Design Scope for Student Supersonic Projects

BUD D. NELSON Northrop Aircraft Division, Hawthorne, California

Abstract

Introduction

In the course of judging student designs for the Supersonic Executive Jet Competition, it has been recognized that most formal training has emphasized aerodynamics, propulsion, and structures but has ignored two significant learning experiences: design with the area rule and exposure to major subsystems. In light of ongoing supersonic cruise engine developments, many new product opportunities are on the horizon. In addition to the executive jet, there are supercruise fighters, supersonic short takeoff and vertical landing (STOVL) fighters, supersonic transports, and transatmospheric vehicles. The AIAA Aircraft Design Committee, through its industry members; can do much to aid in this training by providing lessons learned with area ruling techniques and a data base for advanced subsystems. This paP._er is a first installment to enlarge the scope for undergraduate designers.
BUD D. NELSON got an early start in engineering at the stutient-operated University of Washington Aeronautical Laboratory where he served as Operations Chief while attending undergraduate classes. A B.Sc. in Aeronautical Engineering (1956) was followed by assignments in performance, structural design, preliminary design, system conceptual design, and program management. Nelson's participation in major projects includes TFX, B-52, X-20 Dyna-Soar, USFIFRG VSTOL, SST, C-14, VTXITS, and ATF. His early student AIAA activities have been followed by continuous participation and national committee duties. In addition to Nelson's current management job at Northrop Aircraft Division, he is a regular lecturer at Aircraft Design Short Courses. Winter 1987

This paper is intended to add information for the student design data base and to support the move for new student competition in fighter design. Student designs submitted for competition show a lack of emphasis on area ruling techniques and major There are several reasons for this situation. In designing with the area rule, little has been published about conceptual level techniques, and only in schools close to fighter companies has there been any transfer of knowledge. Subsystems descriptions are limited generally to statistical weight buildup using the methods of Nicolai's "Fundamentals of Aircraft Design" (Ref. 1), but competition rules never request specific subsystems performance. Furthermore, there has been no data base presented that is easy to use in a conceptual design school project. Subsystems recognition by the student is important for three reasons. 1) Subsystems represent a major part of vehicle volume, weight, and cost. This is particularly true for fighters. 2) Student designers should confirm that major subsystems fit within the volume and weight constraints of their design project. 3) Technologies are changing the character of major subsystems toward increased modularity. To prepare this data base several engineering investigations have been reviewed to collect information directly useful to student design concepts. Next-generation (ATF technology) and far-term technology projections were considered before selecting the far-term compact fighter class as a baseline data base. The following sections review a professional conceptual design process to scope the magnitude of ef5

' . ''

\
WEEK

(
1c115 11&!17!1&!19 20 21 22 23 2c

1c

&

9 110111

e SYSTEMS ANALYSIS-MISSIONS

e VEHICLE SYNTHIPERF e CONFIGURATIONS

e SUBSYSTEM DESCRIPTIONS

!"'lrWPNS/1

l.f'/

I rt
i
EVA'L

L12113

Ei'i' EVAL

hSIZ:NG GA

t'//OFF DES

/A

1f

,ft '

D :

I
I
' .u

I
I

DOC

INST"L DWG

!COCKPIT FUEL HYO ELEC. WEAPON CARRIAGE. AVIrCt

STRUCTURES LAYOUT

-iC. OIAG

e SURVIVABILITY ANALYSIS e COST ESTIMATES e LOGISTICS lA. M & Si

t
-

'"1-

INPUT

t'

CONCEPTS

AERODYNAMICS

I
H:_
.SYS,

EVAL 1111111 WPNS. STAB CONTROL

J [@

e MANUFACTURING

e AVIONICS

1+ SENSOR

'

'

e e

PROPULSION WEIGHTS

e DOCUMENTATION

e e e

t !t "i , I I
V /SENSITIVITY'/1
FEASIBILITY l;
I I

DATA BOOK

MARKET SURVEYS PARAMETRIC$ REVIEW MEETINGS

I INPUTS TO FOLLOW ON I BRIEFING I I .,

dsYJTJ DELN CONCEPT REVIEW

Fig. 1 Conceptual design process for a fighter system.

VEHICLE CONFIGURATION

AIRFRAME

PROPULSION

VEHICLE MANAGEMENT

MISSION SYSTEMS

e AERO GEOMETRY

e WING STRUCTURE

e INTAKE SUBSYSTEMS e POWERPLANT

INSTALLATION

e FLIGHT CONTROLS
e MECHANISMS

e ATIACK SUBSYSTEMS e INTEGRATED AVIONICS e STORES MANAGEMENT e ARMAMENT SUBSYSTEMS e SYSTEM SIMULATION e LOGISTIC SUPPORT

e SUBSYSTEM

INTEGRATION

e BODY & COCKPIT

STRUCTURE

e VEHICLE INTEGRATION e MOCKUPSIMOOELS

o FLIGHT SIMULATION

e EMPENNAGE
STRUCTURE

e SECONDARY POWER
SUPPLY

e POWER DISTRIBUTION e COCKPIT CONTROLLERS e UTILITY CONTROLS e SYSTEM SIMULATION e LIFE SUPPORT e ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTROL

e LANDING GEAR

e EXHAUST SUBSYSTEM e FUEL SYSTEM e EMERGENCY POWER e TEST PLANS

o COST ENGINEERING o R&M ENGINEERING

o FITTINGS

&

MECHANISM

e TEST ASSEMBLIES e MANUFACTURING

Fig. 2 Conceptual design projeCt.

fort required, describe lessons learned and guidelines for designing with the area rule, and provide some of the modular subsystems useful in supersonic projects.
Conceptual Design Process
CROSS SECTION AREA

