Global incidence

Teen birth and abortion rates, 1996[8][9][10]

per 1000 women 1519

Country birth rate abortion rate combined rate Netherlands 7.7 3.9 11.6 Spain 7.5 4.9 12.4 Italy 6.6 6.7 13.3 Greece 12.2 1.3 13.5 Belgium 9.9 5.2 15.1 Germany 13.0 5.3 18.3 Finland 9.8 9.6 19.4 France 9.4 13.2 22.6 Denmark 8.2 15.4 23.6 Sweden 7.7 17.7 25.4 Norway 13.6 18.3 31.9 Czech Republic 20.1 12.4 32.5 Iceland 21.5 20.6 42.1 Slovakia 30.5 13.1 43.6 Australia 20.1 23.9 44 Canada 22.3 22.1 44.4 Israel 32.0 14.3 46.3 United Kingdom 29.6 21.3 50.9 New Zealand 33.4 22.5 55.9 Hungary 29.9 30.2 60.1 United States 55.6 30.2 85.8 Live births per 1000 women 1519 years old, 2002:[11] Teenage birth rate Country
per 1000 women 1519

pct aborted 33.6 39.5 50.4 9.6 34.4 28.9 49.5 58.4 65.3 69.7 57.4 38.2 48.9 30 54.3 49.8 30.9 41.8 40.3 50.2 35.2

South Korea Japan China Switzerland Netherlands Spain Singapore Italy Sweden

3 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 7

Denmark Slovenia Finland Luxembourg France Belgium Greece Cyprus Norway Germany Malta Austria Ireland Poland Canada Australia Albania Portugal Israel Czech Republic Iceland Croatia United Kingdom Hungary Bosnia and Herzegovina Slovakia Latvia Lithuania Estonia New Zealand Belarus Russia Georgia Macedonia Armenia Romania Ukraine Saudi Arabia

7 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 15 16 16 16 16 17 17 17 19 19 20 21 23 24 24 26 26 27 27 30 33 34 34 37 38 38

Bulgaria Chile Brazil United States Indonesia Mexico South Africa India Nigeria Niger

41 44 45 53 55 64 66 73 103 233

Save the Children found that, annually, 13 million children are born to women under age 20 worldwide, more than 90% in developing countries. Complications of pregnancy and childbirth are the leading cause of mortality among women between the ages of 15 and 19 in such areas.[4] The highest rate of teenage pregnancy in the world is in subSaharan Africa, where women tend to marry at an early age.[2] In Niger, for example, 87% of women surveyed were married and 53% had given birth to a child before the age of 18.[12] In the Indian subcontinent, early marriage sometimes means adolescent pregnancy, particularly in rural regions where the rate is much higher than it is in urbanized areas. The rate of early marriage and pregnancy has decreased sharply in Indonesia and Malaysia, although it remains relatively high in the former. In the industrialized Asian nations such as South Korea and Singapore, teenage birth rates are among the lowest in the world.[13] The overall trend in Europe since 1970 has been a decreasing total fertility rate, an increase in the age at which women experience their first birth, and a decrease in the number of births among teenagers.[citation needed] Most continental Western European countries have very low teenage birth rates. This is varyingly attributed to good sex education and high levels of contraceptive use (in the case of the Netherlands and Scandinavia), traditional values and social stigmatization (in the case of Spain and Italy) or both (in the case of Switzerland).[3] The United States, at 48.8 births per 1,000 women aged 1519 in 2000, has the highest teen birth rate in the developed world. The rate of abortion among American adolescents is also high. If all pregnancies, including those which end in abortion, are taken into account, then the total rate is 83.6 pregnancies per 1,000 girls. However, the trend is decreasing: in 1990, the birth rate was 61.8, and the pregnancy rate 116.9 per thousand. This decline manifested across all racial groups, although teenagers of African-American and Hispanic descent retain a higher rate, in comparison to that of European-Americans and Asian-Americans. [14]The Guttmacher Institute attributed about 25% of the decline to abstinence and 75% to the effective use of contraceptives. [15] [16] However, in 2006 the teenage birth rate rose for the first time in fourteen years.[17] This could imply that teen pregnancy rates are also on the rise, however the rise could also be due to other sources: a possible decrease in the number of abortions or a decrease in the number of miscarriages, to name a few. The Canadian teenage birth has

also trended towards a steady decline for both younger (1517) and older (1819) teens in the period between 19922002.[18]

