Anatomy Glossary

acidosis (asu1-dosis) An abnormal increase in the H+ concentration of the blood that lowers the arterial pH to below 7.35. acromegaly (akro-megua-le) A condition caused by the hypersecretion of growth hormone from the pituitary gland after maturity and characterized by enlargement of the extremities, such as the nose, jaws, fingers, and toes. actin (aktin) A protein in muscle fibers that together with myosin is responsible for contraction. action potential An all-or-none electrical event in an axon or muscle fiber in which the polarity of the membrane potential is rapidly reversed and reestablished. active immunity (u1-myoonu1-te) Immunity involving sensitization, in which antibody production is stimulated by prior exposure to an antigen. active transport The movement of molecules or ions across the cell membranes of epithelial cells by membrane carriers. An expenditure of cellular energy (ATP) is required. adduction (au-dukshun) The movement of a body part toward the axis or midline of the body; movement of a digit toward the axis of the limb. adenohypophysis (adn-o-hi-pofu1-sis) The anterior, glandular lobe of the pituitary gland that secretes FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone), LH (luteinizing hormone), ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone), TSH (thyroidstimulating hormone), GH (growth hormone), and prolactin. Secretions of the adenohypophysis are controlled by hormones produced by the hypothalamus. adenoids (adue-noidz) The tonsils located in the nasopharynx; pharyngeal tonsils. adenylate cyclase (ua-denl-it sikl=as) An enzyme found in cell membranes that catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cyclic AMP and pyrophosphate (PP1). This enzyme is activated by an interaction between a specific hormone and its membrane receptor protein. ADH Antidiuretic hormone; a hormone produced by the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary that acts on the kidneys to promote water reabsorption; also known as vasopressin. ADP Adenosine diphosphate; a molecule that together with inorganic phosphate is used to make ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

abdomen (abduo-men, ab-domen) The portion of the trunk between the diaphragm and pelvis. abduction (ab-dukshun) The movement of a body part away from the axis or midline of the body; movement of a digit away from the axis of the limb. ABO system The most common system of classification for red blood cell antigens. On the basis of antigens on the red blood cell surface, individuals can be type A, type B, type AB, or type O. absorption (ab-sorpshun) The transport of molecules across epithelial membranes into the body fluids. accessory organs (ak-sesuo-re) Organs that assist with the functioning of other organs within a system. accommodation (ua-komuo-dashun) A process whereby the focal length of the eye is changed by automatic adjustment of the curvature of the lens to bring images of objects from various distances into focus on the retina. acetabulum (asue-tabyuu-lum) A socket in the lateral surface of the hipbone (os coxa) with which the head of the femur articulates. acetone (asue-t=on) A ketone body produced as a result of the oxidation of fats. acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA) (asue-tl, ua-setl) A coenzyme derivative in the metabolism of glucose and fatty acids that contributes substrates to the Krebs cycle. acetylcholine (ACh) (ua-setl-kol=en) An acetic acid ester of choline-a substance that functions as a neurotransmitter in somatic motor nerve and parasympathetic nerve fibers. acetylcholinesterase (ua-setl-kolu1-nestue-r=as) An enzyme in the membrane of postsynaptic cells that catalyzes the conversion of ACh into choline and acetic acid. This enzymatic reaction inactivates the neurotransmitter. Achilles tendon (ua-kil=ez) See tendo calcaneous. acid (asid) A substance that releases hydrogen ions when ionized in water.

adrenal cortex (ua-drenal korteks) The outer part of the adrenal gland. Derived from embryonic mesoderm, the adrenal cortex secretes corticosteroid hormones (such as aldosterone and hydrocortisone). adrenal medulla (mue-dulua) The inner part of the adrenal gland. Derived from embryonic postganglionic sympathetic neurons, the adrenal medulla secretes catecholamine hormones-epinephrine and (to a lesser degree) norepinephrine. adrenergic (adreu-nerjik) A term used to describe the actions of epinephrine, norepinephrine, or other molecules with similar activity (as in adrenergic receptor and adrenergic stimulation). adventitia (adven-tishua) The outermost epithelial layer of a visceral organ; also called serosa. afferent (afer-ent) Conveying or transmitting to. afferent arteriole (ar-tire-=ol) A blood vessel within the kidney that supplies blood to the glomerulus. afferent neuron (nooron) See sensory neuron. agglutinate (ua-glootn-=at) A clump of cells (usually erythrocytes) formed as a result of specific chemical interaction between surface antigens and antibodies. agranular leukocytes (ua-granyuu-lar loo kuo-s1=tz) White blood cells (leukocytes) that do not contain cytoplasmic granules; specifically, lymphocytes and monocytes. albumin (al-byoomin) A water-soluble protein produced in the liver; the major component of the plasma proteins. aldosterone (al-doster-=on) The principal corticosteroid hormone involved in the regulation of electrolyte balance (mineralocorticoid). alimentary canal The tubular portion of the digestive tract. See also gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). allantois (ua-lanto-is) An extraembryonic membranous sac involved in the formation of blood cells. It gives rise to the fetal umbilical arteries and vein and also contributes to the formation of the urinary bladder. allergens (aler-jenz) Antigens that evoke an allergic response rather than a normal immune response.

allergy (aler-je) A state of hypersensitivity caused by exposure to allergens. It results in the liberation of histamine and other molecules with histaminelike effects. all-or-none principle The statement of the fact that muscle fibers of a motor unit contract to their maximum extent when exposed to a stimulus of threshold strength. allosteric (aluo-sterik) A term used with reference to the alteration of an enzyme's activity as a result of its combination with a regulator molecule. Allosteric inhibition by an end product represents negative feedback control of an enzyme's activity. alveolar sacs (al-veuo-lar) A cluster of alveoli that share a common chamber or central atrium. alveolus (al-veuo-lus) 1.An individual air capsule within the lung. The alveoli are the basic functional units of respiration. 2.The socket that secures a tooth(tooth socket). amniocentesis (amne-o-sen-tesis) A procedure in which a sample of amniotic fluid is aspirated to examine suspended cells for various genetic diseases. amnion (amne-on) A developmental membrane surrounding the fetus that contains amniotic fluid. amphiarthrosis (amfe-ar-throsis) A slightly movable articulation in a functional classification of joints. amphoteric (am-fo-terik) Having both acidic and basic characteristics; used to denote a molecule that can be positively or negatively charged, depending on the pH of its environment. ampulla (am-poolua) A saclike enlargement of a duct or tube. ampulla of Vater (Fuater) See hepatopancreatic ampulla. anabolic steroids (anua-bolik steroidz) Steroids with androgenlike stimulatory effects on protein synthesis. anabolism (ua-nabuo-lizem) A phase of metabolism involving chemical reactions within cells that result in the production of larger molecules from smaller ones; specifically, the synthesis of protein, glycogen, and fat. anaerobic respiration (an-ua-robik respu1-rashun) A form of cell respiration involving the conversion of glucose to lactic acid in which energy is obtained without the use of molecular oxygen.

anal canal (anal) The terminal tubular portion of the large intestine that opens through the anus of the GI tract. anaphylaxis (anua-fu1-laksis) An unusually severe allergic reaction that can result in cardiovascular shock and death. anastomosis (ua-nastuo-mosis) An interconnecting aggregation of blood vessels or nerves that form a network plexus. anatomical position (anua-tomu1-kal) An erect body stance with the eyes directed interior, the arms at the sides, the palms of the hands facing interior, and the fingers pointing straight down. anatomy (ua-natuo-me) The branch of science concerned with the structure of the body and the relationship of its organs. androgens (andruo-jenz) Steroids containing 18 carbons that have masculinizing effects; primarily those hormones(such as testosterone) secreted by the testes, although weaker androgens are also secreted by the adrenal cortex. anemia (ua-neme-ua) An abnormal reduction in the red blood cell count, hemoglobin concentration, or hematocrit, or any combination of these measurements. This condition is associated with a decreased ability of the blood to carry oxygen. angina pectoris (an-jinua pektuo-ris) A thoracic pain, often referred to the left pectoral and arm area, caused by myocardial ischemia. angiotensin II (anje-o-tensin) An 8-amino-acid polypeptide formed from angiotensin I(a 10-amino-acid precursor), which in turn is formed from cleavage of a protein(angiotensinogen) by the action of renin(an enzyme secreted by the kidneys). Angiotensin II is a powerful vasoconstrictor and a stimulator of aldosterone secretion from the adrenal cortex. anions (ani-onz) Ions that are negatively charged, such as chloride, bicarbonate, and phosphate. antagonist (an-taguo-nist) A muscle that acts in opposition to another muscle. antebrachium (ante-brake-em) The forearm. anterior (ventral) Toward the front; the opposite of posterior, or dorsal.

anterior pituitary (pu1-toou1-ter-e) See adenohypophysis. anterior root The anterior projection of the spinal cord, composed of axons of motor neurons. antibodies (antu1-bod=ez) Immunoglobin proteins secreted by B lymphocytes that have transformed into plasma cells. Antibodies are responsible for humoral immunity. Their synthesis is induced by specific antigens, and they combine with these specific antigens but not with unrelated antigens. anticodon (antu1-kodon) A base triplet provided by three nucleotides within a loop of transfer RNA that is complementary in its base-pairing properties to a triplet(the codon) in mRNA. The matching of codon to anticodon provides the mechanism for translating the genetic code into a specific sequence of amino acids. antigen (antu1-jen) A molecule that can induce the production of antibodies and react in a specific manner with antibodies. antigenic determinant site (an-tu1-jenik) The region of an antigen molecule that specifically reacts with particular antibodies. A large antigen molecule may have a number of such sites. antiserum (antu1-sirum) A serum that contains specific antibodies. anus (anus) The terminal opening of the GI tract. aorta (a-ortua) The major systemic vessel of the arterial system of the body, emerging from the left ventricle. aortic arch The superior left bend of the aorta between the ascending and descending portions. apex (apeks) The tip or pointed end of a conical structure. aphasia (ua-fazhua) Defects in speech, writing, or in the comprehension of spoken or written language caused by brain damage or disease. apneustic center (ap-noostik) A collection of nuclei(nerve cell bodies) in the brain stem that participates in the rhythmic control of breathing. apocrine gland (apuo-krin) A type of sweat gland that functions in evaporative cooling. It may respond during periods of emotional stress.

aponeurosis (apuo-noo-rosis) A fibrous or membranous sheetlike tendon. appendix A short pouch that attaches to the cecum. aqueous humor (akwe-us) The watery fluid that fills the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye. arachnoid mater (ua-raknoid) The weblike middle covering(meninx) of the central nervous system. arbor vitae (arbor vite) The branching arrangement of white matter within the cerebellum. arm (brachium) The portion of the upper extremity from the shoulder to the elbow. arrector pili muscle (ah-rektor pihle) The smooth muscle attached to a hair follicle that, upon contraction, pulls the hair into a more vertical position, resulting in "goose bumps." arteriole (ar-tire-=ol) A minute arterial branch. arteriosclerosis (ar-tire-o-sklue-rosis) Any one of a group of diseases characterized by thickening and hardening of the artery wall and in the narrowing of its lumen. arteriovenous anastomoses (ar-tire-o-venus uanastuo-mos=ez) Direct connections between arteries and veins that bypass capillary beds. artery (artue-re) A blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart. arthrology (ar-throluo-je) The scientific study of the structure and function of joints. articular cartilage (ar-tikyuu-lar kartu1-lij) A hyaline cartilaginous covering over the articulating surface of the bones of synovial joints. articulation (ar-tikyuu-lashun) A joint. arytenoid cartilages (arue-tenoid) A pair of small cartilages located on the superior aspect of the larynx. ascending colon (kolon) The portion of the large intestine between the cecum and the hepatic flexure. association neuron (nooron) A nerve cell located completely within the central nervous system. It conveys impulses in an arc from sensory to motor neurons; also called interneuron or internuncial neuron.

astigmatism (ua-stigmua-tizem) Unequal curvature of the refractive surfaces of the eye (cornea and/or lens), so that light entering the eye along certain meridians does not focus on the retina. atherosclerosis (athue-ro-sklue-rosis) A common type of arteriosclerosis found in medium and larger arteries in which raised areas within the tunica intima are formed from smooth muscle cells, cholesterol, and other lipids. These plaques occlude arteries and serve as sites for the formation of thrombi. atomic number The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. atopic dermatitis (ua-topik dermua-titis) An allergic skin reaction to agents such as poison ivy and poison oak; a type of delayed hypersensitivity. ATP Adenosine triphosphate; the universal energy donor of the cell. atretic (ua-tretik) Without an opening. Atretic ovarian follicles are those that fail to ovulate. atrioventricular bundle (atre-o-ven-trikyuu-lar) A group of specialized cardiac fibers that conduct impulses from the atrioventricular node to the ventricular muscles of the heart; also called the bundle of His or AV bundle. atrioventricular node A microscopic aggregation of specialized cardiac fibers located in the interatrial septum of the heart that are a part of the conduction system of the heart; AV node. atrioventricular valve A cardiac valve located between an atrium and a ventricle of the heart; AV valve. atrium (atre-um) Either of the two superior chambers of the heart that receive venous blood. atrophy (atruo-fe) A gradual wasting away or decrease in the size of a tissue or an organ. atropine (atruo-p=en) An alkaloid drug obtained from a plant of the species Belladonna that acts as an anticholinergic agent. It is used medically to inhibit parasympathetic nerve effects, dilate the pupils of the eye, increase the heart rate, and inhibit intestinal movements. auditory (awdu1-tor-e) Pertaining to the structures of the ear associated with hearing. auditory tube A narrow canal that connects the middle ear chamber to the pharynx; also called the eustachian canal.

auricle (or1u-kul) 1.The fleshy pinna of the ear. 2.An earshaped appendage of each atrium of the heart. autoantibodies (awto-antu1-bod=ez) Antibodies formed in response to, and that react with, molecules that are part of one's own body. autonomic nervous system (awtuo-nomik) The sympathetic and parasympathetic portions of the nervous system that function to control the actions of the visceral organs and skin; ANS. autosomal chromosomes (awto-somal kromuo-s=omz) The paired chromosomes; those other than the sex chromosomes. axilla (ak-silua) The depressed hollow commonly called the armpit. axon (akson) The elongated process of a nerve cell that transmits an impulse away from the cell body of a neuron. ball-and-socket joint The most freely movable type of synovial joint(e.g., the shoulder or hip joint). baroreceptor (baro-re-septor) A cluster of neuroreceptors stimulated by pressure changes. Baroreceptors monitor blood pressure. basal metabolic rate (BMR) (basal metua-bolik) The rate of metabolism(expressed as oxygen consumption or heat production) under resting or basal conditions(14 to 18 hours after eating). basal nucleus (basal nookle-us) A mass of nerve cell bodies located deep within a cerebral hemisphere of the brain; also called basal ganglion. base A chemical substance that ionizes in water to release hydroxyl ions(OH-) or other ions that combine with hydrogen ions. basement membrane A thin sheet of extracellular substance to which the basal surfaces of membranous epithelial cells are attached; also called the basal lamina. basophil (basuo-fil) A granular leukocyte that readily stains with basophilic dye. B cell lymphocytes Lymphocytes that can be transformed by antigens into plasma cells that secrete antibodies(and are thus responsible for humoral immunity). The B stands for bursa equivalent. belly The thickest circumference of a skeletal muscle.

benign (b1u-n=1n) Not malignant. bifurcate (bifur-k=at) Forked; divided into two branches. bile A liver secretion that is stored and concentrated in the gallbladder and released through the common bile duct into the duodenum. It is essential for the absorption of fats. bilirubin (bilu1-roobin) Bile pigment derived from the breakdown of the heme portion of hemoglobin. bipennate (bi-pen=at) Denoting muscles that have a fiber architecture coursing obliquely on both sides of a tendon. blastula (blastyoo-lua) An early stage of prenatal development between the morula and embryonic period. blood The fluid connective tissue that circulates through the cardiovascular system to transport substances throughout the body. blood-brain barrier A specialized mechanism that inhibits the passage of certain materials from the blood into brain tissue and cerebrospinal fluid. bolus (bolus) A moistened mass of food that is swallowed from the oral cavity into the pharynx. bone A solid, rigid, ossified connective tissue forming an organ of the skeletal system. bony labyrinth (labu1-rinth) A series of chambers within the petrous part of the temporal bone associated with the vestibular organs and the cochlea. The bony labyrinth contains a fluid called perilymph. Bowman's capsule (bomanz kapsul) See glomerular capsule. brachial plexus (brake-al pleksus) A network of nerve fibers that arise from spinal nerves C5-C8 and T1. Nerves arising from the brachial plexuses supply the upper extremities. bradycardia (bradu1-karde-ua) A slow cardiac rate; fewer than 60 beats per minute. bradykinins (bradu1-kininz) Short polypeptides that stimulate vasodilation and other cardiovascular changes. brain The enlarged superior portion of the central nervous system located in the cranial cavity of the skull.

brain stem The portion of the brain consisting of the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain. bronchial tree (brongke-al) The bronchi and their branching bronchioles. bronchiole (brongke-=ol) A small division of a bronchus within the lung. bronchus (brongkus) A branch of the trachea that leads to a lung. buccal cavity (bukal) The mouth, or oral cavity. buffer A molecule that serves to prevent large changes in pH by either combining with H+ or by releasing H+ into solution. bulbourethral glands (bulbo-yoo-rethral) A pair of glands that secrete a viscous fluid into the male urethra during sexual excitement; also called Cowper's glands. bundle of His See atrioventricular bundle. bursa (bursa) A saclike structure filled with synovial fluid. Bursae are located at friction points, as around joints, over which tendons can slide without contacting bone. buttocks (butoks) The rump or fleshy masses on the posterior aspect of the lower trunk, formed primarily by the gluteal muscles. calcitonin (kalsu1-tonin) Also called thyrocalcitonin. A polypeptide hormone produced by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid and secreted in response to hypercalcemia. It acts to lower blood calcium and phosphate concentrations and may serve as an antagonist of parathyroid hormones. calmodulin (kalmody uu-lin) A receptor protein for Ca++ located within the cytoplasm of target cells. It appears to mediate the effects of this ion on cellular activities. calorie (kaluo-re) A unit of heat equal to the amount needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water by 1 C. calyx (kaliks) A cup-shaped portion of the renal pelvis that encircles a renal papilla. cAMP Cyclic adenosine monophosphate; a second messenger in the action of many hormones, including catecholamines, polypeptides, and glycoproteins. It serves to mediate the effects of these hormones on their target cells.

canaliculus (kanua-likyuu-lus) A microscopic channel in bone tissue that connects lacunae. canal of Schlemm (shlem) See scleral venous sinus. cancer A tumor characterized by abnormally rapid cell division and the loss of specialized tissue characteristics. This term usually refers to malignant tumors. capacitation (kua-pasu1-tashun) The process whereby spermatozoa gain the ability to fertilize ova. Sperm that have not have been capacitated in the female reproductive tract cannot fertilize ova. capillary (kapu1-lare) A microscopic blood vessel that connects an arteriole and a venule; the functional unit of the circulatory system. carbonic anhydrase (kar-bonik an-hidr=as) An enzyme that catalyzes the formation or breakdown of carbonic acid. When carbon dioxide concentrations are relatively high, this enzyme catalyzes the formation of carbonic acid from CO2 and H2O. When carbon dioxide concentrations are low, the breakdown of carbonic acid to CO2 and H2O is catalyzed. These reactions aid the transport of carbon dioxide from tissues to alveolar air. cardiac muscle (karde-ak) Muscle of the heart, consisting of striated muscle cells. These cells are interconnected into a mass called the myocardium. cardiac output The volume of blood pumped per minute by either the right or left ventricle. cardiogenic shock (karde-o-jenik) Shock that results from low cardiac output in heart disease. carotid sinus (kua-rotid) An expanded portion of the internal carotid artery located immediately above the point of branching from the external carotid artery. The carotid sinus contains baroreceptors that monitor blood pressure. carpus (karpus) The proximal portion of the hand that contains the eight carpal bones. carrier-mediated transport The transport of molecules or ions across a cell membrane by means of specific protein carriers. It includes both facilitated diffusion and active transport. cartilage (kartu1-lij) A type of connective tissue with a solid elastic matrix.

cartilaginous joint (kartu1-laju1-nus) A joint that lacks a joint cavity, permitting little movement between the bones held together by cartilage. cast An accumulation of proteins molded from the kidney tubules that appears in urine sediment catabolism (kua-tabo-liz-em) The metabolic breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones, often resulting in a release of energy. catecholamines (katue-kolua-m=enz) A group of molecules including epinephrine, norepinephrine, L-dopa, and related molecules with effects similar to those produced by activation of the sympathetic nervous system. cations (kati-onz) Positively charged ions, such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium. cauda equina (kawdua e-kwinua) The lower end of the spinal cord where the roots of spinal nerves have a tail-like appearance. cecum (sekum) The pouchlike portion of the large intestine to which the ileum of the small intestine is attached. cell The structural and functional unit of an organism; the smallest structure capable of performing all the functions necessary for life. cell-mediated immunity (u1-myoonu1-te) Immunological defense provided by T cell lymphocytes that come within close proximity of their victim cells(as opposed to humoral immunity provided by the secretion of antibodies by plasma cells). cellular respiration (selyuu-lar respu1-rashun) The energy-releasing metabolic pathways in a cell that oxidize organic molecules such as glucose and fatty acids. cementum (se-mentum) Bonelike material that binds the root of a tooth to the periodontal membrane of the bony socket. central canal An elongated longitudinal channel in the center of an osteon in bone tissue that contains branches of the nutrient vessels and a nerve; also called a haversian canal. central nervous system Part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and the spinal cord; CNS.

centrioles (sentru1-olz) Cell organelles that form the spindle apparatus during cell division. centromere (sentruo-m=er) The central region of a chromosome to which the chromosomal arms are attached. centrosome (sentruo-s=om) A dense body near the nucleus of a cell that contains a pair of centrioles. cerebellar peduncle (serue-belar pue-dungk'l) An aggregation of nerve fibers connecting the cerebellum with the brain stem. cerebellum (serue-belum) The portion of the brain concerned with the coordination of skeletal muscle contraction. Part of the metencephalon, it consists of two hemispheres and a central vermis. cerebral arterial circle (serue-bral) An arterial vessel that encircles the pituitary gland. It provides alternate routes for blood to reach the brain should a carotid or vertebral artery become occluded; also called the circle of Willis. cerebral peduncles A paired bundle of nerve fibers along the inferior surface of the midbrain that conduct impulses between the pons and the cerebral hemispheres. cerebrospinal fluid (serue-bro-spinal) A fluid produced by the choroid plexus of the ventricles of the brain. It fills the ventricles and surrounds the central nervous system in association with the meninges. cerebrum (serue-brum) The largest portion of the brain, composed of the right and left hemispheres. ceruminous gland (sue-roomu1-nus) A specialized integumentary gland that secretes cerumen, or earwax, into the external auditory canal. cervical (servu1-kal) Pertaining to the neck or a necklike portion of an organ. cervical ganglion (ganggle-on) A cluster of postganglionic sympathetic nerve cell bodies located in the neck, near the cervical vertebrae. cervical plexus (pleksus) A network of spinal nerves formed by the anterior branches of the first four cervical nerves. cervix (serviks) 1.The narrow necklike portion of an organ. 2.The inferior end of the uterus that adjoins the vagina(cervix of the uterus).

chemoreceptor (kemo-re-septor) A neuroreceptor that is stimulated by the presence of chemical molecules. chemotaxis (kemo-taksis) The movement of an organism or a cell, such as a leukocyte, toward a chemical stimulus. Cheyne-Stokes respiration (ch=anst=okes respu1rashun) Breathing characterized by rhythmic waxing and waning of the depth of respiration, with regularly occurring periods of apnea (failure to breathe). chiasma (ki-asmua) A crossing of nerve tracts from one side of the CNS to the other; also called a chiasm. choane (ko-ane) The two posterior openings from the nasal cavity into the nasal pharynx; also called the internal nares. vcholesterol (kuo-lester-ol) A 27-carbon steroid that serves as the precursor of steroid hormones. cholinergic (kolu1-nerjik) Denoting nerve endings that liberate acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter, such as those of the parasympathetic system. chondrocranium (kondro-krane-um) The portion of the skull that supports the brain. It is derived from endochondral bone. chondrocytes (kondro-s=1tz) Cartilage-forming cells. chordae tendineae (korde ten-dine-e) Chordlike tendinous bands that connect papillary muscles to the leaflets of the atrioventricular valves within the ventricles of the heart. chorea (kuo-re-ua) The occurrence of a wide variety of rapid, complex, jerky movements that appear to be well coordinated but that are performed involuntarily. chorion An extraembryonic membrane that participates in the formation of the placenta. choroid (koroid) The vascular, pigmented middle layer of the wall of the eye. choroid plexus A mass of vascular capillaries from which cerebrospinal fluid is secreted into the ventricles of the brain. chromatids (kromua-tidz) Duplicated chromosomes, joined together at the centromere, that separate during cell division.

chromatin (kromua-tin) Threadlike structures in the cell nucleus consisting primarily of DNA and protein. They represent the extended form of chromosomes during interphase. chromatophilic substances (kromua-to-filik) Clumps of rough endoplasmic reticulum in the cell bodies of neurons; also called Nissl bodies. chromosomes (kromuo-s=omz) Structures in the nucleus that contain the genes for genetic expression. chyme (k=1m) The mass of partially digested food that passes from the pylorus of the stomach into the duodenum of the small intestine. cilia (sile-ua) Microscopic hairlike processes that move in a wavelike manner on the exposed surfaces of certain epithelial cells. ciliary body (sile-ere) A portion of the choroid layer of the eye that secretes aqueous humor. It contains the ciliary muscle. circadian rhythms (serkua-dean) Physiological changes that repeat at about 24-hour intervals. These are often synchronized with changes in the external environment, such as the day-night cycles. circle of Willis See cerebral arterial circle. circumduction (serkum-dukshun) A movement of a body part that outlines a cone, such that the distal end moves in a circle while the proximal portion remains relatively stable. cirrhosis (su1-rosis) Liver disease characterized by loss of normal microscopic structure, which is replaced by fibrosis and nodular regeneration. clitoris (klitor-is, klitor-is) A small, erectile structure in the vulva of the female, homologous to the glans penis in the male. clone (kl=on) 1.A group of cells derived from a single parent cell by mitotic cell division; since reproduction is asexual, the descendants of the parent cell are genetically identical. 2. A term used to refer to cells as separate individuals(as in white blood cells) rather than as part of a growing organ. CNS See central nervous system. coccygeal (kok-sije-al) Pertaining to the region of the coccyx; the caudal termination of the vertebral column.

cochlea (kokle-ua) The organ of hearing in the inner ear where nerve impulses are generated in response to sound waves. cochlear window See round window. codon (kodon) The sequence of three nucleotide bases in mRNA that specifies a given amino acid and determines the position of that amino acid in a polypeptide chain through complementary base pairing with an anticodon in tRNA. coelom (selom) The abdominal cavity. coenzyme (ko-enz=1m) An organic molecule, usually derived from a water-soluble vitamin, that combines with and activates specific enzyme proteins. cofactor (kofak-tor) A substance needed for the catalytic action of an enzyme; generally used in reference to inorganic ions such as Ca++ and Mg++. collateral (kuo-later-al) A small branch of a blood vessel or nerve fiber. colloid osmotic pressure (koloid oz-motik) Osmotic pressure exerted by plasma proteins that are present as a colloidal suspension; also called oncotic pressure. colon (kolon) The first portion of the large intestine. common bile duct A tube formed by the union of the hepatic duct and cystic duct that transports bile to the duodenum. compact bone Tightly packed bone that is superficial to spongy bone and covered by the periosteum; also called dense bone. compliance (kom-plians) A measure of the ease with which a structure such as the lung expands under pressure; a measure of the change in volume as a function of pressure changes. conduction myofibers Specialized large-diameter cardiac muscle fibers that conduct electrical impulses from the AV bundle into the ventricular walls; also called Purkinje fibers. condyle (kond=1l) A rounded process at the end of a long bone that forms an articulation. cone A color receptor cell in the retina of the eye.

congenital (kon-jenu1-tal) Present at the time of birth. congestive heart failure (kon-jestiv) The inability of the heart to deliver an adequate blood flow as a result of heart disease or hypertension. This condition is associated with breathlessness, salt and water retention, and edema. conjunctiva (konjungk-tivua) The thin membrane covering the anterior surface of the eyeball and lining the eyelids. conjunctivitis (kon-jungktu1-vitis) Inflammation of the conjunctiva of the eye, which is sometimes called "pink eye." connective tissue One of the four basic tissue types within the body. It is a binding and supportive tissue with abundant matrix. Conn's syndrome (konz) Primary hyperaldosteronism; excessive secretion of aldosterone produces electrolyte imbalances. contralateral (kontrua-later-al) Taking place or originating in a corresponding part on the opposite side of the body. conus medullaris (k nus medyuu-l=aris) The inferior, tapering portion of the spinal cord. convolution (kon-vuo-looshun) An elevation on the surface of a structure and an infolding of the tissue upon itself. cornea (korne-ua) The transparent, convex, anterior portion of the outer layer of the eyeball. coronal plane (koruo-nal, kuo-ronal) A plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior portions; also called a frontal plane. coronary circulation (koruo-nare) The arterial and venous blood circulation to the wall of the heart. coronary sinus A large venous channel on the posterior surface of the heart into which the cardiac veins drain. corpora quadrigemina (korpor-ua kwadru1-jemu1-na) Four superior lobes of the midbrain concerned with visual and auditory functions. corpus callosum (korpus kua-losum) A large tract of white matter within the brain that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres.

corpuscle of touch (korpus'l) A touch sensory receptor found in the papillary layer of the dermis of the skin; also called Meissner's corpuscle. cortex (korteks) 1.The outer layer of an internal organ or body structure, as of the kidney or adrenal gland. 2. The convoluted layer of gray matter that covers the surface of each cerebral hemisphere. corticosteroids (kortu1-ko-steroidz) Steroid hormones of the adrenal cortex, consisting of glucocorticoids(such as hydrocortisone) and mineralocortocoids(such as aldosterone). costal cartilage (kostal) The cartilage that connects the ribs to the sternum. cranial (krane-al) Pertaining to the cranium. cranial nerves One of 12 pairs of nerves that arise from the brain. cranium (krane-um) The bones of the skull that enclose or support the brain and the organs of sight, hearing, and balance. creatine phosphate (kreua-tin fosf=at) An organic phosphate molecule in muscle cells that serves as a source of high-energy phosphate for the synthesis of ATP; also called phosphocreatine. crenation (kru1-nashun) A notched or scalloped appearance of the red blood cell membrane caused by the osmotic loss of water from these cells. crest A thickened ridge of bone for the attachment of muscle. cretinism (kr=etn-izem) A condition caused by insufficient thyroid secretion during prenatal development or the years of early childhood. It results in stunted growth and inadequate mental development. cricoid cartilage (krikoid) A ring-shaped cartilage that forms the inferior portion of the larynx. crista (kristua) A crest, such as the crista galli that extends superiorly from the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. cryptorchidism (krip-torku1-dizem) A developmental defect in which one or both testes fail to descend into the scrotum and, instead, remain in the body cavity. cubital (kyoobu1-tal) Pertaining to the antebrachium. The cubital fossa is the anterior aspect of the elbow joint.

curare (koo-rua-re) A chemical derived from plant sources that causes flaccid paralysis by blocking ACh receptor proteins in muscle cell membranes. Cushing's syndrome (kooshingz) Symptoms caused by the hypersecretion of adrenal steroid hormones as a result of tumors of the adrenal cortex or ACTH-secreting tumors of the anterior pituitary. cyanosis (siua-nosis) A bluish discoloration of the skin or mucous membranes due to excessive concentration of deoxyhemoglobin; indicates inadequate oxygen concentration in the blood. cystic duct (sistik dukt) The tube that transports bile from the gallbladder to the common bile duct. cytochrome (situo-kr=om) A pigment in mitochondria that transports electrons in the process of aerobic respiration. cytokinesis (sito-ku1-nesis) The division of the cytoplasm that occurs in mitosis and meiosis, when a parent cell divides to produce two daughter cells. cytology (si-toluo-je) The science dealing with the study of cells. cytoplasm (situo-plazem) In a cell, the protoplasm located outside of the nucleus. cytoskeleton (sito-skelue-ton) A latticework of structural proteins in the cytoplasm arranged in the form of microfilaments and microtubules. deciduous (du1-sijoo-us) Pertaining to something shed or cast off in a particular sequence. Deciduous teeth are shed and replaced by permanent teeth during development. decussation (dekuh-sashun) A crossing of nerve fibers from one side of the CNS to the other. defecation (defue-kashun) The elimination of feces from the rectum through the anal canal and out the anus. deglutition (degloo-tishun) The act of swallowing. delayed hypersensitivity An allergic response in which the onset of symptoms may not occur until 2 or 3 days after exposure to an antigen. Produced by T cells, it is a type of cell-mediated immunity. denaturation (de-nachur-ashun) Irreversible changes in the tertiary structure of proteins caused by heat or drastic pH changes.

dendrite (dendr=1t) A nerve cell process that transmits impulses toward a neuron cell body. dentin (dentin) The main substance of a tooth, covered by enamel over the crown of the tooth and by cementum on the root. dentition (den-tishun) The number, arrangement, and shape of teeth. depolarization (de-polar-u1-zashun) The loss of membrane polarity in which the inside of the cell membrane becomes less negative in comparison to the outside of the membrane. The term is also used to indicate the reversal of membrane polarity that occurs during the production of action potentials in nerve and muscle cells. dermal papilla (pua-pilua) A projection of the dermis into the epidermis. dermis (dermis) The second, or deep, layer of skin beneath the epidermis. descending colon The segment of the large intestine that descends on the left side from the level of the spleen to the level of the left iliac crest. diabetes insipidus (diua-bet=ez in-sipu1-dus) A condition in which inadequate amounts of antidiuretic hormone(ADH) are secreted by the posterior pituitary. It results in the inadequate reabsorption of water by the kidney tubules and, thus, in the excretion of a large volume of dilute urine. diabetes mellitus (mue-litus) The appearance of glucose in the urine due to the presence of high plasma glucose concentrations, even in the fasting state. This disease is caused by either lack of sufficient insulin secretion or inadequate responsiveness of the target tissues to the effects of insulin. diapedesis (diua-pue-desis) The migration of white blood cells through the endothelial walls of blood capillaries into the surrounding connective tissues. diaphragm (diua-fram) A sheetlike dome of muscle and connective tissue that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities. diaphysis (di-afu1-sis) The shaft of a long bone. diarrhea (diua-reua) Abnormal frequency of defecation accompanied by abnormal liquidity of the feces.

diarthrosis (diar-throsis) A type of functionally classified joint in which the articulating bones are freely movable; also called a synovial joint. diastole (di-astuo-le) The sequence of the cardiac cycle during which a heart chamber wall is relaxed. diencephalon (dien-sefua-lon) A major region of the brain that includes the third ventricle, thalamus, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland. diffusion (du1-fyoozhun) The net movement of molecules or ions from regions of higher to regions of lower concentration. digestion The process by which larger molecules of food substance are broken down mechanically and chemically into smaller molecules that can be absorbed. diploe (diplo-e) The spongy layer of bone positioned between the inner and outer layers of compact bone. diploid (diploid) Denoting cells having two of each chromosome or twice the number of chromosomes that are present in sperm or ova. disaccharide (di-sakua-r=1d) Any of a class of double sugars; carbohydrates that yield two simple sugars, or monosaccharides, upon hydrolysis. distal (distal) Away from the midline or origin; the opposite of proximal. diuretic (diyuu-retik) An agent that promotes the excretion of urine, thereby lowering blood volume and pressure. DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid; composed of nucleotide bases and deoxyribose sugar. It is found in all living cells and contains the genetic code. dopamine (dopua-m=en) A type of neurotransmitter in the central nervous system; also is the precursor of norepinephrine, another neurotransmitter molecule. dorsal (dorsal) Pertaining to the back or posterior portion of a body part; the opposite of ventral; also called posterior. dorsal root ganglion See posterior root ganglion. dorsiflexion (dorsu1-flekshun) Movement at the ankle as the dorsum of the foot is elevated.

ductus arteriosus (duktus ar-tire-osus) The blood vessel that connects the pulmonary trunk and the aorta in a fetus. ductus deferens (defer-enz) pl. ductus deferentia A tube that carries spermatozoa from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct; also called the vas deferens or seminal duct. ductus venosus (ven-osus) A fetal blood vessel that connects the umbilical vein and the inferior vena cava. duodenum (doouo-denum, doo-odue-num) The first portion of the small intestine that leads from the pylorus of the stomach to the jejunum. dura mater (doorua mater) The outermost meninx. dwarfism A condition in which a person is undersized due to inadequate secretion of growth hormone. dyspnea (disp-neua) Subjective difficulty in breathing. eccrine gland (ekrin) A sweat gland that functions in thermoregulation. ECG See electrocardiogram. ectoderm (ektuo-derm) The outermost of the three primary germ layers of an embryo. ectopic focus (ek-topik) An area of the heart other than the SA node that assumes pacemaker activity. ectopic pregnancy Embryonic development that occurs anywhere other than in the uterus (as in the uterine tubes or body cavity). edema (ue-demua) An excessive accumulation of fluid in the body tissues. EEG See electroencephalogram. effector(ue-fektor) An organ, such as a gland or muscle, that responds to a motor stimulation. efferent (efer-ent) Conveying away from the center of an organ or structure. efferent arteriole (ar-tire-=ol) An arteriole of the renal vascular system that conducts blood away from the glomerulus of a nephron.

efferent ductules (duktoolz) A series of coiled tubules through which spermatozoa are transported from the rete testis to the epididymis. efferent neuron (nooron) See motor neuron. ejaculation (ue-jakyuu-lashun) The discharge of semen from the male urethra that accompanies orgasm. ejaculatory duct (ue-jakyuu-lua-tor-e) A tube that transports spermatozoa from the ductus deferens to the prostatic urethra. elastic fibers (ue-lastik) Protein strands that are found in certain connective tissue that have contractile properties. elbow The synovial joint between the brachium and the antebrachium. electrocardiogram (ue-lektro-karde-uo-gram) A recording of the electrical activity that accompanies the cardiac cycle; ECG or EKG. electroencephalogram (ue-lektro-en-sefua-luo-gram) A recording of the brain-wave patterns or electrical impulses of the brain from electrodes placed on the scalp; EEG. electrolytes (ue-lektro-l=1tz) Ions and molecules that are able to ionize and thus carry an electric current. The most common electrolytes in the plasma are Na+, HCO3-, and K+. electromyogram (ue-lektro-miuo-gram) A recording of the electrical impulses or activity of skeletal muscles using surface electrodes; EMG. electrophoresis (ue-lektro-fuo-resis) A biochemical technique in which different molecules can be separated and identified by their rate of movement in an electric field. elephantiasis (elue-fan-tiua-sis) A disease caused by infection with a nematode worm in which the larvae block lymphatic drainage and produce edema; the lower areas of the body can become enormously swollen as a result. embryology (embre-oluo-je) The study of prenatal development from conception through the eighth week in utero. EMG See electromyogram. emphysema (emfu1-semua, emfu1-zemua) A lung disease in which the alveoli are destroyed and the

remaining alveoli become larger. It results in decreased vital capacity and increased airway resistance. emulsification (ue-mulsu1-fu1-kashun) The process of producing an emulsion or fine suspension; in the small intestine, fat globules are emulsified by the detergent action of bile. enamel (ue-namel) The outer dense substance covering the crown of a tooth. endergonic (ender-gonik) Denoting a chemical reaction that requires the input of energy from an external source in order to proceed. endocardium (endo-karde-um) The endothelial lining of the heart chambers and valves. endochondral bone (enduo-kondral) Denoting bones that develop as hyaline cartilage models first and that are then ossified. endocrine gland (enduo-krin) A ductless, hormoneproducing gland that is part of the endocrine system. endocytosis (endo-si-tosis) A general term for the cellular uptake of particles that are too large to cross the cell membrane. See also phagocytosis and pinocytosis. endoderm (enduo-derm) The innermost of the three primary germ layers of an embryo. endogenous (en-dojue-nus) Denoting a product or process arising from within the body (as opposed to exogenous products or influences from external sources). endolymph (enduo-limf) A fluid within the membranous labyrinth and cochlear duct of the inner ear that aids in the conduction of vibrations involved in hearing and the maintenance of equilibrium. endometrium (endo-metre-um) The inner lining of the uterus. endomysium (endo-mise-um) The connective tissue sheath that surrounds each skeletal muscle fiber, separating the muscle cells from one another. endoneurium (endo-nyoore-um) The connective tissue sheath that surrounds each nerve fiber, separating the nerve fibers one from another within a nerve. endoplasmic reticulum (en-do-plazmik rue-tikyuu-lum) A cytoplasmic organelle composed of a network of canals running through the cytoplasm of a cell.

endorphins (en-dorfinz) A group of endogenous opiate molecules that may act as a natural analgesic. endothelium (endo-thele-um) The layer of epithelial tissue that forms the thin inner lining of blood vessels and heart chambers. endotoxin (endo-toksin) A toxin found within certain types of bacteria that is able to stimulate the release of endogenous pyrogen and produce a fever. enkephalins (en-kefua-linz) Short polypeptides, containing five amino acids, that have analgesic effects and that may function as neurotransmitters in the brain. The two known enkephalins (which differ in only one amino acid) are endorphins. enteric (en-terik) The term referring to the small intestine. entropy (entruo-pe) The energy of a system that is not available to perform work. A measure of the degree of disorder in a system, entropy increases whenever energy is transformed. enzyme (enz=1m) A protein catalyst that increases the rate of specific chemical reactions. eosinophil (euo-sinuo-fil) A type of white blood cell characterized by the presence of cytoplasmic granules that become stained by acidic eosin dye. Eosinophils normally constitute about 2% to 4% of the white blood cells. epicardium (epu1-karde-um) A thin, outer layer of the heart; also called the visceral pericardium. epicondyle (epu1-kond1=l) A projection of bone above a condyle. epidermis (epu1-dermis) The outermost layer of the skin, composed of several stratified squamous epithelial layers. epididymis (epu1-didu1-mis) A highly coiled tube located along the posterior border of the testis. It stores spermatozoa and transports them from the seminiferous tubules of the testis to the ductus deferens. epidural space (epu1-dooral) A space between the spinal dura mater and the bone of the vertebral canal. epiglottis (epu1-glotis) A leaflike structure positioned on top of the larynx. It covers the glottis during swallowing.

epimysium (epu1-mise-um) A fibrous outer sheath of connective tissue surrounding a skeletal muscle. epinephrine (epu1-nefrin) A hormone secreted from the adrenal medulla resulting in actions similar to those resulting from sympathetic nervous system stimulation; also called adrenaline. epineurium (epu1-nyoore-um) A fibrous outer sheath of connective tissue surrounding a nerve. epiphyseal plate (epu1-fize-al) A hyaline cartilaginous layer located between the epiphysis and diaphysis of a long bone. It functions as a longitudinal growing region. epiphysis (ue-pifu1-sis) The end segment of a long bone, separated from the diaphysis early in life by an epiphyseal plate but later becoming part of the larger bone. episiotomy (ue-peze-otuo-me) An incision of the perineum at the end of the second stage of labor to facilitate delivery and to avoid tearing the perineum. epithelial tissue (epu1-thele-al) One of the four basic tissue types; the type of tissue that covers or lines all exposed body surfaces. eponychium (epuo-nike-um) The thin layer of stratum corneum of the epidermis of the skin that overlaps and protects the lunula of the nail. EPSP Excitatory postsynaptic potential; a graded depolarization of a postsynaptic membrane in response to stimulation by a neurotransmitter chemical. EPSPs can be summated but can be transmitted only over short distances. They can stimulate the production of action potentials when a threshold level of depolarization has been attained. erythroblastosis fetalis (ue-rithro-blas-tosis fu1-talis) Hemolytic anemia in an Rh positive newborn caused by maternal antibodies against the Rh factor that have crossed the placenta. erythrocyte (ue-rithruo-s1=t) A red blood cell. esophagus (ue-sofua-gus) A tubular portion of the GI tract that leads from the pharynx to the stomach as it passes through the thoracic cavity. essential amino acids Those eight amino acids in adults or nine amino acids in children that cannot be made by the human body; therefore, they must be obtained in the diet.