A professional concept design process is summarized in Fig. 1. The purpose of this figure is to show design scope and schedules. The shaded elements represent design characteristics which students generally are expected to include in their projects. The student team project, while massive relative to other student efforts, represents less than one-tenth the expected scope and depth of a professional fighter concept design. Conceptual design is usually conducted by a project team led by a configuration designer who has
6

(
Fig. 3 Designing with the area rule. A!AA Student Journal

50

p
NET DENSITY

Llllf"fl
30

LOW

VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY

HIGH

Fig. 4

Volumetric efficiency.

an overall understanding of total design and a talent for integrating the requirements of project specialists. A project organization is shown in Fig. 2. Each of the specialists will contribute to the conceptual level data base and will later add design detail during preliminary design if concept development proceeds. The data base covers all disciplines to allow a quick start for each new concept and is vital to the early definition of total vehicle volume.
Designing with the Area Rule

What should the student designer Jearn about area plots?

1) Two principal methods for initial estimates of vehicle volume; element buildup vs statistical gross weight/ density. 2) Area ruling techniques to distribute total volume for minimum wave drag. 3) The use of Sears/Haack curves as a simple graphic tool for shaping volume distribution and to account for major configuration variations such as engine location. The area rule for complete aircraft assumes that all volume can be expressed within a body of revolution, Fig. 3, and from that the far-field wave drag can be estimated using the NASA methods from Ref. 2. Combining this theory with Sears/Haack area distributions has produced very-low-drag aircraft. 3 4 The airplane must be designed to fill the area distribution without surface discontinuities or large slope changes that could cause local pressure drag. Early consideration of critical minimum cross sections is essential and will be influenced by configuration arrangement. Step one in the process is an initial weight estimate that can be estimated by techniques such as Ref. 1, Chapter 5. Initial volume may be estimated by either of the two methods shown in Figs. 4 and 5. In Fig. 4, a simple statistical sample shows that fighter net den-

INITIAL CHARACTERISTICS

I
FULL INTERNAl FUEL - - - - L8

EST FOGW - - - - L8

T/W

DESIGN MACH NO. _ _ At

FT

WING GEOMETRY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - AAREF lie - - - PROPULSION _ _ CYCLE __INLET _ _ NOZZLE - -

s -

VOLUME SUMMARY

ELEYNT FOREBOO'I' (W'COCKPIT. NOSE GEAA. RAOOME) WEAPONS BAY (CAP L8) GUN BAY MAIN GEAA (CBR _ _ PASSES _ _ ) EQUIPMENT

CRITICAL LENGTH (FT)

CONTROL RUNS
WING SWEEP MECHANISM

TAIL CARR'f.I"HROUGH
INLETS ENGINE BAY

BOOY FUEL VOLUME

SUB'TOTAL STRUCTUfiAL & UNUSED VOLUME (0.15 X GROSS 800'1' VOLUME) EXPOSED WING VOLUME GROSS WING BOOY VOLUME

5TREAM'f\JBE
NET VOLUME. WING + 800'1' (FT3)

Fig. 5

Volume buildup.
7

Winter 1987

\'
Table 1 Weapon carriage volume
COHI'IGURATIOH

A YOt.IBOOV
0 15 n3t1,000'LB

CRITICAL
U:NGTH 0 3FT

plays. The nose gear is often stowed under the cockpit section. If so, add at least 3 ft 2 and 15 ft3 to this section of forebody volume.
Avionics

e e

AU EXTERNAL PYLON CAARIAGE TANGENT CONFORMAL CARRIAGE: SUBMERGED EJECTOR WITH ACCESS. SEMI-SUBMERGED AIRBAG EJECTOR CARRIAGE INTERNAL BAYTUSE LAUNCH INTERNAL BAY-EJECTOR LAUNCH

e
e e

&-3

n3n.ooo LB

MAX WPN

LENGTH

20 n3t1.000 LB 33

MAX WPN

LENGTH + 6 IN.

n3n.ooo LB

LENGTH + 6 IN.

MAX WPN

The airplane volume requirements for avionics equipment excepting displays and antennas is 1.6 times the volume of the bare equipment. That is, it requires a 60% allowance for rack, cooling, connectors, and clearance. This is true for current boxes and future modules. Equipment examples are described later in the subsystem section.
Antennas

Table 2 Armament volume

INIITAUATIOH I' ACT DR UNINIBTAU.BI e 20MM MK81 GATl.JNG GUN 7n3 0.01 X2 X 1.3 X3 X 1.3 GUN+2FT

CIIITlCAL

GIJN+2FT

20MM Nllll/0 (LINK LESS OAIJM) (1 BARRELl

ROUND

n3t

e 30MM OERLIKON e 30MM OERLIKON

AMMO, BOX 6 LINKS

1.en3 0.04

ROUND

n3t

The principal antenna volume requirement is that for the nose radome. Ordinarily fuselage cross sections in this region are circular and the area variation with length has been simplified to a constant value of 1.4 ft 2 /ft to give a parabolic radome shape. The diameter at the fuselage station that will accommodate the radar dish is assumed to be 4 in. larger than the dish itself. Thus the volume of fuselage considered to accommodate the radome is
Radome volume=[;

sities will range from 30 to 45 lb/ft 3. Most production fighters have values between 32 and 38 lb/ft 3, where net density is determined from the net volume without propulsion stream tube.
Volnet

where the tadome volume is in ft 3 and Dis the radar dish diameter in feet.
Weapon Provisions

Volgross- (Acaplure X Lpropulsion)

Body volume requirements can be estimated from Table 1.