Causes of teen pregnacy

The lack of education on safe sex, be it from parents, schools, or otherwise, is a cause of teenage pregnancy. Many teenagers are not taught about methods of birth control and how to deal with peers who pressure them into having sex before they are ready. According to the article "Lack of Parental Guidance Contributes to Teen Pregnancy", many pregnant teenagers do not have any cognition of the central facts of sexuality". Emily[who?] claims that she was pressured into having sex with her boyfriend when she was thirteen and that no one had taught her how to deal with this pressure and to say "no". Emily wound up pregnant but aborted the child, as she felt there was no way that she, at thirteen, could take care of a baby. Felisha[who?] went to a high school in the midwest that did not have sex education classes and Felisha's parents did not discuss sex in the house. At sixteen, Felisha became pregnant by having unprotected sex with her boyfriend, Jake. Due to complications during birth, Felisha's daughter did not live. Her parents were very ashamed of Felisha for getting into this situation, but she was upset with her parents for not discussing with her the facts about safe sex. The lack of safe sex education is just one cause of teenage pregnancy.[19]

[edit] Contraception
Main article: Birth control Contraception for teenagers presents a huge challenge for the clinician. In 1998, the government[which?] set a target to halve the under-18 pregnancy rate by 2010. The Teenage Pregnancy Strategy (TPS) was established to achieve this. The pregnancy rate in this group, although falling, rose slightly in 2007, to 41.7 per 1000 women. The 2010 target is currently looking highly ambitious[citation needed]. Young women often think of contraception either as 'the pill' or condoms and have little knowledge about other methods. They are heavily influenced by negative, second-hand stories about methods of contraception from their friends and the media. Prejudices are extremely difficult to overcome. Over concern about side-effects, for example weight gain and acne, often affect choice. Missing up to three pills a month is common, and in this age group the figure is likely to be higher. Restarting after the pill-free week, having to hide pills, drug interactions and difficulty getting repeat prescriptions can all lead to method failure.[20] Inthose of other ages to use contraceptives (18% of 15- to 19-year-olds used no contraceptives, versus 10.7% average for women ages 15 to 44).[21] More than 80% of teen pregnancies are unintended.[22] Over half of unintended pregnancies were to women not using contraceptives,[21] most of the rest are due to inconsistent or incorrect use.[22] 23% of sexually active young women in a 1996 Seventeen magazine poll admitted to having had unprotected sex with a partner who did not use a condom, while 70% of girls in a 1997 PARADE poll claimed it was embarrassing to buy birth control or request information from a doctor.[23]

Among teens in the UK seeking an abortion, a study found that the rate of contraceptive use was roughly the same for teens as for older women.[24] In other cases, contraception is used, but proves to be inadequate. Inexperienced adolescents may use condoms incorrectly or forget to take oral contraceptives. Contraceptive failure rates are higher for teenagers, particularly poor ones, than for older users.[25] Reversible longer term methods such as intrauterine devices, subcutaneous implants, or injections (Depo provera, Combined injectable contraceptive), require less frequent user action, lasting from a month to years, and may prevent pregnancy more effectively in women who have trouble following routines, including many young women. The simultaneous use of more than one contraceptive measure further decreases the risk of unplanned pregnancy, and if one is a condom barrier method, the transmission of sexually transmitted disease is also reduced.[26]