estrogens (estro-jenz) Any of several female sex hormones secreted from the ovarian (graafian) follicle. estrus cycle (estrus) Cyclic changes in the structure and function of the ovaries and female reproductive tract of mammals other than humans, accompanied by periods of "heat" (estrus) or sexual receptivity. Estrus is the equivalent of the human menstrual cycle but differs from the human menstrual cycle in that the endometrium is not shed with accompanying bleeding. etiology (ete-oluo-je) The study of cause, especially of disease, including the origin and what pathogens, if any, are involved. eustachian canal (yoo-stake-an) See auditory tube. eversion (ue-verzhun) A movement of the foot in which the sole is turned outward. exergonic (ekser-gonik) Denoting chemical reactions that liberate energy. exocrine gland (eksuo-krin) A gland that secretes its product to an epithelial surface, directly or through ducts. exocytosis (ekso-si-tosis) The process of cellular secretion in which the secretory products are contained within a membrane-enclosed vesicle. The vesicle fuses with the cell membrane so that the lumen of the vesicle is open to the extracellular environment. expiration (ekspu1-rashun) The process of expelling air from the lungs through breathing out; also called exhalation. extension (ek-stenshun) A movement that increases the angle between parts of a joint. extensor A muscle that, upon contraction, increases the angle of a joint. external (superficial) Located on or toward the surface. external acoustic meatus (ua-koostik me-atus) An opening through the temporal bone that connects with the tympanum and the middle-ear chamber and through which sound vibrations pass; also called the external auditory meatus. exteroceptors (ekstue-ro-septorz) Sensory receptors that are sensitive to changes in the external environment (as opposed to interoceptors).

extraocular muscles (ekstrua-okyuu-lar) The muscles that insert into the sclera of the eye and that act to change the position of the eye in its orbit (as opposed to the intraocular muscles, such as those of the iris and ciliary body within the eye). extrinsic (eks-trinsik) Pertaining to an outside or external origin. face 1.The anterior aspect of the head not supporting or covering the brain. 12 2.The exposed surface of a structure. facet (faset) A small, smooth surface of a bone where articulation occurs. facilitated diffusion (fua-silu1-tatid) The carriermediated transport of molecules through the cell membrane along the direction of their concentration gradients. It does not require the expenditure of metabolic energy. FAD Flavin adenine dinucleotide; a coenzyme derived from riboflavin that participates in electron transport within the mitochondria. falciform ligament (falsu1-form ligua-ment) An extension of parietal peritoneum that separates the right and left lobes of the liver. fallopian tube (fua-lope-an) See uterine tube. false vocal cords The supporting folds of tissue for the true vocal cords within the larynx. falx cerebelli (falks serue-bele) A fold of the dura mater anchored to the occipital bone. It projects inward between the cerebellar hemispheres. falx cerebri (serue-bre) A fold of dura mater anchored to the crista galli of the ethmoid bone. It extends between the right and left cerebral hemispheres. fascia (fashe-ua) A tough sheet of fibrous tissue binding the skin to underlying muscles or supporting and separating muscles. fasciculus (fua-sikyuu-lus) A small bundle of muscle or nerve fibers. fauces (faws=ez) The passageway between the mouth and the pharynx.

feces (fes=ez) Material expelled from the GI tract during defecation, composed of undigested food residue, bacteria, and secretions; also called stool. fertilization (fertu1-lu1-zashun) The fusion of an ovum and spermatozoon. fetus (fetus) A prenatal human after 8 weeks of development. fibrillation (fibru1-lashun) A condition of cardiac muscle characterized electrically by random and continuously changing patterns of electrical activity and resulting in the inability of the myocardium to contract as a unit and pump blood. It can be fatal if it occurs in the ventricles. fibrin (fibrin) The insoluble protein formed from fibrinogen by the enzymatic action of thrombin during the process of blood clot formation. fibrinogen (fi-brinuo-jen) A soluble plasma protein that serves as the precursor of fibrin; also called factor I. fibroblast (fibro-blast) An elongated connective tissue cell with cytoplasmic extensions that is capable of forming collagenous fibers or elastic fibers. fibrous joint (fibrus) A type of articulation bound by fibrous connective tissue that allows little or no movement (e.g., a syndesmosis). filiform papillae (filu1-form pua-pile) Numerous small projections over the entire surface of the tongue in which taste buds are absent. filum terminale (filum ter-mu1-nale) A fibrous, threadlike continuation of the pia mater, extending inferiorly from the terminal end of the spinal cord to the coccyx. fimbriae (fimbre-e) Fringelike extensions from the borders of the open end of the uterine tube. fissure (fishur) A groove or narrow cleft that separates two parts, such as the cerebral hemispheres of the brain. flagellum (flua-jelum) A whiplike structure that provides motility for sperm. flare-and-wheal reaction (hw=el, w=el) A cutaneous reaction to skin injury or the administration of antigens, produced by release of histamine and related molecules and characterized by local edema and a red flare.

flavoprotein (flavo-prote-in) A conjugated protein containing a flavin pigment that is involved in electron transport within the mitochondria. flexion (flekshun) A movement that decreases the angle between parts of a joint. flexor (fleksor) A muscle that decreases the angle of a joint when it contracts. fontanel (fontua-nel) A membranous-covered region on the skull of a fetus or baby where ossification has not yet occurred; commonly called a soft spot. foot The terminal portion of the lower extremity, consisting of the tarsal bones, metatarsal bones, and phalanges. foramen (fuo-ramen), pl. foramina An opening in an anatomical structure, usually in a bone, for the passage of a blood vessel or a nerve. foramen ovale (o-vale) An opening through the interatrial septum of the fetal heart. forearm The portion of the upper extremity between the elbow and the wrist; also called the antebrachium. fornix (forniks) 1.A recess around the cervix of the uterus where it protrudes into the vagina. 2.A tract within the brain connecting the hippocampus with the mammillary bodies. fossa (fosua) A depressed area, usually on a bone. fourth ventricle (ventru1-k'l) A cavity within the brain, between the cerebellum and the medulla oblongata and the pons, containing cerebrospinal fluid. fovea centralis (fove-ua sen-tra lis) A depression on the macula lutea of the eye, where only cones are located; the area of keenest vision. frenulum (frenyuu-lum) A membranous structure that serves to anchor and limit the movement of a body part. frontal 1.Pertaining to the region of the forehead. 2. A plane through the body, dividing the body into anterior and posterior portions; also called the coronal plane. FSH Follicle-stimulating hormone; one of the two gonadotropic hormones secreted from the anterior pituitary. In females, FSH stimulates the development of the ovarian follicles; in males, it stimulates the production of sperm in the seminiferous tubules.

fungiform papillae (funju1-form pua-pile) Flattened, mushroom-shaped projections interspersed over the surface of the tongue in which taste buds are present. GABA Gamma-aminobutyric acid; believed to function as an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. gallbladder A pouchlike organ attached to the underside of the liver in which bile secreted by the liver is stored and concentrated. gamete (gam=et) A haploid sex cell; either an egg cell or a sperm cell. ganglion (ganggle-on) An aggregation of nerve cell bodies occurring outside the central nervous system. gastric intrinsic factor (gastrik) A glycoprotein secreted by the stomach that is needed for the absorption of vitamin B12. gastrin (gastrin) A hormone secreted by the stomach that stimulates the gastric secretion of hydrochloric acid and pepsin. gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) (gastro-in-testu1-nal) The portion of the digestive tract that includes the stomach and the small and large intestines. gates Structures composed of one or more protein molecules that regulate the passage of ions through channels within the cell membrane. Gates may be chemically regulated (by neurotransmitters) or voltage regulated (in which case they open in response to a threshold level of depolarization). genetic recombination (jue-netik rekom-bu1-nashun) The formation of new combinations of genes, as by crossing-over between homologous chromosomes. genetic transcription (tran-skripshun) The process by which RNA is produced with a sequence of nucleotide bases that is complementary to a region of DNA. genetic translation (trans-lashun) The process by which proteins are produced with amino acid sequences specified by the sequence of codons in messenger RNA. gigantism (ji-gantizem) Abnormal body growth as a result of the excessive secretion of growth hormone. gingiva (jinju1-vua) The fleshy covering over the mandible and maxilla through which the teeth protrude within the mouth; also called the gum.

gland An organ that produces a specific substance or secretion. glans penis (glanz penis) The enlarged, sensitive, distal end of the penis. gliding joint A type of synovial joint in which the articular surfaces are flat, permitting only side-to-side and backand-forth movements. glomerular capsule (glo-meryuu-lar) The double-walled proximal portion of a renal tubule that encloses the glomerulus of a nephron; also called Bowman's capsule. glomerular filtration rate (GFR) The volume of filtrate produced per minute by both kidneys. glomerular ultrafiltrate (ultrua-filtr=at) Fluid filtered through the glomerular capillaries into the glomerular capsule of the kidney tubules. glomerulonephritis (glo-meryuu-lo-nue-fritis) Inflammation of the renal glomeruli, associated with fluid retention, edema, hypertension, and the appearance of protein in the urine. glomerulus (glo-meryuu-lus) A coiled tuft of capillaries surrounded by the glomerular capsule that filtrates urine from the blood. glottis (glotis) A slitlike opening into the larynx, positioned between the true vocal cords. glucagon (glookua-gon) A polypeptide hormone secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreatic islets. It acts primarily on the liver to promote glycogenolysis and raise blood glucose levels. glucocorticoids (glooko-kortu1-koidz) Steroid hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex (corticosteroids). They affect the metabolism of glucose, protein, and fat and also have anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects. The major glucocorticoid in humans is hydrocortisone (cortisol). gluconeogenesis (glooko-neuo-jenu1-sis) The formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate molecules, such as amino acids and lactic acid. glycerol (glisue-rol) A 3-carbon alcohol that serves as a building block of fats. glycogen (glikuo-jen) A polysaccharide of glucose-also called animal starch-produced primarily in the liver and skeletal muscles. Similar to plant starch in composition,

glycogen contains more highly branched chains of glucose subunits than does plant starch. glycogenesis (glikuo-jenu1-sis) The formation of glycogen from glucose. glycogenolysis (glikuo-jue-nolu1-sis) The hydrolysis of glycogen to glucose 1-phosphate, which can be converted to glucose 6-phosphate, which then may be oxidized via glycolysis or (in the liver) converted to free glucose. glycolysis (glikolu1-sis) The metabolic pathway that converts glucose to pyruvic acid; the final products are two molecules of pyruvic acid and two molecules of reduced NAD, with a net gain of two ATP molecules. In anaerobic respiration, the reduced NAD is oxidized by the conversion of pyruvic acid to lactic acid. In aerobic respiration, pyruvic acid enters the Krebs cycle in mitochondria and reduced NAD is ultimately oxidized to yield water. glycosuria (glikuo-soore-ua) The excretion of an abnormal amount of glucose in the urine (urine normally only contains trace amounts of glucose). goblet cell A unicellular mucus-secreting gland that is associated with columnar epithelia; also called a mucous cell. Golgi apparatus (golje) A network of stacked, flattened membranous sacs within the cytoplasm of cells. Its major function is to concentrate and package proteins for secretion from the cell. Golgi tendon organ A sensory receptor found near the junction of tendons and muscles. gonad (gonad) A reproductive organ, testis or ovary, that produces gametes and sex hormones. gonadotropic hormones (go-naduo-tropik) Hormones of the anterior pituitary that stimulate gonadal function-the formation of gametes and secretion of sex steroids. The two gonadotropins are FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone), which are essentially the same in males and females. graafian follicle (grafe-an) A mature ovarian follicle, containing a single fluid-filled cavity, with the ovum located toward one side of the follicle and perched on top of a hill of granulosa cells. granular leukocytes (lookuo-s=1tz) Leukocytes with granules in the cytoplasm; on the basis of the staining properties of the granules, these cells are classified as neutrophils, eosinophils, or basophils.

Graves' disease A hyperthyroid condition believed to be caused by excessive stimulation of the thyroid gland by autoantibodies; it is associated with exophthalmos (bulging eyes), high pulse rate, high metabolic rate, and other symptoms of hyperthyroidism. gray matter The region of the central nervous system composed of nonmyelinated nerve tissue. greater omentum (o-mentum) A double-layered peritoneal membrane that originates on the greater curvature of the stomach. It hangs inferiorly like an apron over the contents of the abdominal cavity. gross anatomy The branch of anatomy concerned with structures of the body that can be studied without a microscope. growth hormone A hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that stimulates growth of the skeleton and soft tissues during the growing years and that influences the metabolism of protein, carbohydrate, and fat throughout life. gustatory (gustua-tore) Pertaining to the sense of taste. gut The GI tract or a portion thereof; generally used in reference to the embryonic digestive tube, consisting of the foregut, midgut, and hindgut. gyrus (jirus) A convoluted elevation or ridge. hair A threadlike appendage of the epidermis consisting of keratinized dead cells that have been pushed up from a dividing basal layer. hair cells Specialized receptor nerve endings for detecting sensations, such as in the spiral organ (organ of Corti). hair follicle (follu1-k'l) A tubular depression in the dermis of the skin in which a hair develops. hand The terminal portion of the upper extremity, containing the carpal bones, metacarpal bones, and phalanges. haploid (haploid) A cell that has one of each chromosome type and therefore half the number of chromosomes present in most other body cells; only the gametes (sperm and ova) are haploid. haptens (haptenz) Small molecules that are not antigenic by themselves, but which-when combined with proteinsbecome antigenic and thus capable of stimulating the production of specific antibodies.

hard palate (palit) The bony partition between the oral and nasal cavities, formed by the maxillae and palatine bones and lined by mucous membrane. haustra (hawstrua) Sacculations or pouches of the colon. haversian canal (hua-vershan) See central canal. haversian system See osteon. hay fever A seasonal type of allergic rhinitis caused by pollen; it is characterized by itching and tearing of the eyes, swelling of the nasal mucosa, attacks of sneezing, and often by asthma. head The uppermost portion of a human that contains the brain and major sense organs. heart A four-chambered, muscular pumping organ positioned in the thoracic cavity, slightly to the left of midline. heart murmur An auscultatory sound of cardiac or vascular origin, usually caused by an abnormal flow of blood in the heart as a result of structural defects of the valves or septum. helper T cells A subpopulation of T cells (lymphocytes) that helps to stimulate the antibody production of B lymphocytes by antigens. hematocrit (hu1-matuo-krit) The ratio of packed red blood cells to total blood volume in a centrifuged sample of blood, expressed as a percentage. heme (h=em) The iron-containing red pigment that, together with the protein globin, forms hemoglobin. hemoglobin (hemuo-globin) The pigment of red blood cells constituting about 33% of the cell volume that transports oxygen and carbon dioxide. hemopoiesis (hemuo-poi-esis) The production of red blood cells. heparin (hepar-in) A mucopolysaccharide found in many tissues, but most abundantly in the lungs and liver, that is used medically as an anticoagulant. hepatic duct (hue-patik) A duct formed from the fusion of several bile ducts that drain bile from the liver. The hepatic duct merges with the cystic duct from the gallbladder to form the common bile duct.

hepatic portal circulation The return of venous blood from the digestive organs and spleen through a capillary network within the liver before draining into the heart. hepatitis (hepua-titis) Inflammation of the liver. hepatopancreatic ampulla (hepua-to-pankre-atik) A small, elevated area within the duodenum where the combined pancreatic and common bile duct empties; also called the ampulla of Vater. Hering-Breuer reflex A reflex in which distension of the lungs stimulates stretch receptors, which in turn act to inhibit further distension of the lungs. hermaphrodite (her-mafruo-d=1t) An organism having both testes and ovaries. heterochromatin (hetue-ro-kromua-tin) A condensed, inactive form of chromatin. hiatal hernia (hi-atal herne-ua) A protrusion of an abdominal structure through the esophageal hiatus of the diaphragm into the thoracic cavity. hiatus An opening or fissure; a foramen. high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) (lipo-prote-inz) Combinations of lipids and proteins that migrate rapidly to the bottom of a test tube during centrifugation. HDLs are carrier proteins for lipids, such as cholesterol, that appear to offer some protection from atherosclerosis. hilum (hilum) A concave or depressed area where vessels or nerves enter or exit an organ; also called hilus. hinge joint A type of synovial articulation characterized by a convex surface of one bone fitting into a concave surface of another such that movement is confined to one plane, as in the knee or interphalangeal joint. histamine (histua-m=en) A compound secreted by tissue mast cells and other connective tissue cells that stimulates vasodilation and increases capillary permeability. It is responsible for many of the symptoms of inflammation and allergy. histology (hu1-stoluo-je) Microscopic anatomy of the structure and function of tissues. homeostasis (home-o-stasis) The dynamic constancy of the internal environment, the maintenance of which is the principal function of physiological regulatory mechanisms. The concept of homeostasis provides a framework for understanding most physiological processes.

homologous chromosomes (huo-moluo-gus) The matching pairs of chromosomes in a diploid cell. horizontal (transverse) plane A directional plane that divides the body, organ, or appendage into superior and inferior or proximal and distal portions. hormone (horm=on) A chemical substance produced in an endocrine gland and secreted into the bloodstream to cause an effect in a specific target organ. humoral immunity (hyoomor-al u1-myoonu1-te) The form of acquired immunity in which antibody molecules are secreted in response to antigenic stimulation (as opposed to cell mediated immunity); also called antibodymediated immunity. hyaline cartilage (hiua-l=1n) A cartilage with a homogeneous matrix. It is the most common type, occurring at the articular ends of bones, in the trachea, and within the nose. Most of the bones in the body are formed from hyaline cartilage. hyaline membrane disease A disease affecting premature infants who lack pulmonary surfactant, it is characterized by collapse of the alveoli (atelectasis) and pulmonary edema; also called respiratory distress syndrome. hydrocortisone (hidruo-kortu1-s=on) The principal corticosteroid hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex, with glucocorticoid action; also called cortisol. hydrophilic (hidruo-filik) Denoting a substance that readily absorbs water; literally, "water loving." hydrophobic (hidruo-fobik) Denoting a substance that repels, and that is repelled by, water; "water fearing." hymen (himen) A developmental remnant (vestige) of membranous tissue that partially covers the vaginal opening. hyperbaric oxygen (hiper-barik) Oxygen gas present at greater than atmospheric pressure. hypercapnia (hiper-kapne-ua) Excessive concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood. hyperextension (hiper-ek-stenshun) Extension beyond the normal anatomical position or 180. hyperglycemia (hiper-gli-seme-ua) An abnormally increased concentration of glucose in the blood.

hyperkalemia (hiper-kua-leme-ua) An abnormally high concentration of potassium in the blood. hyperopia (hiper-ope-ua) A refractive disorder in which rays of light are brought to a focus behind the retina as a result of the eyeball being too short; also called farsightedness. hyperplasia (hiper-plazha) An increase in organ size due to an increase in cell numbers as a result of mitotic cell division (in contrast to hypertrophy). hyperpolarization (hiper-polar-u1-zashun) An increase in the negativity of the inside of a cell membrane with respect to the resting membrane potential. hypersensitivity (hiper-sensu1-tivu1-te) Another name for allergy; abnormal immune response that may be immediate (due to antibodies of the IgE class) or delayed (due to cell-mediated immunity). hypertension (hiper-tenshun) Elevated or excessive blood pressure. hypertonic (hiper-tonik) Denoting a solution with a greater solute concentration and thus a greater osmotic pressure than plasma. hypertrophy (hipertruo-fe) Growth of an organ due to an increase in the size of its cells (in contrast to hyperplasia). hyperventilation (hiper-ventu1-lashun) A high rate and depth of breathing that results in a decrease in the blood carbon dioxide concentration to below normal. hypodermis (hipuo-dermis) A layer of fat beneath the dermis of the skin. hyponychium (hipuo-nike-um) A thickened, supportive layer of stratum corneum at the distal end of a digit under the free edge of the nail. hypothalamic hormones (hipo-thua-lamik) Hormones produced by the hypothalamus. These include antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin, which are secreted by the posterior pituitary, and both releasing and inhibiting hormones that regulate the secretions of the anterior pituitary. hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system (hi-pofu1seal) A vascular system that transports releasing and inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary.

hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract The tract of nerve fibers (axons) that transports antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin from the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary. hypothalamus (hipo-thalua-mus) A portion of the forebrain within the diencephalon that lies below the thalamus, where it functions as an autonomic nerve center and regulates the pituitary gland. hypovolemic shock (hipo-vo-lemik) A rapid fall in blood pressure as a result of diminished blood volume. hypoxemia (hipok-seme-ua) A low oxygen concentration of the arterial blood. ileocecal valve (ile-uo-sekal) A modification of the mucosa at the junction of the small and large intestine that forms a one-way passage and prevents the backflow of food materials. ileum (ile-um) The terminal portion of the small intestine between the jejunum and cecum. immediate hypersensitivity (hiper-sensu1-tivu1-te) Hypersensitivity (allergy) mediated by antibodies of the IgE class that results in the release of histamine and related compounds from tissue cells. immunization (imyuu-nu1-zashun) The process of increasing one's resistance to pathogens. In active immunity a person is injected with antigens that stimulate the development of clones of specific B or T lymphocytes; in passive immunity a person is injected with antibodies produced by another organism. immunoassay (imyuu-no-asa) Any of a number of laboratory or clinical techniques that employ the specific binding between an antigen and its homologous antibody in order to identify and quantify a substance in a sample. immunoglobulins (imyuu-no-globyuu-linz) Subclasses of the gamma globulin fraction of plasma proteins that have antibody functions, providing humoral immunity. immunosurveillance (imyuu-no-ser-valens) The concept that the immune system recognizes and attacks malignant cells that produce antigens not recognized as "self." This function is believed to be cell mediated rather than humoral. implantation (implan-tashun) The process by which a blastocyst attaches itself to and penetrates into the endometrium of the uterus.

incus (ingkus) The middle of three auditory ossicles within the middle-ear chamber; commonly called the anvil. inferior vena cava (venua kavua) A large systemic vein that collects blood from the body regions inferior to the level of the heart and returns it to the right atrium. infundibulum (infun-dibyuu-lum) The stalk that attaches the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus of the brain. ingestion (in-jeschun) The process of taking food or liquid into the body by way of the oral cavity. inguinal (inggwu1-nal) Pertaining to the groin region. inguinal canal The circular passageway in the abdominal wall through which a testis descends into the scrotum. inhibin (in-hibin) A polypeptide hormone secreted by the testes that is believed to specifically exert negative feedback inhibition of FSH secretion from the anterior pituitary. inositol (u1-nosu1-tol) A sugarlike B-complex vitamin. Inositol triphosphate is believed to act as a second messenger in the action of some hormones. insertion The more movable attachment of a muscle, usually more distal. inspiration (inspu1-rashun) The act of breathing air into the alveoli of the lungs; also called inhalation. insula (insuu-lua) A deep, paired cerebral lobe. insulin (insuu-lin) A polypeptide hormone secreted by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets that promotes the anabolism of carbohydrates, fat, and protein. Insulin acts to promote the cellular uptake of blood glucose and, therefore, to lower the blood glucose concentration; insulin deficiency results in hyperglycemia and diabetes mellitus. integument (in-tegyoo-ment) The skin; the largest organ of the body. intercalated disc (in-terkua-l=at-ed) A thickened portion of the sarcolemma that extends across a cardiac muscle fiber, indicating the boundary between cells. intercellular substance (inter-selyuu-lar) The matrix or material between cells that largely determines tissue types.

interferons (inter-f=eronz) A group of small proteins that inhibit the multiplication of viruses inside host cells and that also have antitumor properties. internal (deep) Toward the center, away from the surface of the body. internal ear The innermost portion or chamber of the ear, containing the cochlea and the vestibular organs. interneurons (inter-nooronz) Multipolar neurons interposed between sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) neurons and confined entirely within the central nervous system; also called association neurons. interoceptors (inter-o-septorz) Sensory receptors that respond to changes in the internal environment (as opposed to exteroceptors). interphase The interval between successive cell divisions, during which time the chromosomes are in an extended state and are active in directing RNA synthesis. interstitial cells (inter-stishal) Cells located in the interstitial tissue between adjacent convolutions of the seminiferous tubules of the testes; they secrete androgens (mainly testosterone); also called cells of Leydig. intervertebral disc (inter-vertue-bral) A pad of fibrocartilage located between the bodies of adjacent vertebrae. intestinal crypt A simple tubular digestive gland opening onto the surface of the intestinal mucosa that secretes digestive enzymes; also called the crypt of Lieberkhn. intrafusal fibers (intrua-fyoosal) Modified muscle fibers that are encapsulated to form muscle spindle organs, which are muscle stretch receptors. intramembranous ossification See membranous bone. 163 intrapleural space (intrua-plooral) An actual or potential space between the visceral pleural membrane covering the lungs and the somatic pleural membrane lining the thoracic wall. intrinsic (in-trinzik) Situated within or pertaining to internal origin. inulin (inyuu-lin) A polysaccharide of fructose, produced by certain plants, that is filtered by the human kidneys but neither reabsorbed nor secreted. The clearance rate of

injected insulin is thus used to measure the glomerular filtration rate. inversion (in-verzhun) A movement of the foot in which the sole is turned inward. in vitro (in vetro) Occurring outside the body, in a test tube or other artificial environment. in vivo (in vevo) Occurring within the body. ion (ion) An atom or group of atoms that has either lost or gained electrons and thus has a net positive or a net negative charge. ionization (i-on-u1-zashun) The dissociation of a solute to form ions. ipsilateral (ipsu1-later-al) On the same side (as opposed to contralateral). IPSP Inhibitory postsynaptic potential; hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane in response to a particular neurotransmitter chemical, which makes it more difficult for the postsynaptic cell to attain a threshold level of depolarization required to produce action potentials. It is responsible for postsynaptic inhibition. iris (iris) The pigmented portion of the vascular tunic of the eye that surrounds the pupil and regulates its diameter. ischemia (u1-skeme-ua) A rate of blood flow to an organ that is inadequate to supply sufficient oxygen and maintain aerobic respiration in that organ. islets of Langerhans (iletz of langer-hanz) See pancreatic islets. isoenzymes (iso-enz1=mz) Enzymes, usually produced by different organs, that catalyze the same reaction but that differ from each other in amino acid composition. isometric contraction (isuo-metrik) Muscle contraction in which there is no appreciable shortening of the muscle. isotonic contraction (isuo-tonik) Muscle contraction in which the muscle shortens in length and maintains approximately the same amount of tension throughout the shortening process. isotonic solution A solution having the same total solute concentration, osmolality, and osmotic pressure as the solution with which it is compared; a solution with the

same solute concentration and osmotic pressure as plasma. isthmus (ismus) A narrow neck or portion of tissue connecting two structures. jaundice (jawndis) A condition characterized by high blood bilirubin levels and staining of the tissues with bilirubin, which imparts a yellow color to the skin and mucous membranes. jejunum (jue-joonum) The middle portion of the small intestine, located between the duodenum and the ileum. joint capsule The fibrous tissue that encloses the joint cavity of a synovial joint. keratin (kerua-tin) An insoluble protein present in the epidermis and in epidermal derivatives, such as hair and nails. ketoacidosis (keto-ua-su1-dosis) A type of metabolic acidosis resulting from the excessive production of ketone bodies, as in diabetes mellitus. ketogenesis (keto-jenu1-sis) The production of ketone bodies. ketone bodies (keto=n) The substances derived from fatty acids via acetyl coenzyme A in the liver; namely, acetone, acetoacetic acid, and b-hydroxybutyric acid. Ketone bodies are oxidized by skeletal muscles for energy. ketosis (ke-tosis) An abnormal elevation in the blood concentration of ketone bodies that does not necessarily produce acidosis. kidney (kidne) One of a pair of organs of the urinary system that contains nephrons and that filters wastes from the blood in the formation of urine. kilocalorie (kiluo-kaluo-re) A unit of measurement equal to 1000 calories, which are units of heat (a kilocalorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water by 1 C). In nutrition, the kilocalorie is called a big calorie (Calorie). kinesiology (ku1-nese-oluo-je) The study of body movement. Klinefelter's syndrome (kl=1nfel-terz sindr=om) An abnormal condition of male sex characteristics due to the presence of an extra X chromosome (genotype XXY).

knee A region in the lower extremity between the thigh and the leg that contains a synovial hinge joint. Krebs cycle (krebz) A cyclic metabolic pathway in the matrix of mitochondria by which the acetic acid part of acetyl CoA is oxidized and substrates provided for reactions that are coupled to the formation of ATP. Kupffer cells (koopfer) Phagocytic cells lining the sinusoids of the liver that are part of the body immunity system. labial frenulum (labe-al frenyuu-lum) A longitudinal fold of mucous membrane that attaches the lips to the gum along the midline of both the upper and lower lip. labia majora (labe-ua mua-jorua), sing. labium majus A portion of the external genitalia of a female consisting of two longitudinal folds of skin extending downward and backward from the mons pubis. labia minora (mu1-norua), sing. labium minus Two small folds of skin, devoid of hair and sweat glands, lying between the labia major of the external genitalia of a female. labyrinth (labu1-rinth) An intricate structure consisting of interconnecting passages (e.g., the bony and membranous labyrinths of the inner ear. lacrimal canaliculus (lakru1-mal kanua-likyuu-lus) A drainage duct for tears, located at the medial corner of an eyelid. It conveys the tears medially into the nasolacrimal sac. lacrimal gland A tear-secreting gland, located on the superior lateral portion of the eyeball underneath the upper eyelid. lactation (lak-tashun) The production and secretion of milk by the mammary glands. lacteal (lakte-al) A small lymphatic duct associated with a villus of the small intestine. lactose (lakt=os) Milk sugar; a disaccharide of glucose and galactose. lactose intolerance A disorder resulting in the inability to digest lactose because of an enzyme, lactase, deficiency. Symptoms include bloating, intestinal gas, nausea, diarrhea, and cramps.

lacuna (lua-kyoonua) A small, hollow chamber that houses an osteocyte in mature bone tissue or a chondrocyte in cartilage tissue. lambdoidal suture (lamdoid-al soochur) The immovable joint in the skull between the parietal bones and the occipital bone. lamella (lua-melua) A concentric ring of matrix surrounding the central canal in an osteon of mature bone tissue. lamellated corpuscle (lamue-la-ted) A sensory receptor for pressure, found in tendons, around joints, and in visceral organs; also called a pacinian corpuscle. lamina (lamu1-nua) A thin plate of bone that extends superiorly from the body of a vertebra to form either side of the arch of a vertebra. lanugo (lau-noogo) Short, silky fetal hair, which may be present for a short time on a premature infant. large intestine The last major portion of the GI tract, consisting of the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal. laryngopharynx (lua-ringgo-faringks) The inferior or lower portion of the pharynx in contact with the larynx. 686 larynx (laringks) The structure located between the pharynx and trachea that houses the vocal cords; commonly called the voice box. lateral (later-al) Pertaining to the side; farther from the midplane. lateral ventricle (ventru1-k'l) A cavity within the cerebral hemisphere of the brain that is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. L-dopa Levodopa; a derivative of the amino acid tyrosine. It serves as the precursor for the neurotransmitter molecule dopamine and is given to patients with Parkinson's disease to stimulate dopamine production. leg The portion of the lower extremity between the knee and ankle. lens (lenz) A transparent refractive organ of the eye positioned posterior to the pupil and iris. lesion (lezhun) A wounded or damaged area.

lesser omentum (o-mentum) A peritoneal fold of tissue extending from the lesser curvature of the stomach to the liver. leukocyte (lookuo-s=1t) A white blood cell; variant spelling, leucocyte. ligament (ligua-ment) A tough cord or fibrous band of connective tissue that binds bone to bone to strengthen and provide flexibility to a joint. It also may support viscera. limbic system (limbik) A portion of the brain concerned with emotions and autonomic activity. linea alba (line-ua albua) A vertical fibrous band extending down the anterior medial portion of the abdominal wall. lingual frenulum (linggwal frenyuu-lum) A longitudinal fold of mucous membrane that attaches the tongue to the floor of the oral cavity. lipogenesis (lipuo-jenue-sis) The formation of fat or triglycerides. lipolysis (lu1-polu1-sis) The hydrolysis of triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol. liver A large visceral organ inferior to the diaphragm in the right hypochondriac region. The liver detoxifies the blood and modifies the blood plasma concentration of glucose, triglycerides, ketone bodies, and proteins. low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) (lipo-prote-inz) Plasma proteins that transport triglycerides and cholesterol. They are believed to contribute to arteriosclerosis. lower extremity A lower appendage, including the hip, thigh, knee, leg, and foot. lumbar (lumbar) Pertaining to the region of the loins. lumbar plexus (pleksus) A network of nerves formed by the anterior branches of spinal nerves L1 through L4. lumen (loomen) The space within a tubular structure through which a substance passes. lung One of the two major organs of respiration positioned within the thoracic cavity on either side of the mediastinum.

lung surfactant (sur-faktant) A mixture of lipoproteins (containing phospholipids) secreted by type II alveolar cells into the alveoli of the lungs. It lowers surface tension and prevents collapse of the lungs as occurs in hyaline membrane disease, in which surfactant is absent. lunula (loonyoo-lua) The half-moon-shaped whitish area at the proximal portion of a nail. luteinizing hormone (LH) (loote-u1-nizing) A hormone secreted by the adenohypophysis (anterior lobe) of the pituitary gland that stimulates ovulation and the secretion of progesterone by the corpus luteum. It also influences mammary gland milk secretion in females and stimulates testosterone secretion by the testes in males. lymph (limf) A clear, plasmalike fluid that flows through lymphatic vessels. lymphatic system (lim-fatik) The lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes. lymph node A small, ovoid mass of reticular tissue located along the course of lymph vessels. lymphocyte (limfuo-s1=t) A type of white blood cell characterized by agranular cytoplasm. Lymphocytes usually constitute about 20% to 25% of the white blood cell count. lymphokines (limfuo-k=1ns) A group of chemicals released from T cells that contribute to cell-mediated immunity. lysosomes (lisuo-s=omz) Organelles containing digestive enzymes and responsible for intracellular digestion. macromolecules (makro-molu1-kyoolz) Large molecules; a term that usually refers to protein, RNA, and DNA. macrophage (makruo-f=aj) A wandering phagocytic cell. macula lutea (makyuu-lua loote-ua) A yellowish depression in the retina of the eye that contains the fovea centralis, the area of keenest vision. malignant Threatening to life; virulent. Of a tumor, cancerous, tending to metastasize. malleus (male-us) The first of three auditory ossicles that attaches to the tympanum; commonly called the hammer. mammary gland (mamer-e) The gland of the female breast responsible for lactation and nourishment of the young.

marrow (maro) The soft connective tissue found within the inner cavity of certain bones that produces red blood cells. mast cell A type of connective tissue cell that produces and secretes histamine and heparin and promotes local inflammation. mastication (mastu1-kashun) The chewing of food. matrix (matriks) The intercellular substance of a tissue. maximal oxygen uptake The maximum amount of oxygen that can be consumed by the body per unit time during heavy exercise. meatus (me-atus) A passageway or opening into a structure. mechanoreceptor (mekua-no-re-septor) A sensory receptor that responds to a mechanical stimulus. medial (mede-al) Toward or closer to the midplane of the body. mediastinum (mede-ua-stinum) The partition in the center of the thorax between the two pleural cavities. medulla (mue-dulua) The center portion of an organ. medulla oblongata (oblong-guatua) A portion of the brain stem located between the spinal cord and the pons. medullary (marrow) cavity (medl-ere) The hollow core of the diaphysis of a long bone in which marrow is found. megakaryocyte (megua-kare-o-s=1t) A bone marrow cell that gives rise to blood platelets. meiosis (mi-osis) A specialized type of cell division by which gametes or haploid sex cells are formed. Meissner's corpuscle (m=1snerz) See corpuscle of touch. melanin (melua-nin) A dark pigment found within the epidermis or epidermal derivatives of the skin. melanocyte (melua-no-s=1t) A specialized melaninproducing cell found in the deepest layer of the epidermis. melanoma (melua-nomua) A dark, malignant tumor of the skin that frequently forms in moles.

melatonin (melua-tonin) A hormone secreted by the pineal gland that produces lightening of the skin in lower vertebrates and that may contribute to the regulation of gonadal function in mammals. Secretion follows a circadian rhythm and peaks at night. membrane potential The potential difference or voltage that exists between the inner and outer sides of a cell membrane. It exists in all cells but is capable of being changed by excitable cells (neurons and muscle cells). membranous bone (membrua-nus) Bone that forms from membranous connective tissue rather than from cartilage. membranous labyrinth (labu1-rinth) A system of communicating sacs and ducts within the bony labyrinth of the inner ear that includes the cochlea and vestibular apparatus. It is filled with endolymph and surrounded by perilymph and bone. menarche (mue-narke) The first menstrual discharge. Mnire's disease (m=an-yarz) Deafness, tinnitus, and vertigo resulting from a disorder of the labyrinth. meninges (mue-ninj=ez), sing. meninx A group of three fibrous membranes covering the central nervous system, composed of the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. menisci (mue-niske) Wedge-shaped fibrocartilages in certain synovial joints. menopause (menuo-pawz) The period marked by the cessation of menstrual periods in the human female. menstrual cycle (menstroo-al) The rhythmic female reproductive cycle, characterized by changes in hormone levels and physical changes in the uterine lining. menstruation (menstroo-ashun) The discharge of blood and tissue from the uterus at the end of the menstrual cycle. mesencephalic aqueduct (mezen-sue-falik akwue-dukt) The channel that connects the third and fourth ventricles of the brain; also called the aqueduct of Sylvius. mesencephalon (mesen-sefua-lon) The midbrain, which contains the corpora quadrigemina and the cerebral peduncles. mesenchyme (mezen-k=1m) An embryonic connective tissue that can migrate, and from which all connective tissues arise.

mesenteric patches (mesen-terik) Clusters of lymph nodes on the walls of the small intestine; also called Peyer's patches. mesentery (mesen-tere) A fold of peritoneal membrane that attaches an abdominal organ to the abdominal wall. mesoderm (mesuo-derm) The middle one of the three primary germ layers. mesothelium (mesuo-thelium) A simple squamous epithelial tissue that lines body cavities and covers visceral organs; also called serosa. mesovarium (mesuo-vare-um) The peritoneal fold that attaches an ovary to the broad ligament of the uterus. messenger RNA (mRNA) A type of RNA that contains a base sequence complementary to a part of the DNA that specifies the synthesis of a particular protein. metabolism (mue-tabuo-liz-em) The sum total of the chemical changes that occur within a cell. metacarpus (metua-karpus) The region of the hand between the wrist and the phalanges, including the five metacarpal bones that support the palm of the hand. metarteriole (metar-tire-=ol) A small blood vessel that emerges from an arteriole, passes through a capillary network, and empties into a venule. metastasis (mue-tastua-sis) The spread of a disease from one organ or body part to another. metatarsus (metua-tarsus) The region of the foot between the ankle and the phalanges that includes the five metatarsal bones. metencephalon (meten-sefua-lon) The most superior portion of the hindbrain that contains the cerebellum and the pons. micelles (mi-selz) Colloidal particles formed by the aggregation of many molecules. microglia(mi-krogle-ua) Small phagocytic cells found in the central nervous system. microvilli (mikro-vili) Microscopic hairlike projections of cell membranes on certain epithelial cells. micturition (miktuu-rishun) The process of voiding urine; also called urination.

midbrain The portion of the brain between the pons and the forebrain. middle ear The middle of the three portions of the ear that contains the three auditory ossicles. midsagittal plane (mid-saju1-tal) A plane that divides the body into equal right and left halves; also called the median plane or midplane. mineralocorticoids (miner-al-o-kortu1-koidz) Steroid hormones of the adrenal cortex (corticosteroids) that regulate electrolyte balance. mitochondria (mituo-kondre-ua), sing. mitochondrion Cytoplasmic organelles that serve as sites for the production of most of the cellular energy; the so-called powerhouses of the cell. mitosis (mi-tosis) The process of cell division that results in two identical daughter cells, containing the same number of chromosomes. mitral valve (mitral) The left atrioventricular heart valve; also called the bicuspid valve. mixed nerve A nerve that contains both motor and sensory nerve fibers. molal (molal) Pertaining to the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. molar (molar) Pertaining to the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. mole (m=ol) The number of grams of a chemical that is equal to its formula weight (atomic weight for an element or molecular weight for a compound). monoclonal antibodies (monuo-kl=onal antu1bod=ez) Identical antibodies derived from a clone of genetically identical plasma cells. monocyte (mono-sit) A phagocytic type of white blood cell, normally constituting about 3% to 8% of the white blood cell count. monomer (monuo-mer) A single molecular unit of a longer, more complex molecule. Monomers are joined together to form dimers, trimers, and polymers; the hydrolysis of polymers eventually yields separate monomers. monosaccharide (monuo-sakua-r=1d) The monomer of the more complex carbohydrates, examples of which

include glucose, fructose, and galactose; also called a simple sugar. mons pubis (monz pyoobis) A fatty tissue pad covering the symphysis pubis and covered by pubic hair in the female. morula (moryuu-lua) An early stage of embryonic development characterized by a solid ball of cells. motile (m=otl), mot=1l) Capable of self-propelled movement. motor area A region of the cerebral cortex from which motor impulses to muscles or glands originate. motor nerve A nerve composed of motor nerve fibers. motor neuron (nooron) A nerve cell that conducts action potentials away from the central nervous system and innervates effector organs (muscle and glands). It forms the anterior roots of the spinal nerves; also called an efferent neuron. motor unit A single motor neuron and the muscle fibers it innervates. mucosa (myoo-kosua) A mucous membrane that lines cavities and tracts opening to the exterior. mucous cell (myookus) See goblet cell. mucous membrane A thin sheet consisting of layers of visceral organs that include the lining epithelium, submucosal connective tissue, and(in some cases) a thin layer of smooth muscle (the muscularis mucosa). multipolar neuron A nerve cell with many processes originating from the cell body. muscle (musel) A major type of tissue adapted to contract. The three kinds of muscle are cardiac, smooth, and skeletal. muscle spindles Sensory organs within skeletal muscles composed of intrafusal fibers. They are sensitive to muscle stretch and provide a length detector within muscles. muscularis (muskyuu-laris) A muscular layer or tunic of an organ, composed of smooth muscle tissue. myelencephalon (miue-len-sefua-lon) The posterior portion of the hindbrain that contains the medulla oblongata.

myelin (miue-lin) A lipoprotein material that forms a sheathlike covering around nerve fibers. myelin sheath A sheath surrounding axons formed by successive wrappings of a neuroglial cell membrane. Myelin sheaths are formed by neurolemmocytes in the peripheral nervous system and by oligodendrocytes within the central nervous system. myenteric plexus (mien-terik pleksus) A network of sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers located in the muscularis tunic of the small intestine; also called the plexus of Auerbach. myocardial infarction (miuo-karde-al in-farkshun) An area of necrotic tissue in the myocardium that is filled in by scar (connective) tissue. myocardium (miuo-karde-um) The cardiac muscle layer of the heart. myofibril (miuo-fibril) A bundle of contractile fibers within muscle cells. myogenic (miuo-jenik) Originating within muscle cells; used to describe self-excitation by cardiac and smooth muscle cells. myoglobin (miuo-globin) A molecule composed of globin protein and heme pigment. It is related to hemoglobin but contains only one subunit (instead of the four in hemoglobin) and is found in skeletal and cardiac muscle cells where it serves to store oxygen. myogram (miuo-gram) A recording of electrical activity within a muscle. myology (mi-oluo-je) The science or study of muscle structure and function. myometrium (mio-metre-um) The layer or tunic of smooth muscle within the uterine wall. myoneural junction (miuo-nooral) The site of contact between an axon of a motor neuron and a muscle fiber. myopia (mi-ope-ua) A visual defect in which objects may be seen distinctly only when very close to the eyes; also called nearsightedness. myosin (miuo-sin) A thick myofilament protein that together with actin causes muscle contraction.

myxedema (miksu1-demua) A type of edema associated with hypothyroidism. It is characterized by the accumulation of mucoproteins in tissue fluid. NAD Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; a coenzyme derived from niacin that helps to transport electrons from the Krebs cycle to the electron-transport chain within mitochondria. nail A hardened, keratinized plate that develops from the epidermis and forms a protective covering on the surface of the distal phalanges of fingers and toes. naloxone (nalok-s=on, nua-loks=on) A drug that antagonizes the effects of morphine and endorphins. nasal cavity (nazal) A mucosa-lined space above the oral cavity, divided by a nasal septum. It is the first chamber of the respiratory system. nasal concha (kongkua) A scroll-like bone extending medially from the lateral wall of the nasal cavity; also called a turbinate bone. nasal septum (septum) A bony and cartilaginous partition that separates the nasal cavity into two portions. nasopharynx (nazo-faringks) The first or uppermost chamber of the pharynx, positioned posterior to the nasal cavity and extending down to the soft palate. natriuretic (natru1-yoo-retik) An agent that promotes the excretion of sodium in the urine. Atrial natriuretic hormone has this effect. neck 1.Any constricted portion, such as the neck of an organ. 2.The cervical region of the body between the head and thorax. necrosis (nue-krosis) Cellular death or tissue death due to disease or trauma. negative feedback A mechanism in the body for maintaining a state of internal constancy, or homeostasis; effectors are activated by changes in the internal environment, and the actions of the effectors serve to counteract these changes and maintain a state of balance. neonatal (neo-natal) The stage of life from birth to the end of 4 weeks. neoplasm (neuo-plazm) A new, abnormal growth of tissue, as in a tumor.