Gun and Ammunition

The second method employs a volume. buildup as shown in Fig. 5. A format is shown for a 'new fighter concept where the volume may evolve through iteration. Minimum volume estimates of each element are derived graphically or from the equations described in the following paragraphs. Recording of component lengths will allow early estimate of the minimum length. (Note: Critical lengths do not accumulate for total length.) This list of elements also includes those of critical cross section that must be considered for volume distribution. Volume estimates described in the following paragraphs are inputs to Fig. 5. The equations are from Ref. 5 plus data from the authors to reflect both current and future technology where applicable.
Cockpit

Gatling guns, single barrel, and two barrel guns are in service and may be replaced with lighter more powerful versions of each type. For initial sizing use Table 2 as a guide. Installation factors account for routing of ammo, ammo storage, and gun bay purging.
Landing Gear

The volume of the landing gear, sized for 36 passes at a given California bearing ratio (CBR) field surface condition, is given by
VLG =9+ 10- 6 (2.56 CBR- 4.86)TOW(L924 CBR)- 0 158

Minimum volume requirement for each crew member, in a tandem arrangement, is currently 70 ft 3 with at least 14-ft2 cross section at the pilots design eye body station. Future technologies allow 50 ft 3 each with ll-ft 2 cross section for upright and 7 ft 2 for semisupine seating. This volume allocation includes provisions for avionics, controls, and dis8

where Vw is the volume of the landing gear (ft 3) and TOW is the design takeoff weight (lb).
Miscellaneous Equipment

Carrier based airplanes must have a volume allowance of 4 ft3 for arresting gear. Initial volume requirements of other equipment and systems can be estimated using Table 3.
AIAA Student Journal

Table 3

Subsystem volume estimates

I!OUII'UI!NT

Tla4ftOLOGY
0.46 FT't1,000 4FT' 1FT' 15FT' 2FT' 6 FT'tEA.

CURN!NT

FUTURI! TCMMOt.OGY
0.46 FT'I1.000 1

HYOAAULIC AND PNEUMATIC (CU. FT. PER 1,000 LB T.O.W.) ELECTRICAL ARMOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL SYS. AUXILIARY GEAR OXYGEN (08005 OR 081GGS)

FTJ (ENGINE
BAY) 1FT'

ume is based on the length and average cross section of the compressor face and nozzle at maximum AlB position. The stream tube volume is the product of capture area times overall propulsion system length and will be deducted from gross volume to produce net total volume.
Body Structure

18

Ffl (CBR)
2FT'

6 Ff'JEA.

Volume for body structure is based on I) the fuselage fineness ratio, and 2) the approximate wetted area of a prolate spheroid.
V body structure= O.I3(f/d) bodyA wet body V body structure= 0. I 3(fld) body 1.33 [ 3( Vrusclfrusc)

Future fighters will require increased hydraulic horsepower for active flight controls; but increase system pressure, as high as 8000 psi, will reduce unit weight and volume requirements. Electrical system components will be hidden within engine bay volume; direct mounting to engine gear box. Environmental control systems (ECS) will require additional filters to counter chemical and biological environments. Onboard oxygen generating system (OBOGS) and onboard inert gas generating system (OBIGGS) are accounted for separately.
System Runs

+ 2. 7 Vfuse

frusc]

At this point, or before, some rough estimate should be made of body length and equivalent diameter. Body width will establish exposed wing area and volume. For supersonic shapes assume body f/d 2!: II. Exposed wing volume is left to the student.
Unused Volume

The volume required to carry control cables, push pull rods, and electrical and hydraulic lines through the fuselage is derived as the product of an average cross section and the length of the fuselage. For initial sizing, use I ft 2 over 85% of fuselage length; no runs in the forward radome or aft nozzle tail cone.
Tail Carry-Through

Any airplane has a certain amount of volume that cannot be charged to the required volume for useful items. This unused or wasted volume is a result of shape irregularities in components that prevent compact stacking. Wasted volume has been determined in a number of representative fighter designs by subtracting the accountable volume from the total. The quantity correlates well with fuselage surface area. The expression is

The volume required for tail carry-through structure is 0.002 ft 3 /lb of airplane gross weight, which also applies to canard designs.
Wing Sweep Mechanism If variable sweep is employed, provision for the ac-

where Vruse is the total summation of component volume requirements for the fuselage (ft 3 ) and Lruse is the overall fuselage length (ft).
Fuel Volume

tuation system and mechanism is included as follows:

where C is the chord of the extended wing at the pivot, tic is the thickness ratio at the pivot, and W 8 s the body width at the wing carry-through. Strucural carry-through of the wing is accounted for in structural allowances.
Propulsion
\

Body fuel volume should assume a volumetric efficiency no greater than 85-870Jo to account for expansion, structure, fuel boost pumps, and wasted space. Assume fuel density at 40.5-41.5 lb/ft 3 for integral tanks. Wing fuel should occupy no more than 42% of exposed wing volume (outside the body). For variable sweep wings initial estimates can use 4707o of the wing volume outboard of the pivot.
Summing the Volume

Volume requirements include inlet, engine bay, and accessories. The inlet volume is the product of capture area and length from the cowl lip to the compressor face. The engine plus accessories volWinter 1987

The gross volume, Fig. 5, is the sum of body components, wing volume, and strake or leading edge extension (LEX) if employed. Tail surface volume is not included in any area ruling because of
9

1.0 0.8 0.6

A

c
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.6 0.7 0.8 Xll
Vot. C"n_ ll Amu X L Cp

dmax

0.4 0.2 0 0.5

"'max

dmaxif

lldltCtfdW IIMUUI'III! OIUQ

TYPE I co.