[edit] Age discrepancy in relationships

According to the conservative lobbying organization Family Research Council, studies in the US indicate that age discrepancy between the teenage girls and the men who impregnate them is an important contributing factor. Teenage girls in relationships with older boys, and in particular with adult men, are more likely to become pregnant than teenage girls in relationships with boys their own age. They are also more likely to carry the baby to term rather than have an abortion. A review of California's 1990 vital statistics found that men older than high school age fathered 77 percent of all births to high school-aged girls (ages 1618), and 51 percent of births to junior high school-aged girls (15 and younger). Men over age 25 fathered twice as many children of teenage mothers than boys under age 18, and men over age 20 fathered five times as many children of junior high school-aged girls as did junior high school-aged boys. A 1992 Washington state study of 535 adolescent mothers found that 62 percent of the mothers had a history of being raped or sexual molested by men whose ages averaged 27 years. This study found that, compared with nonabused mothers, abused adolescent mothers initiated sex earlier, had sex with much older partners, and engaged in riskier, more frequent, and promiscuous sex. Studies by the Population Reference Bureau and the National Center for Health Statistics found that about two-thirds of children born to teenage girls in the United States are fathered by adult men age 20 or older.[27] Sexual abuse, also referred to as molestation, is the forcing of undesired sexual behavior by one person upon another. When that force is immediate, of short duration, or infrequent, it is called sexual assault. The offender is referred to as a sexual abuser or (often pejoratively) molester. The term also covers any behavior by any adult towards a child to stimulate either the adult or child sexually. When the victim is younger than the age of consent, it is referred to as child sexual abuse. Child sexual abuseMain article: Child sexual abuse Child sexual abuse is a form of child abuse in which a child is abused for the sexual gratification of an adult or older adolescent. In addition to direct sexual contact, child sexual abuse also occurs when an adult indecently exposes their genitalia to a child, asks or pressures a child to engage in sexual activities, displays pornography to a child, or uses a child to produce child pornography.

Effects of child sexual abuse include guilt and self-blame, flashbacks, nightmares, insomnia, fear of things associated with the abuse (including objects, smells, places, doctor's visits, etc.), self-esteem issues, sexual dysfunction, chronic pain, addiction, self-injury, suicidal ideation, somatic complaints, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, other mental illnesses (including borderline personality disorder) propensity to re-victimization in adulthood,and physical injury to the child, among other problems. Victims of child sex abuse are over six times more likely to attempt suicide and eight times more likely to repeatedly attempt suicide. The abusers are also more likely to commit suicide. Much of the harm caused to victims becomes apparent years after the abuse happens. Sexual abuse by a family member is a form of incest, and results in more serious and long-term psychological trauma, especially in the case of parental incest. Approximately 15% to 25% of women and 5% to 15% of men were sexually abused when they were children. Most sexual abuse offenders are acquainted with their victims; approximately 30% are relatives of the child, most often fathers, uncles or cousins; around 60% are other acquaintances such as friends of the family, babysitters, or neighbors; strangers are the offenders in approximately 10% of child sexual abuse cases. Most child sexual abuse is committed by men; women commit approximately 14% of offenses reported against boys and 6% of offenses reported against girls. Most offenders who abuse pre-pubescent children are pedophiles; however, a small percentage do not meet the diagnostic criteria for pedophilia.

[edit] Dating violence

Main article: Dating violence Dating violence is defined by the United States Department of Justice as: the perpetration or threat of an act of violence by at least one member of an unmarried couple on the other member within the context of dating or courtship. This also includes dating between same sex couples, although most statistics have been gathered from heterosexual couples. Statistics show that one in three teenagers have experienced violence in a dating relationship. In dating violence, one partner tries to maintain power and control over the other through some kind of abuse. Dating violence crosses all economic, racial and social lines; most victims are young women who are also at higher risk for serious injury. Young women need a dating safety plan, even lesbians.. Teen dating violence often is hidden because teenagers typically: --Are inexperienced with dating relationships. --Want independence from parents. --Have romanticized views of love. --Are pressured by peers to have dating relationships. Teen dating violence is influenced by how teenagers look at themselves and others. Young men may believe: --They have the right to "control" their female partners in any way necessary. --Masculinity is physical aggressiveness. --They "possess" their partner. --They should and can demand intimacy. --They may lose respect in their male peer groups if they are attentive and supportive toward their girlfriends.