nephron (nefron) The functional unit of the kidney, consisting of a glomerulus, convoluted tubules, and a nephron loop. nerve A bundle of nerve fibers outside the central nervous system. neurilemma (nooru1-lemua) A thin, membranous covering surrounding the myelin sheath of a nerve fiber. neurofibril node A gap in the myelin sheath of a nerve fiber; also called a node of Ranvier. neuroglia (noo-rogle-ua) Specialized supportive cells of the central nervous system. neurohypophysis (nooro-hi-pofu1-sis) The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland derived from the brain. Its major secretions include antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also called vasopressin, and oxytocin, produced in the hypothalamus. neurolemmocyte (nooruo-lemuo-s=1t) A specialized neuroglia cell that surrounds an axon fiber of a peripheral nerve and forms the neurilemmal sheath; also called a Schwann cell. neuron (nooron) The structural and functional unit of the nervous system, composed of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon; also called a nerve cell. neurotransmitter (nooro-transmit-er) A chemical contained in synaptic vesicles in nerve endings that is released into the synaptic cleft, where it stimulates the production of either excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. neutrons (nootronz) Electrically neutral particles that exist together with positively charged protons in the nucleus of atoms. neutrophil (nootruo-fil) A type of phagocytic white blood cell, normally constituting about 60% to 70% of the white blood cell count. nexus (neksus) A bond between members of a group; the type of bonds present in single-unit smooth muscles. nidation (ni-dashun) Implantation of the blastocyst into the endometrium of the uterus. nipple A dark pigmented, rounded projection at the tip of the breast. Nissl bodies (nisl) See chromatophilic substances.

node of Ranvier (ranve-a) See neurofibril node. norepinephrine (norep-u1-nefrin) A catecholamine released as a neurotransmitter from postganglionic sympathetic nerve endings and as a hormone (together with epinephrine) from the adrenal medulla. notochord (notuo-kord) A flexible rod of tissue that extends the length of the back of an embryo. nucleolus (noo-kleuo-lus) A dark-staining area within a cell nucleus; the site where ribosomal RNA is produced. nucleoplasm (nookle-uo-plazem) The protoplasmic contents of the nucleus of a cell. nucleotide (nookle-uo-t=1d) The subunit of DNA and RNA macromolecules. Each nucleotide is composed of a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine or uracil); a sugar (deoxyribose or ribose); and a phosphate group. nucleus (nookle-us) A spheroid body within a cell that contains the genetic factors of the cell. nucleus pulposus (pul-posus) The soft, pulpy core of an intervertebral disc; a remnant of the notochord. nystagmus (nu1-stagmus) Involuntary oscillary movements of the eye. obese (o-b=es) Excessively fat. olfactory (ol-faktuo-re) Pertaining to the sense of smell.

oocyte (ouo-s=1t) A developing egg cell. oogenesis (ouo-jenue-sis) The process of female gamete formation. opsonization (opsuo-nu1-zashun) The process by which antibodies enhance the ability of phagocytic cells to attack bacteria. optic (optik) Pertaining to the eye. optic chiasma (ki-azmua) An X-shaped structure on the inferior aspect of the brain, anterior to the pituitary gland, where there is a partial crossing over of fibers in the optic nerves; also called the optic chiasm. optic disc A small region of the retina where the fibers of the ganglion neurons exit from the eyeball to form the optic nerve; also called the blind spot. optic tract A bundle of sensory axons located between the optic chiasma and the thalamus that functions to convey visual impulses from the photoreceptors within the eye. oral Pertaining to the mouth. ora serrata The jagged peripheral margin of the retina. organ A structure consisting of two or more tissues that performs a specific function. organelle (orgua-nel) A minute living structure of a cell with a specific function. organism An individual living creature.

olfactory bulb An aggregation of sensory neurons of an olfactory nerve, lying inferior to the frontal lobe of the cerebrum on either lateral side of the crista galli of the ethmoid bone. olfactory tract The olfactory sensory tract of axons that conveys impulses from the olfactory bulb to the olfactory portion of the cerebral cortex. oligodendrocyte (olu1-go-dendruo-s=1t) A type of neuroglial cell concerned with the formation of the myelin of nerve fibers within the central nervous system. oncology (on-koluo-je) The study of tumors. oncotic pressure (on-kotik) The colloid osmotic pressure of solutions produced by proteins. In plasma, it serves to counterbalance the outward filtration of fluid from capillaries due to hydrostatic pressure.

organ of Corti (korte) See spiral organ. orifice (oru1-fis) An opening into a body cavity or tube. origin The place of muscle attachment-usually the more stationary point or the proximal bone; opposite the insertion. oropharynx (oro-faringks) The second portion of the pharynx, located posterior to the oral cavity and extending from the soft palate to the hyoid bone. osmolality (ozmuo-lalu1-te) A measure of the total concentration of a solution; the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.

osmoreceptors (ozmuo-re-ceptorz) Sensory neurons that respond to changes in the osmotic pressure of the surrounding fluid. osmosis (oz-mosis) The passage of solvent (water) from a more dilute to a more concentrated solution through a membrane that is more permeable to water than to the solute. osmotic pressure (oz-motik) A measure of the tendency of a solution to gain water by osmosis when separated by a membrane from pure water. Directly related to the osmolality of the solution, it is the pressure required to just prevent osmosis. osseous tissue (ose-us) Bone tissue. ossicle (osu1-kul) One of the three bones of the middle ear; also called the auditory ossicle. ossification (osu1-fu1-kashun) The process of bone tissue formation. osteoblast (oste-uo-blast) A bone-forming cell. osteoclast (oste-uo-klast) A cell that causes erosion and resorption of bone tissue. osteocyte (oste-uo-s=1t) A mature bone cell. osteology (oste-oluo-je) The study of the structure and function of bone and the entire skeleton. osteomalacia (oste-o-mua-lashua) Softening of bones due to a deficiency of vitamin D and calcium. osteon (oste-on) A group of osteocytes and concentric lamellae surrounding a central canal, constituting the basic unit of structure in osseous tissue; also called a haversian system. osteoporosis (oste-o-puo-rosis) Demineralization of bone, seen most commonly in postmenopausal women and patients who are inactive or paralyzed. It may be accompanied by pain, loss of stature, and other deformities and fractures. otoliths (otuo-liths) Small, hardened particles of calcium carbonate in the saccule and utricle of the inner ear, associated with the receptors of equilibrium; also called statoconia. outer ear The outer portion of the ear, consisting of the auricle and the external auditory canal.

oval window An oval opening in the bony wall between the middle and inner ear, into which the footplate of the stapes fits; also called the vestibular window. ovarian follicle (o-vare-an folu1-kul) A developing ovum and its surrounding epithelial cells. ovarian ligament (ligua-ment) A cordlike connective tissue that attaches the ovary to the uterus. ovary (ovua-re) The female gonad in which ova and certain sexual hormones are produced. oviduct (ovu1-dukt) The tube that transports ova from the ovary to the uterus; also called the uterine tube or fallopian tube. ovulation (ov-yuu-lashun) The rupture of an ovarian (graafian) follicle with the release of an ovum. ovum (ovum) A secondary oocyte capable of developing into a new individual when fertilized by a spermatozoon. oxidative phosphorylation (oksu1-dativ fosfor-u1lashun) The formation of ATP using energy derived from electron transport to oxygen. It occurs in the mitochondria. oxidizing agent (oksu1-d=1z-ing) An atom that accepts electrons in an oxidation-reduction reaction. oxyhemoglobin (okse-hemuo-globin) A compound formed by the bonding of molecular oxygen to hemoglobin. oxyhemoglobin saturation The ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the amount of oxyhemoglobin relative to the total amount of hemoglobin in blood. oxytocin (oksu1-tosin) One of the two hormones produced in the hypothalamus and secreted by the posterior pituitary (the other hormone is vasopressin). Oxytocin stimulates the contraction of uterine smooth muscles and promotes milk ejection in females. pacemaker (p=asmaker) A group of cells that has the fastest spontaneous rate of depolarization and contraction in a mass of electrically coupled cells; in the heart, this is the sinoatrial, or SA, node. pacinian corpuscle (pua-sine-an) See lamellated corpuscle. PAH Para-aminohippuric acid; a substance used to measure total renal plasma flow because its clearance rate

is equal to the total rate of plasma flow to the kidneys. PAH is filtered and secreted but not reabsorbed by the renal nephrons. palate (palat) The roof of the oral cavity. palatine (palua-t=1n) Pertaining to the palate. palmar (palmar) Pertaining to the palm of the hand. palpebra (palpue-brua) An eyelid. pancreas (pankre-as) A mixed organ in the abdominal cavity that secretes pancreatic juices into the GI tract and insulin and glucagon into the blood. pancreatic duct (pankre-atik) A drainage tube that carries pancreatic juice from the pancreas into the duodenum of the hepatopancreatic ampulla. pancreatic islets A cluster of cells within the pancreas that forms the endocrine portion and secretes insulin and glucagon; also called islets of Langerhans. papillae (pua-pile) Small, nipplelike projections. papillary muscle (papu1-lere) Muscular projections from the ventricular walls of the heart to which the chordea tendineae are attached. paranasal sinus (parua-nazal sinus) An air chamber lined with a mucous membrane that communicates with the nasal cavity. parasympathetic (parua-simpua-thetik) Pertaining to the division of the autonomic nervous system concerned with activities that, in general, inhibit or oppose the physiological effects of the sympathetic nervous system. parathyroid hormone (PTH) A polypeptide hormone secreted by the parathyroid glands. PTH acts to raise the blood Ca++ levels primarily by stimulating reabsorption of bone. parathyroids (parua-thiroidz) Small endocrine glands embedded on the posterior surface of the thyroid glands that are concerned with calcium metabolism. parietal (pua-riue-tal) Pertaining to a wall of an organ or cavity. parietal pleura (ploorua) The thin serous membrane attached to the thoracic walls of the pleural cavity.

Parkinson's disease (parkin-sunz) A tremor of the resting muscles and other symptoms caused by inadequate dopamine-producing neurons in the basal nuclei of the cerebrum; also called paralysis agitans. parotid gland (pua-rotid) One of the paired salivary glands located on the side of the face over the masseter muscle just anterior to the ear and connected to the oral cavity through a salivary duct. parturition (partyoo-rishun) The process of giving birth; childbirth. passive immunity (u1-myoonu1-te) Specific immunity granted by the administration of antibodies made by another organism. pathogen (pathuo-jen) Any disease-producing microorganism or substance. pectoral (pektuo-ral) Pertaining to the chest region. pectoral girdle The portion of the skeleton that supports the upper extremities. pedicle (pedu1-k'l) The portion of a vertebra that connects and attaches the lamina to the body. pelvic (pelvik) Pertaining to the pelvis. pelvic girdle The portion of the skeleton to which the lower extremities are attached. pelvis (pelvis) A basinlike bony structure formed by the sacrum and ossa coxae. penis(penis) The male organ of copulation, used to introduce sperm into the female vagina and through which urine passes during urination. pennate (pen=at) Pertaining to a skeletal muscle fiber arrangement in which the fibers are attached to tendinous slips in a featherlike pattern. pepsin (pepsin) The protein-digesting enzyme secreted in gastric juice. peptic ulcer (peptik ulser) An injury to the mucosa of the esophagus, stomach, or small intestine due to the action of acidic gastric juice. perforating canal A minute duct through compact bone by which blood vessels and nerves penetrate to the central canal of an osteon; also called Volkmann's canal.

pericardium (peru1-karde-um) A protective serous membrane that surrounds the heart. perichondrium (peru1-kondre-um) A toughened connective sheet that covers some kinds of cartilage. perikaryon (peru1-kare-on) The cell body of a neuron. perilymph (peru1-limf) A fluid of the inner ear that provides a liquid-conducting medium for the vibrations involved in hearing and the maintenance of equilibrium. perimysium (peru1-mise-um) Fascia (connective tissue) surrounding a bundle of muscle fibers. perineum (peru1-neum) The floor of the pelvis, which is the region between the anus and the symphysis pubis. It is the region that contains the external genitalia. perineurium (peru1-noore-um) Connective tissue surrounding a bundle of nerve fibers. periodontal membrane (pere-uo-dontal) A fibrous connective tissue lining the dental alveoli. periosteum (pere-oste-um) A fibrous connective tissue covering the outer surface of bone. peripheral nervous system (pue-rifer-al) The nerves and ganglia of the nervous system that lie outside of the brain and spinal cord; PNS. peristalsis (peru1-stalsis) Rhythmic contractions of smooth muscle in the walls of various tubular organs by which the contents are forced onward. peritoneum (per1u-tuo-neum) The serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and covers the abdominal visceral organs. Peyer's patches(pierz) See mesenteric patches. pH A measure of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a solution, numerically equal to 7 for neutral solutions. The pH scale in common use ranges from 0 to 14. Solutions with a pH lower than 7 are acidic and those with a higher pH are basic. phagocytosis (faguo-si-tosis) Cellular eating; the ability of some cells (such as white blood cells) to engulf large particles (such as bacteria) and digest these particles by merging the food vacuole in which they are contained with a lysosome containing digestive enzymes.

phalanx (falangks), pl. phalanges A bone of a finger or toe. pharynx (faringks) The organ of the digestive system and respiratory system located at the back of the oral and nasal cavities that extends to the larynx anteriorly and to the esophagus posteriorly; also called the throat. photoreceptor (foto-re-septor) A sensory nerve ending that responds to the stimulation of light. physiology (fize-oluo-je) The science that deals with the study of body functions. pia mater (piua mater) The innermost meninx that is in direct contact with the brain and spinal cord. pineal gland (pine-al) A small cone-shaped gland located in the roof of the third ventricle. pinna (pinua) The outer, fleshy portion of the external ear; also called the auricle. pinocytosis (pinuo-si-tosis) Cell drinking; invagination of the cell membrane forming narrow channels that pinch off into vacuoles. This allows for cellular intake of extracellular fluid and dissolved molecules. pituitary gland (pu1-toou1-ter-e) A small, pea-shaped endocrine gland situated on the interior surface of the diencephalonic region of the brain, consisting of anterior and posterior lobes; also called the hypophysis. pivot joint (pivut) A synovial joint in which the rounded head of one bone articulates with the depressed cup of another to permit a rotational type of movement. placenta (plua-sentua) The organ of metabolic exchange between the mother and the fetus. plantar (plantar) Pertaining to the sole of the foot. plasma (plazmua) The fluid, extracellular portion of circulating blood. plasma cells Cells derived from B lymphocytes that produce and secrete large amounts of antibodies. They are responsible for humoral immunity. platelets (pl=at-letz) Small fragments of specific bone marrow cells that function in blood coagulation; also called thrombocytes.

pleural (plooral) Pertaining to the serous membranes associated with the lungs. pleural cavity The potential space between the visceral pleura and parietal pleura. pleural membranes Serous membranes that surround the lungs and provide protection and compartmentalization. plexus (pleksus) A network of interlaced nerves or vessels. plexus of Auerbach (ower-bak) See myenteric plexus. plexus of Meissner (m=1sner) See submucosal plexus. plicae circulares (plice sur-kyuu-lar=ez) Deep folds within the wall of the small intestine that increase the absorptive surface area. pneumotaxic area (noomuo-taksik) The region of the respiratory control center located in the pons of the brain. polar body A small daughter cell formed by meiosis that degenerates in the process of oocyte production. polar molecule A molecule in which the shared electrons are not evenly distributed, so that one side of the molecule is negatively (or positively) charged in comparison with the other side. Polar molecules are soluble in polar solvents, such as water. polydipsia (pole-dipse-ua) Excessive thirst. polymer (polue-mer) A large molecule formed by the combination of smaller subunits, or monomers. polymorphonuclear leukocyte (pole-morfuo-nookle-ar lookuo-s=1t) A granular leukocyte containing a nucleus with a number of lobes connected by thin, cytoplasmic strands. This type includes neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. polypeptide (pole-pept1=d) A chain of amino acids connected by covalent bonds called peptide bonds. A very large polypeptide is called a protein. polysaccharide (pole-sakua-r=1d) A carbohydrate formed by covalent bonding of numerous monosaccharides. Examples include glycogen and starch. polyuria (pole-yoore-ua) Excretion of an excessively large volume of urine in a given period.

pons (ponz) The portion of the brain stem just above the medulla oblongata and anterior to the cerebellum. popliteal (poplu1-teal, pop-lite-al) Pertaining to the concave region on the posterior aspect of the knee. posterior (pos-t=ere-or) Toward the back; also called dorsal. posterior pituitary (pu1-toou1-ter-e) See neurohypophysis. posterior root An aggregation of sensory neuron fibers lying between a spinal nerve and the posterolateral aspect of the spinal cord; also called the dorsal root or sensory root. posterior root ganglion (ganggle-on) A cluster of cell bodies of sensory neurons located along the posterior root of a spinal nerve. postganglionic neuron (p=ostgang-gle-onik) The second neuron in an autonomic motor pathway. Its cell body is outside the central nervous system and it terminates at an effector organ. postnatal (p=ost-natal) After birth. postsynaptic inhibition (p=ostsu1-naptik) The inhibition of a postsynaptic neuron by axon endings that release a neurotransmitter that induces hyperpolarization (inhibitory postsynaptic potentials). preganglionic neuron (pregang-gle-onik) The first neuron in an autonomic motor pathway. Its cell body is inside the central nervous system and it terminates on a postganglionic neuron. pregnancy A condition in which a female is carrying a developing offspring within the body. prenatal (pre-natal) Pertaining to the period of offspring development during pregnancy; before birth. prepuce (prepyoos) A fold of loose, retractable skin covering the glans of the penis or clitoris; also called the foreskin. presynaptic inhibition (presu1-naptik) Neural inhibition in which axoaxonic synapses inhibit the release of neurotransmitter chemicals from the presynaptic axon terminal. prolactin (pro-laktin) A hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that, in conjunction with other hormones,

stimulates lactation in the postpartum female. It may also participate (along with the gonadotropins) in regulating gonadal function in some mammals. pronation (pro-nashun) A rotational movement of the forearm in which the palm of the hand is turned posteriorly. proprioceptor (propre-o-septor) A sensory nerve ending that responds to changes in tension in a muscle or tendon. prostaglandin (prostua-glandin) Any of a family of fatty acids that have numerous autocrine regulatory functions, including the stimulation of uterine contractions and of gastric acid secretion and the promotion of inflammation. prostate (prost=at) A walnut-shaped gland surrounding the male urethra just below the urinary bladder that secretes an additive to seminal fluid during ejaculation. prosthesis (pros-thesis) An artificial device to replace a diseased or worn body part. proton (proton) A unit of positive charge in the nucleus of atoms. protoplasm (protuo-plazem) A general term for the colloidal complex of protein that constitutes the living material of a cell. It includes cytoplasm and nucleoplasm. protraction (pro-trakshun) The movement of a body part, such as the mandible, forward on a plane parallel with the ground; the opposite of retraction. proximal (prok-su1-mal) Closer to the midplane of the body or to the origin of an appendage; the opposite of distal. pseudohermaphrodite (sooduo-her-mafruo-d1=t) An individual with some of the physical characteristics of both sexes, but who lacks functioning gonads of both sexes; a true hermaphrodite has both testes and ovaries. pseudopods (sooduo-podz) Footlike extensions of the cytoplasm that enable some cells (with amoeboid motion) to move across a substrate. Pseudopods are also used to surround food particles in the process of phagocytosis. ptyalin (tiua-lin) An enzyme in saliva that catalyzes the hydrolysis of starch into smaller molecules; also called salivary amylase. puberty (pyoober-te) The period of development in which the reproductive organs become functional.

pulmonary (pulmuo-nere) Pertaining to the lungs. pulmonary circulation The system of blood vessels from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs that transports deoxygenated blood and returns oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart. pulp cavity A cavity within the center of a tooth that contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics. pupil The opening through the iris that permits light to enter the posterior cavity of the eyeball and be refracted by the lens through the vitreous chamber. Purkinje fibers (pur-kinje) See conduction myofibers. pyloric sphincter (pi-lorik sfingkter) A modification of the muscularis tunic between the stomach and the duodenum that functions to regulate the food material leaving the stomach. pyramid (pirua-mid) Any of several structures that have a pyramidal shape (e.g., the renal pyramids in the kidney and the medullary pyramids on the anterior surface of the brain). pyrogen (piruo-jen) A fever-producing substance. QRS complex The principal deflection of an electrocardiogram that is produced by depolarization of the ventricles. ramus (ramus) A branch of a bone, artery, or nerve. raphe (rafe) A ridge or a seamlike structure between two similar parts of a body organ, as in the scrotum. receptor (re-septor) A sense organ or a specialized distal end of a sensory neuron that receives stimuli from the environment. rectum (rektum) The terminal portion of the GI tract, between the sigmoid colon and the anal canal. red marrow (maro) A tissue that forms blood cells, located in the medullary cavity of certain bones. red nucleus (nookle-us) An aggregation of gray matter of a reddish color located in the upper portion of the midbrain. It sends fibers to certain brain tracts. reduced hemoglobin (hemuo-globin) Hemoglobin with iron in the reduced ferrous state. It is able to bond with

oxygen but is not combined with oxygen. Also called deoxyhemoglobin. reducing agent An electron donor in a coupled oxidationreduction reaction. reflex (refleks) A rapid involuntary response to a stimulus. reflex arc The basic conduction pathway through the nervous system, consisting of a sensory neuron, an association neuron, and a motor neuron. regional anatomy The division of anatomy concerned with structural arrangement in specific areas of the body, such as the head, neck, thorax, or abdomen. renal (renal) Pertaining to the kidney. renal corpuscle (korpus'l) The portion of the nephron consisting of the glomerulus and a glomerular capsule; also called the malpighian corpuscle. renal cortex The outer portion of the kidney, primarily vascular. renal medulla (mue-dulua) The inner portion of the kidney, including the renal pyramids and renal columns. renal pelvis The inner cavity of the kidney formed by the expanded ureter and into which the calyces open. renal plasma clearance rate The milliliters of plasma cleared of a particular solute per minute by the excretion of that solute in the urine. If there is no reabsorption or secretion of that solute by the nephron tubules, the plasma clearance rate is equal to the glomerular filtration rate. renal pyramid A triangular structure within the renal medulla composed of nephron loops and the collecting ducts. repolarization (re-polar-u1-zashun) The reestablishment of the resting membrane potential after depolarization has occurred. respiration (respu1-rashun) The exchange of gases between the external environment and the cells of an organism. respiratory acidosis (ru1-sp=1rua-tor-e asu1-dosis) A lowering of the blood pH to below 7.35 due to accumulation of CO2 as a result of hypoventilation.

respiratory alkalosis (alkua-losis) A rise in blood pH to above 7.45 due to excessive elimination of blood CO2 as a result of hyperventilation. respiratory center The structure or portion of the brain stem that regulates the depth and rate of breathing. respiratory distress syndrome A lung disease of the newborn, most frequently occurring in premature infants, that is caused by abnormally high alveolar surface tension as a result of a deficiency in lung surfactant; also called hyaline membrane disease. respiratory membrane A thin, moistened membrane within the lungs, composed of an alveolar portion and a capillary portion, through which gaseous exchange occurs. rete testis (rete testis) A network of ducts in the center of the testis associated with the production of spermatozoa. reticular formation (rue-tikyuu-lar) A network of nervous tissue fibers in the brain stem that arouses the higher brain centers. retina (retu1-nua) The principal portion of the internal tunic of the eyeball that contains the photoreceptors. retraction (re-trakshun) The movement of a body part, such as the mandible, backward on a plane parallel with the ground; the opposite of protraction. retroperitoneal (retro-peru1-tuo-neal) Positioned behind the parietal peritoneum. rhodopsin (ro-dopsin) A pigment in rod cells that undergoes a photochemical dissociation in response to light, and in so doing stimulates electrical activity in the photoreceptors. rhythmicity area (rith-misu1-te) A portion of the respiratory control center located in the medulla oblongata that controls inspiratory and expiratory phases. ribosome (ribo-s=om) A cytoplasmic organelle composed of protein and RNA in which protein synthesis occurs. rickets (rikets) A condition caused by a deficiency of vitamin D and associated with an interference of the normal ossification of bone. right lymphatic duct (lim-fatik) A major vessel of the lymphatic system that drains lymph from the upper right portion of the body into the right subclavian vein.

rigor mortis (rigor mortis) The stiffening of a dead body due to the depletion of ATP and the production of rigor complexes between actin and myosin in muscles. RNA Ribonucleic acid; a nucleic acid consisting of the nitrogenous bases adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil; the sugar ribose; and phosphate groups. There are three types of RNA found in cytoplasm: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). rod A photoreceptor in the retina of the eye that is specialized for colorless, dim-light vision. root canal The hollow, tubular extension of the pulp cavity into the root of the tooth that contains vessels and nerves. rotation (ro-tashun) The movement of a bone around its own longitudinal axis. round window A round, membrane-covered opening between the middle and inner ear, directly below the oval window; also called the cochlear window. rugae (rooje) The folds or ridges of the mucosa of an organ. saccadic eye movements (sua-kadik) Very rapid eye movements that occur constantly and that change the focus on the retina from one point to another. saccule (sakyool) A saclike cavity in the membranous labyrinth inside the vestibule of the inner ear that contains a vestibular organ for equilibrium. sacral (sakral) Pertaining to the sacrum. sacral plexus (pleksus) A network of nerve fibers that arises from spinal nerves L4 through S3. Nerves arising from the sacral plexus merge with those from the lumbar plexus to form the lumbosacral plexus and supply the lower extremity. saddle joint A synovial joint in which the articular surfaces of both bones are concave in one plane and convex or saddle shaped, in the other plane, such as in the distal carpometacarpal joint of the thumb. sagittal plane (saju1-tal) A vertical plane, running parallel to the midsagittal plane, that divides the body into unequal right and left portions. salivary gland (salu1-ver-e) An accessory digestive gland that secretes saliva into the oral cavity.

saltatory conduction (saltua-tore) The rapid passage of action potentials from one node of Ranvier (neurofibril node) to another in myelinated axons. sarcolemma (sarkuo-lemua) The cell membrane of a muscle fiber. sarcomere (sarkuo-m=er) The portion of a striated muscle fiber between the two adjacent Z lines that is considered the functional unit of a myofibril. sacroplasm (sarkuo-plazem) The cytoplasm within a muscle fiber. sarcoplasmic reticulum (sarkuo-plazmik rue-tikyuulum) The smooth or agranular endoplasmic reticulum of skeletal muscle cells. It surrounds each myofibril and stores Ca++ when the muscle is at rest. scala tympani (skalau timpua-ne) The lower channel of the cochlea that is filled with perilymph. scala vestibuli (vue-stibyuu-le) The upper channel of the cochlea that is filled with perilymph. Schwann cell (schwahn) See neurolemmocyte. sclera (sklerua) The outer white layer of fibrous connective tissue that forms the protective covering of the eyeball. scleral venous sinus (venus) A circular venous drainage for the aqueous humor from the anterior chamber; located at the junction of the sclera and the cornea; also called the canal of Schlemm. scrotum (skrotum) A pouch of skin that contains the testes and their accessory organs. sebaceous gland (sue-bashus) An exocrine gland of the skin that secretes sebum. sebum (sebum) An oily, waterproofing secretion of the sebaceous glands. second messenger A molecule or ion whose concentration within a target cell is increased by the action of a regulatory compound (e.g., a hormone or neurotransmitter) and which stimulates the metabolism of that target cell in a way that mediates the intracellular effects of that regulatory compound. secretin (sue-kretin) A polypeptide hormone secreted by the small intestine in response to acidity of the intestinal

lumen. Along with cholecystokinin, secretin stimulates the secretion of pancreatic juice into the small intestine. semen (semen) The thick, whitish secretion of the reproductive organs of the male, consisting of spermatozoa and additives from the prostate and seminal vesicles. semicircular canals Tubule channels within the inner ear that contain receptors for equilibrium. semilunar valve (seme-loonar) Crescent- or half-moonshaped heart valves positioned at the entrances to the aorta and the pulmonary trunk. seminal vesicles (semu1-nal vesu1-k'lz) A pair of accessory male reproductive organs lying posterior and inferior to the urinary bladder that secrete additives to spermatozoa into the ejaculatory ducts. seminiferous tubules (semu1-nifer-us toobyoolz) Numerous small ducts in the testes, where spermatozoa are produced. semipermeable membrane (seme-perme-ua-b'l) A membrane with pores of a size that permits the passage of solvent and some solute molecules while restricting the passage of other solute molecules. senescence (sue-nesens) The process of aging. sensory area A region of the cerebral cortex that receives and interprets sensory nerve impulses. sensory neuron (nooron) A nerve cell that conducts an impulse from a receptor organ to the central nervous system; also called an afferent neuron. septum (septum) A membranous or fleshy wall dividing two cavities. serous membrane (serus) An epithelial and connective tissue membrane that lines body cavities and covers visceral organs within these cavities; also called serosa. Sertoli cells (ser-tole) See sustentacular cells. serum (serum) Blood plasma with the clotting elements removed. sesamoid bone (sesua-moid) A membranous bone formed in a tendon in response to joint stress (e.g., the patella).

sex chromosomes The X and Y chromosomes; the unequal pairs of chromosomes involved in sex determination (which is based on the presence or absence of a Y chromosome). Females lack a Y chromosome and normally have the genotype XX; males have a Y chromosome and normally have the genotype XY. shock As it relates to the cardiovascular system, this term refers to a rapid, uncontrolled fall in blood pressure, which in some cases becomes irreversible and leads to death. shoulder The region of the body where the humerus articulates with the scapula. sickle-cell anemia A hereditary, autosomal recessive trait that occurs primarily in people of African ancestry, in which it evolved apparently as a protection (in the carrier state) against malaria. In the homozygous state, hemoglobin S is made instead of hemoglobin A; this leads to the characteristic sickling of red blood cells, hemolytic anemia, and organ damage. sigmoid colon (sigmoid kolon) The S-shaped portion of the large intestine between the descending colon and the rectum. sinoatrial node (sinno-atre-al) A mass of specialized cardiac tissue in the wall of the right atrium that initiates the cardiac cycle; the SA node; also called the pacemaker. sinus (sinus) A cavity or hollow space within a body organ, such as a bone. sinusoid (sinuu-soid) A small, blood-filled space in certain organs, such as the spleen or liver. skeletal muscle A specialized type of multinucleated muscle tissue that occurs in bundles, has crossbands of proteins, and contracts in either a voluntary or involuntary fashion. sleep apnea (apne-ua) A temporary cessation of breathing during sleep, usually lasting for several seconds. sliding filament theory The theory that the thick and thin filaments of a myofibril slide past each other during muscle contraction, while maintaining their initial length. small intestine The portion of the GI tract between the stomach and the cecum whose function is the absorption of food nutrients. smooth muscle A specialized type of nonstriated muscle tissue composed of fusiform, single-nucleated fibers. It

contracts in an involuntary, rhythmic fashion within the walls of visceral organs. sodium/potassium pump (sode-um puo-tase-um) An active transport carrier with ATPase enzymatic activity that acts to accumulate K+ within cells and extrude Na+ from cells, thus maintaining gradients for these ions across the cell membrane. soft palate (palat) The fleshy, posterior portion of the roof of the mouth, from the palatine bones to the uvula. somatic (so-matik) Pertaining to the nonvisceral parts of the body. somatomedins (somatuo-m=ed-inz) A group of small polypeptides believed to be produced in the liver in response to growth hormone stimulation and to mediate the actions of growth hormone on the skeleton and other tissues. somatostatin (so-matuo-st=atin) A polypeptide produced in the hypothalamus that acts to inhibit the secretion of growth hormone from the anterior pituitary. Somatostatin is also produced in the pancreatic islets, but its function there has not been established. somatotropic hormone (so-matuo-tropik) Growth hormone; an anabolic hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that stimulates skeletal growth and protein synthesis in many organs. sounds of Korotkoff (kuo-rotkof) The sounds heard when pressure measurements are taken. These sounds are produced by the turbulent flow of blood through an artery that has been partially constricted by a pressure cuff. spermatic cord (sper-matik) The structure of the male reproductive system composed of the ductus deferens, spermatic vessels, nerves, cremaster muscle, and connective tissue. The spermatic cord extends from a testis to the inguinal ring. spermatogenesis (sper-matuo-jenu1-sis) The production of male sex gametes, or spermatozoa. spermatozoon (sper-matuo-zoon), pl. spermatozoa or, loosely, sperm A mature male sperm cell, or gamete. spermiogenesis (sperme-uo-jenue-sis) The maturational changes that transform spermatids into spermatozoa. sphincter (sfingkter) A circular muscle that functions to constrict a body opening or the lumen of a tubular structure.

sphincter of ampulla The muscular constriction at the opening of the common bile and pancreatic ducts; also called the sphincter of Oddi. sphincter of Oddi (ode) See sphincter of ampulla. sphygmomanometer (sfigmo-mua-nomu1-ter) A manometer (pressure transducer) used to measure the blood pressure. spinal cord (spinal) The portion of the central nervous system that extends downward from the brain stem through the vertebral canal. spinal ganglion A cluster of nerve cell bodies on the posterior root of a spinal nerve. spinal nerve One of the 31 pairs of nerves that arise from the spinal cord. spindle fibers (spind'l) Filaments that extend from the poles of a cell to its equator and attach to the chromosomes during the metaphase stage of cell division. Contraction of the spindle fibers pulls the chromosomes to opposite poles of the cell. spinous process (spinus) A sharp projection of bone or a ridge of bone, such as on the scapula. spiral organ The functional unit of hearing, consisting of a basilar membrane supporting receptor hair cells and a tectorial membrane within the endolymph of the cochlear duct; also known as the organ of Corti. spironolactones (spiruo-no-lakt=onz) Diuretic drugs that act as an aldosterone antagonist. spleen (spl=en) A large, blood-filled, glandular organ located in the upper left quadrant of the abdomen and attached by mesenteries to the stomach. spongy bone Bone tissue with a latticelike structure; also called cancellous bone. squamous (skwamus) Flat or scalelike. stapes (stap=ez) The innermost of the auditory ossicles that fits against the oval window of the inner ear; also called the stirrup. steroid (steroid) A lipid, derived from cholesterol, that has three 6-sided carbon rings and one 5-sided carbon ring. These form the steroid hormones of the adrenal cortex and gonads.

stomach A pouchlike digestive organ located between the esophagus and the duodenum. stratified (stratu1-f=1d) Arranged in layers, or strata. stratum basale (stratum bua-suale) The deepest epidermal layer, where mitotic activity occurs. stratum corneum (korne-um) The outer, cornified layer of the epidermis of the skin. stroke volume The amount of blood ejected from each ventricle at each heartbeat. stroma (stromua) A connective tissue framework in an organ, gland, or other tissue. subarachnoid space (subua-raknoid) The space within the meninges between the arachnoid mater and pia mater, where cerebrospinal fluid flows. sublingual gland (sub-linggwal) One of the three pairs of salivary glands. It is located below the tongue and its duct opens to the side of the lingual frenulum. submandibular gland (subman-dibyuu-lar) One of the three pairs of salivary glands. It is located below the mandible and its duct opens to the side of the lingual frenulum. submucosa (submyoo-kosa) A layer of supportive connective tissue that underlies a mucous membrane. submucosal plexus (submyoo-k=osal pleksus) A network of sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers located in the submucosa tunic of the small intestine; also called the plexus of Meissner. substrate (substr=at) In enzymatic reactions, the molecules that combine with the amino acids lining the active sites of an enzyme and are converted to products by catalysis of the enzyme. sulcus (sulkus) A shallow impression or groove. superficial (sooper-fishal) Toward or near the surface. superficial fascia (fashe-ua) A binding layer of connective tissue between the dermis of the skin and the underlying muscle. superior Toward the upper part of a structure or toward the head; also called cephalic.

superior vena cava A large systemic vein that collects blood from regions of the body superior to the heart and returns it to the right atrium. supination (soopu1-nashun) Rotation of the arm so that the palm is directed forward or anteriorly; the opposite of pronation. suppressor T cell A subpopulation of T lymphocytes that acts to inhibit the production of antibodies against specific antigens by B lymphocytes. surface anatomy The division of anatomy concerned with the structures that can be identified from the outside of the body. surfactant (sur-faktant) A substance produced by the lungs that decreases the surface tension within the alveoli. suspensory ligament (suu-spensuo-re) 1.A portion of the peritoneum that extends laterally from the surface of the ovary to the wall of the pelvic cavity. 877 2.A ligament that supports an organ or body part, such as that supporting the lens of the eye. sustentacular cells (sus-ten-takyuu-lar) Specialized cells within the testes that supply nutrients to developing spermatozoa; also called Sertoli cells or nurse cells. sutural bone (soochur-al) A small bone positioned within a suture of certain cranial bones; also called a wormian bone. suture (soochur) A type of fibrous joint found between bones of the skull. sweat gland A skin gland that secretes a fluid substance for evaporative cooling. sympathetic (simpua-thetik) Pertaining to the division of the autonomic nervous system concerned with activities that, in general, arouse the body for physical activity; also called the thoracolumbar division. symphysis (simfu1-sis) A type of cartilaginous joint characterized by a fibrocartilaginous pad between the articulating bones, which provides slight movement. symphysis pubis (pyoobis) A slightly movable joint located anteriorly between the two pubic bones of the pelvic girdle. synapse (sinaps) A minute space between the axon terminal of a presynaptic neuron and a dendrite of a postsynaptic neuron.

synarthrosis (sinar-throsis) A fibrous joint, such as a syndesmosis or a suture. synchondrosis (sinkon-drosis) A cartilaginous joint in which the articulating bones are separated by hyaline cartilage. syndesmosis (sindes-mosis) A type of fibrous joint in which two bones are united by an interosseous ligament. synergist (siner-jist) A muscle that assists the action of the prime mover. synergistic (siner-jistik) Pertaining to regulatory processes or molecules (such as hormones) that have complementary or additive effects. synovial cavity (su1-nove-al) A space between the two bones of a synovial joint, filled with synovial fluid. synovial joint A freely movable joint in which there is a synovial cavity between the articulating bones; also called a diarthrotic joint. synovial membrane The inner membrane of a synovial capsule that secretes synovial fluid into the joint cavity. system A group of body organs that function together. systemic (sis-temik) Relating to the entire organism rather than to individual parts. systemic anatomy The division of anatomy concerned with the structure and function of the various systems. systemic circulation The portion of the circulatory system concerned with blood flow from the left ventricle of the heart to the entire body and back to the heart via the right atrium (in contrast to the pulmonary system, which involves the lungs). systole (sistuo-le) The muscular contraction of a heart chamber during the cardiac cycle. systolic pressure (sis-tolik) Arterial blood pressure during the ventricular systolic phase of the cardiac cycle. tachycardia (taku1-karde-ua) An excessively rapid heart rate, usually in excess of 100 beats per minute (in contrast to bradycardia, in which the heart rate is very slow). tactile (taktil) Pertaining to the sense of touch.

taeniae coli (tene-e koli) The three longitudinal bands of muscle in the wall of the large intestine. target organ The specific body organ that a particular hormone affects. tarsal gland An oil-secreting gland that opens on the exposed edge of each eyelid; also called a meibomian gland. tarsus (tarsus) The region of the foot containing the seven tarsal bones. taste bud An organ containing the chemocreceptors associated with the sense of taste. T cell A type of lymphocyte that provides cell-mediated immunity (in contrast to B lymphocytes, which provide humoral immunity through the secretion of antibodies). There are three subpopulations of T cells: cytotoxic, helper, and suppressor. tectorial membrane (tek-tore-al) A gelatinous membrane positioned over the hair cells of the spiral organ in the cochlea. telencephalon (telen-sefua-lon) The anterior portion of the forebrain, constituting the cerebral hemispheres and related parts. tendo calcaneous (tendo kal-kane-us) The tendon that attaches the calf muscles to the calcaneous bone; also called the Achilles tendon. tendon (tendun) A band of dense regular connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone. tendon sheath A covering of synovial membrane surrounding certain tendons. tentorium cerebelli (ten-tore-um serue-bele) An extension of dura mater that forms a partition between the cerebral hemispheres and the cerebellum and covers the cerebellum. teratogen (tue-ratuo-jen) Any agent or factor that causes a physical defect in a developing embryo or fetus. testis (testis) The primary reproductive organ of a male that produces spermatozoa and male sex hormones. testosterone (tes-tostue-r=on) The major androgenic steroid secreted by the interstitial cells of the testes after puberty.

tetanus (tetn-us) A smooth contraction of a muscle (as opposed to muscle twitching). thalamus (thalua-mus) An oval mass of gray matter within the diencephalon that serves as a sensory relay center. thalassemia (thalua-seme-ua) Any of a group of hemolytic anemias caused by the hereditary inability to produce either the alpha or beta chain of hemoglobin. It is found primarily among Mediterranean people. thigh The proximal portion of the lower extremity between the hip and the knee in which the femur is located. third ventricle (ventr1u-k'l) A narrow cavity between the right and left halves of the thalamus and between the lateral ventricles that contains cerebrospinal fluid. thoracic (tho-rasik) Pertaining to the chest region. thoracic duct The major lymphatic vessel of the body that drains lymph from the entire body, except for the upper right quadrant, and returns it to the left subclavian vein. thorax (thoraks) The chest. threshold stimulus The weakest stimulus capable of producing an action potential in an excitable cell. thrombocyte (thrombuo-s=1t) A blood platelet formed from a fragmented megakaryocyte. thrombus (thrombus) A blood clot produced by the formation of fibrin threads around a platelet plug. thymus (thimus) A bilobed lymphoid organ positioned in the upper mediastinum, posterior to the sternum and between the lungs. thyroid cartilage (thiroid kartu1-lij) The largest cartilage in the larynx that supports and protects the vocal cords; commonly called the Adam's apple. thyroxine (thi-roksin) Also called tetraiodothyronine, or T4. The major hormone secreted by the thyroid gland, which regulates the basal metabolic rate and stimulates protein synthesis in many organs. A deficiency of this hormone in early childhood produces cretinism. tinnitus (tu1-nitus) The spontaneous sensation of a ringing sound or other noise without sound stimuli.

tissue An aggregation of similar cells and their binding intercellular substance, joined to perform a specific function. tongue A protrusible muscular organ on the floor of the oral cavity. tonsil (tonsil) A node of lymphoid tissue located in the mucous membrane of the pharynx. toxin (toksin) A poison. trabeculae (trua-bekyuu-le) A supporting framework of fibers crossing the substance of a structure, as in the lamellae of spongy bone. trachea (trake-ua) The airway leading from the larynx to the bronchi, composed of cartilaginous rings and a ciliated mucosal lining of the lumen; commonly called the windpipe. tract A bundle of nerve fibers within the central nervous system. transamination (transam-u1-nashun) The transfer of an amino group from an amino acid to an alpha-keto acid, forming a new keto acid and a new amino acid without the appearance of free ammonia. transpulmonary pressure (transpulmuo-nere) The pressure difference across the wall of the lung, equal to the difference between intrapulmonary pressure and intrapleural pressure. transverse colon (trans-vers kolon) A portion of the large intestine that extends from right to left across the abdomen between the hepatic and splenic flexures. transverse fissure (fishur) The prominent cleft that horizontally separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum. transverse plane A plane that divides the body into superior and inferior portions; also called a horizontal, or cross-sectional, plane. tricuspid valve (tri-kuspid) The heart valve located between the right atrium and the right ventricle. trigone (trig=on) A triangular area in the urinary bladder between the openings of the ureters and the urethra. triiodothyronine (trii-odo-thiruo-n=en) Abbreviated T3; a hormone secreted in small amounts by the thyroid; the active hormone in target cells, formed from thyroxine.