GIVEN LENGTH & VOL

0.59 0.51111

TYPE II TYPE Ill

Co. Co 312

LENGTH & OIA

OIA & VOL

cPu

Cplll - 0.392

Fig. 6 Sears bodies. Fig. 7 Area plotgraphic standards.

CROSS SECTIONAL AREA

(A)

SEARS TYPE 1

FIRST STAGE AIRPLANE Ct'IOU SECTION DEFINITION (TARGEn

NET AIRPLANE CROSS SECTION

FOR RESTRICTED FUSELAGE

INITIAL AREA OEANED BY VOLUME AND LENGTH REQUIREMENTS

SECTIONAL AREA

CROSS

MINI UM FUSELAGE

INLET STREAMTUBE

LCINGIT\JOII'W. STATION SECONO STAClill! Ct'IOU SECTION DEFINITION

10

AIAA Student Journal

CRITICAL CROSS SECTIOHS CONFIGURATION TYPE FOAEIIOOY MIOIIOOY AFT IIOOY

SEARS-HAACK SHAPE (1st ESTIIIIATE) FOAEIIOOY AFT IIOOY L

xAMAX

11

(FIG 7)

FORWARD ENGINE AFT TAIL

RAOOME OR COCKPIT

WING CARRY-THROUGH OR MAIN GEAR

TAIL SUPPORT

TYPE II

TYPE II

Q.50.0.56

AFT ENGINE AFT TAIL

RADOME OR COCKPIT

WING CARRY-THROUGH OR MAIN GEAR

ENGINE CUSTOMER CONNECT AND TAIL SUPPORT

TYPE II

TYPE I

0.55-0.60

AFT ENGINE TAILLESS

RADOME OR COCKPIT

WING MID-SPAR AND MAIN GEAR

WING REAR SPAR

TYPE II

TYPE I

0.55-0..60

AFT ENGINE CANARD

RADOME COCKPIT OR CANARD CARRY THRU

MAIN GEAR OR WING FRONT SPAR

WING REAR SPAR

TYPE II

TYPE I

0.55-0.60

Fig. 8 Critical control points.

aftbody adverse pressure gradients, except for staggering horizontal and vertical surfaces to minimize cross-sectional area buildup. With airplane gross volume estimated, area ruling with required cross sections can begin.
Area Distribution

The most common area plots are defined by Sears/Haack area distributions.2 3 These are widely employed in the design of transonic and supersonic
AOVAHCED MOOUI.AR

airplanes because of the good correlation of theory and flight results and the systematic approach possible in the application of this tool throughout the vehicle design life. Three basic Sears shapes are shown in Fig. 6 with respective pressure drag equations and prismatic coefficients CP for combinations of length, volume, and equivalent diameter. A primary value of these shaping options is realized when critical cross sections along the body create control points in the area distribution. Control
ADVANCED

COCICP1T

MOOUI.AR ECS

ADVANCED FLIGHT

COHTAOUI

e e e e
e

AUTONOMOUS FUGHT
FLAT PANEL DISPLAYS ANO SWITCHES VOICE CONTROL HELMET MOUNTED
SUIT

!II'SI

INTEGRAL VARIAIILE DISPlACEMENT FUEL TANK

DISPLAY SEMI-SUPINE SEATING

ADVANCED MOOULAR SECONDARY POWER

ELECTRIC LINK INTEGRA TED POWER UNIT

ADVANCED PROPULSICIN

e e e
"

MISSION PlANNING MULTITHAEAT WARNING INTERNETTING ADVANCED ANTENNAS INTGRA TED

ICNIA

V1.lW'MSIC

AEAOMECHANICAL

MOOULAR WEAPONS

e e e

RELAXED STATIC STAIIIUTY TAILLESS DESIGN AEROELASTIC TAILORING CONI'OAMAUINTERNAL WEAPON CARRIAGE INTEGRA TED CONTROLS ADVANCED INLET DESIGN

VAAIAIILE CAMBER WING

e FOLDING FIN TUBE

e e e
e

HYDRAULICS ADVANCED INTEGRATED IIRAKINGISTEERING HIGH DEFLECTION TIRES

ADAPTIVE PASSIVE GEAR AOUGHISOFT Fi1.0 HIGH PRESSURE

ADVANCED MOOULAR COMPOSITE/METAL AIRFRAME

e
e

e e

ALAMNT W1NDIHG ADVANCED AIIL.i MATERIAL ADVANCED COMFOSITES

HOT SIZING .PRESSING

e AIR BAG EJECTOR e TELESCOPED AMMO e ADVANCED MUNITIONS

LAUNCHED

Fig. 9

Compact fighter promising technologies.

Winter 1987

11

\
J.x
SEARS TY
0.6la

(
r\\-....
\\

I
',
<

i I

[;.7

..+.......

./' 1/

"" DENSITY APPROX-36 LSICUBIC FT CAPTURe AREA 800 SO IN. REMOVED 'WING r.t 1.0

v...CANOPY

/
/

--FUSELAGE
//WING M 1.0

EARS T PE I

........

"'-\

/
..:L/ 0.0 1oo--140

h-

ft

-"'-\ "'-\",\

180

'220_ 280 __ 300_ ..

\
420
480

'"

EXIT AREAL

iSOIN.
620

500

540

580

eeol

I.
700

FUSELAGE STATION-INCHES

..

IBA&IC

DATA

IIAIPCIIIIIPACIIS

U08TII
90FT
AA

A!l'Ef'IEHCE N'IEA
ASPI!CT RATIO TAPER RATIO THICI<HESS RATIO L.E. SWI:EP AHGl.f C/4 SWI:EP AHOl OIHEOAAUCANT AHGLE

TR

2878

V1!RT TAll.