Young women may believe: --They are responsible for solving problems in their relationships. --Their boyfriend's jealousy, possessiveness and even physical abuse, is "romantic." --Abuse is "normal" because their friends are also being abused. --They think they can "cure" the abusive boyfriend. --There is no one to ask for help. Teenagers can choose better relationships when they learn to identify the early warning signs of an abusive relationship and understand that they have choices, and believe they are valuable people who deserve to be treated with respect. Early warning signs that your date may eventually become abusive are extreme jealousy, controlling behavior, quick involvement, mood swings, alcohol and drug use, explosive anger, isolating you from friends and family, the use of force during an argument, hypersensitivity, a tendency to blame others for his problems or feelings, verbal abuse, a history of abusing former partners and threats of violence. Common clues that indicate a teenager may be experiencing dating violence: --Physical signs of injury --Truancy, and or dropping out of school --Failing grades --Changes in mood or personality --Use of drugs/alcohol where there was no prior use --Emotional outbursts --Isolation from friends and family Help is available for teenagers. If you are a teenager involved in an abusive relationship, you need to remember that no one deserves to be abused or threatened. Dating Safety You may want to consider double-dating the first few times you go out with a new person. Before leaving on a date, know the exact plans for the evening and make sure a parent or friend knows these plans and what time you expect to be home. Let your date know that you are expected to call or tell that person when you get in. Be aware of your decreased ability to react under the influence of alcohol or drugs. If you leave a party with someone you do not know well, make sure you tell another person you are leaving and with whom. Ask a friend to call and make sure you arrived home safely. Trust your instincts. If a situation makes you feel uncomfortable, try to be stay calm and think of a way to remove yourself from the situation. Teen Dating Statistics About one in three high school students have been or will be involved in an abusive relationship. Forty percent of teenage girls ages 14 to 17 say they know someone their age who has been hit or beaten by a boyfriend. Teen dating violence most often takes place in the home of one of the partners. One in five of dating couples report some type of violence in their relationship. One of five college females will experience some form of dating violence. A survey of 500 young women, ages 15 to 24, found that 60 percent were currently involved in an ongoing abusive relationship and all participants had experienced violence in a dating relationship. One study found that 38 percent of date rape victims were young women

from 14 to 17 years of age. A survey of adolescent and college students revealed that date rape accounted for 67 percent of sexual assaults. Sixty-eight percent of young women raped knew their rapist either as a boyfriend, friend or casual acquaintance. Six out of 10 rapes of young women occur in their own home or a friend or relatives home, not in a dark alley. More than four in every 10 incidents of domestic violence involves non-married persons (Bureau of Justice Special Report: Intimate Partner Violence, May 2001; other statistics from the U.S. Department of Justice).

[edit] Socioeconomic factors

Teenage pregnancy has been defined predominantly within the research field and among social agencies as a social problem. A hospital-based cohort study was undertaken over 4 months among women admitted to a rural hospital in West Bengal. The study cohort consisted of teenage mothers between 1519 years old and a control cohort of mothers between 2024 years old. Data included demographic variables, available medical records, and complications viz. anemia, preterm delivery, and low birth weight. Anemia was defined as a hemoglobin level below 10 gm% during the last trimester of pregnancy, preterm delivery was defined as occurring within 37 weeks of gestation, and low birth weight was defined as babies weighing less than 2500 grams at birth. The Result: Teenage pregnancy comprised 24.17% of total pregnancies occurring in the hospital during the study period.[28]

A young poverty-stricken girl clutches her child. Image from ca 1884. Poverty is associated with increased rates of teenage pregnancy.[25] Economically poor countries such as Niger and Bangladesh have far more teenage mothers compared with economically rich countries such as Switzerland and Japan.[11]

In the UK, around half of all pregnancies to under 18s are concentrated among the 30% most deprived population, with only 14% occurring among the 30% least deprived.[29] In Italy, the teenage birth rate in the well-off central regions is only 3.3 per 1,000, while in the poorer Mezzogiorno it is 10.0 per 1000.[3] Sociologist Mike A. Males noted that teenage birth rates closely mapped poverty rates in California:[30] Teen pregnancy cost the United States over $9.1 billion in 2004. [31] County Marin County Tulare County (Caucasians) Tulare County (Hispanics)
* per 1000 women aged 1519

Poverty rate Birth rate* 5% 5 18% 50 40% 100

There is little evidence to support the common belief that teenage mothers become pregnant to get benefits, welfare, and council housing. Most knew little about housing or financial aid before they got pregnant and what they thought they knew often turned out to be wrong.[32]