trochanter (tro-kanter) A broad, prominent process on the proximolateral portion of the femur. trochlea (trokle-ua) A pulleylike anatomical structure (e.g., the medial surface of the distal end of the humerus that articulates with the ulna). tropomyosin (tropuo-miuo-sin) A filamentous protein that attaches to actin in the thin myofilaments and that acts, together with another protein called troponin, to inhibit and regulate the attachment of myosin cross bridges to actin. true vocal cords Folds of the mucous membrane in the larynx that produce sound as they are pulled taut and vibrated. trunk The thorax and abdomen together. trypsin (tripsin) A protein-digesting enzyme in pancreatic juice that is released into the small intestine. tubercle (toober-k'l) A small, elevated process on a bone. tuberosity (toobu1-rosu1-te) An elevation or protuberance on a bone. tunica albuginea (toonu1-kua albyoo-jine-ua) A tough, fibrous tissue surrounding the testis. tympanic membrane (tim-panik) The membranous eardrum positioned between the external and middle ear. umbilical cord (um-bu1lu1-kal) A cordlike structure containing the umbilical arteries and vein and connecting the fetus with the placenta. umbilicus (um-bu1-lu1-kus) The site where the umbilical cord was attached to the fetus; commonly called the navel. unipolar neuron (yoonu1-po-lar nooron) A nerve cell that has a single nerve fiber extending from its cell body. universal donor A person with blood type O who is able to donate blood to people with other blood types in emergency blood transfusions. universal recipient A person with blood type AB who can receive blood of any type in emergency transfusions. upper extremity The appendage attached to the pectoral girdle, consisting of the shoulder, brachium, elbow, antebrachium, and hand.

urea (yoo-reua) The chief nitrogenous waste product of protein catabolism in the urine, formed in the liver from amino acids. uremia (yoo-reme-ua) The retention of urea and other products of protein catabolism as a result of inadequate kidney function. ureter (yoo-reter) A tube that transports urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder. urethra (yoo-rethrua) A tube that transports urine from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body. urinary bladder (yooru1-nere) A distensible sac that stores urine, situated in the pelvic cavity posterior to the symphysis pubis. urobilinogen (yooruo-bi-linuo-jen) A compound formed from bilirubin in the small intestine; some is excreted in the feces, and some is absorbed and enters the enterohepatic circulation, where it may be excreted either in the bile or in the urine. uterine tube (yooter-in) The tube through which the ovum is transported to the uterus and the site of fertilization; also called the oviduct or fallopian tube. uterus (yooter-us) A hollow, muscular organ in which a fetus develops. It is located within the female pelvis between the urinary bladder and the rectum; commonly called the womb. utricle (yootru1-k'l) An enlarged portion of the membranous labyrinth, located within the vestibule of the inner ear. uvula (yoovyuu-lua) A fleshy, pendulous portion of the soft palate that blocks the nasopharynx during swallowing. vacuole (vak-yoo=ol) A small space or cavity within the cytoplasm of a cell. vagina (vua-jinua) A tubular organ leading from the uterus to the vestibule of the female reproductive tract that receives the male penis during coitus. vallate papillae (val=at pua-pile) The largest papillae on the surface of the tongue. They are arranged in an inverted V-shaped pattern at the posterior portion of the tongue. vasectomy (vua-sektuo-me, va-zektuo-me) Surgical removal of portions of the ductus deferentia to induce infertility.

vasoconstriction (vazo-kon-strikshun) Narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels due to contraction of the smooth muscles in their walls. vasodilation (vazo-di-lashun) Widening of the lumen of blood vessels due to relaxation of the smooth muscles in their walls. vasomotor center (vazo-motor) A cluster of nerve cell bodies in the medulla oblongata that controls the diameter of blood vessels. It is therefore important in regulating blood pressure. vein (v=an) A blood vessel that conveys blood toward the heart. vena cava (venau kavua) One of two large vessels that return deoxygenated blood to the right atrium of the heart. ventilation (ventu1-lashun) Breathing; the process of moving air into and out of the lungs. ventral (ventral) Toward the front or facing surface; the opposite of dorsal; also called inferior. ventricle (ventru1-k'l) A cavity within an organ; especially those cavities in the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid and those in the heart that contain blood to be pumped from the heart. venule (venyool) A small vessel that carries venous blood from capillaries to a vein. vermis (vermis) The coiled middle lobular structure that separates the two cerebellar hemispheres. vertebral canal (vertue-bral) The tubelike cavity extending through the vertebral column that contains the spinal cord; also called the spinal canal. vertigo (vertu1-go) A feeling of movement or loss of equilibrium. vestibular window See oval window. vestibule (vestu1-byool) A space or cavity at the entrance to a canal, especially that of the nose, inner ear, or vagina. villus (vilus) A minute projection that extends outward into the lumen from the mucosal layer of the small intestine. virulent (viryuu-lent) Pathogenic; able to cause disease.

viscera (viser-a) The organs within the abdominal or thoracic cavities. visceral (viser-al) Pertaining to the membranous covering of the viscera. visceral peritoneum (peru1-tuo-neum) A serous membrane that covers the surfaces of abdominal viscera. visceral pleura (ploorua) A serous membrane that covers the surfaces of the lungs. visceroceptor (viser-uo-septor) A sensory receptor located within body organs that responds to information concerning the internal environment. vitreous humor (vitre-us hyoomer) The transparent gel that occupies the space between the lens and retina of the eyeball. Volkmann's canal (f=olkmanz) See perforating canal. vulva (vulvua) The external genitalia of the female that surround the opening of the vagina. white matter Bundles of myelinated axons located in the central nervous system. wormian bone (werme-an) See sutural bone. yellow marrow (maro) Specialized lipid storage tissue within bone cavities. zygote (zig=ot) A fertilized egg cell formed by the union of a sperm cell and an ovum. zymogens (zimuo-jenz) Inactive enzymes that become active when part of their structure is removed by the action of another enzyme or by some other means. Prefixes and Suffixes Element aababdomin -able acacouadafalb-algia Definition and Example absent, deficient, lack of: atrophy off, away from: abduct relating to the abdomen: abdominal capable of: viable toward, to: actin hear: acoustic toward, to: adduct movement toward a central point: afferent artery white: corpus albicans pain: neuralgia

ambiangianteantiaquearcharthr-asis audautobibioblastbrachibrachybradybucccaccalccapitcarcincardicatacaudcephalcerebrocholchondrchrom-cide circumcocoel -coele concontracorn corpcryptcyancystcytodedermdidipldisductdurdyseecElement aababdomin

both: ambidextrous pertaining to the vessels: angiology before, in front of: antebrachium against: anticoagulant water: aqueous beginning, origin: archenteron joint: arthritis condition or state of: homeostasis hearing, sound: auditory self: autolysis two: bipedal life: biopsy generative or germ bud: blastocyst arm: brachialis short: brachydont slow: bradycardia cheek: buccal cavity bad, ill: cachexia stone: calculus head: capitis cancer: carcinogenic heart: cardiac lower, under, against: catabolism tail: cauda equina head: cephalic brain: cerebrospinal fluid bile: cholic cartilage: chondrocyte color: chromocyte destroy: germicide around: circumduct together: copulation - hollow cavity: coelom swelling, an enlarged space or cavity: blastocoele with, together: congenital against, opposite: contraception - denoting hardness: cornified body: corpus hidden: cryptorchidism blue: cyanosis sac or bladder: cystoscope cell: cytology down, from: descent skin: dermatology two: diarthrotic double: diploid apart, away from: disarticulate lead, conduct: ductus deferens hard: dura mater bad, difficult, painful: dysentery out, from: eccrine outside, outer, external: ectoderm Definition and Example absent, deficient, lack of: atrophy off, away from: abduct relating to the abdomen: abdominal

-able acacouadafalb-algia ambiangianteantiaquearcharthr-asis audautobibioblastbrachibrachybradybucccaccalccapitcarcincardicatacaudcephalcerebrocholchondrchrom-cide circumcocoel-coele concontracorncorpcryptcyancystcytodedermdidipldisductdur-

capable of: viable toward, to: actin hear: acoustic toward, to: adduct movement toward a central point: afferent artery white: corpus albicans pain: neuralgia both: ambidextrous pertaining to the vessels: angiology before, in front of: antebrachium against: anticoagulant water: aqueous beginning, origin: archenteron joint: arthritis condition or state of: homeostasis hearing, sound: auditory self: autolysis two: bipedal life: biopsy generative or germ bud: blastocyst arm: brachialis short: brachydont slow: bradycardia cheek: buccal cavity bad, ill: cachexia stone: calculus head: capitis cancer: carcinogenic heart: cardiac lower, under, against: catabolism tail: cauda equina head: cephalic brain: cerebrospinal fluid bile: cholic cartilage: chondrocyte color: chromocyte destroy: germicide around: circumduct together: copulation hollow cavity: coelom swelling, an enlarged space or cavity: blastocoele with, together: congenital against, opposite: contraception denoting hardness: cornified body: corpus hidden: cryptorchidism blue: cyanosis sac or bladder: cystoscope cell: cytology down, from: descent skin: dermatology two: diarthrotic double: diploid apart, away from: disarticulate lead, conduct: ductus deferens hard: dura mater

dyseecElement proctpseudopsychopyoquadrerectrenreteretrorhin-rrhagia -rrhea sanguinsarc-scope -sect semi-sis steno-stomy subsupersuprasyn- (sym-) tachyteletenstetrathermthoracthrombo-tomy toxtracttranstritrich-trophy -tropic ultrauni-uria urovasviscervitzoozygo-

bad, difficult, painful: dysentery out, from: eccrine outside, outer, external: ectoderm Definition and Example anus: proctology false: pseudostratified mental: psychology pus: pyorrhea fourfold: quadriceps femoris back, again: repolarization straight: rectus abdominis kidney: renal network: rete testis backward, behind: retroperitoneal nose: rhinitis excessive flow: menorrhagia flow or discharge: diarrhea blood: sanguineous flesh: sarcoma instrument for examining a part: stethoscope cut: dissect half: semilunar process or action: dialysis narrow: stenosis surgical opening: tracheostomy under, beneath, below: subcutaneous above, beyond, upper: superficial above, over: suprarenal together, joined, with: synapse swift, rapid: tachycardia far: telencephalon stretch: tensor tympani four: tetrad heat: thermogram chest: thoracic cavity lump, clot: thrombocyte cut: appendectomy poison: toxemia draw, drag: traction across, over: transfuse three: trigone hair: trichology a state relating to nutrition: hypertrophy turning toward, changing: gonadotropic beyond, excess: ultrasonic one: unicellular urine: polyuria urine, urinary organs or tract: uroscope vessel: vasoconstriction organ: visceral life: vitamin animal: zoology union, join: zygote

aa a.c. A/G ANS Bib. bid bihor B.M.R. bp BUN b.v. =c caps. c.b.c. cc. cm. CNS Co., Comp. cr CFS CT CVP CXR d. D&C D.C. D, Det. de d. in d. Dieb. secund Dieb. tert. dim. d. in dup. D. in p. aeq. dr. D.T.D. Dur. dolor. Dx e ECG, EKG EEG e.m.p. feb GI gm. gr. Grad. gtt. h. Hct Hg. Hgb hs Hx ibid. IM incid. in d. inj.

of each before meals albumin globulin ratio autonomic nervous system drink twice a day during two hours basal metabolic rate blood pressure blood urea nitrogen vapor bath with capsule complete blood count cubic centimeter(s) centimeter(s) central nervous system compound tomorrow cerebrospinal fluid computed tomography central venous pressure chest x-ray a day dilatation and curettage discontinue give from day to day every second day every third day one-half give twice as much divide into equal parts dram give of such doses while pain lasts diagnosis out of, with electrocardiogram electroencephalogram in the manner prescribed fever gastrointestinal gram grain gradually drop(s) hour hematocrit mercury hemoglobin at bedtime history in the same place intramuscular cut in a day an injection

int. cib. int. noct. IV kg. Lat. dol. M. man. mEq. mg. ml. MRI Noct. Noct. maneq. N.P.O. O.D. o.d. Omn. hor. Omn. man. Omn. noct. O.S. O.U. oz. P Part. aeq. pc pCO2 PNS PO pO2 p.p.a. p.r.n. pro. us. ext. pt pt. q. qd qh q. h. qhs qid qod q.q. q.s. RBC =s Semih. Sig. S.O.S. sp. gr. ss., -ss s.s.s. stat. sum. s.v.r. t. tab. tid ung.

between meals during the night intravenous kilogram to the painful side mix in the morning milliequivalent milligram milliliter magnetic resonance imaging at night night and morning nothing by mouth right eye every day every hour every morning every night left eye both eyes ounce pulse equal parts after meals partial pressure of carbon dioxide peripheral nervous system by mouth partial pressure of oxygen having first shaken the bottle as needed for external use patient let it be continued each; every every day every hour every hours every evening four times a day every other day also sufficient quantity red blood cell without half an hour write, label if needed specific gravity one-half layer on layer immediately take alcohol three times tablet three times a day ointment

Ut. dict. vic. WBC

as directed times white blood cell

Glossary Arthritis
ankylosing spondylitis - a disease that affects the spine, causing the bones of the spine to grow together. arthritis - inflammation of a joint, usually accompanied by pain, swelling, and sometimes change in structure. arthrogram - an x-ray to view bone structures following an injection of a contrast fluid into a joint area. When the fluid leaks into an area that it does not belong, disease or injury may be considered, as a leak would provide evidence of a tear, opening, or blockage. arthroscopy - a minimally-invasive diagnostic and treatment procedure used for conditions of a joint. This procedure uses a small, lighted, optic tube (arthroscope) which is inserted into the joint through a small incision in the joint. Images of the inside of the joint are projected onto a screen; used to evaluate any degenerative and/or arthritic changes in the joint; to detect bone diseases and tumors; to determine the cause of bone pain and inflammation. bursa - a sac filled with fluid located between a bone and a tendon or muscle. bursitis - repeated small stresses and overuse that cause the bursa to swell and become irritated. carpal tunnel syndrome - a condition in which the median nerve is compressed as it passes through the carpal tunnel in the wrist, a narrow confined space. Since the median nerve provides sensory and motor functions to the thumb and three middle fingers, many symptoms may result. cartilage - a smooth material that covers bone ends of a joint to cushion the bone and allow the joint to move easily without pain. computed tomography scan (Also called a CT or CAT scan.) - a diagnostic imaging procedure that uses a combination of x-rays and computer technology to produce cross-sectional images (often called slices), both horizontally and vertically, of the body. A CT scan shows detailed images of any part of the body, including the bones, muscles, fat, and organs. CT scans are more detailed than general x-rays.

congenital- present at birth. electromyogram (EMG) - a test to evaluate nerve and muscle function. erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) - a measurement of how quickly red blood cells fall to the bottom of a test tube. When swelling and inflammation are present, the blood's proteins clump together and become heavier than normal. Thus, when measured, they fall and settle faster at the bottom of the test tube. Generally, the faster the blood cells fall, the more severe the inflammation. fibromyalgia (Also called fibrositis.) - a chronic, widespread pain in muscles and soft tissues surrounding the joints throughout the body. gout - a result of a defect in body chemistry (such as uric acid in the joint fluid), this painful condition most often attacks small joints, especially the big toe. It can usually be controlled with medication and changes in diet. infectious arthritis - an infection in the joint fluid and tissues. inflammation - a normal reaction to injury or disease, which results in swelling, pain, and stiffness. joint - where the ends of two or more bones meet. juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (JRA) - a form of arthritis in children ages 16 or younger that causes inflammation and stiffness of joints for more than six weeks. Unlike adult rheumatoid arthritis, which is chronic and lasts a lifetime, children often outgrow juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. However, the disease can affect bone development in the growing child. lateral epicondylitis (Also known as tennis elbow.) - pain is caused by damage to the tendons that bend the wrist backward away from the palm. ligaments - a white, shiny, flexible band of fibrous tissue that binds joints together and connects various bones and cartilage. magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - a diagnostic procedure that uses a combination of large magnets, radiofrequencies, and a computer to produce detailed images of organs and structures within the body. medial epicondylitis (Also known as golfer's elbow, baseball elbow, suitcase elbow, or forehand tennis

elbow.) - pain caused by damage to the tendons that bend the wrist toward the palm. musculoskeletal system - the complex system involving the body's muscles and skeleton, and including the joints, ligaments, tendons, and nerves. myelogram - involves the injection of a dye or contrast material into the spinal canal; a specific x-ray study that also allows careful evaluation of the spinal canal and nerve roots. nodule - bump. orthopaedic surgeon (Also called an orthopaedist.) - a physician who diagnoses, treats, manages the rehabilitation process, and provides prevention protocols for patients who suffer from injury or disease in any of the components of the musculoskeletal system. orthopaedic surgery (Also called orthopaedics.) - the medical specialty devoted to the diagnosis, treatment, rehabilitation, and prevention of injuries and diseases of the body's musculoskeletal system. osteoarthritis - a condition caused by wear and tear that causes inflammation of the joint, causing swelling, pain, and stiffness. osteoporosis - a condition that develops when bone is no longer replaced as quickly as it is removed. overuse conditions - injuries due to minor trauma involving soft-tissue injuries - injuries that affect the bone, muscles, ligaments, and/or tendons. pauciarticular - a form of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis that affects four or less joints. pericarditis - inflamed sac around the heart. pleurisy - inflamed membranes around the lungs. polyarticular - a form of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis that affects five or more joints. psoriatic arthritis - a form of arthritis associated with psoriasis, a skin and nail disease. purines - components of certain foods that metabolize into uric acid in the body. radionuclide bone scan - a nuclear imaging technique that uses a very small amount of radioactive material, which is

injected into the patient's bloodstream to be detected by a scanner. This test shows blood flow to the bone and cell activity within the bone. reactive arthritis (Also called Reiter's syndrome.) - a type of arthritis that occurs as a reaction to an infection. rheumatoid arthritis - an inflammatory disease that involves the lining of the joint (synovium). The inflammation often affects the joints of the hands and the feet and tends to occur equally on both sides of the body. scleroderma - a very serious disease of the body's connective tissue that causes thickening and hardening of the skin. soft tissues - the ligaments, tendons, and muscles in the musculoskeletal system. spondylitis - inflammation of the spine. synovial fluid - a clear, sticky fluid that is released by the synovial membrane and acts as a lubricant for joints and tendons. synovial membrane - a tissue that lines and seals the joint. systemic juvenile rheumatoid arthritis - a form of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis that affects joints and sometimes internal organs. systemic lupus erythematosus (lupus) - a very serious, chronic, autoimmune disorder characterized by periodic episodes of inflammation of and damage to the joints, tendons, other connective tissues, and organs, including the heart, lungs, blood vessels, brain, kidneys, and skin. tendon - the tough cords of tissue that connect muscles to bones. tendonitis - an inflammation in a tendon or the tendon covering.

surface called the uncus. This is a component of the limbic system. Autonomic nervous system- part of the peripheral nervous system that supplies neural connection to glands and smooth muscles of internal organs; made of two divisions (sympathetic and parasympathetic) and sometimes is considered to have a third division called the enteric system Axon- extension from the cell that carries nerve impulses from the cell body to other neurons Basal ganglia- group of structures which coordinate movement; located in the forebrain (telencephalon) Brain- a multi-layered structure containing billions of neurons and countless numbers of neuronal connections, thousands of specialized regions Brainstem- also known as the hindbrain; region of the brain that consists of the midbrain (tectum, tegmentum), ponds, and medulla; responsible for functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure Cell Body- region of the neuron defined by the presence of a nucleus Central nervous system (CNS)- portion of the nervous system that includes the brain and the spinal cord Central sulcus- the major groove which divides the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe Cerebellum- structure located in the back of the brain (dorsal to the pons) involved in central regulation of movement, such as basic movement, balance, and posture; comes from the latin word meaning "little brain"; is divided into two hemispheres and has a cortex Cerebral cortex- the outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres consisting mostly of nerve cell bodies and branches; involved in functions such as thought, voluntary movement, language, reasoning, and perception; the right and left sides of the cerebral cortex are connected by a thick band of nerve fibers (corpus callosum); highly grooved or "gyrencephalic" in mammals Cerebral hemispheres- right and left halves of the forebrain Corpus callosum- the large bundle of axons which connect the two cerebral hemispheres. It disseminates information

NERVOUS SYSTEM GLOSSARY

Amygdala- part of the telencephalon, located in the temporal lobe. It is involved in memory, emotion, and fear, essentially acting as the brain's warning center. The fightor-flight response originates with the amygdala. The amygdala is just beneath the surface of the front, medial part of the temporal lobe where it causes the bulge on the

from the cerebral cortex on one side of the brain to the same region on the other side . Dendrite- one of the extensions of the cell body that are reception surfaces of the neuron Diencephalon- part of the midbrain; consists of the thalamus and hypothalamus Dorsal- anatomical term referring to structures toward the back of the body or top of the brain Encephalization factor- a measure of brain size relative to body size Forebrain- the frontal division of the brain which contains cerebral hemispheres, the thalamus, and the hypothalamus Frontal lobe- the most anterior portion of the cerebral cortex (in front of the central sulcus); it is involved in reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem-solving Glial cells- nonneuronal brain cells that provide structural, nutritional, and other supports to the brain Gray matter- areas of the brain that are dominated by cell bodies and have no myelin covering (in contrast to white matter) Gyrencephalic- when the cerebral cortex is highly folded and convuluted (due to gyri and sulci) Gyrus- raised portion of convuluted brain surface Hindbrain- the rear division of the brain, includes the cerebellum, ponds, and medulla (also called the rhombencephalon) Hippocampus- the portion of the cerebral hemisphers in basal medial part of the temporal lobe. This part of the brain is important for learning and memory . . . for converting short term memory to more permanent memory, and for recalling spatial relationships in the world about us Hypothalamus- part of the diencephalon, ventral to the thalamus. The structure is involved in functions including homeostasis, emotion, thirst, hunger, circadian rhythms, and control of the autonomic nervous system. In addition, it controls the pituitary.

Lateral- anatomical term meaning toward the side (versus medial) Limbic system- a group of structures including the amygdala and hippocampus (and others); important for controlling emotions and memory Lissencephalic- when the telencephalic hemispheres (i.e. cerebral cortex) are relatively smooth (as opposed to "gyrencephalic" when the cortex is highly folded); for example, the difference is apparent when comparing a human brain with a squirrel brain Medulla Oblongata/ Myelencephalon- this structure is the caudal-most part of the brain stem, between the pons and spinal cord. It is responsible for maintaining vital body functions, such as breathing and heartrate. See overall NS organization. Metencephalon- subdivision of the hindbrain, which includes the cerebellum and pons Midbrain/ Mesencephalon- middle division of the brain, which includes the tectum and tegmentum; involved in functions such as vision, hearing, eye movement, and body movement Motor cortex- a region of the cerebral cortex that sends impulses to motor neurons; involved in coordination of movement; found in the frontal lobe MRI- magnetic resonance imaging; noninvasive technique that uses magnetic energy to generate images that reveal some of the structural details in the living brain Myelencephalon- caudal part of the hindbrain, includes the medulla oblongata Myelin- fatty insulation around an axon which improves the speed of conduction of nerve impulses Neocortex- recently evolved six-layered portions of the cerebral cortex (found in mammals); sometimes referred to as the "isocortex"; the neocortex occupies the bulk of the cerebral hemispheres Nervous System- extends throughout the entire body and connects every organ to the brain; can be divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS); the basic building blocks of the nervous system are nerve cells or neurons

Neural connectivity-estimated from length of dendritic trees of cortical neurons Neuroanatomy- the structure of the nervous system Neuron- the basic building block of the brain; these cells receive input from other nerve cells and distribute information to other neurons; the information integration underlies the simplest and most complex of our thoughts and behaviors Neuroscience- the science of the nervous system Neurotransmitter- chemical substance which is released by the presynaptic neuron at synapses that transmits information to the next neuron Occipital lobe- the posterior lobe of the brain; involved with vision (the "occipital cortex" is also referred to as the "visual cortex") Olfactory bulb- structure at the rostral end of the telencephalon that is involved in smell Parasympathetic nervous system- one of the two systems that makes up the autonomic nervous system; a parasympathetic response constricts pupils, stimulates salivation, constricts airways, slows the heartbeat, stimulates digestion, etc Parietal lobe- located behind the frontal cortex (and central sulcus); involved in perception of stimuli related to touch, pressure, temperature, and pain Peripheral nervous system (PNS)- portion of the nervous system that incluces all the nerves and neurons OUTSIDE the brain and spinal cord Pituitary gland- small gland which secretes hormones located at the base of the skull Pons- part of the metencephalon in the hindbrain. It is involved in motor control and sensory analysis... for example, information from the ear first enters the brain in the pons. It has parts that are important for the level of consciousness and for sleep. Some structures within the pons are linked to the cerebellum, thus are involved in movement and posture. Prefrontal cortex- the most anterior region of the frontal cortex; involved in problem solving, emotion, and complex thought

Presynaptic- the region of a synapse that releases the neurotransmitter (in contrast to postsynaptic) Primary motor cortex- region for initiation of voluntary movement Primary somatosensory cortex- region which receives tactile information from the body Primary visual cortex- the regin of the occipital cortex where most visual information first arrives Prosencephalon- the forebrain; lies rostral to the midbrain (mesencephalon); consists of the telencephalon (cerebral cortex & hippocampus) and diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus) Putamen- another component of the limbic system. This part is responsible for familiar motor skills. Rhombencephalon- the hindbrain; lies caudal to the midbrain (mesencephalon); made of the metencephalon and myelencephalon Sagittal- the plane that bisects the body or brain into right and left halves Sulcus- a furrow of convuluted brain surface (opposite of gyrus) Sympathetic nervous system- one of the two systems that compose the autonomic nervous system; a sympathetic response dilates pupils, inhibits salivation, relaxes airways, accelerates the heartbeat, inhibits digestion, etc. Synapse- the area between one neuron and the next, through which neurotransmitters are passed which transmit neural messages Tectum- the dorsal portion of the midbrain (mesencephalon) Tegmentum- ventral part of the midbrain (mesencephalon) Telencephalon- the frontal subdivision of the forebrain, includes the cerebral hemispheres and the hippocampus, basal ganglia, and amygdala Temporal lobe- located below the frontal and parietal lobes; involved in perception and recognition of auditory stimuli and memory

Thalamus- a large mass of gray matter deeply situated in the forebrain at the topmost portion of the diencephalon. The structure has sensory and motor functions. Almost all sensory information enters this structure where neurons send that information to the overlying cortex. Axons from every sensory system (except olfaction) synapse here as the last relay site before the information reaches the cerebral cortex. Visual cortex- located in the occipital lobe; involved in detection of simple visual stimuli White matterA general term referring to large axon tracts in the brain and spinal cord. Axons entering the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, the cerebellum and the hippocampus, as well as those leaving it, form white matter. A large portion of the subcortical tissue of the hemispheres is made up of white matter.

Amiodarone (Cordarone, Pacerone) - A kind of medicine (called an antiarrhythmic) used to treat irregular heart rhythms such as atrial fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia. It works by regulating nerve impulses in your heart. Amiodarone is mainly given to patients who have not responded to other antiarrhythmic medicines.

Aneurysm - A sac-like protrusion from a blood vessel or the heart, resulting from a weakening of the vessel wall or heart muscle.

Angina or angina pectoris - Chest pain that occurs when diseased blood vessels restrict blood flow to the heart.

Cardiovascular Glossary
Abdomen - The area of the body between the bottom of the ribs and the top of the thighs.

Angiography - An x-ray technique where dye is injected into the chambers of your heart or the arteries that lead to your heart (the coronary arteries). The test lets doctors measure the blood flow and blood pressure in the heart chambers and see if the coronary arteries are blocked.

Abdominal aorta - The portion of the aorta in the abdomen.

Angioplasty - A nonsurgical technique for treating diseased arteries by temporarily inflating a tiny balloon inside an artery.

Ablation - Elimination or removal.

ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) inhibitor - A medicine that lowers blood pressure by interfering with the breakdown of a protein-like substance involved in blood pressure regulation.

Angiotensin II receptor blocker - A medicine that lowers blood pressure by blocking the action of angiotensin II, a chemical in the body that causes the blood vessels to tighten (constrict).

Annulus - The ring around a heart valve where the valve leaflet merges with the heart muscle.

Acetylcholine - A type of chemical (called a neurotransmitter) that transmits messages among nerve cells and muscle cells.

Antiarrhythmics - Medicines used to treat patients who have irregular heart rhythms.

Alveoli - Air sacs in the lungs where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged.

Anticoagulant - Any medicine that keeps blood from clotting; a blood thinner.

Artery - A vessel that carries oxygen-rich blood to the body.

Antihypertensive - Any medicine or other therapy that lowers blood pressure. Antiplatelet therapy - Medicines that stop blood cells (called platelets) from sticking together and forming a blood clot. Aorta - The largest artery in the body and the initial vessel to supply blood from the heart.

Arteritis - Inflammation of the arteries.

Arteriosclerosis - A disease process, commonly called "hardening of the arteries", which includes a variety of conditions that cause artery walls to thicken and lose elasticity.

Aortic valve - The valve that regulates blood flow from the heart into the aorta.

Ascending aorta - The first portion of the aorta, emerging from the heart's left ventricle.

Aphasia - The inability to speak, write, or understand spoken or written language because of brain injury or disease.

Aspirin - Acetylsalicylic acid; a medicine used to relieve pain, reduce inflammation, and prevent blood clots.

Arrhythmia (or dysrhythmia) - An abnormal heartbeat.

Atherectomy - A nonsurgical technique for treating diseased arteries with a rotating device that cuts or shaves away material that is blocking or narrowing an artery.

Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia (ARVD) ARVD is a type of cardiomyopathy with no known cause. It appears to be a genetic condition (passed down through a family's genes). ARVD causes ventricular arrhythmias. The most common symptoms are heart palpitations, fainting or loss of consciousness (syncope), and, sometimes, sudden death.

Atherosclerosis - A disease process that leads to the buildup of a waxy substance, called plaque, inside blood vessels.

Atrium (right and left) - The two upper or holding chambers of the heart (together referred to as atria).

Arteriography - A test that is combined with cardiac catheterization to visualize an artery or the arterial system after injection of a contrast dye.

Atrial flutter - A type of arrhythmia where the upper chambers of the heart (the atria) beat very fast, causing the walls of the lower chambers (the ventricles) to beat inefficiently as well.

Arterioles - Small, muscular branches of arteries. When they contract, they raise resistance to blood flow, and blood pressure in the arteries increases.

Atrial septal defect - See septal defect.

Atrial tachycardia - A type of arrhythmia that begins in the heart's upper chambers (the atria) and causes a very fast heart rate of 160 to 200 beats a minute. A resting heart rate is normally 60 to 100 beats a minute.

flaps (called leaflets) of a valve. The catheter and deflated balloon are removed after the procedure.

Atrioventricular block - An interruption or disturbance of the electrical signal between the heart's upper two chambers (the atria) and lower two chambers (the ventricles).

Beta-blocker - An antihypertensive medicine that limits the activity of epinephrine, a hormone that increases blood pressure.

Biopsy - The process by which a small sample of tissue is taken for examination.

Atrioventricular (AV) node - A group of cells in the heart located between the upper two chambers (the atria) and the lower two chambers (the ventricles) that regulates the electrical current that passes through it to the ventricles.

Blalock-Taussig procedure - A shunt between the subclavian and pulmonary arteries used to increase the supply of oxygen-rich blood in "blue babies" (see below).

Atrium - Either one of the heart's two upper chambers. Autologous - Relating to self. For example, autologous stem cells are those taken from the patients own body.

Blood clot - A jelly-like mass of blood tissue formed by clotting factors in the blood. Clots stop the flow of blood from an injury. Clots can also form inside an artery when the artery's walls are damaged by atherosclerotic buildup, possibly causing a heart attack or stroke.

Autoregulation - When blood flow to an organ stays the same although pressure in the artery that delivers blood to that organ may have changed.

Blood pressure - The force or pressure exerted by the heart in pumping blood; the pressure of blood in the arteries.

Bacteria - Germs that can lead to disease. Blue babies - Babies who have a blue tinge to their skin (cyanosis) resulting from insufficient oxygen in the arterial blood. This condition often indicates a heart defect.

Bacterial endocarditis - A bacterial infection of the lining of the heart's chambers (called the endocardium) or the heart's valves.

Balloon catheter - A long tube-like device with a small balloon on the end that can be threaded through an artery. Used in angioplasty or valvuloplasty.

Body mass index (BMI) - A number that doctors use to determine the risk of cardiovascular disease created by a person being overweight. BMI is calculated using a formula of weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared (BMI =W [kg]/H [m2]). Click here for a BMI calculator.

Balloon valvuloplasty - A procedure to repair a heart valve that is not working properly. A balloon-tipped catheter is threaded through an artery and into the heart. The balloon is inflated to open and separate any narrowed or stiffened

Bradycardia - Abnormally slow heartbeat.

Bruit - A sound made in the blood vessels resulting from turbulence, perhaps because of a buildup of plaque or damage to the vessels.

muscle. Abnormal levels of these enzymes signal heart attack.

Bundle branch block - A condition in which parts of the heart's conduction system are defective and unable to conduct the electrical signal normally, causing an irregular heart rhythm (arrhythmia).

Cardiac output - The amount of blood the heart pumps through the circulatory system in one minute.

Cardiologist - A doctor who specializes in the study of the heart and its function in health and disease.

Bypass - Surgery that can improve blood flow to the heart (or other organs and tissues) by providing a new route, or "bypass," around a section of clogged or diseased artery.

Cardiology - The study of the heart and its function in health and disease. Cardiomegaly - An enlarged heart. It is usually a sign of another underlying problem, such as high blood pressure, heart valve problems, or cardiomyopathy.

Calcium channel blocker (or calcium blocker) - A medicine that lowers blood pressure by regulating calcium-related electrical activity in the heart.

Capillaries - Microscopically small blood vessels between arteries and veins that distribute oxygen-rich blood to the body's tissues.

Cardiomyopathy - A disease of the heart muscle that leads to generalized deterioration of the muscle and its pumping ability. Cardiopulmonary bypass - The process by which a machine is used to do the work of the heart and lungs so the heart can be stopped during surgery.

Cardiac - Pertaining to the heart.

Cardiac arrest - The stopping of the heartbeat, usually because of interference with the electrical signal (often associated with coronary heart disease).

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) - An emergency measure that can maintain a person's breathing and heartbeat. The person who performs CPR actually helps the patient's circulatory system by breathing into the patient's mouth to give them oxygen and by giving chest compressions to circulate the patient's blood.

Cardiac catheterization - A procedure that involves inserting a fine, hollow tube (catheter) into an artery, usually in the groin area, and passing the tube into the heart. Often used along with angiography and other procedures, cardiac catheterization has become a primary tool for visualizing the heart and blood vessels and diagnosing and treating heart disease.

Cardiovascular (CV) - Pertaining to the heart and blood vessels that make up the circulatory system.

Cardioversion - A technique of applying an electrical shock to the chest to convert an abnormal heartbeat to a normal rhythm.

Cardiac enzymes - Complex substances capable of speeding up certain biochemical processes in the heart

Carotid artery - A major artery (right and left) in the neck supplying blood to the brain. Claudication - A tiredness or pain in the arms and legs caused by an inadequate supply of oxygen to the muscles, usually due to narrowed arteries. Cerebral embolism - A blood clot formed in one part of the body and then carried by the bloodstream to the brain, where it blocks an artery. Collateral circulation - Blood flow through small, nearby vessels in response to blockage of a main blood vessel. Cerebral hemorrhage - Bleeding within the brain resulting from a ruptured blood vessel, aneurysm, or head injury. Commissurotomy -A procedure used to widen the opening of a heart valve that has been narrowed by scar tissue. First developed to correct rheumatic heart disease. Cerebral thrombosis - Formation of a blood clot in an artery that supplies part of the brain. Computed tomography (CT or CAT scan) - An x-ray technique that uses a computer to create cross-sectional images of the body.

Cerebrovascular - Pertaining to the blood vessels of the brain.

Cerebrovascular accident - Also called cerebral vascular accident, apoplexy, or stroke. Blood supply to some part of the brain is slowed or stopped, resulting in injury to brain tissue.

Conduction system - Special muscle fibers that conduct electrical impulses throughout the heart muscle.

Congenital - Refers to conditions existing at birth.

Cerebrovascular occlusion - The blocking or closing of a blood vessel in the brain.

Congenital heart defects - Malformation of the heart or of its major blood vessels present at birth.

Cholesterol - An oily substance that occurs naturally in the body, in animal fats and in dairy products, and that is transported in the blood. Limited amounts are essential for the normal development of cell membranes.

Congestive heart failure - A condition in which the heart cannot pump all the blood returning to it, leading to a backup of blood in the vessels and an accumulation of fluid in the body's tissues, including the lungs.

Cineangiography - The technique of using moving pictures to show how a special dye passes through blood vessels, allowing doctors to diagnose diseases of the heart and blood vessels.

Coronary arteries - Two arteries arising from the aorta that arch down over the top of the heart and divide into branches. They provide blood to the heart muscle. Coronary artery anomaly (CAA) - A congenital defect in one or more of the coronary arteries of the heart.

Circulatory system - Pertaining to the heart, blood vessels, and circulation of blood.

Coronary artery bypass (CAB) - Surgical rerouting of blood around a diseased vessel that supplies blood to the heart. Done by grafting either a piece of vein from the leg or the artery from under the breastbone.

Deep vein thrombosis - A blood clot in a deep vein in the calf.

Coronary artery disease (CAD) - A narrowing of the arteries that supply blood to the heart. The condition results from a buildup of plaque and greatly increases the risk of a heart attack.

Defibrillator - A machine that helps restore a normal heart rhythm by delivering an electric shock.

Coronary heart disease - Disease of the heart caused by a buildup of atherosclerotic plaque in the coronary arteries that can lead to angina pectoris or heart attack; a general term.

Diabetes (diabetes mellitus) - A disease in which the body doesn't produce or properly use insulin. Insulin is needed to convert sugar and starch into the energy used in daily life.

Coronary occlusion - An obstruction of one of the coronary arteries that hinders blood flow to the heart muscle.

Diastolic blood pressure - The lowest blood pressure measured in the arteries. It occurs when the heart muscle is relaxed between beats.

Coronary thrombosis - Formation of a clot in one of the arteries carrying blood to the heart muscle. Also called coronary occlusion.

Digitalis - A medicine made from the leaves of the foxglove plant. Digitalis is used to treat congestive heart failure (CHF) and heart rhythm problems (arrhythmias). Digitalis can increase blood flow throughout the body and reduce swelling in the hands and ankles.

Cryoablation - The removal of tissue using an instrument called a cold probe.

Dissecting aneurysm - A condition in which the layers of an artery separate or are torn, causing blood to flow between the layers. Dissecting aneurysms usually happen in the aorta, the large vessel that carries blood from the heart to other parts of the body.

Cyanosis - Blueness of the skin caused by a lack of oxygen in the blood. Diuretic - A drug that lowers blood pressure by causing fluid loss. Diuretics promote urine production. Cyanotic heart disease - A birth defect of the heart that causes oxygen-poor (blue) blood to circulate to the body without first passing through the lungs. Doppler ultrasound - A technology that uses sound waves to assess blood flow within the heart and blood vessels and to identify leaking valves. Death rate (age-adjusted) - A death rate that has been standardized for age so different populations can be compared or the same population can be compared over time.

Dysarthria - A speech disorder resulting from muscular problems caused by damage to the brain or nervous system.

Embolus - Also called embolism; a blood clot that forms in a blood vessel in one part of the body and travels to another part.

Dyspnea - Shortness of breath.

Endarterectomy - Surgical removal of plaque deposits or blood clots in an artery.

Echocardiography - A method of studying the heart's structure and function by analyzing sound waves bounced off the heart and recorded by an electronic sensor placed on the chest. A computer processes the information to produce a one-, two- or three-dimensional moving picture that shows how the heart and heart valves are functioning.

Endocardium - The smooth membrane covering the inside of the heart. The innermost lining of the heart.

Endothelium - The smooth inner lining of many body structures, including the heart (endocardium) and blood vessels.

Edema - Swelling caused by fluid accumulation in body tissues. Endocarditis - A bacterial infection of the heart's inner lining (endothelium). Ejection fraction - A measurement of blood that is pumped out of a filled ventricle. The normal rate is 50% or more.

Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) - A test in which several electronic sensors are placed on the body to monitor electrical activity associated with the heartbeat.

Enlarged heart - A state in which the heart is larger than normal due to heredity, long-term heavy exercise, or diseases and disorders such as obesity, high blood pressure, and coronary artery disease.

Enzyme - A complex chemical capable of speeding up specific biochemical processes in the body. Electroencephalogram (EEG) - A test that can detect and record the brain's electrical activity. The test is done by pasting metal disks, called electrodes, to the scalp.

Epicardium - The thin membrane covering the outside surface of the heart muscle.

Electrophysiological study (EPS) - A test that uses cardiac catheterization to study patients who have arrhythmias (abnormal heartbeats). An electrical current stimulates the heart in an effort to provoke an arrhythmia, which is immediately treated with medicine. EPS is used primarily to identify the origin of arrhythmias and to test the effectiveness of medicines used to treat abnormal heart rhythms.

Estrogen - A female hormone produced by the ovaries that may protect premenopausal women against heart disease. Estrogen production stops after menopause.

Estrogen (or hormone) replacement therapy (ERT or HRT) - Hormones that some women may take to offset the effects of menopause.

Exercise stress test - A common test for diagnosing coronary artery disease, especially in patients who have symptoms of heart disease. The test helps doctors assess blood flow through coronary arteries in response to exercise, usually walking, at varied speeds and for various lengths of time on a treadmill. A stress test may include use of electrocardiography, echocardiography, and injected radioactive substances. Also called exercise test, stress test, or treadmill test.

compensate for one or more blocked arteries. Also called MUGA, for multi-unit gated analysis.

Genetic testing - Blood tests that study a person's genes to find out if he or she is at risk for certain diseases that are passed down through family members.

Familial hypercholesterolemia - A genetic predisposition to dangerously high cholesterol levels.

Guidewire - A small, bendable wire that is threaded through an artery; it helps doctors position a catheter so they can perform angioplasty or stent procedures. The guidewire is small enough that it can be inserted into the vessel through a needle, but it is also stiff enough to be threaded "up" the artery.

Fatty acids (fats) - Substances that occur in several forms in foods; different fatty acids have different effects on lipid profiles.

Heart assist device - A mechanical device that is surgically implanted to ease the workload of the heart.

Fibrillation - Rapid, uncoordinated contractions of individual heart muscle fibers. The heart chamber involved can't contract all at once and pumps blood ineffectively, if at all.

Heart attack - Death of, or damage to, part of the heart muscle caused by a lack of oxygen-rich blood to the heart.

First-degree heart block - When an electrical impulse from the heart's upper chambers (the atria) is slowed as it moves through the atria and atrioventricular (AV) node.

Heart block - General term for conditions in which the electrical impulse that activates the heart muscle cells is delayed or interrupted somewhere along its path.

Flutter - The rapid, ineffective contractions of any heart chamber. A flutter is considered to be more coordinated than fibrillation.

Heart failure - See congestive heart failure.

Heart-lung machine - An apparatus that oxygenates and pumps blood to the body during open heart surgery. Fusiform aneurysm - A tube-shaped aneurysm that causes the artery to bulge outward. Involves the entire circumference (outside wall) of the artery.

Gated blood pool scan - An x-ray analysis of how blood pools in the heart during rest and exercise. The test makes use of a radioactive substance injected into the blood to tag or label red cells. The test provides an estimate of the heart's overall ability to pump and its ability to

Heart murmur -An abnormal heart sound caused by turbulent blood flow. The sound may indicate that blood is flowing through a damaged or overworked heart valve, that there may be a hole in one of the heart's walls, or that there is a narrowing in one of the heart's vessels. Some heart murmurs are a harmless type called innocent heart murmurs, which are common in children and usually do not require treatment.

Hypertrophy - Enlargement of tissues or organs because of increased workload. Heredity - The genetic transmission of a particular quality or trait from parent to child. Hyperventilation - Rapid breathing usually caused by anxiety. People feel like they can't get enough air, so they breathe heavily and rapidly, which can lead to numb or tingly arms and legs, or fainting.

High blood pressure - A chronic increase in blood pressure above its normal range.

High density lipoprotein (HDL) - A component of cholesterol, HDL helps protect against heart disease by promoting cholesterol breakdown and removal from the blood; hence, its nickname "good cholesterol."

Hypoglycemia - Low levels of glucose (sugar) in the blood.

Hypotension - Abnormally low blood pressure.