285 EA

104

0.204
88

084 032
3

TIC.._ DEG OEG DEG OEG DEG

-15 0

INClOEHCE AHGl.f
TWIIIT AHGl.f AIIOFOI\. PAO.IECTI!O SPAN AOOTCHOAO

000 24
58

000 000

c
1

I
I

TP CHOfiO
AEPIO CHORD

... ... ...

IN

HACAeo!A 2080 3150 0

71 7

woo 85A

105 81

3318

<43 TURNOVER ANGLE

232.12

r ) l )

l
OCl DESIGN LOAD FACTOR

I l
l

( {

Fig. 10 General arrangement-future compact fighter conceptual design.

12

AIAA Student Journal

2.000
F-15A
I

1,600

!-

J
f
EQUIVALENT CAPABILITY

FIA18A TECHNOLOGY

t
}
14% REDUCTION " ' MUL CAPABILITY

1990 TECHNOLOGY

46%
REDUrTION

1,200

1:1
<
w ....
tJ)

600

170

....
!!:
400

EOUIJLENT

I
75

"'"j""

I
85
90
95

85

80 TECHNOLOGY AVAILABILITY DATE

Fig. 11

Technology application-avionics.

points are often created by the cockpit, the wing carry-through structure, the inlet duct, and the interface between airframe and engine nozzle (the customer-connect point). The choice of three shape descriptions for initial target values allows the designer to produce smooth longitudinal distributions through the control points while minimizing excess volume created by the fairing technique. For the initial target volume, the equation for net cross section forward and aft of the maximum is a function of the maximum cross section, position of the maximum cross section, length of the fuselage, and the difference between the engine exit area and inlet area as shown in the upper part of Fig. 7. The maximum cross section A max is determined from the required net volume, the prismatic coefficient of the selected shape (Fig. 6), and a selected value for fineness ratio fld. In subsequent phases during layout design, body

constraints and exposed wing volume may cause a mismatch like that illustrated in the lower part of Fig. 7. This is a common occurrence which causes the designer to I) re-examine the configuration general arrangement, and 2) re-evaluate the initial target area distribution. In most cases, a single iteration of target or configuration will produce adequate closure of the student design.
Critical Control Points

In the initial layout, longitudinal area distribution will be selected for the forebody and aftbody. Selection of Sears/Haack shapes will be influenced by wing planform and engine location; the aftbody is most affected (see Fig. 8). A shape for minimum wave drag (type II from the area distribution chart, Fig. 6) can generally be fitted to the critical cross sections required for the forebody. The aftbody area distribution is more sensitive to engine loca-

OPTIMUM FIELD-OF-REGARD REQUIREMENTS FOR VARIOUS OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE SENSORS IACTlVE AND PASSIVE) ABOARD A HIGH PERFORMANCE AIRCRAFT

lAST

TAIL WARNING

Fig. 12 Multirole sensor field of regard. Winter 1987

13

\
Table 4 Multirole avionics configuration
SUBSYSTEM-EQUIPMENT TECHNOLOGY FEATURES PROJECTED WEI<l*iT (LII) VOL (Frl)

(
100
1

e COMM/NAVIIDENT
ICNIA UHFNHF RADIO MK XV-NIS TACAN VOR MLS JTIDS ENHANCED JTIDS GPS SINCGARS LOW COST HIGHLY ACCURATE ALG INERTIAL NAV UNIT

VHSIC CHI SYSTEM

LOW COST INERTIAL REFERENCE UNIT WHICH USED RING LASER GYRO TECHNOLOGY AND GPS UPDATES TO ACHIEVE ACCURACY INCLUDES NAV PROCESSOR ADAPTIVE NULL STEERING ANTENNAS. MULTIPLE BAND. LOW PROFILE TUBELESS DIGITIZED AIR DATA SYSTEM-REDUNDANCY MANAGED

02

- CNI ANTENNAS AND CONTROLLER ADVANCED AIR DATA SENSORS

2Q

0 25 0 15

10

e DATA PROCESSING
INTEGRATED AJC COMPUTER SYSTEM HELMET DISPLAY ELECTRONIC PROCESSOR VHSIC. FIBER OPTIC BUS VHSIC. BUS

32 18

10 04

CONTROLS AND DISPLAYS VOICE INTERACTIVE CONTROL SYSTEM FLAT PANEL DISPLAYS PLUS CONTROLS HELMET MOUNTED DISPLAY/EYE SENSORTRACKER VOICE CONTAOUAIACAAFT COMPUTER RESPONSE SYSTEM. VHSIC BASED. + 200 WOAD VOCABULARY HIGH RESOLUTION COLOR FLAT PANEL DISPLAYS (7 x 7 INCHES) FULL COLOR HOLOGRAPHIC HELMET VISOR DISPLAY WITH INSTRUMENT PANEL AND HUDON IT EYE SENSOR-TRACKER BORESIGHTS EYES TO HUD AND INSTRUMENT PANEL ON VISOR
2Q

03 03 N/A

23 8

DEFENSIVE SYSTEM MULTI-THREAT WARNING SYSTEM ALL FREQUENCY. ALL ASPECT. VHSIC BASED THREAT WARNING SYSTEM DUAL VHSIC CONTROLLED EXPENDABLE DISPENSER SYSTEM THREAT JAMMING SYSTEM. VHSIC MULTIMODE (50) 160 I 2 (0 ., 36

- CHAFF/FLARE/EXPENDABLE JAMMER DISPENSER (2) ELECTRONIC COUNTERMEASURES SYSTEM

OFFENSIVE SYSTEM PLANAR ARRAY RADAR NAV/ATIACK FLIA WEAPONS CONTROL SYSTEM

..