[edit] Childhood environment

Women exposed to abuse, domestic violence, and family strife in childhood are more likely to become pregnant as teenagers, and the risk of becoming pregnant as a teenager increases with the number of adverse childhood experiences. According to a 2004 study, one-third of teenage pregnancies could be prevented by eliminating exposure to abuse, violence, and family strife. The researchers note that "family dysfunction has enduring and unfavorable health consequences for women during the adolescent years, the childbearing years, and beyond." When the family environment does not include adverse childhood experiences, becoming pregnant as an adolescent does not appear to raise the likelihood of long-term, negative psychosocial consequences.[33] Studies have also found that boys raised in homes with a battered mother, or who experienced physical violence directly, were significantly more likely to impregnate a girl.[34] Studies have also found that girls whose fathers left the family early in their lives had the highest rates of early sexual activity and adolescent pregnancy. Girls whose fathers left them at a later age had a lower rate of early sexual activity, and the lowest rates are found in girls whose fathers were present throughout their childhood. Even when the researchers took into account other factors that could have contributed to early sexual activity and pregnancy, such as behavioral problems and life adversity, early fatherabsent girls were still about five times more likely in the United States and three times more likely in New Zealand to become pregnant as adolescents than were father-present girls.[35][36] Low educational expectations have been pinpointed as a risk factor.[37] A girl is also more likely to become a teenage parent if her mother or older sister gave birth in her teens.[38][39] A majority of respondents in a 1988 Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies survey attributed the occurrence of adolescent pregnancy to a breakdown of

communication between parents and child and also to inadequate parental supervision.
[23]

Foster care youth are more likely than their peers to become pregnant as teenagers. The National Casey Alumni Study, which surveyed foster care alumni from 23 communities across the United States, found the birth rate for girls in foster care was more than double the rate of their peers outside the foster care system. A University of Chicago study of youth transitioning out of foster care in Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin found that nearly half of the females had been pregnant by age 19. The Utah Department of Human Services found that girls who had left the foster care system between 1999 and 2004 had a birth rate nearly 3 times the rate for girls in the general population.[40]

[edit] Media influence

A study conducted in 2006 found that adolescents who were more exposed to sexuality in the media were also more likely to engage in sexual activity themselves.[41]

[edit] Limiting teenage pregnancies

Many health educators have argued that comprehensive sex education would effectively reduce the number of teenage pregnancies, although opponents argue that such education encourages more and earlier sexual activity. In the UK, the teenage pregnancy strategy, which was run first by the Department of Health and is now based out of the Children, Young People and Families directorate in the Department for Children, Schools and Families, works on several levels to reduce teenage pregnancy and increase the social inclusion of teenage mothers and their families by:

joined up action, making sure branches of government and health and education services work together effectively; prevention of teenage pregnancy through better sex education and improving contraceptive and advice services for young people, involving young people in service design, supporting the parents of teenagers to talk to them about sex and relationships, and targeting high-risk groups; better support for teenage mothers, including help returning to education, advice and support, work with young fathers, better childcare and increasing the availability of supported housing.

The teenage pregnancy strategy has had mixed success. Although teenage pregnancies have fallen overall, they have not fallen consistently in every region, and in some areas they have increased. There are questions about whether the 2010 target of a 50% reduction on 1998 levels can be met. In the United States the topic of sex education is the subject of much contentious debate. Some schools provide "abstinence-only" education and virginity pledges are increasingly popular. A 2004 study by Yale and Columbia Universities found that fully 88 percent of those who pledge abstinence have premarital sex anyway.[42] Most public schools offer "abstinence-plus" programs that support abstinence but also offer advice

about contraception. A team of researchers and educators in California have published a list of "best practices" in the prevention of teen pregnancy, which includes, in addition to the previously mentioned concepts, working to "instill a belief in a successful future", male involvement in the prevention process, and designing interventions that are culturally relevant.[43] The Dutch approach to preventing teenage pregnancy has often been seen as a model by other countries. The curriculum focuses on values, attitudes, communication and negotiation skills, as well as biological aspects of reproduction. The media has encouraged open dialogue and the health-care system guarantees confidentiality and a non-judgmental approach.[44] In the developing world, programs of reproductive health aimed at teenagers are often small scale and not centrally coordinated, although some countries such as Indonesia and Sri Lanka have a systematic policy framework for teaching about sex within schools.[13] Non-governmental agencies such as the International Planned Parenthood Federation provide contraceptive advice for young women worldwide. Laws against child marriage have reduced but not eliminated the practice. Improved female literacy and educational prospects have led to an increase in the age at first birth in areas such as Iran, Indonesia, and the Indian state of Kerala.