Holter monitor - A portable device for recording heartbeats over a period of 24 hours or more.

Hypoxia - Less than normal content of oxygen in the organs and tissues of the body.

Homocysteine An amino acid (one of the building blocks that makes up a protein) normally found in small amounts in the blood. Too much homocysteine in the blood may promote the buildup of fatty plaque in the arteries. For some people, high homocysteine levels are genetic. For others, it is because they do not get enough of certain B vitamins in their diet (B-12, B-6, and folic acid). Most people can keep their homocysteine levels in check by eating foods rich in B vitamins. Your doctor may also recommend a vitamin supplement. (Common misspelling: homocystine)

Idiopathic - No known cause.

Immunosuppressants - Any medicine that suppresses the body's immune system. These medicines are used to minimize the chances that the body will reject a newly transplanted organ, such as a heart.

Impedance plethysmography - A noninvasive diagnostic test used to evaluate blood flow through the leg. Hormones - Chemicals released into the bloodstream that control different functions in the body, including metabolism, growth, sexual development, and responses to stress or illness.

Incompetent valve - Also called insufficiency; a valve that is not working properly, causing it to leak blood back in the wrong direction.

Hypertension - High blood pressure. Infarct - The area of heart tissue permanently damaged by an inadequate supply of oxygen. Hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy (HOCM) - An overgrown heart muscle that creates a bulge into the ventricle and impedes blood flow.

Infective endocarditis - An infection of the heart valves and the innermost lining of the heart (the endocardium), caused by bacteria in the bloodstream.

or "helps" it pump oxygen-rich blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body. Inferior vena cava - The large vein returning blood from the legs and abdomen to the heart. Lesion - An injury or wound. An atherosclerotic lesion is an injury to an artery due to hardening of the arteries. Inotropes - Positive inotropes: Any medicine that increases the strength of the heart's contraction. Negative inotropes: Any medicine that decreases the strength of the heart's contraction and the blood pressure in the vessels.

Lipid - A fatty substance that is insoluble (cannot be dissolved) in the blood.

Intravascular echocardiography - A combination of echocardiography and cardiac catheterization. A miniature echo device on the tip of a catheter is used to generate images inside the heart and blood vessels.

Lipoprotein - A lipid surrounded by a protein; the protein makes it so the lipid is soluble (can be dissolved) in the blood.

Introducer sheath - A catheter-like tube that is placed inside a patient's vessel during an interventional procedure to help the doctor with insertion and proper placement of the actual catheter. Also called a sheath.

Low density lipoprotein (LDL) - The body's primary cholesterol-carrying molecule. High blood levels of LDL increase a person's risk of heart disease by promoting cholesterol attachment and accumulation in blood vessels; hence, the popular nickname "bad cholesterol."

Ischemia - Decreased blood flow to an organ, usually due to constriction or obstruction of an artery.

Lumen - The hollow area within a tube, such as a blood vessel.

Ischemic heart disease - Also called coronary artery disease and coronary heart disease, this term is applied to heart problems caused by narrowing of the coronary arteries, thereby causing a decreased blood supply to the heart.

Ischemic stroke - A type of stroke that is caused by blockage in a blood vessel.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - A technique that produces images of the heart and other body structures by measuring the response of certain elements (such as hydrogen) in the body to a magnetic field. When stimulated by radio waves, the elements emit distinctive signals in a magnetic field. MRI can produce detailed pictures of the heart and its various structures without the need to inject a dye.

Jugular veins - The veins that carry blood back from the head to the heart.

Maze surgery- A type of heart surgery that is used to treat chronic atrial fibrillation by creating a surgical "maze" of new electrical pathways to let electrical impulses travel easily through the heart. Also called the Maze procedure.

Left ventricular assist device (LVAD)- A mechanical device that can be placed outside the body or implanted inside the body. An LVAD does not replace the heartit "assists"

Mitral stenosis - A narrowing of the mitral valve, which controls blood flow from the heart's upper left chamber

(the left atrium) to its lower left chamber (the left ventricle). May result from an inherited (congenital) problem or from rheumatic fever.

Mitral valve - The structure that controls blood flow between the heart's left atrium (upper chamber) and left ventricle (lower chamber).

Myocardial infarction - A heart attack. The damage or death of an area of the heart muscle (myocardium) resulting from a blocked blood supply to the area. The affected tissue dies, injuring the heart. Symptoms include prolonged, intensive chest pain and a decrease in blood pressure that often causes shock.

Mitral valve prolapse - A condition that occurs when the leaflets of the mitral valve between the left atrium (upper chamber) and left ventricle (lower chamber) bulge into the atrium and permit backflow of blood into the atrium. The condition is often associated with progressive mitral regurgitation.

Myocardial ischemia - A part of the heart muscle does not receive enough oxygen.

Myocarditis A rare condition where the heart muscle becomes inflamed as a result of infection, toxic drug poisoning, or diseases like rheumatic fever, diphtheria, or tuberculosis.

Mitral valve regurgitation - Failure of the mitral valve to close properly, causing blood to flow back into the heart's upper left chamber (the left atrium) instead of moving forward into the lower left chamber (the left ventricle).

Myocardium - The muscular wall of the heart. It contracts to pump blood out of the heart and then relaxes as the heart refills with returning blood.

mm Hg- An abbreviation for millimeters of mercury. Blood pressure is measured in units of mm Hghow high the pressure inside the arteries would be able to raise a column of mercury.

Myxomatous degeneration - A connective tissue disorder that causes the heart valve tissue to weaken and lose elasticity.

Monounsaturated fats - A type of fat found in many foods but mainly in avocados and in canola, olive, and peanut oils. Monounsaturated fat tends to lower LDL cholesterol levels, and some studies suggest that it may do so without also lowering HDL cholesterol levels.

Nitroglycerin - A medicine that helps relax and dilate arteries; often used to treat cardiac chest pain (angina).

Necrosis - Referring to the death of tissue within a certain area.

Mortality - The total number of deaths from a given disease in a population during an interval of time, usually a year.

Noninvasive procedures - Any diagnostic or treatment procedure in which no instrument enters the body.

Murmur - Noises superimposed on normal heart sounds. They are caused by congenital defects or damaged heart valves that do not close properly and allow blood to leak back into the chamber from which it has come.

Obesity - The condition of being significantly overweight. It is usually applied to a condition of 30 percent or more over ideal body weight. Obesity puts a strain on the heart

and can increase the chance of developing high blood pressure and diabetes.

has a PFO before birth, but in 1 out of every 3 or 4 people, the opening does not close naturally, as it should, after birth. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI)- Any of the noninvasive procedures usually performed in the cardiac catheterization laboratory. Angioplasty is an example of a percutaneous coronary intervention. Also called a transcatheter intervention.

Occluded artery - An artery in which the blood flow has been impaired by a blockage.

Open heart surgery - An operation in which the chest and heart are opened surgically while the bloodstream is diverted through a heart-lung (cardiopulmonary bypass) machine.

Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) See angioplasty.

Pacemaker - A surgically implanted electronic device that helps regulate the heartbeat.

Palpitation - An uncomfortable feeling within the chest caused by an irregular heartbeat.

Pericarditis - Inflammation of the outer membrane surrounding the heart. When pericarditis occurs, the amount of fluid between the two layers of the pericardium increases. This increased fluid presses on the heart and restricts its pumping action.

Pancreas - The organ behind the stomach that helps control blood sugar levels.

Pericardiocentesis - A diagnostic procedure that uses a needle to withdraw fluid from the sac or membrane surrounding the heart (pericardium).

Pancreatitis - Swelling (inflammation) of the pancreas.

Pericardium - The outer fibrous sac that surrounds the heart.

Paralysis -Loss of the ability to move muscles and feel in part of the body or the whole body. Paralysis may be temporary or permanent. Paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (PSVT) An occasional rapid heart rate (150-250 beats per minute) that is caused by events triggered in areas above the hearts lower chambers (the ventricles). Paroxysmal means from time to time. See also supraventricular tachycardia (SVT).

Plaque - A deposit of fatty (and other) substances in the inner lining of the artery wall; it is characteristic of atherosclerosis.

Platelets - One of the three types of cells found in blood; they aid in the clotting of the blood.

Patent ductus arteriosus - A congenital defect in which the opening between the aorta and the pulmonary artery does not close after birth. Patent foramen ovale - An opening between the left and right atria (the upper chambers) of the heart. Everyone

Polyunsaturated fat - The major fat in most vegetable oils, including corn, safflower, sunflower, and soybean oils. These oils are liquid at room temperature. Polyunsaturated fat actually tends to lower LDL cholesterol levels but may reduce HDL cholesterol levels as well.

Positron emission tomography (PET) - A test that uses information about the energy of certain elements in your body to show whether parts of the heart muscle are alive and working. A PET scan can also show if your heart is getting enough blood to keep the muscle healthy.

Radionuclide studies - Any of the diagnostic tests in which a small amount of radioactive material is injected into the bloodstream. The material makes it possible for a special camera to take pictures of the heart.

Premature ventricular contraction (PVC) - An early or extra heartbeat that happens when the heart's lower chambers (the ventricles) contract too soon, out of sequence with the normal heartbeat.

Radionuclide ventriculography - A diagnostic test used to determine the size and shape of the heart's pumping chambers (the ventricles).

Regurgitation - Backward flow of blood through a defective heart valve. Prevalence - The total number of cases of a given disease that exist in a population at a specific time. Renal - Pertaining to the kidneys. Pulmonary - Referring to the lungs and respiratory system. Restenosis- The re-closing or re-narrowing of an artery after an interventional procedure such as angioplasty or stent placement.

Pulmonary embolism - A condition in which a blood clot that has formed elsewhere in the body travels to the lungs.

Pulmonary valve - The heart valve between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery that controls blood flow from the heart into the lungs.

Revascularization - A procedure to restore blood flow to the tissues. Coronary artery bypass surgery is an example of a revascularization procedure.

Pulmonary vein - The blood vessel that carries newly oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the left atrium of the heart.

Rheumatic fever - A disease, usually occurring in childhood, that may follow a streptococcal infection. Symptoms may include fever, sore or swollen joints, skin rash, involuntary muscle twitching, and development of nodules under the skin. If the infection involves the heart, scars may form on heart valves, and the heart's outer lining may be damaged.

Radial artery access - Using the radial artery in the wrist as the entry point for the catheter in an angioplasty or stent procedure. Also called transradial access, the transradial approach, or transradial angioplasty. Radionuclide imaging - A test in which a harmless radioactive substance is injected into the bloodstream to show information about blood flow through the arteries. Damaged or dead heart muscle can often be identified, as can serious narrowing in an artery.

Rheumatic heart disease - A disease of the heart (mainly affecting the heart's valves) caused by rheumatic fever.

Right ventricular assist device (RVAD) - A mechanical device that can be placed outside the body or implanted inside the body. An RVAD does not replace the heartit "assists" or "helps" it pump oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle to the lungs.

Risk factor - An element or condition involving a certain hazard or danger. When referring to heart and blood vessels, a risk factor is associated with an increased chance of developing cardiovascular disease, including stroke.

Shock - A condition in which body function is impaired because the volume of fluid circulating through the body is insufficient to maintain normal metabolism. This may be caused by blood loss or by a disturbance in the function of the circulatory system.

Rubella - Commonly known as German measles.

Shunt - A connector that allows blood to flow between two locations.

Saccular aneurysm - A round aneurysm that bulges out from an artery. Involves only part of the circumference (outside wall) of the artery.

Sick sinus syndrome - The failure of the sinus node to regulate the heart's rhythm.

Saturated fat - Type of fat found in foods of animal origin and a few of vegetable origin; they are usually solid at room temperature. Abundant in meat and dairy products, saturated fat tends to increase LDL cholesterol levels, and it may raise the risk of certain types of cancer.

Silent ischemia - Episodes of cardiac ischemia that are not accompanied by chest pain.

Second-degree heart block - Impulses traveling through the heart's upper chambers (the atria) are delayed in the area between the upper and lower chambers (the AV node) and fail to make the ventricles beat at the right moment.

Sinus (SA) node - The "natural" pacemaker of the heart. The node is a group of specialized cells in the top of the right atrium which produces the electrical impulses that travel down to eventually reach the ventricular muscle, causing the heart to contract.

Sodium - A mineral essential to life found in nearly all plant and animal tissue. Table salt (sodium chloride) is nearly half sodium. Septal defect - A hole in the wall of the heart separating the atria or in the wall of the heart separating the ventricles. Sphygmomanometer - An instrument used to measure blood pressure. Septum - The muscular wall dividing a chamber on the left side of the heart from the chamber on the right. Stem cells - Special cells in the body that are able to transform into other cells. It is possible for stem cells to transform into heart cells, nerve cells, or other cells of the body, possibly helping to improve the function of failing organs, including the heart.

Sheath - A catheter-like tube that is placed inside a patient's vessel during an interventional procedure to help the doctor with insertion and proper placement of the actual catheter. Also called an introducer sheath.

Stent - A device made of expandable, metal mesh that is placed (by using a balloon catheter) at the site of a narrowing artery. The stent is then expanded and left in place to keep the artery open.

Stenosis - The narrowing or constriction of an opening, such as a blood vessel or heart valve.

Sudden death - Death that occurs unexpectedly and instantaneously or shortly after the onset of symptoms. The most common underlying reason for patients dying suddenly is cardiovascular disease, in particular coronary heart disease.

Stethoscope - An instrument for listening to sounds within the body.

Superior vena cava - The large vein that returns blood from the head and arms to the heart. Supraventricular tachycardia (SVT) - An occasional rapid heart rate (150-250 beats per minute) that is caused by events triggered in areas above the hearts lower chambers (the ventricles); see also paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (PSVT).

Stokes-Adams disease - Also called third-degree heart block; a condition that happens when the impulses that pace your heartbeat do not reach the lower chambers of your heart (the ventricles). To make up for this, the ventricles use their own "backup" pacemaker with its slower rate. This rhythm can cause severe dizziness or fainting. Stokes-Adams disease is very serious and can lead to heart failure or death.

Syncope - A temporary, insufficient blood supply to the brain which causes a loss of consciousness. Usually caused by a serious arrhythmia.

Streptococcal infection ("strep" infection) - An infection, usually in the throat, resulting from the presence of streptococcus bacteria.

Systolic blood pressure - The highest blood pressure measured in the arteries. It occurs when the heart contracts with each heartbeat.

Streptokinase - A clot-dissolving medicine used to treat heart attack patients. Tachycardia - Accelerated beating of the heart. Paroxysmal tachycardia is a particular form of rapid heart action, occurring in seizures that may last from a few seconds to several days.

Sternum - The breastbone.

Stress - Bodily or mental tension resulting from physical, chemical, or emotional factors. Stress can refer to physical exertion as well as mental anxiety.

Tachypnea - Rapid breathing.

Stroke - A sudden disruption of blood flow to the brain, either by a clot or a leak in a blood vessel.

Thallium-201 stress test - An x-ray study that follows the path of radioactive potassium carried by the blood into heart muscle. Damaged or dead muscle can be defined, as can the extent of narrowing in an artery.

Subarachnoid hemorrhage - Bleeding from a blood vessel on the surface of the brain into the space between the brain and the skull.

Third-degree heart block - Also called Stokes-Adams disease; impulses from the heart's upper chambers (the atria) are completely blocked from reaching the heart's lower chambers (the ventricles). To make up for this, the

ventricles use their own "backup" pacemaker with its slower rate.

Thrombolysis - The breaking up of a blood clot.

sound waves are sent through a tube-like device inserted in the mouth and passed down the esophagus (food pipe), which ends near the heart. This technique is useful in studying patients whose heart and vessels, for various reasons, are difficult to assess with standard echocardiography.

Thrombosis - A blood clot that forms inside the blood vessel or cavity of the heart.

Transient ischemic attack (TIA) - A stroke-like event that lasts only for a short time and is caused by a temporarily blocked blood vessel.

Thrombolytic therapy - Intravenous or intra-arterial medicines that are used to dissolve blood clots in an artery.

Transplantation - Replacing a failing organ with a healthy one from a donor.

Thrombus - A blood clot.

Tricuspid valve - The structure that controls blood flow from the heart's upper right chamber (the right atrium) into the lower right chamber (the right ventricle).

Thyroid - A gland located in the front of the neck, just below the voice box. Triglyceride - The most common fatty substance found in the blood; normally stored as an energy source in fat tissue. High triglyceride levels may thicken the blood and make a person more susceptible to clot formation. High triglyceride levels tend to accompany high cholesterol levels and other risk factors for heart disease, such as obesity.

Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) - A clot-dissolving medicine that is used to treat heart attack and stroke patients.

Trans fat - Created when hydrogen is forced through an ordinary vegetable oil (hydrogenation), converting some polyunsaturates to monounsaturates, and some monounsaturates to saturates. Trans fat, like saturated fat, tends to raise LDL cholesterol levels, and, unlike saturated fat, trans fat also lowers HDL cholesterol levels at the same time.

Ultrasound - High-frequency sound vibrations, which cannot be heard by the human ear, used in medical diagnosis.

Transcatheter intervention - Any of the noninvasive procedures usually performed in the cardiac catheterization laboratory. Angioplasty is an example of a transcatheter intervention. Also called a percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI).

Valve replacement - An operation to replace a heart valve that is either blocking normal blood flow or causing blood to leak backward into the heart (regurgitation).

Valvuloplasty - Reshaping of a heart valve with surgical or catheter techniques.

Transesophageal echocardiography - A diagnostic test that analyzes sound waves bounced off the heart. The

Varicose vein - Any vein that is abnormally dilated (widened). X-ray - Form of radiation used to create a picture of internal body structures on film. Vascular - Pertaining to the blood vessels. cavogram [kavgram] Vasodilators - Any medicine that dilates (widens) the arteries. Etymology: L, cavus + Gk, gramma, record an angiogram of the inferior or superior vena cava. angiogram Vasopressors - Any medicine that elevates blood pressure. ( n j - -gr m )n. Vein - Any one of a series of blood vessels of the vascular system that carries blood from various parts of the body back to the heart, returning oxygen-poor blood to the heart. An angiographic x-ray of blood vessels used in diagnosing pathological conditions of the cardiovascular system.//An x-ray of one or more blood vessels produced by angiography and used in diagnosing pathology in the cardiovascular system, such as arteriosclerosis. bradycardia (br d -kr d - )n.

Ventricle (right and left) - One of the two lower chambers of the heart. Ventricular Assist Device (VAD) - A mechanical pump that helps the ventricles pump blood, easing the workload of the heart in patients with heart failure.

A slowness of the heartbeat, usually under 60 beats per minute in adults. Also called brachycardia. tachycardia /tachycardia/ (-kahrde-ah) abnormally rapid heart rate.tachycardiac

Ventricular fibrillation - A condition in which the ventricles contract in a rapid, unsynchronized fashion. When fibrillation occurs, the ventricles cannot pump blood throughout the body.

atrial tachycardia a rapid cardiac rate, usually 160190 per minute, originating from an atrial locus. atrioventricular (AV) junctional tachycardia , atrioventricular (AV) nodal tachycardia junctional t. atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia that resulting from reentry in or around the atrioventricular node; it may be antidromic, in which conduction is anterograde over the accessory pathway and retrograde over the normal conduction pathway or orthodromic, in which conduction is anterograde over the normal conduction pathway and retrograde over the accessory pathway. atrioventricular reciprocating tachycardia (AVRT) a reentrant tachycardia in which the reentrant circuit contains both the normal conduction pathway and an accessory pathway as integral parts.

Ventricular tachycardia - An arrhythmia (abnormal heartbeat) in the ventricle characterized by a very fast heartbeat.

Vertigo - A feeling of dizziness or spinning.

Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome - A condition in which an extra electrical pathway connects the atria (two upper chambers) and the ventricles (two lower chambers). It may cause a rapid heartbeat.

chaotic atrial tachycardia that characterized by atrial rates of 100 to 130 beats per minute, markedly variable P wave morphology, and irregular PP intervals, often leading to atrial fibrillation. circus movement tachycardia reentrant t. ectopic tachycardia rapid heart action in response to impulses arising outside the sinoatrial node. junctional tachycardia that arising in response to impulses originating in the atrioventricular junction, i.e., in the atrioventricular node, with a heart rate greater than 75 beats per minute. multifocal atrial tachycardia (MAT) chaotic atrial t. nonparoxysmal junctional tachycardia a junctional tachycardia of slow onset, with a heart rate of 70 to 130 beats per minute; due to enhanced automaticity of the atrioventricular junctional tissue, often secondary to disease or trauma. paroxysmal tachycardia rapid heart action that starts and stops abruptly. paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (PSVT) supraventricular tachycardia occurring in attacks of rapid onset and cessation, usually due to a reentrant circuit. reciprocating tachycardia a tachycardia due to a reentrant mechanism and characterized by a reciprocating rhythm. reentrant tachycardia any tachycardia characterized by a reentrant circuit. sinus tachycardia

ventricular tachycardia an abnormally rapid ventricular rhythm with aberrant ventricular excitation, usually above 150 beats per minute, generated within the ventricle, and most often associated with atrioventricular dissociation.

angioneurotic edema Recurring episodes of noninflammatory swelling of the skin, mucous membranes, viscera, and brain, occasionally accompanied by arthralgia, purpura, or fever. Also called angioedema, atrophedema, Bannister's disease, giant urticaria, Quincke's disease. sinus tachycardia a rapid heartbeat generated by discharge of the sinus node. The rate is generally 100-180 beats/min in the adult, although most clinicians would be suspicious of a rate of 90 beats/min or higher. Sinus tachycardia is also indicated by a heart rate greater than 200 beats/min in an infant and 140-200 beats/min in a child. Sinus tachycardia is the body's normal response to exertion, congestive heart failure, cardiogenic shock, acute pulmonary embolism, acute myocardial infarction, and infarct extension. atrial flutter Rapid regular atrial contractions occurring usually at rates between 250 and 400 per minute and often producing saw-tooth waves in an electrocardiogram. Also called auricular flutter. atrial fibrillation Fibrillation in which the normal rhythmical contractions of the cardiac atria are replaced by rapid irregular twitchings of the muscular wall that cause the ventricles to respond irregularly. Also called a-fib, auricular fibrillation. idiosyncrasy

(ST) tachycardia originating in the sinus node; normal during exercise or anxiety but also associated with shock, hypotension, hypoxia, congestive heart failure, fever, and various high output states. supraventricular tachycardia (SVT) any regular tachycardia in which the point of stimulation is above the bundle branches; it may also include those arising from large reentrant circuits that encompass both atrial and ventricular sites.

1. A structural or behavioral trait peculiar to an individual or a group. 2. A physiological or temperamental peculiarity. 3. An unusual individual reaction to food or a drug.

Bioavailability the amount of or rate at which a substance or drug is accessible to the body.

used as a subscript for pharmacokinetic parameters appropriate to the distributive phase, e.g., t1/2a, Vda, etc. Cf. b, Compartments, Volume of Distribution, Half-Life

bioavailability the degree to which a drug or other substance becomes available to the target tissue after administration. bioequivalence relationship between two preparations of the same drug in the same dosage form that have a similar bioavailability.bioequivalent area under the concentration curve (AUC), a method of measurement of the bioavailability of a drug based on a plot of blood concentrations sampled at frequent intervals. It is directly proportional to the total amount of unaltered drug in the patient's blood. pheochromocytoma A usually benign tumor of the adrenal medulla or the sympathetic nervous system in which the affected cells secrete increased amounts of epinephrine or norepinephrine.

Absorption Rate Constant: See ka

Accumulation, Accumulation Ratio: See Css

Accuracy: The use of the word accurate free of error in referring to a scientific observation or scientific method sometimes obscures the fact that even the best methods and observations are only relatively free from error. The use of the single word accurate also hides the fact that a number of separate elements contribute to over-all freedom from error. Accurate is frequently used to refer indiscriminately to the effect of any of these elements, or to the combined effects of all of them on the freedom from error of a system. Effective use of a method or observation requires that we know the ways and degrees to which the data are free of error, not that we know only that the data are accurate or inaccurate. The elements to be taken into account in a complete evaluation of a method or system can be derived from the properties of the quantitative relationship between the input and the output for the system. The input-output relationship, for all its generality, has specific application and specific namesin different scientific fields and for different kinds of experimental or observational systems. In physics and engineering, the stress-strain diagram is a special representation of the input-output relationship; in pharmacology, the dose-effect curve is an example of the input-output relationship. In quantitative chemical analyses, the calibration curve is an example of the input-output relationship. Generally, input can be looked on as the measured value of an independent variable or measurand; output can be viewed as a measurement made under non-standard or test conditions. Accuracy, as formally defined, and the elements that contribute to it can be only briefly outlined here.

Pharmacology Glossary

A: An amount of drug or chemical in units of mass such as milligrams. Special attributes of the amount are indicated by subscripts: A0, the amount of drug in the body at zerotime; AB, the amount of drug in the body; AU, the amount of drug recovered in the urine, etc. The amount of drug in the drugs volume of distribution is equal to the concentration of the drug times the volume: A = C Vd.

a: The earlier segment of a biphasic plot of log C against t (following intravenous injection of a drug) represents the distributive phase of a drugs sojourn in the body. a is

Accuracy In engineering, accuracy is the ratio of the error of a system to the range of values for output that are possible, i.e., the ratio of error to so-called Full-Scale Output. Error is defined as the algebraic difference between an indicated output value and the true measure of the input or measurand. Error, as defined by the engineer, is most like precision as defined below. Validity The degree to which output reflects what it purports to reflect, i.e., input; the degree to which output is a function of known input and it alone. For example, does an essay examination validly measure a students knowledge of material, or is it invalid, actually measuring his literary skill or the state of the graders digestion? Reliability The degree to which the input-output relationship is reproducible if the relationship is studied repeatedly under comparable conditions. For example, if a student took the same examination twice, or in two forms, would he get the same grade both times? If the same work were reviewed by two graders, would they both assign the same mark? Sensitivity The lowest value of input that can be inferred with a given degree of validity and reliability from measurements of output. Analogous to the usage for the word threshold is the phrase threshold dose. The engineer uses the word threshold, however, to mean the smallest change in input that will result in change in output. Amplification The amount of change in measured output per unit change in input. The slope of the inputoutput, or dose-effect, curve. (Engineers sometimes refer to amplification as sensitivity.) Precision The capacity of the system to discriminate between different values of input; the fineness with which different values for input can be inferred from measured values of output. The pooled deviation of observed from expected values of output, all divided by the amplification, yields the index of precision. The square of the reciprocal of the index of precision is the measure of the amount of information that can be delivered by the system. Specifically, precision is computed in several steps. First, the deviation of each observed value of output from the corresponding predicted value is squared; predicted values are

determined from the curve relating input and output for all the data. The squared deviations are summed and divided by N-2, the number of degrees of freedom; the square root of the quotient is determined and is a number analogous to the standard deviation. This root mean square deviation is then divided by the slope of the input-output curve, i.e., the amplification, to yield the index of precision ; it is assumed that the input-output relationship is linear. Comparability The ability of a system to deliver data that can be compared in standard units of measurement and by standard statistical techniques with the data delivered by other systems. While not a critical component of accuracy, comparability of data generated by a system is critical to evaluating its accuracy and usefulness. Economy The ability of a system to deliver data of high information content at a low overall cost per item of data; economy does not, of course, contribute to accuracy but is an important determinant of the practical usefulness of a system or method.

Activity, Intrinsic: See Intrinsic Activity.

Addiction: According to DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed., Washington, D.C., 1994): A maladaptive pattern of substance use leading to clinically significant impairment or distress as manifested by three (or more) of the following, occurring at any time in the same 12-month period: * Substance is often taken in larger amounts or over longer period than intended * Persistent desire or unsuccessful efforts to cut down or control substance use * A great deal of time is spent in activities necessary to obtain the substance (e.g., visiting multiple doctors or driving long distances), use the substance (e.g., chain smoking), or recovering from its effects * Important social, occupational or recreational activities given up or reduced because of substance abuse * Continued substance use despite knowledge of having a persistent or recurrent psychological, or physical problem

that is caused or exacerbated by use of the substance * Tolerance, as defined by either: (a) need for increased amounts of the substance in order to achieve intoxication or desired effect; or (b) markedly diminished effect with continued use of the same amount * Withdrawal, as manifested by either: (a) characteristic withdrawal syndrome for the substance; or (b) the same (or closely related) substance is taken to relieve or avoid withdrawal symptoms Cf. Dependence, Drug Dependence, Habituation, Tolerance.

Agonist, Inverse: An inverse agonist is a ligand that by binding to a receptor reduces the fraction of receptors in an active conformation, thereby reducing basal activity. This can occur if some of the receptors are in the active form in the absence of a conventional agonist.

Allergic Response: Some drugs may act as haptens or allergens in susceptible individuals; re-administration of the hapten to such an individual results in an allergic response that may be sufficiently intense to call itself to the attention of the patient or the physician. The response may be so severe as to endanger the patients life. The symptomatology of the allergic response is the result of the complex mechanism that is only triggered by the hapten. Hence, allergic responses to different haptens are fundamentally alike and qualitatively different from the pharmacologic effects the hapten-drugs manifest in normal subjects, i.e., patients not hypersensitive to the drug. Dose-effect curves obtained after administration of antigen to sensitized subjects usually reflect the dose-effect curves of the products of the allergic reaction even though the severity of the effects measured is proportional to the amount of antigen administered. Positive identification of a response as being allergic in nature depends on the demonstration of an antigen-antibody reaction underlying the response. In the case of specific patients, presumptive diagnoses of an allergic response must sometimes be made since no opportunity exists for formal identification of an antigenantibody reaction; such diagnoses can be made and justified since the clinical symptomatology of allergic responses is usually characteristic and clear. Obviously, not all untoward effects of drugs are allergic in nature. Cf. Side-effect, Idiosyncratic Response, Hypersensitivity, Sensitivity

Affinity: The equilibrium constant of the reversible reaction of a drug with a receptor to form a drug-receptor complex; the reciprocal of the dissociation constant of a drug-receptor complex. Under the most general conditions, where there is a 1:1 binding interaction, at equilibrium the number of receptors engaged by a drug at a given drug concentration is directly proportional to their affinity for each other and inversely related to the tendency of the drug-receptor complex to dissociate. Obviously, affinity depends on the chemical natures of both the drug and the receptor. (See: Ariens, E.D. et al., Pharmacol. Rev. 9: 218, 1957).

Agonist: A ligand that binds to a receptor and alters the receptor state resulting in a biological response.

Agonist, Partial: A partial agonist is an agonist that produces a maximal response that is less than the maximal response produced by another agonist acting at the same receptors on the same tissue, as a result of lower intrinsic activity. See also Agonist, Full.

Amplification: The amount of change in measured output per unit change in input. The slope of the input-output, or dose-effect, curve. (Engineers sometimes refer to amplification as sensitivity.) Cf. Accuracy

Agonist, Full: A full agonist is an agonist that produces the largest maximal response of any known agonist that acts on the same receptor.

Analgesic: A drug that dulls the sense of pain. It differs from an anesthetic agent in that it relieves pain without loss of consciousness. Cf. Anesthetic, Narcotic

Abbreviated as AUC (q.v.)

AUC: The area under the plot of plasma concentration of drug (not logarithm of the concentration) against time after drug administration. The area is conveniently determined by the trapezoidal rule: the data points are connected by straight line segments, perpendiculars are erected from the abscissa to each data point, and the sum of the areas of the triangles and trapezoids so constructed is computed. When the last measured concentration (Cn, at time tn) is not zero, the AUC from tn to infinite time is estimated by Cn/kel. The AUC is of particular use in estimating bioavailability of drugs, and in estimating total clearance of drugs (ClT). Following single intravenous doses, AUC = D/ClT, for single compartment systems obeying first-order elimination kinetics; alternatively, AUC = C0/kel. With routes other than the intravenous, for such systems, AUC = F D/ClT, where F is the bioavailability of the drug. The ratio of the AUC after oral administration of a drug formulation to that after the intravenous injection of the same dose to the same subject is used during drug development to assess a drugs oral bioavailability. Cf. Clearance, Bioavailability, Compartments, F

Anesthetic: Literally: an without + aisthesis perception by the senses (Gr.) A drug that causes loss of sensation. General anesthetics cause not only loss of sensation, but also loss of consciousness. Local anesthetics cause loss of sensation by blocking nerve conduction only in the particular area where they are applied.

Antagonism: The joint effect of two or more drugs such that the combined effect is less than the sum of the effects produced by each agent separately. The agonist is the agent producing the effect that is diminished by the administration of the antagonist. Antagonisms may be any of three general types: Chemical caused by combination of agonist with antagonist, with resulting inactivation of the agonist, e.g., dimercaprol and mercuric ion. Physiological caused by agonist and antagonist acting at two independent sites and inducing independent, but opposite effects. Pharmacological caused by action of the agonist and antagonist at the same site. In the case of pharmacological antagonisms, the terms competitive and non-competitive antagonism are used with meanings analogous to competitive and noncompetitive enzyme inhibition as used in enzymology. (See Symposium on Drug Antagonism, Pharm. Rev. 9: 211, 1952). Cf. Synergy, Potentiation, Intrinsic Activity, Affinity

Availability: See Bioavailability

B: Body weight. Sometimes, as a subscript, to indicate of, or in, the body; thus, A B is the amount of drug in the body.

b: The slope of a linear plot of log C against t, when logarithms to the base 10, common logarithms, are used; the slope of the linear, semi-logarithmic, plot of a first-

Area Under the Curve:

order reaction when common logarithms are used. k el = 2.303b; t 1/2 = 0.301/b. Cf. Kel, Half-Life, t1/2

3.

b0: The slope of a linear plot of C (not the logarithm of C) against t; the slope of the linear plot of a zero-order reaction, in which, in equal time intervals, equal amounts of chemical undergo reaction. (See: Bliss, C.I., American Scientist, 45: 499, 1957). Cf. Positive Control Drug, Negative Control Drug, DoseEffect Curve, Time-Concentration Curve

results of the assay can be used to estimate the amount in absolute units of biologically active material contained in the unknown preparation. A bioassay provides only an estimate of the potency of the unknown; the precision of the estimate should always be determined, using the data of the assay.

b: The later segment of a biphasic plot of log C against t (following intravenous injection of a drug) represents the elimination phase of the drugs sojourn in the body, when eliminative, rather than distributive, processes dominate the rate at which plasma concentrations of drug decrease with the passage of time. b is used as a subscript for pharmacokinetic parameters appropriate to the elimination phase, e.g. t1/2b, Vdb, etc. For systems with more than two phases, the lower case Greek letters following b are used, in order, to designate the third, fourth, etc., phases. Cf. a, Compartments, Volume of Distribution, Half-Life

Bioavailability: The percent of dose entering the systemic circulation after administration of a given dosage form. More explicitly, the ratio of the amount of drug absorbed from a test formulation to the amount absorbed after administration of a standard formulation. Frequently, the standard formulation used in assessing bioavailability is the aqueous solution of the drug, given intravenously. The amount of drug absorbed is taken as a measure of the ability of the formulation to deliver drug to the sites of drug action; obviously depending on such factors as disintegration and dissolution properties of the dosage form, and the rate of biotransformation relative to rate of absorption dosage forms containing identical amounts of active drug may differ markedly in their abilities to make drug available, and therefore, in their abilities to permit the drug to manifest its expected pharmacodynamic and therapeutic properties. Amount absorbed is conventionally measured by one of two criteria, either the area under the time-plasma concentration curve (AUC) or the total (cumulative) amount of drug excreted in the urine following drug administration. A linear relationship exists between area under the curve and dose when the fraction of drug absorbed is independent of dose, and elimination rate (half-life) and volume of distribution are independent of dose and dosage form. Alinearity of the relationship between area under the curve and dose may occur if, for example, the absorption process is a saturable one, or if drug fails to reach the systemic circulation because of, e.g., binding of drug in the intestine or biotransformation in the liver during the drugs first transit through the portal system. Cf. F, Disintegration Time, Dissolution Time, Generic Drugs, Reference Standard, Equivalence, First Pass Effect, AUC

Bioassay or Biological Assay: The determination of the potency of a physical, chemical or biological agent, by means of a biological indicator . . . The biological indicators in bioassay are the reactions of living organisms or tissues. Principles characterizing a bioassay include: 1. Potency is a property of the material to be measured, e.g., the drug, not a property of the response. Ordinarily, the relationship between changes in behavior of the indicator and differences in drug dose (a dose-effect curve) must be determined as a part of each assay. Potency is relative, not absolute. The potency of one preparation (the unknown) can be measured only in relationship to the potency of a second preparation (the standard or reference drug) that elicits a similar biologic response. When the absolute amounts of standard used in the assay are known, the

2.

Biopharmaceutics: The science and study of the ways in which the pharmaceutical formulation of administered agents can influence their pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic behavior. Differences in pharmaceutical properties can cause substantial differences in the biologic properties and therapeutic usefulness of preparations which are identical with respect to their content of active ingredient. Pharmaceutical properties known to influence the therapeutic efficacy of drugs include: appearance and taste of the dosage form, solubility of the drug form used in the preparation, the nature of fillers, binders, or menstrua in the dosage form, particle size, stability of the active ingredient, age of the preparation, thickness and type of coating of a dosage form for oral administration, the presence of impurities, etc. Cf. Biotransformation, Biotranslocation, Pharmacokinetics, Bioavailability

factors which control them. Ultimately, the study of biotranslocation involves consideration of how chemicals cross cellular membranes and other biological barriers. Cf. Pharmacokinetics, Half-Life, Volume of Distribution, Biopharmaceutics, ka, kel

Blind Experiment: A form of experiment in which the participants are, to some degree, kept ignorant of the nature and doses of materials administered as specific parts of the experiment. The purpose of the device is, obviously to prevent a prejudiced interpretation of the drug effects observed, and to prevent a presumed knowledge of effects to be expected from influencing the kinds of effects manifested by a subject. Blind experiments are not limited in use to experiments involving only human subjects. Needless to say, both experimenters and subjects may have general knowledge of the purpose, materials and design of the experiment; their ignorance is limited to the nature of individual drug administrations. In a single-blind experiment, one participant usually the subject is left uninformed. In a double-blind experiment two participants usually the subject and observer are uninformed, and in a triple-blind experiment the subject, the observer, and the person responsible for the actual administration of the drug are left unaware of the nature of the material administered. In clinical experimentation, particularly, the use of blind experimentation is frequently associated with the use of dummy or placebo medication as part of the experimental design, and the use of a cross-over experimental design. Cf. Cross-Over Experiment, Dummy, Placebo Glossary 2

Biotransformation: Chemical alteration of an agent (drug) that occurs by virtue of the sojourn of the agent in a biological system. Spontaneous decay of radium would not be considered a biotransformation even if it occurred within the body; chemical alteration of a chemical by enzymatic attack would be considered a biotransformation even if it occurred in a model system, in vitro. Pharmacodynamics involves the chemical effects of a drug on the body; biotransformation involves the chemical effect of the body on a drug! Biotransformation should be used in preference to drug metabolism, and the word metabolism should probably be reserved to denote the biotransformation of materials essential to an adequate nutritional state. Biotransformation and detoxication are not synonyms: the product of a biotransformation may be more, not less, biologically active, or potent, than the starting material. Cf. Pharmacokinetics, Biopharmaceutics

C, Cx: Biotranslocation: The movement of chemicals (drugs) into, through, and out of biological organisms or their parts. In studying biotranslocation one is concerned with the identification and description of such movement, elucidation of the mechanisms by which they occur, and investigation of the The concentration (in units of mass/volume) of a chemical in a body fluid such as blood, plasma, serum, urine, etc.; the specific fluid may be indicated by a subscript, i.e. CU, the concentration of drug in the urine; when no subscript is used, C is commonly taken to be the concentration in the plasma.

theoretically, at the end of an infusion of infinite duration, at a constant rate. C0: The fictive concentration of a drug or chemical in the plasma at the time (in theory) of an instantaneous intravenous injection of a drug that is instantaneously distributed to its volume of distribution. C0 is determined by extrapolating, to zero-time, the plot of log C against t (for apparently first-order decline of C) or of C against t (for apparently zero-order decline of C). Cf. Volume of Distribution, Cmax, Css, First-Order Kinetics, Zero-Order Kinetics Cf. Multiple Dose Regimens , Infusion Kinetics, First-Order Kinetics

Cl, Clx: Clearance in volume/unit time of a drug or chemical from a body fluid, usually plasma or blood, by specified route(s) and mechanism(s) of elimination, as indicated by a subscript, e.g., ClR, urinary clearance; ClH, hepatic clearance, etc. ClT, total clearance, indicates clearance by all routes and mechanisms of biotransformation and excretion, operating simultaneously. ClT = kel Vd. Following intravenous administration, ClT = D/AUC; following administration of drug by any route other than the intravenous, ClT = F D/AUC. Cf. Clearance , AUC , F

Cmax, Cmin: The maximum or peak concentration (Cmax) of a drug observed after its administration; the minimum or trough concentration (Cmin) of a drug observed after its administration and just prior to the administration of a subsequent dose. For drugs eliminated by first-order kinetics from a single-compartment system, Cmax, after n n equal doses given at equal intervals is given by C0(1 f )/(1 f) = Cmax, and Cmin = Cmax C0. The time following drug administration at which the peak concentration of Cmax occurs, tp (for any route of administration but the intravenous), is given by tp = (ln ka ln kel )/(ka kel). (Remember that ln is the natural logarithm, to the base e, rather than the common logarithm or logarithm to the base 10; ln X=2.303 log X.) Cf. Css , f , Multiple Dose Regimens

Ceiling: The maximum biological effect that can be induced in a tissue by a given drug, regardless of how large a dose is administered. The maximum effect produced by a given drug may be less than the maximum response of which the reacting tissue is capable, and less than the maximum response that can be induced by another drug of greater intrinsic activity. Ceiling is analogous to the maximum reaction velocity of an enzymatic reaction when the enzyme is saturated with substrate. Cf. Intrinsic Activity

Css: The concentration of a drug or chemical in a body fluid usually plasma at the time a steady state has been achieved, and rates of drug administration and drug elimination are equal. Css is a value approached as a limit and is achieved, theoretically, following the last of an infinite number of equal doses given at equal intervals. The maximum value under such conditions (Css,max) is given by Css,max = C0/(1 -f), for a drug eliminated by first-order kinetics from a single compartment system. The ratio Css,max/C0 indicates the extent to which drug accumulates under the conditions of a particular dose regimen of, theoretically, an infinitely long duration; the corresponding ratio 1/(1 f) is sometimes called the Accumulation Ratio, R. Css is also the limit achieved, Chemotherapy: Drug treatment of parasitic or neoplastic disease in which the drug has a selective effect on the invading cells or organisms.

Clearance: The clearance of a chemical is the volume of body fluid from which the chemical is, apparently, completely removed by biotransformation and/or excretion, per unit

time. In fact, the chemical is only partially removed from each unit volume of the total volume in which it is dissolved. Since the concentration of the chemical in its volume of distribution is most commonly sampled by analysis of blood or plasma, clearances are most commonly described as the plasma clearance or blood clearance of a substance. For a single compartment system, total clearance, by all routes (ClT), is estimated as the product of the elimination constant and the volume of distribution, in liters: ClT = kel Vd the dimensions of ClT are, of course, volume/time. Renal Clearance: Renal plasma (or blood) clearance ClR is the volume of plasma (or blood) freed of a substance by only renal mechanisms, per unit time. The amount of drug (AU) excreted in the urine during the time interval t t is determined; the plasma (or blood) concentration at the mid-point of the interval (Cp) is found by interpolation on the line relating log C and t. The urinary excretion rate of the drug, AU/(t t), divided by Cp is the renal clearance. Renal plasma clearance will vary with such factors as age, weight, and sex of subject, the state of cardiovascular and renal function, the nature of the material being excreted, species, etc. Renal clearance by only glomerular filtration is defined and measured as the clearance of the sugar inulin, which is eliminated from the body by no route other than glomerular filtration. Total renal clearance is defined and measured by clearance of para-aminohippurate (PAH), a substance that is eliminated by both glomerular filtration and tubular excretion (at the maximum rate of which the tubular mass is capable). Neither inulin nor PAH undergoes reabsorption by the tubules as some materials do. (N.B.: Blood and plasma are completely cleared of PAH by a single pass through the kidney; PAH clearance is therefore, the standard measure of renal plasma, or blood, flow). In normal adult human males, plasma clearance of inulin is about 130 ml plasma/min; of PAH, about 700 ml plasma/min. In normal adult human females, clearance of inulin is about 115 ml plasma/min; of PAH, about 600 ml plasma/min. The relationship between clearance of blood and clearance of plasma is given by the relationship ClR (blood) = ClR (plasma)/(1-Hct), where Hct is the hematocrit, the proportion, as a fraction of the blood which consists of cells, not plasma; on the average, normal adult human subjects can be assumed to have a hematocrit of about 0.45. Like

many other physiological constants, renal plasma clearance varies regularly and exponentially with body weight, across mammalian species ( Science 109: 757, 1949). Renal plasma clearances, in normal animals, can be predicted using the following relationships, where Cl R is in ml/hr, and body weight (B) is in grams: ClR (inulin) = 1.74B ClR (PAH) = 5.40B
0.77

0.80

Nonrenal Clearance: Clearance by the fecal route (ClF), respiratory route (ClL), salivary route (ClS), biliary route (ClB), can be computed in a fashion analogous to computation of ClR: measuring the amount of substance excreted in the feces, expired air, saliva, etc., over an interval and dividing by the plasma concentration at mid-interval and the length of the interval. Following oral administration of a substance, measurement of fecal clearance may be confounded by the presence, in feces, of unabsorbed substance or of substance absorbed but excreted into the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract in, e.g., bile. Specialized techniques exist for estimating clearance of substances by the liver (ClH), by biotransformation and/or biliary excretion. Unlike half-lives, clearances are directly additive and for any substance: ClT = ClR + ClL + ClH + ClS + ClF + . . . etc.