PLANAR ARRAY RADAR WITH 27 8 INCH ANTENNA AND 500 WATI DUAL MODE TWT FORWARD LOOKING lA FOR NAVIGATION AND TAAETING WITH AUTOMATIC TARGET RECOGNITION

280
150

3 65 36 (1 6) 16 07 (18 07! 25.7 (28 9)

15) 955
1,242

UNINSTALLED TOTAL IN SENSOR AND AVIONIC BAYS TOTAL (INCLUDING ALL REMOTE SYSTEMS) INSTALLED TOTAL
(

) NOT LOCATED IN AVIONICS BAY

..

tion. With aft-mounted engines it is recommended that a type I shape be selected initially. This shape provides more cross section for the critical aftbody stations and fits smoothly to the maximum area generated by forebody requirements.
Subsystem Data Base-Future Compact Fighter

In the previous section guidelines were presented for estimating component and subsystem volume in an effort to ensure more realistic student designs. In this section subsystems are presented that may be applied to future fighter concepts. Fighter subsystems were selected because the impact of technology development will appear in fighter design first. The technologies indicated in Fig. 9 are manifested generally as subsystems made possible by major advancements in digital electronics, structural materials, propulsion, and advanced weapons. Compact fighters, beyond the next generation, are used for this example because of the following trends.
14

1) Many emerging subsystem technologies contribute to down sizing full capability fighters. 2) Fighter cost, survivability, and availability will benefit directly by down sizing. 3) Cost reduction concepts are possible with modular subsystems and airframes, directly applicable to vehicle size reduction. 4) Future fighters will emphasize new reliability and maintainability technologies to produce highsortie generation rates at forward operating sites with little or no maintenance. 5) The compact fighter is easier to design for effective forward basing. Its size requires smaller support systems (fuel, weapons, and maintenance), offers easier ground handling, makes avail more operating sites, and smaller subsystems that are easier to modularize.
Baseline Concept

A high-performance compact fighter is used to ilAIAA Student Journal

lustrate use of the area plot and the impact of advanced subsystems that will be described later. Figure 10 shows a typical general arrangement that results from the design process described in the introduction. For supersonic cruise vehicles, cross-sectional area distribution is used as the initial control for minimum wave drag. Sears target area distributions are shown on the baseline to employ type II for the forebody and type I for the aft body. Note also that Amax occurs at 600Jo of body length in agreement with the guidelines discussed in Fig. 8. The variation shown between target and measured cross sections will produce accuracies in far-field drag that are adequate for conceptual design estimates. Continued area tailoring would be appropriate before entering preliminary design or wind-tunnel tests. Nozzle exit area also contributes to wave drag. Supersonic cruise conditions will require that propulsion systems produce high nozzle pressure ratios and large expansion ratios. This particular variable wedge nozzle with fixed cowl assures minimum boattail drag at the loss of some internal performance. Its impact on the area plot is to improve aftbody fineness ratio. This design has an overall net fineness ratio e!d of IO, considered by most to be a minimum for efficient supersonic operations. An additional benefit of the area plot design tool is

for center of gravity control. During initial layout, the vehicle can be assumed to have a constant density; thus, the centroid of the area plot is approximately the vehicle center of gravity with full internal fuel. Initial fuel volume may also be sketched within the area plot to allow estimates of empty weight e.g. Subsystems for this compact baseline feature modularity to reduce subassembly size and cost and to improve vulnerability and supportability. Most evident in this general arrangement are modular low-profile cockpit, weapons carriage, secondary power generation, and propulsion. These and other subsystems are described in the following sections.
Critical Major Subsystem Technologies

The technology development of selected major subsystems is summarized in this section along with design data to add to the students' data base.
Modular Avionic Concepts

Modularity and quick change benefits of digital avionics will provide multirole capability with sizable reduction in avionics load carried on each mission. Avionic system developments and trends are indicated in Fig. II where future systems are compared to current F-I5 and F-18 system technologies. Multirole avionic suites will provide sensor field of regard capability such as those shown in Fig. 12.

HINGED ACCESS COVER

------

FAULT INDICATOR VIEWING WINDOW

MODULE FAULT INDICATOR

7 0 IN

:li ::>

. ..
;

iii

:li

5.881N.

81 IN
REPLACEA&E

LINE

MOOUlE

Fig. 13

Integrated data processor- VHSIC I.

15

Winter 1987

\'
e TfiANSPAAENCIES

Fig. 14 Low-profile crew systems integration.

e e

RESPIRATOR (BREATHING/PRESS SYS) HELMET DISPLAYS

e PNEUMATIC
RESTRAINT

e CONTROlS AND
DISPLAYS

e e

800 KT/15G SEAT

MODULAR SEA TICOCI<PIT

e INTERFACES
ELECTRONIC ELECTRICAL ECSIMSOGS UOVID LOOP

Multiwavelength offensive sensors include radar and infrared search and track (IRST) for air-toair combat, and forward-looking infrared (FLIR), millimeter wavelength (MMW) and laser radars for air-to-ground combat. Defensive systems will include fore and aft warning systems in the IR and radar frequencies. Installation and location of these sensors to achieve required field of regard must be considered early in the design layout process. A typical multirole avionics suite can be projected to have the weight and volume indicated in Table 4. Major reductions in ove_rall system volume are now emerging, due in large part to very-largescale integration (VLSI) and very-high-speed integrated circuit (VHSIC) technologies that greatly requce signal processor volumes for Common/ NA V IDENT functions (ICNIA technology) and data processing. Cockpit display volume (instrumental panel) will almost be eliminated in favor of helmet-mounted displays. Such installation benefits are illustrated in Fig. 13 and in the following section on crew station design.
Modular Crew Systems