[edit] Outcomes
[edit] Medical outcomes
Maternal and prenatal health is of particular concern among teens who are pregnant or parenting. The worldwide incidence of premature birth and low birth weight is higher among adolescent mothers.[5][45][46] Research indicates that pregnant teens are less likely to receive prenatal care, often seeking it in the third trimester, if at all.[5] The Guttmacher Institute reports that one-third of pregnant teens receive insufficient prenatal care and that their children are more likely to suffer from health issues in childhood or be hospitalized than those born to older women.[47] However, studies have indicated that young mothers who are given high-quality maternity care have significantly healthier babies than those that do not.Many of the health-issues associated with teenage mothers, many of whom do not have health insurance, appear to result from lack of access to high-quality medical care.[48] Many pregnant teens are subject to nutritional deficiencies from poor eating habits common in adolescence, including attempts to lose weight through dieting, skipping meals, food faddism, snacking, and consumption of fast food.[49] Inadequate nutrition during pregnancy is an even more marked problem among teenagers in developing countries.[50][51] Complications of pregnancy result in the deaths of an estimated 70,000 teen girls in developing countries each year. Young mothers and their babies are also at greater risk of contracting HIV.[4] The World Health Organization estimates that the risk of death following pregnancy is twice as great for women between 15 and 19 years than for those between the ages of 20 and 24. The maternal mortality rate can be up to five times higher for girls aged between 10 and 14

than for women of about twenty years of age. Illegal abortion also holds many risks for teenage girls in areas such as sub-Saharan Africa.[12] Risks for medical complications are greater for girls 14 years of age and younger, as an underdeveloped pelvis can lead to difficulties in childbirth. Obstructed labour is normally dealt with by Caesarean section in industrialized nations; however, in developing regions where medical services might be unavailable, it can lead to eclampsia, obstetric fistula, infant mortality, or maternal death.[4] For mothers in their late teens, age in itself is not a risk factor, and poor outcomes are associated more with socioeconomic factors rather than with biology.[5]

[edit] Socioeconomic and psychological outcomes

Several studies have examined the socioeconomic, medical, and psychological impact of pregnancy and parenthood in teens. Life outcomes for teenage mothers and their children vary; other factors, such as poverty or social support, may be more important than the age of the mother at the birth. Many solutions to counteract the more negative findings have been proposed. Teenage parents who can use family and community support, social services and child-care support to continue their education and get higher paying jobs as they progress with their education. [edit] Impact on the mother Being a young mother in an industrialized country can affect one's education. Teen mothers are more likely to drop out of high school.[45] Recent studies, though, have found that many of these mothers had already dropped out of school prior to becoming pregnant, but those in school at the time of their pregnancy were as likely to graduate as their peers.[citation needed] One study in 2001 found that women who gave birth during their teens completed secondary-level schooling 1012% as often and pursued postsecondary education 1429% as often as women who waited until age 30.[52] Young motherhood in an industrialized country can affect employment and social class. Less than one third of teenage mothers receive any form of child support, vastly increasing the likelihood of turning to the government for assistance.[53] The correlation between earlier childbearing and failure to complete high school reduces career opportunities for many young women.[45] One study found that, in 1988, 60% of teenage mothers were impoverished at the time of giving birth.[54] Additional research found that nearly 50% of all adolescent mothers sought social assistance within the first five years of their child's life.[45] A study of 100 teenaged mothers in the United Kingdom found that only 11% received a salary, while the remaining 89% were unemployed.[55] Most British teenage mothers live in poverty, with nearly half in the bottom fifth of the income distribution.[56] Teenage women who are pregnant or mothers are seven times more likely to commit suicide than other teenagers.[57] Professor John Ermisch at the institute of social and economic research at Essex University and Dr Roger Ingham, director of the centre of sexual health at Southampton University found that comparing teenage mothers with other girls with similarly deprived social-economic profiles, bad school experiences and low educational aspirations, the difference in their respective life chances was negligible.[58] Teenage Motherhood may actually make economic sense for poorer young women, some research suggests. For instance, long-term studies by Duke economist V. Joseph