Clinical Therapeutic Index: Some indices of relative safety or relative effectiveness cannot be defined explicitly and uniquely, although it is presumed that the same quantifiable and precise criteria of efficacy and safety will be used in comparing drugs of similar kinds. The Food and Drug Administration has considered the following definition of an improved Clinical Therapeutic Index to be used in comparing different drug combinations or formulations; the assumption is retained that an improved or better drug has a higher Clinical Therapeutic Index (1) increased safety (or patient acceptance) at an accepted level of efficacy within the recommended dosage range, or (2) increased efficacy at equivalent levels of safety (or patient acceptance) within the recommended dosage range. Cf. Food and Drug Administration, Therapeutic Index, Standardized Safety Margin, Effective

Compartment(s): The space or spaces in the body, which a drug appears to occupy after it has been absorbed. Pharmacokinetic compartments are mathematical constructs and need not correspond to the fluid volumes of the body which are defined physiologically and anatomically, i.e., the intravascular, extracellular and intracellular volumes. Some drugs make the body behave as if it consisted of only a single pharmacokinetic compartment. Tissue and plasma concentrations of the drug rapidly and simultaneously reach equilibrium in all the tissues to which the drug is distributed. A plot of plasma concentration against time after intravenous administration can be rectified into only a single straight line of negative slope, which can intersect the ordinate at only one point; only one volume of distribution can be calculated. Hence, the existence of only one compartment or volume of distribution can be inferred. Some drugs make the body appear to consist of two or more pharmacokinetic compartments, since tissue/plasma equilibrium is achieved at different times in different tissues or groups of tissues. A plot of plasma concentration against time after intravenous administration can, at best, be resolved into a series of connected straight-line segments with progressively decreasing slopes. Each of these segments may be extrapolated to intersect the ordinate, and one may infer the existence of as many pharmacokinetic compartments, of volumes of distribution, for the drug as there are intersections or segments. Compartments in which equilibrium is achieved relatively late are referred to as deep compartments; compartments in which equilibrium is achieved early and from which drug is redistributed to other sites are referred to as shallow or superficial compartments. Cf. a, b, Volume of Distribution, Vd

is administered to every subject. At successive experimental sessions each preparation is crossed-over from one subject to another. The purpose of the crossover experiment is to permit the effects of every preparation to be studied in every subject, and to permit the data for each preparation to be similarly and equally affected by the peculiarities of each subject. In a welldesigned cross-over experiment, if it is at all possible, the sequence in which the test preparations are administered is not the same for all subjects, in order to avoid bias in the experiment as a result of changes in the behavior of the subjects that are a function of time rather than of drug administration, or a function of drug interactions. At least, the cross-over design permits detecting such biases when they occur. The preparations under test in a cross-over experiment may ideally, should include one or more doses, of an experimental or unknown drug, one or more doses of a dummy or placebo medication (negative control drugs), and one or more doses of a standard drug, the actions of which are expected to be similar to those of the unknown (positive control drug). Even for the investigator with the best knowledge and intentions, the economics and logistics of experimentation may prevent carrying out a complete and perfect cross-over experiment. Cf. Bioassay, Positive Control Drug, Blind Experiment

Cross-Tolerance: Tolerance to a drug that generalizes to drugs that are chemically related of that produce similar affects. For example, a patient who is tolerant to heroin will also exhibit cross-tolerance to morphine.

CT Index: A measure of drug potency calculated from data appropriate to the construction of a Time-Concentration curve; the product of the concentration (C) of an agent applied to a biological system to produce a specific effect and the duration (T) of application required to produce the effect. The index is calculated on the assumption that the time-concentration curve is precisely and symmetrically hyperbolic and convex to the origin, and that the products of the coordinates for all points on the line are constant. The time-concentration curve of an agent with high potentiality for producing a specified effect lies closer to the axis than the curve for an agent of lesser potential; the CT index for the agent of greater potential is smaller than the index for the agent of lesser potential, i.e., the smaller the CT index, the more potent the compound. CT indices

Compliance: The extent to which a patient agrees to and follows a prescribed treatment regimen.

Cross-Over Experiment: A form of experiment in which each subject receives the test preparation at least once, and every test preparation

have found their greatest application in toxicology, in assessing the potential for effect of noxious vapors, etc. Cf. Time-Concentration Curve, Potency, Dose-Effect Curve, Latency

are set to simulate those that occur in vivo. Factors such as the kind and amount of tablet binders and the degree of compression used in compacting the tablet ingredients help determine disintegration time. The active ingredients in a disintegrated tablet are not necessarily found to be in solution and available for absorption. A long disintegration time is incompatible with rapid drug absorption; a short disintegration time, by itself, does not ensure rapid absorption. Cf. Dissolution Time , Generic Drugs , Biopharmaceutics

D*: Loading Dose (q.v.) Dissolution Time: The time required for a given amount (or fraction) of drug to be released into solution from a solid dosage form. Dissolution time is measured in vitro, under conditions that simulate those that occur in vivo, in experiments in which the amount of drug in solution is determined as a function of time. Needless to say, the availability of a drug in solution rather than as part of insoluble particulate matter is a necessary preliminary to the drugs absorption. Cf. Disintegration Time , Bioavailability , Generic Drug , Biopharmaceutics

D: Dose (q.v.); also the maintenance doses administered after a loading dose (q.v.)

Dependence: A somatic state which develops after chronic administration of certain drugs; this state is characterized by the necessity to continue administration of the drug in order to avoid the appearance of uncomfortable or dangerous (withdrawal) symptoms. Withdrawal symptoms, when they occur, may be relieved by the administration of the drug upon which the body was dependent. Cf. Addiction, Habituation Dosage Form: Desensitization: A decline in the response to repeated or sustained application of an agonist that is a consequence of changes at the level of the receptor. Cf. Tachyphylaxis, Tolerance. Dose: The quantity of drug, or dosage form, administered to a subject at a given time; for example, the usual dose of aspirin for relief of pain in an adult is 300-600 milligrams. Dose may be expressed in terms appropriate to a specific dosage form, i.e., one teaspoonful of a liquid medication, rather than the weight of drug in the teaspoonful. Dose The physical state in which a drug is dispensed for use. For example: a frequent dosage form of procaine is a sterile solution of procaine. The most frequent dosage form of aspirin is a tablet.

Distribution: See Volume of Distribution , Pharmacokinetics

Disintegration Time: The time required for a tablet to break up into granules of specified size (or smaller), under carefully specified test conditions. The conditions of the laboratory test, in vitro,

may be described as an absolute dose (the total amount administered to a subject) or as a relative dose (relative to some property of the subject as body weight or surface 2 area, mg/kg, or mg/m ). Cf. Dosage, Multiple Dose Regimens

2.

Dose-Duration Curve: The curve describing the relationship between dose (as the independent variable) and duration of drug effect (as the dependent variable, T). The slope of the curve is always positive, in contrast to the slope of the time-concentration curve (q.v.). There has been increased interest in the doseduration curve as a useful measure of drug action since Levys demonstration that the constants describing the straight log dose-duration curve of a drug can be used to infer pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the drug, such as the elimination half-life and the threshold dose. (Clin. Pharmacol. & Therap. 7: 362, 1966). Cf. Dose-effect curve, Time-Concentration Curve, Pharmacokinetics

3.

invalidity in interpolating doses or effects from a dose-effect curve. The curves are monotonic. The curve may have a positive slope, or a negative slope, but not both if the system under study is unique. The slope of the curve may show varying degrees of positivity (negativity), but the sign of the slope stays the same throughout the range of testable doses. When monotonicity of a dose-effect curve does not obtain, one may infer that the system under study is not unique or singular: either more than one active agent or more than one effect is under study. The curves approach some maximum value as an asymptote, and the asymptote is a measure of the intrinsic activity (q.v.) of the drug in the system.

Cf. Bioassay, Median Effective Dose, Time-Concentration Curve, Dose-Duration Curve, Metameter

Drug: A chemical used in the diagnosis, treatment, or prevention of disease. More generally, a chemical, which, in a solution of sufficient concentration, will modify the behavior of cells exposed to the solution. Drugs produce only quantitative changes in the behavior of cells; i.e., drugs increase or decrease the magnitude, frequency, of duration of the normal activities of cells. Drugs used in therapy never produce qualitative changes in cell behavior short of producing death of the cell, e.g., a nerve cell cannot be made to contract or a muscle cell cannot be made to secrete saliva by use of a drug. The degree to which this point of view will be modified by the discovery and development of agents which act on cells at a genetic level remains to be seen.

Dose-Effect Curve: A characteristic, even the sine qua non, of a true drug effect is that a larger dose produces a greater effect than does a smaller dose, up to the limit to which the cells affected can respond. While characteristic of a drug effect, this relationship is not unique to active drugs, since increasing doses of placebos (q.v.) can, under certain conditions, result in increasing effects. Distinguishing between true and inactive drugs requires more than demonstration of a relationship between dose and effect. The curve relating effect (as the dependent variable) to dose (as the independent variable) for a drug-cell system is the dose-effect curve for the system. For a unique system, i.e., one involving a single drug and a single effect, such curves have three characteristics, regardless of whether effects are measured as continuous (measurement) or discontinuous (quantal, all-or-none) variates: 1. The curves are continuous, i.e. there are no gaps in the curve, and effect is a continuous function of dose. Some effect corresponds to every dose above the threshold dose (q.v.), and every dose has a corresponding effect; there is no inherent

Drug Abuse: Use or misuse of a drug under conditions, or to an extent, considered more destructive than constructive for society and the individual. More specifically, the use of drugs for their effects chiefly on the central nervous system, to an extent and/or at a frequency and/or for a duration of time that is inimical to the welfare of the user and/or the total of social groups in which she/he lives. The abuse potential of a drug depends on its capacity to induce compulsive drug-seeking behavior in the user, its capacity to induce acute and chronic toxic effects (and to permit occurrence of associated diseases), and upon social attitudes toward the drug, its use, and its effects.

Cf. Drug Dependence, Addiction, Habituation, Harrison Act

Drug Dependence: Drug Dependence has been recommended as a term to be substituted for such words as addiction and habituation since it is frequently difficult to classify specific agents as being only addictive, habituating, or nonaddicting or non-habituating. It has been suggested that the general term be used and modified, appropriately, in specific instances, e.g., drug dependence of the barbiturate type. Cf. Addiction, Habituation, Drug Abuse, Harrison Act

The concentration of an agonist that produces 50% of the maximal possible effect of that agonist. Other percentage values (EC10, EC20, etc.) may be specified. Concentration is preferably expressed in molar units, but the mass concentration (g/l) may be used if the molecular weight of the substance is unknown.

ED50 1. In a quantal assay, the median effective dose. 2. In a graded (non-quantal) assay, the dose of a drug that produces 50% of the maximal response to that drug. It is preferable, where possible, to express potency in terms of EC50 but ED50 is appropriate for in vivo measurements and for those in vitro experiments where the absolute concentration is uncertain. If the maximum response is unknown, it is acceptable to express the effectiveness of a drug in terms of the dose that produces a particular level of response, for example a certain change in blood pressure or heart rate. In such a case, the appropriate units must be included (e.g. ED20mm) to avoid confusion. Effective: Under the Kefauver-Harris Drug Amendments of 1962 (amending the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938), a drug is considered to be effective that has been designated as such by the Food and Drug Administration on the basis of substantial evidence. Such evidence was defined by Congress as adequate and well-controlled investigations, including clinical investigations, by experts qualified by scientific training and experience to evaluate the effectiveness of the drug involved. Cf. Food and Drug Administration, U.S.P.

Dummy: A counterfeit object; a form of treatment as in an experimental investigation of drug effects which is intended to have no effects, to be biologically inert. The dummy treatment should mimic in every way (dosage form, route of administration, etc.) the purportedly active ingredient upon which the effectiveness of the active treatment is expected to depend. In contrast to a dummy, a placebo is expected to have an effect through the agency of suggestion or other psychological mechanisms, even though the effects of placebos may be psychological or physical. Dummies may, of course, have the effects of placebos, but it is useful to be aware of the difference expected to exist between the two. According to Gaddum, dummies have two functions: 1) to distinguish between drug effects in a subject and other effects, such as those of suggestion: obviously, an experiment might properly incorporate both a dummy and a placebo. 2) to obtain an unbiased assessment of the result of a pharmacologic experiment. (See Gaddum, J.H., Proc. Roy. Soc. Med. 47: 195, 1954). Cf. Placebo, Negative Control Drug, Cross-Over Experiment Glossary 3

Efficacy: Broadly, efficacy refers to the capacity of a drug to produce an alteration in a target cell/organ after binding to its receptor. A competitive antagonist, that occupies a binding site without producing any alteration in the receptor, is considered to have an efficacy of zero. Efficacy is generally independent of potency/affinity, and is related to the maximum effect that a particular drug is capable of producing.

EC50 As originally formulated by Stephenson (1956), binding of an agonist A to its receptor R is considered to result in a

stimulus S=? A x P AR where ? A is the efficacy of A and PAR is the proportion of the receptors occupied. The effect of the drug on the cell or tissue is given by Effect = f (S), where f is an unspecified monotonic function that is dependent upon the nature of the receptor and its interaction with the cell or tissue. Efficacy is both agonist and tissue-dependent. Efficacy is related to Intrinsic Activity, which was originally defined by Furchgott (1966) as e=?/R T , i.e. as the efficacy per receptor. In practice, the two terms are sometimes loosely used synonymously. See Effective.

Those chemical equivalents which, when administered in the same amounts, will provide essentially the same biological or physiological availability, as measured by blood levels, etc. Clinical Equivalents: Those chemical equivalents which, when administered in the same amounts, will provide essentially the same therapeutic effect as measured by the control of a symptom or a disease. Cf. Bioavailability, Generic Drugs

Elimination Rate Constant: See kel

Experiment: See Bioassay, Cross-Over Experiment, Blind Experiment

Equipotent: Equally potent, or equally capable of producing a pharmacologic effect of a specified intensity. The masses of the drugs required to produce this degree of effect may be compared, quantitatively, to yield estimates of potency of the drugs. Obviously, if two drugs are not both capable of producing an effect of a given intensity, they cannot be compared with respect to potency; i.e., drugs with different intrinsic activities or ceiling effects cannot be compared with respect to potency in doses close to those producing the ceiling effect of the drug with the greater intrinsic activity. Cf. Potency, Intrinsic Activity f: The fraction of C0 remaining at some specified time after drug administration; more generally, the fraction of C, or AB, remaining after some specified time interval. For firstorder, single compartment systems (i.e. those yielding a single straight line when log C is plotted against t), f can be determined from the relationship: log C = log C0 b t. When t is the time after drug administration, or the interval between two administrations, and t is the elimination half-life of the drug, f is 0.5 raised to a power that is the ratio of the time interval to the elimination halft/t life, i.e., 0.5 . Cf. Half-Life, Cmax, Css, Multiple Dose Regiment, Infusion Kinetics, Compartment, First-Order Kinetics Equivalence: In 1969, a federal Task Force on Prescription Drugs recommended that the words generic equivalents no longer be used in describing and comparing drug preparations. The Task Force recommended that an appropriate nomenclature should take into account three kinds of equivalence of drug preparations: Chemical Equivalents: Those multiple-source drug products which contain essentially identical amounts of the identical active ingredients, in identical dosage forms, and which meet existing physicochemical standards in the official compendia. Biological Equivalents:

F: The fraction of a dose which is absorbed and enters the systemic circulation following administration of a drug by any route other than the intravenous route; the availability of drug to tissues of the body, generally. When the total clearance and the dose of drug administered are known, F can be determined from the relationship: (AUC x ClT)/D = F. When identical doses of a drug have been given by the intravenous and by some other route (x), and the AUCs have been determined, the bioavailability of the drug after administration by route X can be determined: F=AUCx/AUCiv. The amount of free drug recovered in the

urine (AU) after administration of identical doses given intravenously and by route X can also be used to determine bioavailability: F=AU,x/AU,iv Cf. Bioavailability, First Pass Effect, AUC

integrated equation above, ln 0.5 = -kt1/2, or, since -0.693 is the natural logarithm of 0.5: -0.693 = kt1/2. Multiplying both sides of the equation by -1 yields 0.693 = kt1/2 or 0.693/k = t1/2: the natural logarithm of 2 (0.693) divided by the monomolecular velocity constant yields the time required for the concentration to be halved, the half-life or half-time of the reaction. Since ln (C/C0) may be rewritten (lnC lnC0), the integrated equation may be rewritten and given the form of a linear equation: ln C = ln C0 kt. The existence of a monomolecular reaction can be established by plotting ln C, for unreacted material, against t and finding the relationship to be linear; the slope of the line is the original proportionality or velocity constant, and the intercept of the line with the ordinate is the natural logarithm of the original concentration of unreacted material. Since natural logarithms have a fixed relationship to common logarithms, i.e., logarithms to the base 10 (lnX =2.303 log X), one may write: 2.303 log C =2.303 log C kt. When common logarithms of C are plotted against t, a first order reaction yields a straight line with a slope of k/2.303, and an intercept that is the common logarithm of C0. When two molecular species react with each other (a bimolecular reaction), but one of the substances is present in a concentration greatly in excess of the concentration of the other and/or does not change in concentration during the reaction, the velocity of the reaction at any time is really determined only by the concentration of the other substance. Such a pseudo-monomolecular reaction, because the velocity is determined by the concentration of only one of the two reactants, still follows first order kinetics. Following administration of a drug, it may be eliminated from the body only after reacting with tissue components which are present in high concentrations and which are not used up to any degree during the drugs stay in the body. Such eliminative processes mimic pseudomonomolecular reactions, and the drug is eliminated from the body according to first order kinetics,. The apparent velocity constant determined for such a process is called the elimination rate constant, kel, and the elimination halflife can be computed as 0.693/kel. Cf., Half-Life, t1/2, Zero-Order Kinetics

First-Order Kinetics: According to the law of mass action, the velocity of a chemical reaction is proportional to the product of the active masses (concentrations) of the reactants. In a monomolecular reaction, i.e., one in which only a single molecular species reacts, the velocity of the reaction is proportional to the concentration of the unreacted substance (C). The change in concentration (dC) over a time interval (dT) is the velocity of the reaction (dC/dT) and is proportional to C. For infinitely small changes of concentration over infinitely small periods of time, the reaction velocity can be written in the form of a differential equation: -dC/dt=kC. Here, dC/dt is the reaction velocity, C is concentration, and k is the constant of proportionality, or monomolecular velocity constant, which uniquely characterizes the reaction. The minus sign indicates that the velocity decreases with the passage of time, as the concentration of unreacted substance decreases; a plot of C against time would yield a curve of progressively decreasing slope. The mechanisms, the kinetics, described by the differential equation are termed first order kinetics because although the exponent is not written concentration (C) is 1 raised to only the first power (C ). The differential equation above may be integrated and rearranged to yield: ln (C/C0)= kt, where ln indicates use of the natural logarithm, to the base e; C0 is the concentration of unreacted substance at the beginning of an observation period; t is the duration of the observation period; and k is the familiar proportionality or velocity constant. The units of k are independent of the units in which C is expressed; indeed, since a logarithm is dimensionless, and t has the dimension of time, the integrated equation balances, dimensionally, because k -1 has the dimension of reciprocal time, t . Notice that for observation periods of equal length, the ratio C/C0 is always the same; after equal intervals, the final concentration is a constant fraction of the starting concentration, or, in equal time intervals, constant fractions of the starting concentration are lost, even though absolute decreases in concentration become progressively less as time passes and C becomes smaller and smaller. Let t1/2 represent the length of time required for C0 to be halved, so that C=0.5 C0. Then, substituting in the

First Pass Effect: The biotransformation and/or excretion of a drug by intestinal and hepatic, including biliary, mechanisms following absorption of the drug from the gastrointestinal tract, before drug gains access to the systemic circulation.

Cf. Bioavailability, F

Food and Drug Administration: An agency of the Department of Health, and Human Services which is responsible for ensuring compliance with the amended federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act. This agency must pass judgment on the safety of drugs, the labels affixed to drug packages, and all printed material accompanying a packaged drug before that drug may be introduced to interstate commerce. The law empowers the F.D.A. to pass on the efficacy of a new drug or pharmaceutical preparation and gives the agency ultimate jurisdiction over the clinical testing of a drug before it is approved for general sale and use. Prosecution of violation of the F.D. and C. Act is carried out by the Attorney Generals Office on recommendation of the F.D.A. Cf. U.S.P., Harrison Narcotic Act, Effective

which affect therapeutic usefulness or efficacy of drug preparations include appearance, taste, disintegration and dissolution properties of the preparation, interaction of active materials with other ingredients including binders and solvents, pH, particle size, age of preparation, conditions of manufacture such as degree of tablet compression, and the nature and amount of coating of enteric-coated tablets. When the patent of a proprietary drug expires, a manufacturer must establish the biological equivalence of its generic formulation in order to market the product. To do so, the bioavailability if the generic formulation is compared to the proprietary product in a cross-over experiment. Cf. Biopharmaceutics, United States Pharmacopoeia, Bioavailability, Equivalence

Habituation: A condition characterized by a psychological craving for the effects produced by the administration of a drug. The Expert Committee on Addiction-Producing Drugs of the World Health Organization defines habituation (1957) as: a condition resulting from the repeated consumption of a drug. Its characteristics include: (1) a desire (but not compulsion) to continue taking the drug for the sense of improved well-being which it engenders; (2) little or no tendency to increase the dose; (3) some degree of psychic dependence on the effect of drug; but absence of physical dependence and hence of the abstinency syndrome; (4) detrimental effects, if any, primarily on the individual. (See Seevers, M.H., J.A.M.A. 181 :92, 1962.) Cf. Addiction, Narcotic, Dependence, Tolerance, Drug Dependence

Generic Drugs: Drug formulations of identical composition with respect to the active ingredient, i.e., drugs that meet current official standards of identity, purity, and quality of active ingredient. Drug dosage forms considered as generically equivalent are more properly considered as chemically equivalent in that they contain a designated quantity of drug chemical in specified stable condition and meet pharmacopoeial requirements for chemical and physical properties. Each of a number of preparations of a given drug entity may carry a different proprietaryname or trademark; such a name is registered with the U.S. Patent Office and identifies the special brand of the drug with the firm owning the name. All such preparations identical with respect to content and specification of active ingredient may be looked upon as comprising a genus; they are generically equivalent and are generic drugs. FDA regulations require manufacturers of generic drugs to establish biological equivalence of their product to the original patented drug product. It is well recognized that a number of factors other than quantity of drug present in a dose can determine the ultimate therapeutic usefulness of the drug preparation, and even the availability of drug to the site of action once the preparation has been given. Drugs may be generically equivalent but not therapeutically equivalent. Factors

Half-Life: The period of time required for the concentration or amount of drug in the body to be reduced to exactly onehalf of a given concentration or amount. The given concentration or amount need not be the maximum observed during the course of the experiment, or the concentration or amount present at the beginning of an experiment, since the half-life is completely independent of the concentration or amount chosen as the starting

point . Half-lives can be computed and interpreted legitimately only when concentration or amount varies with time according to the law appropriate to the kinetics of a first order reaction: the common logarithm of the concentration or amount is related linearly to time, e.g.: log C=a+bt where C is concentration at time t, a (in logarithmic units) is the intercept of the line with the ordinate, and b (which has a negative sign) is the slope of the line. The parameters of the equation can be estimated from the plot of experimental values of log C and t. The half-life can be computed simply by dividing the slope of the curve into 0.301, the difference between the logarithm of a number (C) and the logarithm of number half as large (C/2); the symbol for half-life is t1/2. The half-life of a drug in plasma or serum is frequently taken as indicating the persistence of the drug in its volume of distribution; this interpretation may be incorrect unless the material can move freely and rapidly from one fluid compartment of the body to another, and is not bound or stored in one or another tissue. The term biological half-life should not be used instead of the specific terms plasma half-life or serum half-life. The tissue for which the half-life of a drug is determined should always be specified, e.g., serum half-life; the halflife of a drug in muscle, kidney, etc., or in the whole organism can be determined. Drug half-lives are frequently based on the results of chemical analyses, i.e., the results of the reaction of a reagent with a specific chemical group of a drug molecule; it should be remembered that detection of the group per se does not necessarily imply its continuous existence as part of a biologically active drug molecule. A drug molecule that leaves the plasma may have any of several fates: it can be destroyed in the blood; it can be eliminated from the body; or it can be translocated to a body fluid compartment other than the intravascular to be stored, biotransformed, or to exert its pharmacodynamic effects. When the plot of log plasma or serum concentration (during the period of its decline) against time is composed of two straight line segments, the inference may be made that two first order processes are involved in the distribution and biotransformation and elimination of the drug. The earlier phase represented by the line segment of greater slope is termed the distributive phase, and corresponds to the period during which translocation of the drug to its ultimate volume of distribution occurs and is the dominant process; the later phase represented by the line of lesser slope is termed the eliminative phase, and corresponds to the period when biotransformation and elimination of drug are dominant processes. For two-

phase systems, three phase systems, etc., half-lives of the drugs in the various phases can be determined only after more sophisticated analysis of the data than that described above. Cf. First Order Kinetics, Compartment, Volume of Distribution, Pharmacokinetics, Biotransformation, Biotranslocation, a, b

Harrison Act: A federal law passed in 1916 that regulated the manufacture, importation, transportation, and distribution (wholesale, retail, dispensing) of all narcotics defined by the act. Coca leaves and derivatives, opium and derivatives, and various synthetic agents were subject to the act and are officially designated as narcotics. The effect of the law was to regulate possession and use of the materials designated as narcotics. Since regulation was achieved through taxation, the law was enforced by the Treasury Department, Bureau of Internal Revenue. Traffic in marihuana was first controlled by the Marijuana Tax Act of 1937. More recently, additional materials, e.g., barbiturates, amphetamines, etc., were recognized by Congress as requiring legal control, and were included with narcotics and marihuana in the Controlled Substances Act of 1970. The law is implemented by placing a nominal tax on certain materials under the law, and by requiring that physicians, dentists, etc., be specially licensed, annually, to legally prescribe materials covered by the law. The Act of 1970 is enforced by the Drug Enforcement Administration of the U.S. Department of Justice. Cf. Narcotic, Addiction

Hazard: The potential for causing harm; that which is a potential cause of harm. With respect to chemicals which are capable of causing harm, hazard is about equivalent in meaning to toxicity; measuring the hazard or toxicity of a chemical is to measure its potency in producing harm: the lower the dose required to produce harm, the greater the hazard or toxicity, the more hazardous or toxic is the substance. Since the time of Paracelsus, in the early 16th century, it has been recognized that all chemicals, given in sufficient doses, are capable of producing harm. Therefore, it is not very meaningful simply to call a chemical a hazard, or to

speak of a chemical as hazardous, without qualification or definition. Three categories of information are needed to define a hazard: specific descriptions of the harms it can produce, specific identification of the species or kinds of subjects that can be harmed, and specification of the kinds of exposure to the chemical (including dose) which can result in the respective harms. Observe that hazard is the potential for causing harm. However hazardous a chemical might be, it may present no risk if potential victims are not exposed to it! Risk management is the effort to limit the likelihood that the hazard of a chemical will be realized or manifested. For chemicals, such as drugs, it is frequently more informative to consider their hazards relative to their potential for producing benefit, rather than relative to the hazards of other chemicals. An extremely potent therapeutic agent may also be potent in producing harm, but it may be a useful drug because of its large therapeutic index or standardized safety margin. Cf. Risk, Potency, Therapeutic Index, Standardized Safety Margin, CT Index, Toxic Effects

Hypnotic: A drug that produces a state clinically identical to sleep by means of action in the central nervous system. Cf. Anesthetic

Idiosyncratic Response: A qualitatively abnormal or unusual response to a drug which is unique, or virtually so, to the individual who manifests the response. Idiosyncratic Response usually applies to a response that is not allergic in nature and cannot be produced with regularity in a substantial number of subjects in the population, and which is ordinarily not produced in a greater intensity in an individual, or in a greater fraction of the population, by the expedient of increase in the dose. In other words, were frequency or intensity of idiosyncratic response used as a measure of effect in constructing a dose-effect curve, a curve might indeed be constructed, but its slope would be found to be 0 (zero), indicating that effect was not significantly a function of dose. In practice, the mechanism of production of an idiosyncratic response is unknown; once the mechanism is known, the response can usually be classified in some other way. Cf. Toxic effect, Side effect, Allergic response

Hypersensitivity: The physiological state necessary for a subjects manifesting an allergic response or reaction; the state is dependent on the administration of a hapten or allergen to a susceptible individual, and the development of antibodies and immune mechanisms capable of being activated by a subsequent administration of the haptene. Hypersensitivity may exist but not be manifested until a second administration of hapten occurs. The dose of hapten (or drug) required to produce the allergic response may be smaller, larger, or the same size as the dose required for the drug to produce its characteristic pharmacologic effects; hence hypersensitivity is not the same as sensitivity and the two words should not be used as synonyms. The nature of the response to haptene in a hypersensitive subject is determined by the immune mechanisms and effector organs and is not, in general, related to the nature of the hapten; the allergic response in the hypersensitive subject is generally qualitatively different from the expected pharmacodynamic response to the hapten or drug, being determined by the immune system, rather than by the receptor(s) that mediate that drugs pharmacodynamic effect. Cf. Sensitivity, Allergic Response, Idiosyncratic Response

Infusion Kinetics: Infusion, as a means of drug administration, involves an effectively continuous flow of a drug solution into the blood stream over a relatively long period of time. (Intravascular injections are separate administrations of drug solutions, each over a short period of time.) A major purpose of an infusion is to maintain a steady blood or plasma concentration of drug over a long period of time, i.e. to achieve and maintain Css. The Css achieved during infusion of a drug is directly proportional to the rate of drug administration (D/T, or k0), and inversely proportional to both the rate of elimination (kel), and to the volume of body throughout which the drug is distributed: Css = (D/T)/kelVd. Since, kelVd equals total clearance: Css = (D/T)/ClT, or Css = k0/ClT. The concentration finally achieved varies directly with the infusion rate and indirectly with the total clearance of the drug (always

assuming first-order elimination and a single compartment system). For a drug given by infusion, and eliminated by first-order kinetics from a one-compartment system, the rate at which Css is achieved depends only on the half-life of the drug. In the absence of other doses (such as a loading dose [q.v.]) the plasma concentration at any time after beginning the infusion (CT), expressed as a fraction of the Css to be achieved, is given by (1 f): CT/Css = 1 0.5
T/t

of a drug absorbed from its site of application according to first-order kinetics. ka is determined directly, or indirectly, as the slope of the linear relationship between the logarithm of the amount un absorbed and t, when natural logarithms, i.e. logarithms to the base e, are used. The half-time for absorption is computed as 0.693/ka, i.e. ln 2/ka. Cf. kel, k0, t1/2, Half-Life, First-Order Kinetics, Cmax

kel: After duration of infusion of one half-life, 50% of the final concentration will have been achieved; after a duration of infusion of 4 half-lives, about 95% of the final concentration will have been achieved. Cf. Css, F, Multiple Dose Regimens, First-Order Kinetics, Compartment The elimination rate constant for a drug eliminated according to the laws of first-order reaction kinetics; the slope of the plot of the logarithm of concentration against time, when natural logarithms, i.e. logarithms to the base e, are used. t1/2 = 0.693/kel. kel = 2.303b. ClT = kel Vd. AUC from Tn to infinity = Cn/Kel. Cf. b, t1/2, Half-Life, ka, First-Order Kinetics Intrinsic Efficacy (or intrinsic activity): The property of a drug that determines the amount of biological effect produced per unit of drug-receptor complex formed. Two agents combining with equivalent sets of receptors may not produce equal degrees of effect even if both agents are given in maximally effective doses; the agents differ in their intrinsic activities and the one producing the greater maximum effect has the greater intrinsic activity. Intrinsic activity is not the same as potency and may be completely independent of it. Meperidine and morphine presumably combine with the same receptors to produce analgesia, but regardless of dose, the maximum degree of analgesia produced by morphine is greater than that produced by meperidine; morphine has the greater intrinsic activity. Intrinsic activity like affinity depends on the chemical natures of both the drug and the receptor, but intrinsic activity and affinity apparently can vary independently with changes in the drug molecule. Cf. Affinity, Receptors, Ceiling. Antagonism, Dose-Effect Curve Glossary 4

k0: The absorption rate constant when rate of absorption (D/T) does not vary. k0 describes the rate at which drug enters the body during constant-rate intravenous infusions, or during use of sustained release preparations for oral or transdermal drug administration.

Latent Period or Latency: The period of time that must elapse between the time at which a dose of drug is applied to a biologic system and the time at which a specified pharmacologic effect is produced. In general, the latent period varies inversely with dose; the relationship between dose and latent period for a given agent is described by a time-dose or time-concentration curve. Cf. Time-Concentration Curve, CT Index

ka: The absorption rate constant for a drug administered by a route other than the intravenous. The rate of absorption LD50:

See Median Effective Dose. Metameter: Loading Dose: A larger than normal dose (D*) administered as the first in a series of doses, the others of which are smaller than D* but equal to each other. The loading dose is administered in order to achieve a therapeutic amount in the body more rapidly than would occur only by accumulation of the repeated smaller doses. The smaller doses (D) which are given after D* are called maintenance doses. The effect of D* on C becomes relatively less with each succeeding maintenance dose; finally Css,max and Css,min are determined by D, and are uninfluenced by D*. The relative sizes of D and D* can be adjusted so that peak plasma concentrations (Cmax) are the same following every dose, including the first with D*, and all are equal to Css,max. These conditions are met when D/D* = 1-f. Cf. Dose, Cmax, Css, F, Multiple Dose Regimens A term used to designate the measurement or transformation of the measurement used in evaluating biological tests. Examples of metameters of dose include milligrams, moles, log milligrams, log milligrams per kilogram of body weight, etc. Metameters of response include increase in blood pressure, in mmHg, Maximum blood pressure achieved, in mmHg, and percent increase in blood pressure. Metameters are frequently and erroneously chosen only to facilitate statistical summary and analysis of data; the metameter used may also obscure or influence the biological interpretation of the data in a manner not intended or expected by the investigator. For example, implicit in the calculation of percent change in blood pressure is the statement that the final state of the system is a function of the initial state that may or may not be true. Cf. Parameter, Bioassay, Dose-Effect Curve

Multiple Dose Regimens: The pharmacokinetic aspects of treatment schedules that involve more than one dose of a drug are discussed below. The relationships described involve assumptions of instantaneous intravenous administration and distribution of a drug that is eliminated by first-order kinetics from a single-compartment system, and is given in equal doses at equal time intervals. The relationships become less accurate in describing real situations to the extent that the real systems depart from the ideal model, i.e. to the extent that ka is not much greater than kel, and to the extent that Vda is not much smaller than Vdb. When equal doses are administered at equal intervals, the peak plasma concentration after the nth dose, Cmax,n is given by the relationship: Cmax,n = C0 (1 f )/( l- f) The trough concentrations (Cmin) for the two conditions are: Cmin,n = Cmax,n C0, and Css,min = Css,max C0, respectively. Knowing the half-life of a drug and the Css,max and Css,min desired to produce optimum therapy, the dose interval, ? (tau), necessary to achieve and maintain these maximum
n

Maintenance Dose: See Loading Dose.

Median Effective Dose: The dose of a drug predicted (by statistical techniques) to produce a characteristic effect in 50 percent of the subjects to whom the dose is given. The median effective dose (usually abbreviated ED50) is found by interpolation from a dose-effect curve. The ED50 is the most frequently used standardized dose by means of which the potencies of drugs are compared. Although one can determine the dose of drug predicted to be effective in one percent (ED1) or 99 percent (ED99) of a population, the ED50 can be determined more precisely than other similar values. An ED50 can be determined only from data involving all or none (quantal) response; for quantal response data, values for ED0 and ED100 cannot be determined. In analogy to the median effective dose, the pharmacologist speaks of a median lethal dose (LD50), a median anesthetic dose(AD50), a median convulsive dose (CD50), etc. Cf. Dose-Effect Curve, Therapeutic Index, Standardized Safety Margin, Bioassay, Metameter

and minimum concentrations can be determined from the relationship: ?= 1.443 (t1/2) ln(Css,max/Css, min). (Remember that ln X = 2.303 log X, that t1/2 = 0.693/kel, and that 1/0.693 = 1.443.)

The number of doses in a series; as a subscript, the last dose in a series or the number of the last dose. Cf. Cmax, Css, Multiple Dose Regimens

Narcotic: The doses to be administered at intervals, ?, to produce the desired Css,max and Css,min are inferred from experimental data relating the size of single doses to the peak plasma concentrations (Cmax) each produces, or are estimated from the relationship F D/Vd = C, when the Vdand F of the drug are known. (The relationship among Css,max, Css,min and expected therapeutic outcome, including occurrence of side effects, are inferred from dose-effect relationships established in clinical pharmacologic experiments.) With repeated doses, at equal intervals, peak plasma concentrations (Cmax) approach but, in theory, never reach Css,max. In practice, it is useful to know how long it takes for Cmaxto reach some specified level with respect to Css,max, i.e., how long it takes for Cmax/Css,max to reach, say, 0.95. Knowing the expected value of Css,max and the fractional achievement desired, e.g. 0.95, it is easy to compute the desired Cmax. Then, knowing the dose interval, ?, and the half-life of the drug, the time required to reach the desired Cmax is given by the relationship: n? = 1.443 ( t1/2) ln [(Css,max - Cmax)/Css,max] where the time required (n?) is expressed as the product of the number of doses and the duration of the dose interval (?). The number of doses required to achieve the desired ratio of Cmax to Css,max may be determined by dividing the right hand member of the equation by the length of the dose interval. When ? is long, relative to t1/2, many doses may have to be given, and much time may have to pass if a reasonable fraction of Css,max is to be achieved by administering identical doses at equal interval. Under such circumstances, prompt achievement of therapeutically effective blood levels may require beginning the treatment regimen with a loading dose (q.v.). Cf. Cmax, Css, Infusion Kinetics, First-Order Kinetics, Compartment Formerly, an agent capable of producing coma or stupor (from Greek narke: torpor, numbness). Now, usually, any drug which produces analgesia and is capable of producing stupor: pain is relieved by a dose or narcotic before the occurrence of sleep or unconsciousness. Legally, the tern narcotic is applied only to those drugs the sale and use of which is regulated by the Harrison Narcotic Act. Cf. Addiction, Anesthetic, Analgesic

National Formulary (N.F.): A reference volume published formerly by the American Pharmaceutical Association containing standards of purity and methods of assay for some drugs, and formulae and methods of manufacture for a variety of pharmaceutical preparations. Drugs were included on the basis of demand as well as therapeutic value. The N.F. and the U.S.P. are recognized by the F.D.A. as official standards, and the two are now published as a single volume. Cf. U.S.P., F.D.A.

Negative Control Drug or Negative Control Procedure: A treatment incorporated into an experiment with the intention that it have no effects on the experimental system like those expected of the independent variable. In a pharmacologic experiment, the negative control drug mimics in every way the drug preparation under investigation (including identity of dosage form, vehicle, mode of application, etc.) except that the negative control drug lacks the ingredient that is expected to be responsible for the biological effect of the test preparation. The negative control drug has two functions in an experiment: 1.) To permit ascribing a causal relationship between treatment with the independent variable and changes in the experimental system which follow treatment. If the experimental system responds to both the negative control drug and the drug preparation under test, one cannot in the absence of other information legitimately infer that the effects of the test

N:

preparation are caused by the supposedly pharmacodynamically active test preparation. 2.) To serve as a basis for quantitative estimation of the effects of the independent variable in excess of those effects produced by non-specific changes in the environment or the experimental system. A test drug preparation may have non-specific effects like those of the negative control drug, but may also have specific effects that can be attributed to the ingredient that is unique to the test preparation. Careful use of a negative control drug in an experiment prevents erroneous conclusions about the apparent activity of a test preparation; use of a positive control drug prevents making erroneous conclusions about apparent inactivity of a test preparation. Cf. Positive Control Drug, Dummy, Placebo, Bioassay, Cross-Over Experiment

medical pharmacology, the science and study of how drugs produce their effects. Cf. Pharmacology, Pharmacokinetics, Therapeutics, Pharmacogenetics

Pharmacogenetics: The science and study of the inheritance of characteristic patterns of interaction between chemicals (drugs) and organisms. Pharmacogenetics involves identification and description of such patterns, discriminating them from non-heritable patterns, and elucidation of the mechanism of inheritance. Pharmacogenetic studies illuminate many intraspecific and interspecific similarities, and differences in pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic mechanisms. Cf. Pharmacodynamics, Pharmacology

Pharmacokinetics: Parameter: 1. One of the elements of an experiment which can be varied, but which the experimenter tries to control or maintain constant during the course of a specific experiment, while intentionally altering the independent variable and observing changes in the dependent variable. Parameters in one experiment (stimulus strength, for example) might well be independent variables in another. 2. Terms of an equation that do not vary within the context of an experiment, but may be different under different circumstances. Parameter should be distinguished from the independent and dependent variables. For example, in the equation of a straight line, y = mx + b, x is normally the independent variable (the variable under experimental control), y is the dependent (measured) variable, and the slope m and intercept b are parameters, which are the same for a given line, but may be different for a different line. Cf. Metameter, Bioassay The science and study of the factors which determine the amount of chemical agents at their sites of biological effect at various times after the application of an agent or drug to biological systems. Pharmacokinetics includes study of drug absorption and distribution (biotranslocation), study of the chemical alterations a drug may undergo in the body, (biotransformation), and study of the means by which drugs are stored in the body and eliminated from it. Cf. Pharmacodynamics, Pharmacology, Biotransformation, Biotranslocation, Half-Life, Volume of Distribution, Bioavailability

Pharmacology: (Gr. Pharmakon drug, and Logos word) is the study of drugs in all their aspects. Pharmacy, although often confused with pharmacology, is, in fact, an independent discipline concerned with the art and science of the preparation, compounding, and dispensing of drugs. Pharmacognosy is a branch of pharmacy that deals with the identification and analysis of the plant and animal tissues from which drugs may be extracted. Pharmacodynamics, which in common usage is usually termed pharmacology, is concerned with the study of drug effects and how they are produced. The pharmacodynamicist, or pharmacologist, identifies the

Pharmacodynamics: The science and study of the biological effects produced by chemical agents; more specifically, the science and study of how chemical agents produce their biological effects. In

effects produced by drugs, and determines the sites and mechanisms of their action in the body. The pharmacologist studies the physiological or biochemical mechanisms by which drug actions are produced. The pharmacologist also investigates those factors that modify the effects of drugs, i.e. the routes of administration, influence of rates of absorption, differential distribution, and the bodys mechanisms of excretion and detoxification, on the total effect of a drug. Pharmacotherapeutics is the study of the use of drugs in the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of disease states. Toxicology is the study of drug effects that are inimical to health. The toxicologist may investigate such diverse problems as the effects of overdoses of pharmacotherapeutic agents; the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of lead poisoning in the paint manufacturing industry; the possibility that criminal poisoning was the cause of an otherwise inexplicable death, etc. Experimental pharmacology, in the broadest sense, deals with the reactions of living organisms to chemical agents, or, to put the matter in another way, the behavior of organisms to changes in the chemical environment in which they live. Pharmacology is a part of biology Of all the vast number of pharmacologic reactions, those that the physician attempts to use for curative purposes are of the greatest interest and most deserved of study. This part of pharmacology, the scientific knowledge of remedial agents, forms the theoretical foundation for therapeutics H.H.Meter and R. Gottlieb, Experimental Pharmacology as a Basis for Therapeutics: A Textbook for Students and Physicians, 1910 (trans. by V. E. Henderson). Cf. Therapeutics, Pharmacodynamics, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacogenetics, Toxicology

system qualitatively similar to those expected of the independent variable. The positive control drug has two functions in an experiment: 1) to verify that the experimental system is indeed capable of undergoing the changes expected to follow manipulation of the independent variable. If the system fails to respond to the positive control drug, its failure to respond to the independent variable is uninterpretable; 2) to serve as a basis for quantitative estimation of the relative efficacy of the independent variable. In these terms, the positive control drug is a standard, and the independent variable may be considered the unknown in a bioassay. Cf. Negative Control Drug, Bioassay, Cross-Over Experiment, Reference Standard

Potency: An expression of the activity of a drug, in terms of the concentration or amount needed to produce a defined effect; an imprecise term that should always be further defined (see EC50, ED50). Cf. Sensitivity, Dose-Effect Curve, Intrinsic Activity, Bioassay, Equipotent

Potentiation: A special case of synergy (q.v.) in which the effect of one drug is increased by another drug that by itself has no effect. For example, although physostigmine has no acetylcholine-like activity of its own, it potentiates the actions of acetylcholine by inhibiting the enzymes responsible for the destruction of acetylcholine. Intensity of effect may be potentiated, duration of effect may be prolonged: potentiation and prolongation are independent phenomena, but frequently occur together. Cf. Synergy, Antagonism

Placebo: (Latin: I will satisfy). A medicine or preparation with no inherent pertinent pharmacologic activity that is effective only by virtue of the factor of suggestion attendant upon its administration. A placebo is frequently used as a negative control in a blind experiment to prevent results from being confounded by the effect of suggestion. Cf. Dummy, Negative Control Drug, Positive Control Drug

Priming Dose: See Loading Dose.