The modular low-profile crew station is shown in Figs. 14 and 15. As indicated, the crew station is essentially all mounted to the seat module. Controls and display technology will integrate the helmet-mounted visor as the primary display. Backup multipurpose displays and all controls will be seat mounted as are all crew protection interfaces for pneumatic restraint, high-altitude escape, high-g escape, anticipatory "g" protection, and chemical-biological-radioactive (CBR) protective ensemble. A semisupine seat permits the low-profile cockpit
MOLD LINE AT <t_ FOOT
(8 IN. FROM ACFT <t_. 19 IN. FUSELAGE RADIUS)

(NO CLEARANCE)

ENVELOPE-95TH

Future compact fighters will owe much to the development of modular low-profile cockpits and associated crew protection technologies. Crew station design will be all new, driven by semisupine seating (50- to 60-deg seat back angle). Performance benefits will be evident from forebodies with much reduced cross section and lower wave drag. Radical performance advances will push cruise and maneuver portions of the flight envelope to levels that will obsolete current fighters.
16

HRL
Q

1111!11111111111
SCALE - INCHES

IQ

Fig. 15 Low-profile cockpit geometry.

Fig. 16 Upright seat in future compact fighter.

AJAA Student Journal

CABIN EXHAUST

LEGEND

c:::=::J

AIR LINE

111111111111111 COOLANOL LINE

a::c::r:::ll FUEL LINE

c:z:::::z::l WATER LINE

I8J

HEAT EXCHANGER

GROUND CONNECTION

that has a reduced forebody volume distribution with minimum hump due to the canopy (see Fig. 10). To illustrate the aerodynamic payoffs with the layback seat, an upright seat was installed in the future compact fighter (FCF) as shown in Fig. 16. A comparison was made of the FCF sized to a supersonic design mission with the upright seat and the supine seat. The MTOW of the supine seat FCF was 2211/o lighter and the empty weight was 21% lighter. The reduction in supersonic wave drag produced performance improvements that increased with supersonic Mach number, especially in dry power. Differences at M = 1.6 and 30,000 ft include 50% improvement in specific excess power Ps and 15% more sustained turn capability with dry power.
Environmental Control System

trol is provided by cool suit technique. Both the cold plate and cool suit techniques use liquid heat transfer media that interface with the air cycle system through liquid to air heat exchangers. The self-generating oxygen system uses molecular sieves to separate oxygen from processed air provided by the ECS system. A gaseous oxygen bottle is located in the ejection seat to provide oxygen for emergency backup and high-altitude ejection. Filtration of CBR contaminants is provided within the OBOGS. The ECS and OBOGS systems are located aft of the cockpit between the avionics bay and weapons pallet (Fig. 10). Access to the ECS and oxygen systems is through the bottom of the aircraft by lowering the weapons module.
Environmental Control System Modularity

The ECS provides the following functions: temperature, pressure, humidity control, avionics cooling, cooling and pressurization for the pilot's integrated protective system, canopy seal, radar and ECM waveguide pressurization, internal and external fuel pressurization, windshield and canopy defogging, and self-generating oxygen system. The onboard oxygen generating system (OBOGS) provides for pilot survival in CBR environments, eliminates frequent service operations required by present-day LOX system, and is effective up to the aircraft's 60,000-ft plus service ceiling. A projected closed-loop air cycle system, Fig. 17, uses low- and high-pressure bleed air from the high-pressure spool to eliminate the need for an ECS precooler. Cooling of critical avionics is by cold plate technique, while pilot temperature conWinter 1987

The closed-loop environmental control system was configured to adapt to a modular installation. Figure 18 shows the fundamental modular breakdown for FCF configurations and Fig. 19 shows the module; interchangeable modulars are identified in Fig. 18. The primary heat exchanger and related ram air inlets, ducting, and outlets are too configuration-dependent to permit interchangeability. The same is true for the secondary heat exchanger and the emergency ram and dump circuits. When compared to current designs, modular installation exhibits significant improvements in damage tolerance and repair for moderate structure weight penalties. The module is slightly less vulnerable because of added system structural weight. It has a marked advantage in maintainability; mean time to repair is approximately one-half that of a
(Continued on page 39)

17

Design Scope for Student Supersonic Projects (Continued from page 17)

conventional system due to easy access and quick remove and replace characteristics.
Modular Hydraulic System

A high-pressure hydraulic system will significantly reduce the size of key hydraulic system components, such as reservoirs and accumulators, and

COOLING MODULE MODULE

UOUIO

HEAT SIN!< CONTIIOL HX MOOULE

Fig. 18 Modular environmental control system concept.

NBC ALTER

(REMOVED)

INLET

RAM

RH

Fig. 19

CEF ECS module.

ease installation packaging problems due to smaller tubing diameters compared to a conventional 3000psi hydraulic system. Trends in hydraulic system weight, cost, and risk related to system pressure for medium-sized, twin-engine fighter are depicted in Fig. 20 and summarized as follows. I) An 8000-psi hydraulic system is considered the highest risk. 2) A 6000-psi hydraulic system is considered minimum technical risk. 3) Approximately 28o/o weight reduction and a volume reduction of approximately 40% is projected to 8000 psi, compared to an equivalent 3000psi system. 4) The 8000-psi system was selected for the compact fighter because advanced development is being funded by the U.S. Air Force. Active flutter suppression and direct drive servovalve-controlled actuators are considered critical prerequisite requirements for the successful development of an 8000-psi hydraulic system. Included in system cost is the engineering time and money required to develop the servoactuators and appropriate software for each individual flight control surface. For the FCF class aircraft, two redundant hydraulic systems are required to have a maximum output capability of 70 hp each. This requires that two main hydraulic pumps, rated at 8000 psi, have a maximum flow rate capability of approximately 15 gpm. (This horsepower compares to the current F-5 requirements of 40 hp, total, and is indicative of future performance regimes with active controls.) The right-hand system boot-strap reservoir (utility) is required to have a displaced volume of 350 in. 3 , and the left-hand system reservoir a displaced volume of 250 in. 3 Each system has one accumulaFig. 20 Hydraulic system pressure, weight, and cost trends.

