties of the cement slurry. In most cases accurate predictions of the friction pressure are known. These help to avoid fracturing the lower stressed formations. Which can lead to a loss in circulation. It is often difficult to determine realistic rheological properties of cement slurries due to the variability of fluid properties.

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