Positive Control Drug: A drug preparation incorporated into an experiment with the intention that it have effects on the experimental Prodrug:

A chemical with little or no pharmacologic activity that undergoes change in the body into a more active material. The change may be a result of biotransformation, or may occur spontaneously, in the presence of, e.g., water, an appropriate pH, etc.

reasonable care should be exercised that receptor does not become a catch-all phrase used to explain all drug actions or the actions of all drugs. Cf. Intrinsic Activity, Affinity, Antagonism

Precision: The capacity of the system to discriminate between different values of input; the fineness with which different values for input can be inferred from measured values of output. The pooled deviation of observed from expected values of output, all divided by the amplification, yields the index of precision. The square of the reciprocal of the index of precision is the measure of the amount of information that can be delivered by the system. Specifically, precision is computed in several steps. First, the deviation of each observed value of output from the corresponding predicted value is squared; predicted values are determined from the curve relating input and output for all the data. The squared deviations are summed and divided by N-2, the number of degrees of freedom; the square root of the quotient is determined and is a number analogous to the standard deviation. This root mean square deviation is then divided by the slope of the inputoutput curve, i.e., the amplification, to yield the index of precision ; it is assumed that the input-output relationship is linear. See Accuracy Glossary 5

Reference Standard: A drug, chemical, or dosage form, etc., of specified properties used as the basis for quantitative comparison with other materials of qualitatively similar properties. The purpose of such a comparison is to express the amount or degree of the designated property in the other material as a fraction or multiple of the amount or degree of the property contained in the standard. The reference standard serves as a unit of measurement for the properties of the other, or unknown, material. Even physical systems of measurement are based on reference standards. The use of reference standards is of particularly great importance to the design and interpretation of biological experiments. In biological experiments, particularly, variability and instability of the biological test system can markedly influence the apparent effects and effectiveness of substances being tested.

Reliability: The degree to which the input-output relationship is reproducible if the relationship is studied repeatedly under comparable conditions. For example, if a student took the same examination twice, or in two forms, would he get the same grade both times? If the same work were reviewed by two graders, would they both assign the same mark? See Accuracy.

R: Accumulation Ratio, see Css. Risk: The likelihood that harm will result from exposure to a hazard. More generally, the probability that an event has occurred, or will occur, in members of a population under specified conditions, e.g., of exposure to a hazardous chemical; the population at risk consists of the subjects who could experience the event, e.g., who were exposed to the chemical. Risk is calculated by dividing the number of subjects who experience an event by the number of subjects in the population at risk. The risk, so calculated, is one of the bases used to estimate the likelihood that the

Receptors: Actual or hypothetical small, chemically defined areas (of a cell) which give (initiate) a biological response upon uniting with chemically complementary areas of natural or foreign molecules (drugs). The receptor hypothesis is indispensable to pharmacologists in analyzing and interpreting the actions of some drugs; however,

event will occur in the future, the predicted risk. Risk, calculated as described, also indicates the probability that any individual subject in the population at risk experienced the event. (Formally, the idea of risk is applicable to the study of both desirable and undesirable events.) For a meaningful estimate of risk (following exposure of subjects to some hazard), it is necessary to have carefully defined the harm that was done, to have characterized the population at risk, and to have specified the conditions of exposure. Interpreting an estimate of risk requires comparing the data with those from a control population, ideally one never exposed to the hazard. The statistical techniques used to estimate risks and to compare them are, generally, the techniques used in epidemiology. Perceived risk is the subjective assessment of the importance of a hazard to individuals or to groups of individuals, For example, hazards that affect children generally have higher perceived risks than those that tend to affect adults. Hazards viewed as under a persons control (e.g., driving a car) generally have lower perceived risks than those viewed as not under such control (e.g., riding in a aircraft piloted by someone else). Hazards that produce fatalities grouped in time and space (e.g., airplane crashes) generally have higher perceived risks than those which produce fatalities scattered in time and space (e.g., automobile accidents), etc. Perceived risks are not necessarily correlated with the risks, for the same hazards, measures by epidemiologic techniques. Risk management is the effort to reduce the likelihood that a hazard will produce harm. Risk management may involve decreasing the size of the population at risk (e.g., by prohibiting the use of a chemical as a food additive), altering the conditions of exposure (e.g., requiring adequate ventilation in an industrial environment), developing and using therapeutic regimens to minimize the consequences of exposure, etc. Cf. Hazard, Toxicology

selectivity of drug action with respect to two potentially beneficial effects, or two potentially toxic doses, or two toxic doses, instead of one each. Selectivity is not to be confused with potency; a potent drug may be non-selective or a selective drug may be impotent. Selectivity is however, a measure of the relative potency of a drug in producing different effects. Selectivity is generally a desirable property in a drug, e.g., it is desirable that an antibacterial agent affect parasites in doses too small to affect host cells. Sometimes, selectivity of action is virtually precluded by the nature of the drug, e.g., in the case of analogs of hormones that have many target cells or tissues. Sometimes selectivity of action for cells within an organism is not necessarily desirable, as in the case of certain economic poisons, i.e., pesticides, herbicides, rodenticides; even in this case, however, it is desirable to have a drug selective for cells of a particular species, and this criterion can most easily be met by drugs selective for certain cell types in the organisms of the target species. Selectivity and specificity are, unfortunately, frequently used as synonyms for each other. They describe separate phenomena, each of which deserves an unambiguous name. Cf. Specificity, Therapeutic Index

Sensitivity: The ability of a population, an individual or a tissue, relative to the abilities of others, to respond in a qualitatively normal fashion to a particular drug dose. The smaller the dose required to produce an effect, the more sensitive is the responding system. A patient would be considered abnormally sensitive to aspirin if a small fraction of the normal analgesic dose gave adequate pain relief; or, were an abnormally large dose of aspirin required to afford pain relief, the subject would be said to be insensitive to aspirin. Conversely, the drug would appear to be extraordinarily potent or impotent in such a patient. If a patient manifested an allergic response after raking aspirin, he would be considered hypersensitive to aspirin, regardless of whether the aspirin afforded him relief from pain, and regardless of the size of the dose required to elicit the allergic response. Such a patient might be simultaneously hypersensitive to aspirin, and insensitive to aspirin, acting as an analgesic agent. Every subject is sensitive to a drug; the question of importance is how sensitive? In any event sensitivity is a property ascribed to the organism; potency is a property

Selectivity: The capacity or propensity of a drug to affect one cell population in preference to others, i.e., the ability of a drug to affect one kind of cell, and produce effects, in doses lower than those required to affect other cells. Selectivity can be measured or described by means of such numbers as the Therapeutic Index, or the Standardized Safety Margin: not infrequently one wishes to express

ascribed to the drug. Hypersensitivity is a property ascribed to a subject in a particular immunologic state. Sensitivity may be measured or described quantitatively in terms of the point of intersection of a dose-effect curve with the axis of abscissal values or a line parallel to it; such a point corresponds to the dose just required to produce a given degree of effect (see Threshold). In analogy to this, the sensitivity of a measuring system is defined as the lowest input (smallest dose) required to produce a given degree of output (effect). Cf. Supersensitivity, Hypersensitivity, Allergic Response, Potency, Accuracy

The capacity of a drug to manifest only one kind of action. A drug of perfect specificity of action might increase, or decrease, a specific function of a given cell type, but it would not do both. Nicotine is not specific in its actions in autonomic ganglia; it both stimulates and depresses ganglionic function by a number of means. Atropine is quite specific in only blocking the actions of acetylcholine at certain receptors; in general atropine does not stimulate cellular activity when it combines with receptors, nor does it block interaction with receptors of agonists other than acetylcholine. In affecting exocrine glands, acetylcholine itself is very specific, in that it causes only stimulation or secretion; acetylcholine, at the same time, is non-selective in its action, in that stimulation of all exocrine glands is produced by about the same dose of acetylcholine. Selectivity is concerned with site of action; specificity, with the kinds of action at a site. Cf. Selectivity

Side Effects: Drug effects which are not desirable or are not part of a therapeutic effect; effects other than those intended. For instance, in the treatment of peptic ulcer with atropine, dryness of the mouth is a side effect and decreased gastric secretion is the desired drug effect. If the same drug were being used to inhibit salivation, dryness of the mouth would be the therapeutic effect and decreased gastric secretion would be a side effect. Pharmacological side effects are true drug effects. With increasing doses of a drug, the intensity of pharmacological side effects in individuals, and/or the frequency with which a pharmacological side effect is observed in a population is increased. Cf. Idiosyncratic Response, Toxic Effects, Allergic Response

Standard Drug: See Bioassay, Positive Control Drug.

Standardized Safety Margin: A number, LD1-ED99/ED99 x 100%, which is a measure of the selectivity of action or relative safety of a drug. The standardized safety margin indicates by what percentage of itself a dose effective in virtually all (99%) of a population must be exceeded in order to produce a lethal effect in a minimum number (1%) in the population. The therapeutic index (q.v.) measures by what factor an effective dose must be increased to produce a standard lethal effect in a population. Clinically, the standardized safety margin probably has greater practical meaning than does the therapeutic index, and, unlike the therapeutic index, the meaningfulness of the standardized safety margin does not depend on the parallelism of the dose effect curves from which the LD1 and ED99 are inferred. The standardized safety margin (more frequently than the therapeutic index) can sometimes be computed from clinical data not involving lethal effects, e.g., the ED99 for control of epileptic seizures and the ED1 for the production of drowsiness or ataxia, in a population of patients with epilepsy. See: Foster, R.H.K., J. Pharmacol. 65: 1, 1939. Cf. Therapeutic Index, Median Effective Dose, Selectivity, Clinical Therapeutic Index

Spare Receptors: A pharmacological system has spare receptors (a receptor reserve), if an agonist can induce a maximum response when occupying less than 100% of the available receptors. The existence of spare receptors reflects a circumstance in which the maximum effect produced by an agonist is limited by some factor other than the number of activated receptors. Whether or not a system has spare receptors depends upon the nature of the receptor and its coupling to the measured response, the number of receptors, and the intrinsic activity of the agonist.

Specificity:

Supersensitivity: An extreme and high degree of sensitivity to a drug or chemical. Usually a high degree of sensitivity induced by some specific procedure such as denervation, administration of another drug, etc. Sensitivity to a drug, of some degree, is inherent in every organism; supersensitivity is a state that has had to be produced in the organism. In the supersensitive subject, the actions of the drug are qualitatively like those observed in a subject of normal sensitivity, and unlike those produced in a subject who is hypersensitive to the drug. Cf. Hypersensitivity, Sensitivity

from body fluid according to the laws of first-order reaction kinetics. t = 0.301/b = 0.693/kel, where 0.301 and 0.693 are the logarithms of 2 to the bases 10 and e, respectively. Cf. Half-Life, b, kel, First-Order Kinetics

Tachyphylaxis: A decline in the response to repeated applications of agonist, typically occurring over a relatively short time scale (seconds to hours). See also Desensitization, Tolerance.

Synergy: A mutually reinforcing drug interaction such that the joint effect of two drugs administered simultaneously is greater than the sum of their individual effects. Synergism is distinguished from additivity, in which the joint effect of two drugs is equal to the sum of their individual effects. If the joint effect is less than the sum of the two drugs independent effects, the interaction is said to be antagonistic. Cf. Antagonism, Potentiation

Therapeutic Index: A number, LD50/ED50, which is a measure of the approximate safety factor for a drug; a drug with a high index can presumably be administered with greater safety than one with a low index. The therapeutic index is ordinarily calculated from data obtained from experiments with animals. As in comparing ED50s from two different drugs, the comparison of the LD50 and ED50 (therapeutic index) is most meaningful when the dose-effect curves from which the ED50 and LD50 are inferred are parallel. The therapeutic index is a measure of drug selectivity, and analogous index numbers are frequently computed to measure selectivity that does not involve lethal effects. For example, to measure the selectivity of a drug potentially useful in the treatment of epilepsy, the ED50 for producing ataxia in mice might be compared to the ED50 for abolishing electrically-induced convulsions in mice. Cf. Median Effective Dose, Selectivity, Standardized Safety Margin, Clinical Therapeutic Index

T or ?: A point in time or a time interval; frequently a time interval following administration of a drug or the time interval between doses of a drug. The definition of a specific T or ? may be explicit or may be inferred from the context in which it is found. Specific times of interest may be indicated by subscripts, e.g., T0 is the time of drug administration; Tn is the time of administration of the nth dose in a series.

Therapeutics: The science and techniques of restoring patients to health. Properly, therapeutics has many branches, any or all of which may be needed in the treatment of a specific patient. In addition to pharmacotherapeutics or drug therapy, there exist coordinate fields of therapeutics such as surgical therapy, psychotherapy, physical therapy, occupational therapy, dietotherapy, etc. Drugs are commonly considered capable of participating in one or more of the following general kinds of therapy:

t: The half-life of a drug; the amount of time required for the concentration of a drug in, e.g., a body fluid such as plasma, serum, or blood, to be halved. The idea of half-life is legitimately applied only to the case of a drug eliminated

Curative or specific therapy: treatment directed toward eradication of one or more of the agencies etiologic to the patients condition. Antimicrobial drugs such as penicillin have specific or curative effects. Palliative or symptomatic therapy treatment directed only toward relief of the patients symptoms, toward making the patient feel better without necessarily altering the natural course of the disease. Analgesic agents such as aspirin or morphine have obvious palliative effects. Supportive therapy treatment directed toward maintaining the patients physiological or functional integrity until more definitive treatment can be carried out, or until the patients recuperative powers function to obviate the

ethylene (C2 H4) during the assay if there is nitrogenase activity. B oth substrate and product can be resolved by gas chromatography. acid mine drainage The process to draw off acidic water from natural mine rich of sulfid e minerals which has been oxidized to sulfuric acid by microbial actions. acid-fast stain A staining technique used to determine the cell wall property of an m icroorganism. After stained with dye such as hot carbolfuschin, an acid-f ast organism, (.e.g. Mycobacterium species) will retain the color in its cell wall after being washed with acid-alcohol. acidophile An organism that grows optimally at acidic (low) pH values (usually b elow 6, sometimes as low as 1) and grows poorly or not at all under highe r pH conditions (i.e. higher than 7). actinomycetes Gram-positive bacteria that can for m branching filaments. They may form true myceli a or produce conidiospores. activation energy

MICROBIOLOGY GLOSSARY ABO blood group Classification of red blood cells based on the presence or absence of A and B carbohydrate antigens. abscess A localized accumulation of pus due to infection. acellular vaccine Vaccine consisting of antigenic parts of cells. acetoclastis The process of splitting acetate into methane and carbon dioxide by s ome methanogens. acetyl-CoA pathway A pathway of autotrophic carbon dioxide fixa tion commonly happened in obligate anaerobes such as methanogens , homoacetogens, and sulfate-reducing bacteria.

Energy required to make substrate molec ules active enough for an reaction to occur. Catalysts and enzymes function by lowering the activation energy of the su bstrates during a chemical reaction. activator A regulatory protein that binds to specif ic sites on DNA and stimulates transcription; an activator is usually involved in the po sitive control of transcription regulation. active immunity Production of antibodies by the body's own im mune system due to the exposure to antigen. Compare with passive immunity. active site The region of an enzyme where substrate(s) bind(s) prior to the reaction occurs.

acetylene reduction assay A method to determine the activity of nit rogenase. Instead of the natural substrate of nitrogenase, i.e. dinitrogen (N2), acetylene is provide d as the alternative substrate for this enzyme . Acetylene (C2H2) is reduced to

active transport The energy-dependent process of transporting substances (e.g. nutrien ts, ions, waste products) into (uptake) or out of (efflux) the cell in which the transported substances are chemically un changed. acute Used to describe a short-term infection or disease which is characterized by dramatic onset and rapid recovery. adherence Refers to the ability of bacteria adhea r (stick) to host surfaces. aerobe (adjective: aerobic) An organism that grows in the presence of oxygen. There may be facultative or obligat e aerobes. Compare with anaerobe. aerobic

agarose A non-sulphated linear polymer consisting of alternating residues of D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactose: [-3,6-anhydro-alpha-L-galactopyranosyl-(1->3)-beta-Dgalactopyranosyl-(1->4)-]n Agarose is extracted from seaweed and is widely used as the resolving agent in electrophoresis (i.e. agarose gel electrophoresis). agglutination Aggregation formed by the combination of antibody and particle-bound antigen. alga (plural algae) Phototrophic eukaryotic microorganisms. Algae c ould be unicellular or multicellular. Blue-green algae is not true algae; it belongs to a group of bacteria called c yanobacteria because it lacks a nucleus i n the cell. alkaliphile (also alkalophile)

An adjective used to describe an environment or a condition in which oxygen (O2) is present; an adjective to describe an organism w hich can grow in the presence of oxygen. aerogenic

An organism that grows optimally at high pH (alkaline conditions). Th e typical pH range for alkaliphiles is 8 - 11. They grow poorly or not at all at the pH below 7. Compare with acidophile . allergy

gas producing, e.g., aerogenic fermentation. aerosol A gaseous suspension of fine solid or liquid particles. In medical as pect, An aerosol released by sneezing or coughing, may contain viable mic robial particles such as microorganisms or viruses. aerotolerant Used to describe an anaerobe which will not be inhibited by oxygen and can still grow at sub-optimal rates. agar A complex polysaccharide which is widely used as a gelling agent used to prepare solid or semi-solid microbiological medium. Agar consists of about 70% of agarose and 30% of agaropectin. Agar can be melt at temperature above 100C; gelling temperature is 40-50C. Also called: agar agar. A harmful immune reaction, either immediat e-type or delayed-type hypersensitivity caused by a foreign antigen (i.e. allergen) i n food, pollen, or chemicals. allosteric Used to describe some protein, especially enzymes, in which a compound combine with a site on the protein other than the active site. This may result in a conformational change at the active site so that the normal substrate can not bind to it. The a llosteric property is useful in the regulatiio n of enzyme activity. amber mutation The mutation due to the introduction of a stop codon (UAG) within the coding sequence of a gene which results in premature termination of translation. amino acid

An organic acid containing an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH). Can be represented by the general formula: R-CH(NH2)COOH, in which R may be hydrogen or an organic group and determines the properties of the amino acid. Amino acids are building blocks of proteins. amino group -NH2

An organism which has the ability to grow in the absence of oxygen. C ompare with aerobe. Also see facultative anaerobe. anaerobic An adjective used to describe an environment or a condition which is free of oxygen or to describe a microorganism which can grow in the absence of oxygen. anaerobic respiration

amoeba (or ameba, plural: amoebae) Refers to any (eukaryotic) cell or orga nism which is able to alter its cell shape drastically, usually by the ex trusion of one or more pseudopodia. Amoeba A genus of free-living amoebae. Type species: Amoeba proteus. amoeboid anaphylatoxins Amoeba-like. amoeboid movement A type of motility in which cytoplasmic streaming extrudes outward of the cell to form pseudopodia) so that the cell can be relocated. amplification 1. Increase of copy number of a plasmid by inhibiting the replication of chromosome while allowing plasmid replication to continue. 2. Increase of the number of copies of a gene either by duplication in the chromosome or by cloning into a plasmid vector. This is normally referred to as gene amplification. anabolism Refers to those metabolic processs involved in the synthesis of cell constituents from simpler molecules, such as org anic and/or inorganic precursors. An anabolic process usually requires energy. anaerobe The C3a and C5a fractions during complement fixation. They act to mim ic some of the reactions of anaphylaxis and ca n induce the release of histamine from mast cells. C5a is also chemotacti c for neutrophils and monocytes. anaphylaxis (anaphylactic shock; type I reaction) A strong allergic reaction caused by an antigen-antibody reaction (immediate hypersensitivity). annealing The process of formation of double-stranded DNA from single-stranded DNA; compare with hybridization. anoxic (noun: anoxia) Lack of oxygen. An adjective usually used to desribe a microbial habitat. anoxygenic photosynthesis A type of photosynthesis in green and purple bacteria in which oxygen is not produced. Use of light energy to synthesize ATP by cyclic photo phosphorylation without oxygen production in green and purple bacteri a. antibiotic Respiration under anaerobic conditions. The terminal electron acceptor, instead of oxygen in the case of regular 2+ respira tion, can be: CO2 , Fe , fumarate, nitrate, nitrite, nitrous oxide, sulphur, su lphate, etc. Note that anaerobic respiration still uses electron trasnport chain to dump the electron whil e ferementation does not. anaerogenic without forming gas, e.g., anaerogenic 4fermentation.

A chemical compound produced by one microorganism (especially fungi) which can inhibit the growth of (or kill) other microorganisms. Antibiotics are used to treat infectious diseases. Examples of some commonly used antibiotics are: penicillin, streptomycin, and tetracycline. Inadequate use of antibiotics can lead to the developement of the resistance of the pathogens. antibody A protein present in serum or other body fl uid that combines specifically with antigen. An immunoglobulin. anticodon A sequence of three bases in tRNA that base pairs with a codon in mRNA. antigen A substance, usually macromolecular , that induces a specific immune response. antigen-presenting cell (APC) Cells that process and present antigen to T lymphocytes. antigenic determinants The portion of an antigen that interacts with an immunoglobulin or T cell receptor. antigenic drift In influenza virus, minor changes in viral proteins (antigens) due to gene mutation. anti-metabolite An analogue of the end-product of a metabolic pathway that causes feedback inhibition or repression, but cannot replace the genuine product; used for selecting feedbackdeficient mutants. antimicrobial harmful to microorganisms by either killing or inhibiting growth. antiparallel In reference to double-stranded DNA, the orie ntation of the two strnads: one strand runs 5'-->3', the other 3'-->5' antisense RNA

An sequence of RNA which is complementary to the mRNA. Anitsense RNA can usually interfere with translation process. antiseptic An agent that kills or inhibits microbial growth but is not harmful t o human tissue. antiserum A serum containing anti bodies. anti-terminator A protein that allows RN polymerase to read through a terminator. antitoxin An antibody that specifically interacts with and neutralizes a toxin Archaea An evolutionarily distinct group (domain) of prokayrotes consisting of the methanogens, most extreme halophiles and hyperthermophiles, and Thermoplasma. archaebacteria An older term for the Archaea. aseptic technique Manipulation of sterile instruments or cu lture media in such a way as to maintain sterility. atomic weight The average weight of an atom of an element, i.e. the total mass of p rotons and neutrons in an atom. adenosine triphosphate (ATP) The principal energy carrier of the cell. attenuation 1. Reduction in the virulence of a pathogen; usually an attenuated pathogen is still cap able of immunizing. 2. A process that plays a role in the regulation of enzymes involved in amino acid biosynthesis. autoantibody

Antibodies that react to self antigens. autogenous control The expression of a gene is regulated by its own gene product(s). autoimmunity Immune reactions of a host against its own self constituents. autolysis Spontaneous lysis. autoradiography Detection of radioactivity in a sample, for example a cell or gel, by placing it in contact with a photographic film (e.g. X-ray film). autotroph

Bacteria All prokaryotes that are not members of the domain Archaea. bactericidal Capable of killing bacteria. bacteriochlorophyll The light-absorbing pigment found in green sulfur and purple sulfur bacteria. bacteriocin Agents produced by certain bacteria that inhibit or kill closedly related species. bacteriophage A virus that infects a bacterium or prokaryotes. bacteriorhodopsin

In reference to carbon source - an organism which uses carbon dioxide (CO2) as the sole carbon source. Compare with lithotroph, heterotroph, organotroph, and phototro ph. auxotroph A mutant that has a growth factor requirement. Contrast with a prototroph. B cell See B lymphocyte. bacillus (plural: bacilli) A bacterium with a elongated, rod shape. Bacillus

A protein containing retinal found in the membranes of certain extremely halophilic Archaea and which is involved in light-mediated ATP synthesis. bacteriostatic Capable of inhibiting bacterial growth without killing. bacteroid A swollen, deformed Rhizobium cell, found in the root nodule; capable of symbiotic nitrogen fixation. barophile An organism able to live optimally at high hydrostatic pressure. barotolerant

A bacterial genus in which members are rod-shaped, gram-positive, endospore-forming, and, depending on species, aerobic or facultatively anaerobic. Type species: B. subtilis. bacteremia The transient appearance of bacteria in the blood. bacterium (plural bacteria)

An organism able to tolerate high hydrostatic pressure, although growing better at normal pressures. basal medium A(n) (unsupplemented) medium which allows the growth of many types of microorganisms which do not require any special nutrient supplements, e.g. nutrient broth. base composition

See prokaryote.

In reference to nucleic acid, the proportion of the total bases consisting of guanine plus cytosine or thymine plus adenine base pairs. Usually expressed as a guanine + cytosine (G+C) value, e.g. 60% G+C. bdelloplast See Bdellovibrio binary fission The division of one cell into two (typically similar or identical ) cells by the formation of a septum is call binary fission. It is the commonest form of cell division in bacteria. If the daughter cells are not similar (in size) to the parent cell, it is called asymmetrical binary fission. Asymmetrical binary fission occurs e.g. in Caulobacter. binomial nomenclature The system of having two names (genus and specific epithet, also called Latin binomial) for each organism. bioconversion In industrial microbiology, use of microorganisms to convert an added chemical to a chemically modified form. biofilm Microbial colonies encased in an adhesive, usually polysaccharide material, and attached to a surface. biogeochemistry Study of microbially mediated chemical transformations of geochemical interest, e.g. nitrogen or sulfur cycling. bioremediation Use of microorganisms to remove or detoxify toxic or unwanted chemicals from an environment. biosynthesis The production of needed cellular constituents from other (usually simpler) molecules. biotechnology The use of living organisms to carry out defined chemical processes for industrial application. black smoker

Thermal vent emitting very hot (270-380 C) water and minerals. blastomycosis An acute or chronic mycosis which usually affects man and animals (e.g. dogs). Blastomycosis is caused by a fungus called Blastomyces dermatitidis and occurs in North America, Africa and Israel. Infection apparently occurs by inhalation of spores from the fungus although B. dermatitidis has proved difficult to isolate from environmental habitats. B lymphocyte A cell of the immune system that differentiates into an immunoglobulin-producing cell. biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) The oxygen-consuming property of a body of water determined by taking a sample of water, aerating it well, placing it in a sealed bottle, incubating for a standard period of time (usually 5 days at 20 C), and determining the residual oxygen in the water at the end of incubation. brewing The manufacture of alcoholic beverages such as beer from the fermentation of malted grains. budding 1. Asexual reproduction (usually 4yeasts) beginning as a protuberance from the parent cell that grows to become a daughter cell 2. Release of an enveloped virus through the plasma membrane of an animal cell. Calvin cycle The biochemical route of carbon dioxide fixation in many autotrophic organisms. cancer A malignant, invasive cellular tumor that has the capability of spreading throughout the body or body parts. capsid The protein coat of a virus. capsomere

An individual protein subunit of the virus capsid. capsule A compact layer of polysaccharide exterior to the cell wall in some bacteria. See also glycocalyx and slime layer. carbohydrate Any chemical compound which consists of only carbon (C), oxygen (O), and hydrogen (H) elements, for examples, sugars, starches, and cellulose are carbohydrates. Also the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms in carbohydrates is usually 2:1. carboxyl group -COOH carboxysomes

cell The fundamental unit of living matter. cell-mediated immunity An immune response generated by the activities of nonantibody-producing cells such as T cells. Compare with humoral immunity cell membrane See cytoplasmic membrane. cell wall The layer or structure that lies outside the cytoplasmic membrane; it supports and protects the membrane and gives the cell shape. cellular microbiology

Polyhedral cellular inclusions of crystline ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (RubisCO), the key enzyme of the Calvin cycle. carcinogen A substance which causes the initiation of tumor formation. Frequently mutagen. catabolism The biochemical processes involved in the breakdown of organic compounds, usually leading to the production of energy. catabolite repression Repression of a variety of unrelated enzymes when cells are grown in a medium containing glucose. catalysis Increase in rate of a chemical reaction. catalyst A substance that promotes a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy without itself being changed in the end. Enzyme is a type of catalysts. CD4 cells T helper cells which are targets for HIV infection.

A new discipline emerging at the interface between cell biology and microbiology. One major focus of this new field is on the interference of pathogenic bacteria with many eukaryotic cell functions, such as maturation of intracellular compartments, internal cellular communication, or even cell division and differentiation. The study of cellular mcirobiology in this respect, is providing a sophisticaled tool kit for mammalian cell biologists. (Ref: Science 271:315, 1996). cellulose A glucose polysaccharide (with beta-1,4-linkage) that is the main compnent of plant cell walls. CFU Stands for colony-forming unit. chaperonin A protein that aids in the correct folding of other proteins and the assembly of multisubunit structures. chaperone A protein that affect the folding of other proteins or the assembly of complex structures. chemiosmosis

The use of ion gradients across membranes, especially proton gradients, to generate ATP. See proton motive force. chemolithotroph An organism which obtains its energy from the oxidation of inorganic compounds. chemoorganotroph An organism which obtains its energy from the oxidation of organic compounds. chemostat A continuous culture device controlled by the concentration of limiting nutrient and dilution rate. chemotaxis Movement toward or away from a chemical. chemotherapy Treatment of infectious disease with chemicals or antibiotics. chlorination A highly effective disinfectant procedure for drinking water using chlorine gas or other chlorine-containing compounds as disinfectant. chlorophyll

notorious yet important. It is infamous among the public because of its link between the elevated serum cholesterol level and the cardiovascular disease; it is important because cholesterol is the precursor for some very important steroids such as bile acids and hormones. chromatography Any technique which is used to separates different species of molecules (or ions) by subjecting them to two different carrier phases: mobile and stionary phases. These phases can be solid, liquid, or gaseous, according to the type of chromatography. Due to the different adsorption or affinity to either phase, molecules of different species may be separated. chromogenic Producing color; a chromogenic colony is a pigmented colony. chromosome A genetic element carrying genes essential to cellular metabolism. Prokayrotes typically have a single chromosome, consisting of a circular DNA molecule. Eukaryotic cells contain several chromosomes, each contaiing a linear DNA molecule complexed with specific proteins. chronic Longer-term infection. cilium (plural cilia)

The green pigment required for photosynthesis. It consists of a light-sensitive tetrapyrrole ring with a magnesium atom in the center. chloroplast The chlorophyll-containing organelle of photosynthetic eukaryotes. chlorosome A cigar-shaped structure bounded by a nonunit membrane and containing the light harvesting bacteriochlorophyll in green sulfur bacteria and in Chloroflexus. cholesterol A type of sterols occurring widely in animal tissues as well as in some higher plants and algae. Cholesterol is

Threadlike appendages that extend from the surface of some protozoa that beat rhythmically to propel them ; cilia are membrane-bound cylinders with a complex internal array of microtubules, usually in a 9+2 pattern. Compare with flagella. classification The arrangement of organisms into groups based on mutual similarity or evolutionary relatednedd. clonal selection A theory that each B or T lymphocyte, when stimulated by antigen, divides to form a clone of itself. clone

1. A population of cells all descended from a single cell. 2. A number of copies of a DNA fragment to be replicated by a phage or plasmid. cloning vector A DNA molecule that is able to bring about the replication of foreign DNA fragments. coccobacillus (plural: coccobacilli) A bacterium with a shape intermediate between coccus and bacillus. coccus (plural: cocci) A bacterium with a rounded or spherical shape. colony A clone of bacterial cells on a solid medium that is visible to the naked eye. coccoid Sphere-shaped. codon A sequence of three purine and/or pyrimidine bases in mRNA that encodes a specific amino acid. coenzyme A low-molecular-weight chemical which participates in an enzymatic reaction by accepting and donating electrons or + functional groups. Examples: NDA , FAD. coliform Gram-negative, nonsporing, facultative rods that ferment lactose with gas formation within 48 hours at 35 C. Examples of coliform bacteria are members in the genera Escherichia ( e.g. E. coli), Klebsiella (e.g. K. pneumoniae), Enterobacter (e.g. E. cloacai), and Citrobacter ( e.g. C. freundii). colonization Multiplication of a microorganism after it has attached to host tissues or other surfaces. colony

A macroscopically visible population of cells growing on solid medium, arising from a single cell. colony-forming unit Any entity (usually a viable single cell) which can form a colony on an agar plate. cometabolism The metabolic transformation of a substance while a second substance serves as primary energy or carbon source. commodity chemical Chemicals such as ethanol that have low monetary value and are thus sold primarily in bulk. common-source epidemic An epidemic resulting from infection of a large number of people from a single contaminated source. compatible solute An organic compounds which serve as cytoplasmic solutes to balance water relations for cells growing in environments of high salt or sugar. competence Ability to take up DNA and become genetically transformed. complement A complex of proteins in the blood serum that interacts sequentially with specific antibody in certain kinds of antigen-antibody reactions. complement fixation The consumption of complement by an antibody-antigen reaction. complementary Nucleic acid sequences that can base pair with each other. complex medium A medium whose precise chemical composition is unknown. Also called undefined medium. Compare with defined medium.

concatamer A DNA molecule consisting of two or more separate molecules linked end-to-end to form a long linear structure. conidiophore

A nonionic chemical bond formed by a sharing of electrons between two atoms. crista Inner membrane in a mitochondrion, site of respiration. culture

An aerial hypha bearing condiospores. conidiospore An asexual spore produced in a chain from a condiophore. conjugation In prokaryotes, transfer of genetic information from a donor cell to a recipient cell by cell-to-cell contact. conjugative plasmid cyanobacterium Self-transmissible plasmid; a plasmid which encodes all the functions needed for its own intercellular transmission by conjugation. consensus sequence A nucleic acid sequence in which the base present in a given position is that base most commonly found when many experimentally determined sequences are compared. consortium A two- (or more) membered bacterial culture (or natural assemblage) in which each organism benefits from the other. contagious Of a disease, transmissible. cyst copy number The number of copies of a plasmid per cell; also used to referred to the number of copies of a gene (e.g. gene copy number). cortex The region inside the spore coat of an endospore, around the core. covalent Iron-containing porphyrin rings complexed with protiens, which act as electron carriers in the electron-transport system. cytokine A resting stage formed by some bacteria and protozoa in which the whole cell is surrounded by a protective layer; not the same as spore. cytochrome A prokaryotic oxygenic phototrophic bacterium containing chlorophyll a and phycobilins. cyclic photophosphorylation The formation of ATP when light energy is used to move electrons cyclically through an electron transport chain during photosynthesis; only photosystem I participates. Cyclospora cayetanensis Cyclospora cayetanensis is an acid-fast, coccidian-like, parasitic protozoa with the size of 8-10 micrometer in diameter. Cyclospora cayetanesis was recently recognized as a new (intestinal) protozoan pathogen of human (1993, species name was proposed in 1994) and was identified as the cause of the prolonged diarrhoea of travelers as well as immunocompetent and immunocompromised patients. A particular strain or kind of organism growing in a laboratory medium. culture medium See medium. cutaneous Relating to the skin.

A small soluble protein from human cells in response to bacterial infection; directly or indirectly may induce fever, pain, or T-cell proliferatio; produced by cells other than lymphocytes, usually phagocytic cells. cytoplasm

dideoxynucleotide A nucleotide lacking the 3'-hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose sugar. Used in the Sanger method of DNA sequencing. differential medium

Cellular contents inside the cytoplasmic membrane, excluding the nucleus. cytoplasmic membrane The seletively permeable membrane surrounding the cell's cytoplasm; also called cell membrane or plasma membrane. defined medium A medium whose exact chemical composition is quantitatively known. Compare with complex medium. degeneracy

A medium which is used to differentiate different types of microorganisms based on their different e.g. colors or shapes of colonies. Examples of differential media are: Macconkey's agar and SS agar. differentiation The modification of a cell in terms of structure and/or function occurring during the course of development. diplococcus A pair of cocci. diploid

In relation to the genetic code, the fact that more than one codon can code for the same amino acid. deletion

In eukaryotes, an organism or cell with two chromosome complements, one derived from each haploid gamete. disinfectant

A removal of a portion of a gene. denaturation Irreversible destruction of a macromolecule, as for example the destruction of a protein by heat. denitrification Conversion of nitrate into nitrogen gases under anaerobic conditions, resulting in loss of nitrogen from ecosystems. dental plaque Bacterial cells encased in a matrix of extracellular polymers and salivary products, found on the teeth. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) A polymer of nucleotides connected via a phosphatedeoxyribose sugar backbone; the genetic material of the cell. desiccation Drying An agent that kills microorganisms, but may be harmful to human tissue. disproportionation The splitting of a chemical compound into two new compounds, one more oxidized and one more reduced than the original compound. DNA fingerpriting Use of the techniques of genetic engineering to determine the origin of dDNA in a sample of tissue. DNA library A collection of cloned DNA fragments which in total contain genes from the entire genome of an organism; also called a gene library. domain 1. The highest level of biological classification, superseding kingdoms. The three domains of biological organisms are the Bacteria, the Archaea, and the Eukarya.

2. Also used to describe a region of a protein having a distinct function. doubling time The time needed for a population to double. See also generation time. downstream position Refers to nucleic acid sequences on the 3'-side of a given site on the DNA or RNA molecule. Compare with upstream position. ecology Study of the interrelationships between organisms and their environments. ecosystem A community of organisms and their natural environment. electron acceptor A substance that accepts electrons during an oxidationreduction reaction. An electron acceptor is an oxidant. electron donor A substance that donates electrons in an oxidationreduction reaction. An electron donor is a redutant. electron-transport phosphyrylation Synthesis of ATP involving a membrane-associated electron transport chain and the creation of a protonmovitve force. Also called oxidative phosphorylation. electrophoresis Separation of charged molecules (e.g. nucleic acids) in an electrical field. electroporation The use of an electrical pulse to enable cells to take up DNA. ELISA Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. An immunoassay that uses specific antibodies to detect antigens or antibodies in body fluids. The antibody-containing complexes are visualized through enzyme coupled to the

antibody. Addition of substrate to the enzyme-antibodyantigen complex results in a colored product. Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway (Embden-Meyerhof pathway; EMP pathway) A pathway that degrades glucose to pyruvate; the sixcarbon stage converts glucose to fructose-1,6bisphosphate, and the three-carbon stage produces ATP while changing glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to pyruvate. Compare with Entner-Doudoroff pathway. Entner-Doudoroff pathway (ED pathway) A pathway that converts glucose to pyruvate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate by producing 6phosphogluconate and then dehydrating it.. endemic A disease that is constantly present in low numbers in a population. Compare with epidemic. endergonic A chemical reaction requiring input of energy to proceed. endocytosis A process in which a particle such as a virus is taken intact into an animal cell. Phagocytosis and pinocytosis are two kinds of endocytosis. endoplasmic reticulum (ER) An extensive array of internal membranes in eukaryotes. endospore A differentiated cell formed within the cells of certain gram-positive bacteria and extremely resistant to heat as well as to other harmful agents. endosymbiosis The hypothesis that m.mitochondria and chloroplasts are the descendants of ancient prokaryotic organisms from the domain Bacteria. endotoxin A toxin not released from the cell; bound to the cell surface or intracellular. Compare with e.exotoxin. enrichment culture

Use of selective culture media and incubation conditions to isolate microorganisms directly from nature. enterics

In phylogenetic trees, the sum of the physical distance on a tree separating organisms; this distance is inversely proportional to evolutionary relatedness. exergonic reaction

The common name for bacteria in the family Enterobacteriaceae. enteric bacteria

A chemical reaction that proceeds with the liberation of energy. exon

A large group of gram-negative rod-shaped Bacteria characterized by a facultatively aerobic metabolism. Many of them are commonly found in the intestines of animals. enterotoxin A toxin affecting the intestine. enzyme A protein functioning as a catalyst in living organisms, which promotes specific reactions or groups of reactions. epidemic A disease occurring in an unusually high number of individuals in a population at the same time. Compare with endemic. epidemiology The study of the incidence and prevalence of disease in populations. epitope Antigenic determinant. Eubacteria

The coding sequences in a split gene. Contrast with intron, the intervening noncoding region. exotoxin A toxin released extracellularly. Compare with endotoxin. exponential growth Growth of a microorganism where the cell number doubles within a fixed time period. exponential phase A period during the growth cycle of a population in which growth increases at an exponential rate. expression The ability of a gene to function within a cell in such a way that the gene products is formed. expression vector A clonng vector that contains the necessary regulatory sequences to allow transcription and translation of a cloned gene or genes. extreme halophile

An old term for the Bacteria Eukarya The phylogenetic domain containing all eukaryotic organisms. eukaryote A cell or organism having a unit membrane-bound (true) nucleus and usually other organelles. evolutionary distance An organism whose growth is dependent on large amounts (generally >10%) of NaCl. facultative Literally means "optional"; an adjective used to describe that an environmental factor is optinally (not necessarily) required for an oragnism to grow. For example, a facultative anaerobe can normally grow in the presence of oxygen but alternatively, it can also grow without oxygen. facultative aerobe

An organism which is normally anaerobic but can also grow in the presence or oxygen (O2) facultative anaerobe An organism which is normally aerobic but can also grow without oxygen. feedback inhibition

A type of cell division in which overall (i.e., not localized) cell growth is followed by septum formation which typically divides the fully grown cell into two similar or identical cells. flagellum (plural flagella) An organ of motility. flavoprotein

Inhibition by an end product of the biosynthetic pathway involved in its synthesis. fermentation

A protein containing a derivative of riboflavin, which acts as electron carrier in the electron-transport system. flesh-eating bacteria

1. Catabolic reactions producing ATP in which organic compounds serve as both primary electron donor and ultimate electron acceptor. 2. A large-scale microbial process. fermenter An organism which carries out the process of fermentation. fermentor A large growth vessel used to culture microorganisms on a large scale frequently for the production of some commercially valuable product. ferredoxin An electron carrier of low reduction potential; small protien containing iron-sulfur clusters. fever A rise of body temperature above the normal. filamentous In the form of very long rods, many times longer than wide. fimbria (plural fimbriae) Short filamentous structure on a bacterial cell; although flagella-like in structure, generally present in many copies and not involved in motility. Plays a role in adherence to surfaces and in the formation of pellicles. See also pilus. fission

A strain of Group A streptococcus which, in severe cases, can destroy tissue as fast as surgeons can cut it out. The rapid destruction of tissue caused by these bacteria is localized, so it is unlikely to be caused by a general overstimulation of the immune system by, for example, superantigen exotoxin A. Instead, the invasive strains of strep A probably have other toxin(s) such as exotoxin B, an enzyme (i.e. a cysteine protease) that destroys tissue by breaking down protein. (Ref: Science 264:1665, 1994) fluorescent Having the ability to emit light of a certain wavelength when activated by light of another wavelength. fluorescentantibody Immunoglobulin molecule which as been coupled with a fluorescent molecule so that it exhibits fluorescence. fomite An inanimate object which, when contaminated with a viable pathogen, can transfer the pathogen to a host. food infection Microbial infection resulting from ingestion of contaminated food. food poisoning Disease resulting from ingestion of food contaminated with a toxin produced by a microorganism. frameshift Since the genetic code is read three bases at a time, if reading begins at either the second or third base of a

codon, a faulty product usualy results. This is called a frameshift (the reading frame refers to the pattern of reading). free energy Energy available to do useful work. fruiting body

The hollow, cylindrical, gas-filled structure in the gas vacuole. It confers ability for gas vacuole to float. gel An inert polymer, usually made of agarose or polyacrylamide, used for separating macromolecules such as nucleic acids or proteins by electrophoresis. gene

A macroscopic reproductive structure produced by some fungi (e.g., mushrooms) and some Bacteria (e.g., myxobacteria). Fruiting bodies are distinct in size, shape, and coloration for each species. fungus (plural fungi)

A unit of heridity; a segment of DNA specifying a particular protein or polypeptide chain, a tRNA or a rRNA. gene amplification see amplification.