Hotz and colleagues, published in 2005, found that by age 35, former teen moms had earned more in income, paid more in taxes, were substantially less likely to live in poverty and collected less in public assistance than similarly poor women who waited until their 20s to have babies. Women who became mothers in their teens freed from child-raising duties by their late 20s and early 30s to pursue employment while poorer women who waited to become moms were still stuck at home watching their young children wound up paying more in taxes than they had collected in welfare.[59] Eight years earlier, the federally commissioned report "Kids Having Kids" also contained a similar finding, though it was buried: "Adolescent childbearers fare slightly better than later-childbearing counterparts in terms of their overall economic welfare."[citation needed] One-fourth of adolescent mothers will have a second child within 24 months of the first. Factors that determine which mothers are more likely to have a closely-spaced repeat birth include marriage and education: the likelihood decreases with the level of education of the young woman or her parents and increases if she gets married.[60] [edit] Impact on the child Early motherhood can affect the psychosocial development of the infant. The occurrence of developmental disabilities and behavioral issues is increased in children born to teen mothers.[61][62] One study suggested that adolescent mothers are less likely to stimulate their infant through affectionate behaviors such as touch, smiling, and verbal communication, or to be sensitive and accepting toward his or her needs.[61] Another found that those who had more social support were less likely to show anger toward their children or to rely upon punishment.[63] Poor academic performance in the children of teenage mothers has also been noted, with many of them being more likely than average to fail to graduate from secondary school, be held back a grade level, or score lower on standardized tests.[45] Daughters born to adolescent parents are more likely to become teen mothers themselves.[45][39] A son born to a young woman in her teens is three times more likely to serve time in prison.[64] [edit] Impact on other family members Teen pregnancy and motherhood can influence younger siblings. One study found that the younger sisters of teen mothers were less likely to emphasize the importance of education and employment and more likely to accept human sexual behavior, parenting, and marriage at younger ages; younger brothers, too, were found to be more tolerant of non-marital and early births, in addition to being more susceptible to high-risk behaviors.[65] If the younger sisters of teenage parents babysit the children, they have an increased risk of getting pregnant themselves.[38]

[edit] Teenage fatherhood

In some cases, the father of the child is the husband of the teenage girl. The conception may occur within wedlock, or the pregnancy itself may precipitate the marriage (the socalled shotgun wedding). In countries such as India the majority of teenage births occur within marriage.[3][13]

In other countries, such as the United States and the Republic of Ireland, the majority of teenage mothers are not married to the fathers of their children.[3][66] In the UK, half of all teenagers with children are lone parents, 40% are cohabitating as a couple and 10% are married.[67] Teenage parents are frequently in a romantic relationship at the time of birth, but many adolescent fathers do not stay with the mother and this often disrupts their relationship with the child. Research has shown that when teenage fathers are included in decision-making during pregnancy and birth, they are more likely to report increased involvement with their children in later years.[68] In the U.S, eight out of ten teenage fathers do not marry their child's mother.[69] However, "teenage father" may be a misnomer in many cases. Studies by the Population Reference Bureau and the National Center for Health Statistics found that about two-thirds of births to teenage girls in the United States are fathered by adult men age 20 or older.[70][71] The Guttmacher Institute reports that over 40 percent of mothers aged 1517 had sexual partners three to five years older and almost one in five had partners six or more years older.[72] A 1990 study of births to California teens reported that the younger the mother, the greater the age gap with her male partner.[73] In the UK 72% of jointly registered births to women under the age of 20, the father is over the age of 20, with almost 1 in 4 being over 25.[74]

[edit] In history
Teenage pregnancy was normal in previous centuries. Perhaps the most famous teenage pregnancy in history was Mary, Mother of Jesus. She is generally believed to have been 13 years old when she gave birth to Jesus.[75] Other sources place her age as high as 15 years. Hildegard of Vinzgouw, the wife of Charlemagne was about 14 years old when she gave birth to her first son in 772 CE. The mother of Henry VII of England was 13 years old when she gave birth to him in 1457. Maria of Tver, the wife of Ivan the Great of Russia, gave birth to her first son when she was about 16 years old, in 1458. Empress Teimei of Japan was 16 years old when she gave birth to Hirohito in 1901. Lina Medina of Peru holds the world record for youngest live birth: She was five years, seven months old when she gave birth in 1939.

[edit] In the arts, films and literature