<!JO
f-W

...-g :r:_,

w u a: w

... z

z i5 ::>,_ -'z Uw -a: >-w Ulo._ o. UUl ...... w"' "'o o..U 'f<!l UlZ oil: wa: z::> wu ow a: a: ::>Z <DO ,_z
'-'-

<!l

140
130

I MEDIUM-SIZE.AIRCRAFT 1- 90 TWIN-ENGINE FIGHTER

I
REF NORTHROP N342-30

80 $
70

120 110
100
90

C..>-

"'>2,z :r:w Ula: :!!a: w=> ,_u Ulu.

W>-

v A..... .i
"=
,...(

TOTAl HYDRAULIC SYSTEM WEIGHT

a:

'-'-

<

60 Ul "

'---.....

CEF

50 z <!l u;
40

a:

80 -TOTAL HYDRAULIC S[STE.r COST

70

::>

--'

--'

,_

... 0
<
0

--'

CURRENT TECHNOLOGY

10

2.000

4.000

'

I
/_
RISK FACTOR

::J <
30 20

u :::

:r:

/_

.1.

10

6.000

8.000

10.000

12.000

14.000

RATED SYSTEM PRESSURE PSI

Winter 1987

39

VISUAL SIGHT GAGE (RESERVOIR FLUID LEVEl) SEALS

(
SIN. DIA

SIN ACCUMULATOR 0 958 DIA ACCUM PRESSURE PISTON SENSOR SHAFT PUMP

10 IN DIA

8 IN. DIA

_______ __, I _______ __,

J-MANIFOLD SEALS

'

VISUAL SIGHT GAGE (RESERVOIR FLUID LEVEL)

0.958 DIA BOOTSTRAP SENSOR SHAFT

ACCUMULATOR
1.

2. 3.
4.

6. 5 IN. DIA FLOATING ACCUMULATOR PISTON WITH BLEEN HOLES

5.
7

8.

CASE DRAIN FIL TEA HP SUPPLY FIL TEA RETURN FIL TEA DEAERATION UNIT SUCTION CASE DRAIN HIGH PRESSURE SUPPLY LOW PRESSURE RETURN

MEAN TIME TO REPAIR IS ONE HALF OF CONVENTIONAL SYSTEM

Fig. 2 I 40

8000-psi hydraulic system power supply (manifold with boot-strap, 270-in. 3 reservoir).
AIAA Student Journal

AIR- TQ.AIR MISSILE (CAPACITY 4)

Fig. 22 Modular weapons carriage.

tor having a displaced volume of approximately 50 in. 3 This assures retention of system pressure in the boot-strap reservoirs to preclude pump cavitation during pump startup. A common module design, Fig. 21, was selected to provide the following benefits. 1) Easy access for checkout inspection and maintenance, because cartridge units can be readily replaced or the entire module can be removed and checked on a test bench. 2) Improved reliability with fewer parts and fewer potential leakage points. 3) Weight savings; less complex and more compact. 4) Decreased vulnerable area over individual components.
Modular Weapons Carriage

Continued development of folding fin weapons and lock-on-after launch (LOAL) guidance packages will greatly improve the overall cost of ownership for future fighters. Down-sized weapons such as illustrated in Fig. 22 will allow payload modules that are configured for rapid loading, quick: configuration changes, low signature, and low-drag internal carriage. The module concept shown here measures 36 in. wide, 15 in. average height, and 125 in. long. Volume is approximately 39 ft3 with a weapon capacity of 2000 lb.
Concluding Remarks

duced only a few of the graphic techniques used to achieve low-drag vehicle configurations. Area ruling can be much more sophisticated than shown here, however, the author's aim was to keep it simple. Others will surely have even simpler methods to share with undergraduate designers. A wealth of data also exists for advanced subsystems, but it should be collected in a common format, to educate and to make it easier for aspiring student designers to use. Perhaps professional subsystem designers should lecture directly to student design teams. AIAA's Aircraft Design Committee can play the key role. They have sponsored many design competitions and will soon publish a design manual. As a clearinghouse for this and other follow-up information, this activity would seem to fit their group charter, and, at the same time, boost AIAA's objectives for better design education. f/1
References 1 Nicolai, L.M., "Fundamentals of Aircraft Design," METS, Inc., 6520 Kingsland Court, San Jose, CA 95120. 2 Harris, R.V. Jr., "An Analysis and Correlation of Aircraft Wave Drag," NASA TM X-947, Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA. 3Sears, W.R., "Projectiles of Minimum Wave Drag," Quarterly of Applied Mathematics, Vol. 4, No. 4, 1947. 4 Shapiro, A. H., "The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow," Vol. II, Figs. 17.16 and 17.7, Ronald Press Co., 1945. SJensen, S.C. and Painter, E., "Design Synthesis of Twin Engined Fighter Physical Characteristics for Parametric Studies," Boeing DOC D6-2044TN, 1968 (unpublished).
41

Much remains to be done. This work has introWinter 1987