Nonphototrophic eukaryotic microorganisms that contain rigid cell walls. fusiform Spindle-shaped; tapered at both ends. fusion protein The result of translation of two or more genes joined such that they retain their correct reading frames but make a single protien. G+C ratio In DNA (or RNA) from any organism, the percent of the total nucleic acid that consists of guanine plus cytosine bases. gamete In eukaryotes, the haploid cell analogous to sperm and egg, which results from meiosis. gas chromatography A chromatographic technique in which the stationary phase is solid while the mobile phase is gaseous samples. The gaseous samples are separated based on their different adsoprtion ability to the solid phase. gas vacuole A subcellular organelle, found only in prokaryotes, which consists of clusters of hollow, cylindrical, gas-filled vesicles (gas vesicles). gas vesicle

gene cloning The isolation of a desired gene from one organism and its incorporation into a suitable vector for the production of large amounts of the gene. gene copy number see copy number. gene disruption Use of both in vitro and in vivo recombination to substitute an easily selected mutant gene for a wild-type gene. gene library A collection of cloned DNA fragments that contains all the genetic information of a particular organism. gene therapy Replacement or augmentation of a dysfunctional gene for medical purposes. genetic code The "code" in which information for the synthesis of proteins is contained in the nucleotide seuqence of a DNA molecule (or in certain viruses, of an RNA molecule). generation time Time needed for a population to double. See also doubling time. genetic engineering

The use of in vitro techniques in the isolation, manipulation, recombination, and expression of DNA. genetic map The physical arrangement and order of genes on the chromosome. genetics The science of studying heredity and variation of organisms. genome The complete set of genes present in an organism. genotype The precise genetic constitution of an organism. Compare with phenotype. genus (plural genera) The first name of the scientific name (binomial); the taxon betwen family and species. germicide A substance that inhibits or kills microorganisms.

gonorrhea An acute infectious sexually transmitted disease of the mucous membranes of the genitourinary tract, eye, rectum and throat. It is caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae. gram-negative To describe a prokaryotic cell whose cell wall stains pink (negative) in Gram stain. The cell wall of a gram-negative bacterium contains relatively little peptidoglycan but contains an outer membrane composed of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), lipoprotein, and other complex macromolecules. gram-positive To describe a prokaryotic cell whose cell wall stains purple (positive) in Gram stain. The cell wall of a gram-positive bacterium consists chiefly of peptidoglycan and lacks the outer membrane of gram-negative cells. Gram stain A differential stain that divides bacteria into two groups, gram-positive and gram-negative based on the ability to retain crystal violet when decolorized with an organic solvent such as ethanol. green (sulfur) bacteria

glycocalyx General term for polysaccharide components outside the bacterial cell wall. See also capsule and slime layer. glycolysis Reactions of the Embden-Meyerhof pathway in which glucose is oxidized to pyruvate. glycosidic bond A type of covalent bond that links sugar units together in a polysaccharide. Golgi complex An eukaryotic organelle involved in the secretion of certain proteins. gonococcus Neisseria gonorrhoeae, the gram-negative diplococcus that causes the disease gonorrhea. Anoxygenic phototrophs containing chlorosomes and bacteriochlorophyll c, cs, d or e and light harvesting chlorophyll. growth In microbiology, an increase in both cell number and cellular constituents. growth factor Organic compounds that must be supplied in the diet for growth because they are essential cell components or precursors of such components and cannot be synthesized by the organisms themselves. growth rate The rate at which growth occurs, usually expressed as the generation time. habitat

The natural environment/area/location in which where an organism normally grows. halophile An organism requiring salt (NaCl) for growth. halotolerant An organism capable of growing in the presence of NaCl but not requiring it. haploid In eukaryotes, an organism or cell containing one chromosome complement and the same number of chromosomes as the gametes. hapten

heterofermentation 1. Any fermentation in which there is more than one major end-product. 2. Synonym of heterolactic fermentation. heterolactic fermentation A type of lactic acid fermentation in which sugars (e.g. lactose, glucose) are fermented to a range of products. heterotroph In reference to carbon source - an organism that uses reduced, preformed organic molecules as its principal carbon source.Compare with autotroph, lithotroph, organotroph, and phototroph. hexose monphosphate pathway

A substance not inducing antibody formation but able to combine with a specific antibody. helix a spiral structure in a macromolecule that contains a repeating pattern. hemagglutination Agglutination of red blood cells. hemolysin Bacterial toxins capable of lyzing red blood cells. hemolysis Lysis of red blood cells.

A metabolic pathway present in a wide range of prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms as well as in plants and animals; it involves the oxidative decarboxylation of glucose 6-phosphate, via 6phosphogluconate, to ribulose 5-phosphate, followed by a series of reversible, non-oxidative interconversions whereby hexose and triose phosphates are formed from pentose phosphates. Also called: HMP pathway, HMP shunt; oxidative pentose phosphate pathway, pentose phosphate pathway/cycle, phosphogluconate pathway; Warburg-Dickens pathway. homofermentation 1. Any fermentation in which there is only one major endproduct. 2. Synonym of homolactic fermentation.

herd immunity homolactic fermentation Resistance of a group to a pathogen due to immunity of a large proportion of the group to that pathogen. heterocyst A differentiated cyanobacterial cell which carries out nitrogen fixation. heteroduplex A double-stranded DNA in which one strand is from one source and the other strand from another, usually different but related, source. hopanoid Hopanoid is a chemical component in the cytoplasmic membranes of many bacteria. Hopanoid is a pentacyclic saturated derivative of mevalonic acid (mevalonic acid is a key intermediate in cholesterol A type of lactic acid fermentation in which sugars (e.g. glucose, lactose, etc) are converted entirely, or almost entirely, to lactic acid. homologous antigen An antigen reacting with the antibody it had induced.

biosynthesis) and is assumed to be functioning in a similar way to sterols, which serve to stabilize the structure of eukaryotic membranes. While sterols can make up 5-25 percent of the total lipids of eukaryotic membranes, they are absent from most of the prokaryotic membranes. host An organism capable of supporting the growth of a virus or other parasite. humoral immunity An immune response involving antibodies.

An immune reaction, usually harmful to the animal, caused either by antigen-antibody reactions or cellular immune processes. See also allergy. hyperthermophile A prokaryote having a growth temperature optimum of 80 C or higher. hypha (plural hyphae) Long filaments of cells in fungi or actinomycetes (filamentous bacteria). icosahedron

hybridization The formation of double-stranded nucleic acid (e.g., DNA, RNA, or DNA/RNA duplex by complementary base pairing between two molecular strands. hybridoma The fusion of an immortal cell with a single B lymphocyte to produce an immortal lymphocyte which produces a monoclonal antibody. hydrocarbon Any chemical compound containing only carbon and hydrogen elements. Some simple examples of hydrobarbons are: methane (CH4), ethylene (C2H4), ethane (C2H6), etc. hydrogen bond A weak chemical bond between a hydrogen atom and a second, more electronegative element, usually an oxygen or nitrogen atom. hydrophobic interaction The attractive force between molecules due to the close positioning of nonhydrophilic portions of the two molecules. hydrothermal vent A warm or hot water emitting springs associated with crustal spreading centers on the sea floor. hypersensitivity A geometrical shape occurring in many virus particles, with 20 triangular faces and 12 corners. immobilized enzyme An enzyme attached to a solid support over which substrate is passed and is converted into product. immune 1. An adjective, when a human or animal body which is able to resist infectious disease because of either previous infection, immunization/vacination, or contact with the immunogen/antigen, then the human or animal is immune to this disease . 2. As a noun, the state of immunity. immune response The specific reactions induced in the human or animal body due to the contact with foreign material. The foreign material which induces the immune response is called an immunogen or antigen. The immunse response may involve either antibody production, the activation of T cells or both. immunity The ability of a (human or animal) body to resist infection by microorganisms or their harmful products such as toxin. There are several types of immunities (ways of obtaining immunity): inherited immunity, acuired immunity (including active immunity and passive immunity), and autoimmunity. immunization

Induction of specific immunity by injecting antigens, antibodies, or immune cells. immunoblot (Western blot) Detection of proteins immobilized on a filter by complementary reaction with specifc antibody. Compare with Southern and northern blot. immunogen

induction The process by which an enzyme is synthesized (induced) in response to the presence of an external substance, the inducer. infection Growth of an organism within the body. infection thread

A substance which is capable of eliciting (inducing) immune response. An immunogen usually has a fairly high molecular weight (usually greater than 10,000), thus, a variety of macromolecules such as proteins, lipoproteins, polysaccharides, some nucleic acids, and certain of the teichoic acids, can act as immunogens. Compare with antigen. immunoglobulin Antibody immunologic memory The ability to rapidly produce large quantities of specific immune cells after subsequent exposure to a previously encountered antigen. immonology The study of immunity and immune system. in vitro Literally means "in glass", away from a living organism; it is used to describe whatever happens in a test tube or other receptacle, as opposed to in vivo. When a study or an experiment is done outside the living organism, i.e., in test tube, it is said it's done in vitro. in vivo In the body, in a living organism, as opposed to in vitro; when a study or an experiment is done in the living organism, it is said this is done in vivo. incidence

In the formation of root nodules, a cellulosic tube through which Rhizobium cells can travel to reach and infect root cells. inflammation Characteristic reaction to foreign particles and noxious stimuli, resulting in redness, swelling, heat, and pain. inhibition Prevention of growth or function. inoculum Material used to initiate a microbial culture. insertion A genetic phenomenon in which a piece of DNA is inserted into the middle of a gene. insertion sequence (IS element) The simplest type of transposable element. Has only genes involved in transposition. integration The process by which a DNA molecule becomes incorporated into another genome. interferon A protein produced by cells as a result of virus infection which interferes with virus replication. interspecies hydrogen transfer

In reference to disease transmission, the number of cases of the disease in a specific subset of the population. induced enzyme An enzyme subject to induction.

The process in which organic matter is degraded anaerobically by the interaction of several groups of microorganisms in which hydrogen production and hydrogen consumption are closely coupled among species.

intron The intervening noncoding sequence in a split gene. Contrasted with exon, the coding sequence. invasiveness Degree to which an organism is able to spread through the body from a focus of infection. ionophore A compound which can cause the leakage of ions across membranes. isoenzyme (isozyme) When two different enzymes catalyze the same reaction(s), they are isoenzyme to each other. Isoenzymes could differ from each other in their primary structure or electrophoretic mobility. isolation 1. Any procedure in which a given species of organism, present in a particular sample or environment, is obtained in pure culture. isotope Different form of the same element containing the same number of protons and electrons, but differing in the number of neutrons. isozyme See isoenzyme. joule A unit of work or energy equal to 10,000,000 ergs; 1000 joules equals 1 kilojoule (kJ). Jaccard coefficient (SJ) An association coefficient used in numerical taxonomy; it is the proportion of characters that match, excluding those that both organisms lack. kilobase (kb) A 1000 base fragment of nucleic acid. A kilobase pair is a fragment containing 1000 base pairs. kingdom

The highest category in the taxonomic hierarchy of classification. lactic acid bacteria A group of gram-positive, non-sporing bacteria which carry out a lactic acid fermentation of sugars. It includes species of Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus and Streptococcus. lactic acid fermentation A type of fermentation carried out by lactic acid bafcteria in which sugar (e.g. lactose, glucose, pentose) are converted either entirely (or almost entirely) to lactic acid (homolactic fermentation) or to a mixture of lactic acid and other products (heterolactic fermentation). lag phase The period after inoculation of a population before growth begins. latent virus A virus present in a cell, yet not causing any detectable effect. leaching Removal of valuable metals form ores by microbial action. leukocidin A substance able to destroy phagocytes. leukocyte A white blood cell, usually a phagocyte. lichen A fungus and an alga (or a cyanobacterium) living in symbiotic association. lipid Water-insoluble organic molecules important in structure of the cytoplasmic membrane and (in some organisms) the cell wall. See also phospholipid. lipopolysaccharide (LPS)

Complex lipid structure containing unusual sugars and fatty acids found in many gram-negative Bacteria, and constituting the chemical structure of the outer layer. lithotroph

lymphokine Substance secreted from T lymphocytes which stimulates the activity of other cells. lysin

In reference to energy source (electron donor) - An organism which uses an inorganic substrate (such as ammonia, hydrogen) as an electron donor in energy metabolism. There are two types of lithotrophs: chemolithotroph and photolithotroph. Compare with autotroph, heterotroph, organotroph, and phototroph. lophotrichous Having a tuft of polar flagella. lower respiratory tract Trachea, bronchi, and lungs. luminescence Production of light. Lyme disease A tick-borne disease which affects humans and other animals. Lyme disease was named after a place called Lyme in Connecticut, USA, where this disease was first recognized and has rapidly become the most prevalent tick-borne disease in the United States. Lyme disease is caused by a spirochete named Borellia burgdorferi which is carried in and transmitted to human by the deer tick called Ixodes dammini although it can also be spreat by other ticks such as the common dog (wood) ticks. The initial symptoms of Lyme disease include an acute headache, backache, chills, and fatigue and often a large rash at the biting site. Lyme disease can be easily treated with the antibiotics such as tetracycline or penicillin. However delayed or improper treatment may lead to the infection of the central nervous sytem by the spirochete and result in visual disturbances, facial paralysis or seizures. lymph A clear yellowish fluid found in the lymphatic vessels that carries various white (but not red) blood cells. lymphocyte A white blood cell involved in antibody formation or cellular immune responses.

An antibody that induces lysis. lysis Repture of a cell, resulting in loss of cell contents. lysogen A prokaryote containing a prophage. See also temperate virus lysosome A cell organelle containing digestive enzymes. macromolecule A large molecule formed from the connection of a number of small molecules. macrophage Large noncirculating phagocytic cells involved in both phagocytosis and the antibody production. magnetosome Small particle of Fe3O4 present in cells that exhibit magnetotaxis. magnetotaxis Movement toward the magnetic poles due to the presence of magnetosomes. magnetotactic bacteria Bacteria that can orient themselves in the earth's magnetic field due to the presence of magnetosomes. major histocompatability complex (MHC) A cluster of genes coding for cell surface proteins important in antigen presentation to T cells. malignant In reference to a tumor, an infiltrating metastasizing growth no longer under normal growth control.

mast cell A type of connective tissue cell adjoining blood vessels throughout the body. It secretes histamine, heparin, and other biologically active products and participates in immediate type hypersensitivity reactions and in the inflammatory response. medium (plural media) Any liquid or solid materials which is prepared for the growth, maintenance, or storage of microorganisms. There are different types of media according to the purposes: basal medium, defined medium, complex medium, differential medium, selective medium, enriched medium, enrichment medium, etc. meiosis In eukaryotes, reduction division, the process by which the change from diploid to haploid occurs. memory cell A differentiated B lymphocyte capable of rapid conversion to an antibody-producing plasma cell upon subsequent stimulation with antigen. mesophile Organism living in the temperature range around that of warm-blooded animals, usually between 20-45C. messenger RNA (mRNA) An RNA molecule transcribed from DNA which contains the information to direct the synthesis of a particular protein. metabolism All biochemical reactions in a cell, both anabolic and catabolic. methanogen A methane-producing prokaryote; member of the Archaea. methanogenesis The biological production of methane. methanotroph

An organism capable of oxidizing methane. methylotroph An organism capable of oxidizing organic compounds which do not contain carbon-carbon bonds; if able to oxidize methane, also a methanotroph. MHC class I protein The antigen-presenting molecule found on all nucleated vertebrate cells. MHC class II protein The antigen-presenting molecule found primarily on macrophages and B lymphocytes. microaerophilic Requiring oxygen but at a level lower than atmospheric. microbiology The study of microbioorganisms. microenvironment The immediate physical and chemical surroundings of a microorganism. micrometer One-millionth of a meter, or ten to the minus sixth meter (abbreviated um), the unit used for measuring microorganisms. microorganism A living organism too small to be seen with the naked eye; includes bacteria, fungi, protozoans, and microscopic algae; also includes viruses. microplasmodesmata Fine pores occuring in the septa of certain filamentous prokaryotes, such as actinomycetes and cyanobacterial trichomes. These pores are used for communication (exchange of metabolites) between two adjacent cells which are separated by septa. microtubules

Tubes that are the structural entity for eukaryotic flagella, have a role in maintaining cell shape, and function as mitotic spindle fibers. minus (negative)-strand nucleic acid An RNA or DNA strand which has the opposite sense of (would be complementary to) the mRNA of a virus. mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) Eukaryotic organelle responsible for processes of respiration and electron-transport phosphorylation. mitogen A substance which is able to induce mitosis of certain eukaryotic cells. mitosis A highly ordered process by which the nucleus divides in eukaryotes. mixotroph An organism able to assimilate organic compounds as carbon sources while using inorganic compounds as electron donors. Compare with autotroph and heterotroph. mold A filamentous fungus. molecule The result of two or more atoms combining by chemical bonding. monoclonal antibody An antibody produced from a single clone of cells. This antibody has uniform structure and specificity. monocyte Circulating white blood cell which contains many lysosomes and can differentiate into a macrophage. monomer A building block of a polymer. monotrichous

Having a single polar flagellum. morbidity Incidence of disease in a population, including both fatal and nonfatal cases. mortality Incidence of disease in population. motility The property of movement of a cell under its own power. mucilage A gumlike material covering some bacteria (e.g. cyanobacteria) to prevent the water loss during the dryness. murein See peptidoglycan. mushroom A filamentous fungus that produces large, sometimes edible structure, called fruiting body. mutagen A substance which causes the mutation of genes. Compare with carcinogen. mutant Refer to an organism, population, gene, or chromosome, etc which differs from the corresponding wild type by one or more mutations. mutation An inheritable change in the base sequence of the DNA of an organism. mycelium A group or mass of hyphae. mycoplasma A group of bacteria without cell wall. They are grouped together with gram-positive bacteria not because they are stained positive but because they are phylogenetically close to the clostridia. The other important feature of

mycoplasma is that they are very small, probably the smallest organisms capable of autonomous growth. mycorrhiza A symbiotic association between a fungus and the roots of a plant. mycosis An infection caused by fungi. myeloma A malignant tumor of a 4plasma cell (antibody-producing cell). natural killer (NK) cell

The enzyme complex catalyzing the reaction of nitrogen fixation. nitrogen fixation Reduction of dinitrogen gas (N2) to ammonia (NH3) by the enzyme nitrogenase. nodule (root nodule) A tumorlike structure produced by the roots of symbiotic nitrogen-fixing plants. Contains the nitrogen-fixing microbial component of the symbiosis. nomenclature The system of naming things (e.g. organisms). nonpolar

A specialized lymphocyte that recognizes and destroys foreign cells or infected host cells in a nonspecific manner. necrosis

Possessing hydrophobic (water repelling) characteristics and not easily dissolved in water. nonsense mutation

Damage of living tissues due to infection or injury. nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) An important coenzyme, functioning as a hydrogen carrier in a wide range of redox reactions; the H is carried on the nicotinamide residue. The oxidized form of the coenzyme is written NAD+, the reduced form as NADH (or NADH+H+) nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) An important coenzyme, functioning as a hydrogen carrier in a wide range of redox reactions; the H is carried on the nicotinamide residue. The oxidized form of the coenzyme is written NADP+, the reduced form as NADPH. Many oxidoreductases are specific for either NAD or NADP, although some can function with either. As a broad generalization, NADP is more commonly associated with biosynthetic reactions, NAD with catabolic and energyyielding reactions. nitrification The conversion of ammonia (NH3) to nitrate (NO3 ). nitrifying bacteria Chemolithotrophs capable of carrying out the transformations from NH3 to NO2 or NO2 to NO3 . nitrogenase
-

A mutation that changes a sense codon into one which does not code for an amino acid. nonsulfur purple bacteria A group of phototrophic prokaryotes containing bacteriachlorophylls a or b which grow best as photohetertrophs and have a relatively low tolerance for hydrogen sulfide (H2O). northern blot Hybridization of a single strand of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) to RNA fragments immobilized on a filter. Compare with Southern and western blot. nosocomial infection Hospital-acquired infection. nucleic acid A polymer of nucleotides, see also DNA and RNA. nucleic acid probe A strand of nucleic acid which can be labeled and used to hybridize to a complementary molecule from a mixture of other nucleic acids. In clinical microbiology, short

oligonucleotide of unique sequences used as hybridization probes for identifying pathogens. nucleoid The aggregated mass of DNA that makes up the chromosome of prokaryotic cells. nucleoside A nucleotide without the phosphate group. nucleotide A monomeric unit of nucleic acid, consisting of a sugar (ribose), a phosphate, and a nitrogenous base. nucleus A membrane-enclosed structure containing the genetic material (DNA) organized in chromosomes. numerical taxonomy

A short nucleic acid molecule, either obtained from an organism or synthesized chemically. oligotrophic Describing a body of water in which nutrients are in low supply. oncogene A gene whose expression causes formation of a tumor. open reading frame (ORF) The entire length of a DNA molecule that starts with a start codon and ends with a stop codon. operator A specific region of the DNA at the initial end of a gene, where the repressor protein binds and blocks mRNA synthesis. operon

The groupig by numerical methods of taxonomic units into taxa based on their character states. nutrient

A cluster of genes whose expression is controlled by a single operator. Typical of prokaryotic cells. opsonization

A substance taken by a cell from its environment and used in catabolic or anabolic ractions. nutrient agar

Promotion of phagocytosis by a specific antibody in combination with complement. organelle

The solid version of nutrient broth supplemented with agar. nutrient broth

A membrane-enclosed body specialized for carrying out certain functions; found only in eukaryotic cells. organotroph

A general-purpose liquid basal medium composed of e.g. beef extract and peptone, which allows many types of microorganisms to grow. obligate An adjective referring to an environmental factor (for example, oxygen) which is always required for growth. For example, obligate aerobe. Compare with facultative. obligate aerobe An organism which can grow only in the presence of oxygen (O2). oligonucleotide

In reference to energy source (electron donor) - An organism which obtains energy by the metabolism of organic substrates (as electron donors). There are two type of organotrophs: chemoorganotroph and photoorganotroph. Compare with autotroph, lithotroph, heterotroph, phototroph. osmosis Diffusion of water through a membrane from a region of low solute concentration to one of higher concentration. outbreak

The occurrence of a large number of cases of a disease in a short period of time. oxic Containing oxygen; aerobic. Usually used in reference to a microbial habitat. oxidation

A process using mild heat to reduce the microbial level in heat-sensitive materials. pathogen An organism able to inflict damage on a host it infects. pathogenicity The ability of a parasite to inflict damage on the host.

A process by which a compound gives up electrons, acting as an electron donor, and becomes oxidized. oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction A coupled pair of reactions, in which one compound becomes oxidized, while another becomes reduced and takes up the electrons released in the oxidation reaction. oxidative phosphorylation The non-phototrophic production of ATP at the expense of a proton motive force (PMF) formed by electron transport. Also electron-transport phosphyrylation. oxygenic photosynthesis Use of light energy to synthesize ATP and NADPH by noncyclic photophosphorylation with the production of oxygen from water. palindrome A nucleotide sequence on a DNA molecule in which the same sequence is found on each strand, but in the opposite direction. pandemic A worldwide epidemic.

pellicle A relatively rigid layer of proteinaceous elements just beneath the plasma membrane in many protozoa and algae. The plasma membrane is sometimes considered part of the pellicle. peptide bond A type of covalent bond joining amino acids in a polypeptide. peptidoglycan The rigid layer of the cell walls of Bacteria, a thin sheet composed of N-acetylglucosamine, N-acetylmuramic acid, and a few amino acids. Also called murein. periplasmic space The area between the cytoplasmic membrane and the cell wall in gram-negative Bacteria, containing certain enzymes involved in nutrition. peritrichous flagellation Having flagella attached to many places on the cell surface. person to person epidemic

parasite An organism able to live on and cause damage to another organism. passive immunity Stands for plaque-forming unit. Immunity resulting from transfer of antibodies or immune cells from an immune to a nonimmune individual. Compare with active immunity pasteurization phage See bacteriophage. phagemid An epidemic resulting from person to person contact, characterized by a gradual rise and fall in number of cases. PFU

A cloning vector that can replicate either as a plasmid or as a bacteriophage. phagocyte A body cell able to ingest and digest foreign particles. phagocytosis Ingestion of particulate material such as bacteria by protozoa and phagocytic cells of higher organisms. phenotype The observable properties of an organism. Compare with genotype. phosphodiester bond A type of covalent bond linking nucleotides together in a polynucleotide. phospholipid Lipids containing a substituted phosphate group and two fatty acid chains on a glycerol backbone. photoautotroph An organism able to use light as its sole source of energy and carbon dioxide as sole carbon source. photohetrotroph An organism using light as a source of energy and organic materials as carbon source. photophosphorylation Synthesis of high-energy phosphate bonds as ATP, using light energy. photosynthesis The process of using the light energy to synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide (CO2). In general, photosynthesis can be summaried by the equation: CO2 + 2 H2O --> [CH2O] + H2O + O2 See also anoxygenic photosynthesis and oxygenic photosynthesis. phototaxis Movement toward light.

phototroph In reference to energy source - an organism which uses light as the energy source to drive the electron flow from the elctron donors (e.g. water, hydrogen sulfide). Compare with autotroph, lithotroph, heterotroph, organotroph. phycobilin Also phycobiliprotein or biliprotein. A water-soluble pigment which occurs in cyanobacteria and functions as the light-harvesting pigments for phytosystem II. phylogeny The ordering of species into higher taxa and the construction of evolutionary trees based on evolutionary (natural) relationships. phytanyl A branched-chain hydrocarbon containing 20 carbon atoms, commonly found in the lipids of Archaea. pilus (plural pili) A fimbria-like structure that is present on fertile cells, both Hfr and F+, and is involved in DNA transfer during conjugation. Sometimes called sex pilus. See also fimbria. pinocytosis In eukaryotes, phagocytosis of soluble molecules. plaque A localized area of clearing in a bacterial lawn on an agar plate. The clearing is due to lysis or inhibited growth of cells which is caused by virus or bacteriophage infection. plaque-forming unit Abbreviated as pfu. Refer to any entity which can give rise 10 to a plaque. For example, if a phage stock solution has 10 pfu/ml, it means that every ml of this stock has 1010 phage particles which can form plaques. This (pfu/ml) is the conventional way to refer the concentration of a phage preparation. Compare with CFU. plasma The noncellular portion of blood. plasma cell

A large differentiated and short-lived B lymphocyte specializing in abundant (but short term) anitbody production. plasma membrane See cytoplasmic membrane. plasmid An extrachromosomal genetic element not essential for growth and which has no extracellular form. platelet A noncellular disc-shaped structure containing protoplasm found in large numbers in blood and functioning in the blood clotting process. plus-strand nucleic acid An RNA or DNA strand which has the same sense as the mRNA of a virus. polar Possessing hydrophilic characteristics and generally water soluble. polar flagellation Condition of having flagella attached at one end or both ends of the cell. poly-beta-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) A common storage material of prokaryotic cells consisting of a polymer of beta-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) or other betaalkanoic acids. (PHA). polyclonal antiserum

sequences in a target gene and the copying of the target sequences by the action of DNA polymerase. polymorphonuclear leukocyte (PMN) Small, actively motile white blood cells containing many lysosomes and specializing in phagocytosis. polynucleotide A polymer of nucleotides bonded to one another by phosphodiester bonds. polypeptide Several amino acids linked together by peptide bonds polysaccharide A long chain of monosaccharides (sugars) linked by glycosidic bonds. porin A rotein channel in the lipopolysaccharide layer of gramnegative bacteria. porphin A cyclic tetrapyrrole in which the four pyrrole groups are linked by their alpha-carbon atoms via methene (-CH=) bridges; porphin is the partial compund of porphyrins. porphyrin A porphin derivatives in which the pyrrole beta-carbons are variously substitued. Porphyrin can readily chelate vrious metals, the metalloporphyrins being components of several important biological pigments, e.g. chlorophylls, cytochromes, haem. porter

A mixture of antibodies to a variety of antigens or to a variety of determinants on a single antigen. polymer

A membrane protein that functions to transport substances into and out of the cell. precipitation

A large molecule formed by polymerization of monomeric units. polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

A reaction between antibody and soluble antigen resulting in a visible mass of antibody-antigen complexes. prevalence

A method for amplifying DNA in vitro, involving the use of oligonucleotide primers complementary to nucleotide

The proportion of individuals in a population having a disease.

Pribnow box The consensus sequence TATAAT located approximately 10 base pairs upstream from the transcriptional start site. primary antibody response Antibodies made upon first exposure to antigen; mostly of the class IgM. primary metabolite A metabolite excreted during the growth phase. primary producer An organism that uses light to synthesize new organic material from carbon dioxide. primary structure In an informational macromolecule, such as a polypeptide or a nucleic acid, the pricise sequence of monomeric units. primary transcript An unprocessed RNA molecule which is the direct product of transcription. primer A molecule (usually a polynucleotide) to which DNA polymerase can attach the first nucleotide during DNA replication. prion Derived from "proteinaceous infectious particle"; an infectious agent whose extracellular form consists entirely of protein and without any nucleic acid. The causal agent of the sheep/goats disease "scrapie". Compare with virion and virus. probe See nucleic acid probe. prochlorophyte A prokaryotic oxygenic phototroph that contains chlorophylls a and b but which lack phycobilins. prokaryote

A cell or organism lacking a unit membrane-bound (true) nucleus and other organelles, usually having its DNA in a single circular molecule. promoter The site on DNA where the RNA polymerase binds and begins transcription. prophage The state of the genome of a temperate virus when it is replicating in synchrony with that of the host, typically integrated into the host genome. prophylactic Treatment, usually immunologic or chemotherapeutic, designed to protect an individual from a future attack by a pathogen. prosthecae A cytoplasmic extrusion often forming a distinct appendage, bounded by the cell wall such as a bud, hypha. or stalk. prosthetic group The tightly bound, nonprotein portion of an enzyme; not the same as coenzyme. protein A polymeric molecule consisting of one or more polypeptides proton motive force (PMF) An energized state of a membrane created by expulsion of protons through action of an electron transport chain. See also chemiosmosis. protoplasm The complete cellular contents, cytoplasmic membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus; usually considered to be the living portion of the cell, thus excluding those layers peripheral to the cytoplasmic membrane. protoplast A cell from which the wall has been removed. prototroph

The parent from which an auxotrophic mutant has been derived. Contrast with auxotroph. protist A member of the Protista. Protista 1. A taxon (kingdom) which includes the algae, fungi and protozoa (collectively, the eukaryotic protists), and the prokaryotes. 2. A kingdom comprising the eukaryotic protists. protozoa Unicellular eukaryotic microorganisms that lack cell walls. provirus See prophage. pseudomonad Member of the genus Pseudomonas, a large group of gram-negative, obligately respiratory (never fermentative) Bacteria. pseudopodium (plural: pseudopodia) The protrusion of an amoeboid cell formed by the extrusion or streaming of the cytoplasm (but still enclosed in the membrane) for the purpose of movement or feeding. psychrophile An organism able to grow at low temperatures and showing a growth temperature optimum of <15 C. psychrotolerant An organism able to grow at low temperature but having a growth temperature optimum of > 15 C. public health The health of the population as a whole. pure culture A culture containing a single kind of microorganism. purple sulfur bacteria

A group of phototrophic prokaryotes containing bacteriochlorophylls a or b and characterized by the ability to oxideze hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and store elemental sulfur inside the cells. pyogenic Pus-forming; causing abscesses. pyrite A common iron ore. FeS2. pyrogenic Fever-inducing. pus A viscous, yellowish-white fluid formed in infected tissue, consisting chiefly of leukocytes, cellular debris, and liquified tissue elements. quarantine The limitation on the freedom of movement of an individual, to prevent spread of a disease to other members of a population. quaternary structure In proteins, the number and arrangement of individual polypeptides in the final protein molecule. radioimmunoassay An immunological assay employing radioactive antibody or antigen for the detection of certain substances in body fluids. radioisotope An isotope of an element that undergoes spontaneous decay with the release of radioactive particles. reaction center A photosynthetic complex containing chlorophyll (or bacteriochlorophyll) and other components, within which occurs the initial electron transfer reactions of photophosphorylation. reading-frame shift See frameshift.

recalcitrant Resistant to microbial attack. recombinant DNA A DNA molecule containing DNA originating from two or more sources. recombination Process by which genetic elements in two separate genomes are brought together in one unit. redox See oxidation-reduction reaction. reduction A process by which a compound accepts electrons to become reduced. reduction potential The inherent tendency of a compound to act as an electron donor or an electron acceptor. Measure in volts. reductive dechlorination Removal of Cl as Cl from an organic compound by reducing the carbon atom from C-Cl to C-H. regulation Proceses that control the rates of synthesis of proteins. Induction and repression are examples of regulation. regulon A set of operons that are all controlled by the same regulatory protein (repressor or activator). replacement vector A cloning vector, such as a bacteriophage, in which some of the DNA of the vector can be replaced with foreign DNA. replication Conversion of one double-stranded DNA molecule into two identical double-stranded DNA molecules. repression
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The process by which the synthesis of an enzyme is inhibited by the presence of an external substance, the repressor. repressor protein A regulatory protein that binds to sepecific sites on DNA and blocks transcription. reservoir In epidemiology, the organism or environment that normally harbors a pathogen. respiration Catabolic reactions producing ATP in which either organic or inorganic compounds are primary electron donors and organic or inorganic compounds are ultimate electron acceptors. Restriction endonucleases (restriction enzymes) Enzymes that recognize and cleave specific DNA sequences, generating either blunt or single-stranded (sticky) ends. retrovirus Virus containing single-stranded RNA as its genetic material and which produces a complementary DNA by action of the enzyme reverse transcriptase. reverse electron transport The energy-dependent movement of electrons against the thermodynamic gradient to form a strong reductant from a weaker electron donor. reverse transcriptase The enzyme responsible for the process of reverse transcription. reverse transcription The process of copying information found in RNA into DNA. rheumatic fever An inflammatory autoimmune disease triggered by an immune response to infection by Streptococcus pyogenes. rhizosphere

The region immediately adjacent to plant roots. ribonucleic acid (RNA) A polymer of nucleotides connected via a phosphateribose backbone, involved in protein synthesis. robisomal RNA (rRNA) Types of RNA found in the ribosome; some participate actively in the process of protein synthesis. ribosome A cytoplasmic particle composed of ribosomal RNA and protein, which is part of the protein-synthesizing machinery of the cell. ribozyme An RNA molecule that can catalyze a chemical reaction. rickettsias Obligate intracellular parasites which cause a variety of disease, including typhus and Rocky Mountain spotted fever. RNA life A hypothetical life form lacking DNA and protein which may have existed on early earth and in which RNA served both a genetic coding and a catalytic function. RNA processing The conversion of a precursor RNA into its mature form. rod See bacillus. root nodule A tumor-like growth on plant roots that contains symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria. rumen The forestomach of ruminant animals in which cellulose digestion occurs. scale up Conversion of an industrial process from a small laboratory setup to a large commercial fermentation.

scarlet fever Characteristic reddish skin rash resulting from an exotoxin produced by cells of Streptococcus pyogenes. secondary antibody response Antibody made upon second (subsequent) exposure to antigen; mostly of the class IgG. secondary metabolite A product excreted by a microorganism near the end of the growth phase or during stationary phase. secondary structure The initial pattern of folding of a polypeptide or a polynucleotide, usually the result of hydrogen bonding. secretion vector A DNA vector in which the protein product is both expressed and secreted (excreted) from the cell. selection Placing organisms under conditions where the growth of those with a particular genotype will be favored. selective medium A medium which allows the growth of certain types of microorganisms in preference to others. For example, an antibiotic-containing medium allows the growth of only those microorganisms which are resistant to this antibiotic. semiconservative replication DNA synthesis yielding new double helices, each consisting of one parental and one progeny strand. septicemia Infection of the bloodstream by microorganisms. septum (plural septa) A crosswall (partition) dividing a parent cell into two daughter cells during binary fission or occuring between adjacent cells in the hyphae. serology

The study of antigen-antibody reactions in vitro. serum Fluid portion of blood remaining after the blood cells and materials responsible for clotting are removed. sexually transmitted disease (STD) A disease whose usual means of transmission is by sexual contact. sheath 1. A secreted, tubular structure formed around a chain of cells or around a bundle of filaments; cells within a sheath may or may not subsequently separate from the sheath. 2. A layer of outer membrane covering the bacterial flagella. Shine-Dalgarno sequence A short stretch of nucleotides on a prokaryotic mRNA molecule upstream of the translational start site, that serves to bind to ribosomal RNA and thereby bring the ribosome to the initiation condon on the mRNA. shuttle vector A DNA vector which can replicate in two different organisms, used for moving DNA between unrelated organisms. sickle-cell anemia A genetic trait which confers resistance to malaria but which causes a reduction in numbers of red blood cells. signal sequence (signal peptide) A short stretch of amino acids found at the beginning of proteins that are typically rich in hydrophobic amino acids which helps transport the entire polypeptide through the membrane. signature sequence Short oligonucleotides of unique sequence found in 16S ribosomal RNA of a particular group of prokaryotes. single-cell protein Protein derived from microbial cells for use as food or a food supplement.

site-directed mutagenesis The insertion of a different nucleotide at a specific site in a DNA molecule using synthetic DNA methodology. 16S rRNA A large polynucleotide (about 1500 bases) which functions as a part of the small subunit of the ribosome of prokaryotes and from whose sequence evolutionary information can be obtained; the eukaryotic counterpart is 18S rRNA. slime layer A diffused layer of polysaccharide exterior to the bacterial cell wall. Compare with capsule and glycocalyx. slime mold A nonphototrophic eukaryotic microorganism lacking cell walls, which aggregate to form fruiting structures (cellular slime molds) or simply masses of protoplasm (acellular slime molds). Southern blot Hybridization of a single strand of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) to DNA fragments immobilized on a filter. Compare with northern and Western blot. species In microbiology, a collection of closely related strains sufficiently different from all other strains to be recognized as a distinct unit. specific epithet The label (or designation) of a particular species in the binomial nomenclature system. For example, "coli" is the specific epithet of Escherichia coli. specificity The ability of the immune response to interact with individual antigens. spheroplast A spherical, osmotically sensitive cell derived from a bacterium (or any cell with cell wall) by loss of some but not all of the rigid wall layer. If all the rigid wall layer has been completely lost, the structure is called protoplast.

spirillum (plural: spirilli) 1. A bacterium with a spiral shape which is relatively rigid (i.e. not flexible, compare with spirochaete. 2. The bacterium in the genus Spirillum. spirochaete (spirochete) A gram-negative bacterium characterized by the flexibly spiral shape and the possession of axial filaments. spontaneous generation The hypothesis that living organisms can originate from nonliving matter. spore A general term for resistant resting strutures formed by many prokaryotes and fungi. sporozoa Nonmotile parasitic protozoa. stalk An elongate structure, either cellular or excreted, which anchors a cell to a surface. stationary phase

steroid Any tetracyclic hydrocarbons which is derived from perhydrocyclopentanophenanthrenea. Important examples of steroids are cholesterol, and sterol; several hormones are also steroids such as sex hormones and corticosteroid hormones. Even vitamin D is based on the steroid structure. sterol Any steroid-based alcohol having a hydrocarbon (aliphatic) side-chain of 8-10 carbons at the 17-beta position and a hydroxyl group (-OH) at the 3-beta position (that's why it's an alcohol). Cholesterol is one type of sterols. Because of its hydrophilic property at the -OH end and hydrophobic at the hydrocarbon side chain, it can be incorporated into the lipid bilayers of the cytoplasmic membrane. However, sterols only exist in the cytoplasmic membranes of eukaryotes while in prokaryotes, virtually all do not have sterol in their membranes except mycoplasmas, a group of cell wall-less bacteria. stop codon A codon which signals the termination of translation streptobacilli Rods that remain attached in chains after cell division. streptococci

The period during the growth cycle of a population in which growth ceases. stem cell Fetal cells that give rise to bone marrow, blood cells, and B and T cells. stereoisomer A mirror image form of a molecule. Both have the same molecular and structural formula but different in their stereo arrangement of molecular positions. sterile Free of living organisms and viruses. sterilization Treatment resulting in death of all living organisms and viruses in a material.

Cocci that remain attached in chains after cell division. strain A population of cells all descended from a single cell; also a clone. stromatolites Laminated microbial mats, typically built from layers of filamentous and other microorganisms which can become fossilized. substrate The molecule undergoing reaction with an enzyme. substrate-level phosphorylation

Synthesis of high-energy phosphate bonds through reaction of inorganic phosphate with an activated (usually) organic substrate. sulfatara A hot, sulfur-rich, generally acidic environment, commonly inhabited by hyperthermophilic Archaea. supercoil Highly twisted form of circular DNA. superoxide anion A harmful derivative of oxygen capable of oxidative destruction of cell components. suppressor A mutation that restores wild-type phenotype without altering the original mutation, usually arising by mutation in another gene. symbiosis The living together of two different organisms. syntrophy A nutritional situation in which two or more organisms combine their metabolic capabilities to catabolize a substance not capable of being catabolized by either one alone. systemic Not localized in a particular place of the body; an infection disseminated widely through the body is said to be systemic. sulfate-reudcing bacterium A prokaryote which is able to reduce sulfate SO4 (as a terminal electron acceptor) using electrons donated from organic acids, fatty acids, alcohols or hydrogen (electron donors). syphilis A chronic human disease caused by Treponema pallidum. Infection generally occurs by direct contact with lesions of syphilis.
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taxis Movement toward or away from a stimulus. taxon (plural taxa) A group into which related organisms are classified. taxonomy The study of scientific classification and nomenclature. T cell See T lymphocyte. T cell receptor The antigen-specific receptor on the surface of T lymphocytes. T-DNA The segment of the Agrobacterium Ti plasmid which is transferred to plant cells. T lymphocyte A type of immune cell responsible for many cell-mediated immune responses plus stimulation of differentiation of antibody-producing lymphocytes (i.e. B cell) during the humoral immune response. termination 1. Stop of mRNA synthesis (i.e., transcription) at the terminator site 2. Stop of protein synthesis (i.e., translation) at the stop codon. terminator The site on a DNA sequence at which the process of transcription stops. temperate virus A virus which upon infection of a host does not necessarily cause lysis but whose genome may replicate in synchrony with that of the host. See lysogen tertiary structure The final folded structure of a polypeptide that has previously attained secondary structure.

thermocline Zone of water in a stratified lake in which temperature and oxygen concentration drop precipitously with depth. Ti plasmid A conjugative plasmid present in the bacterium Agrobacterium tunmefaciens which can transfer genes into plants. tick-borne disease The diseases transmitted by ticks such as Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Q fever, and Lyme disease. titer Measure of antibody quantity. tolerance transgenic In reference to immunology, the acquisition of nonresponsiveness to a molecule normally recognized by the immune system. toxic shock symdrome translation Acute shock resulting from host response to an exotoxin produced by Staphylococcus aureus. toxigenicity transpeptidation The degree to which an organisms is able to elicit toxic symptoms. toxin transposable element A microbial substance able to induce host damage. toxoid A toxin modified so that it is no longer toxic but is still able to induce antibody formation. transcription Synthesis of an RNA molecule complementary to one of the two strands of a double-stranded DNA molecule. transduction Transfer of host genetic information via a virus (or bacteriophage) particle. A genetic element that has the ability to move (transpose) from one site on a chromosome to another. transposition The movement of a piece of DNA around the chromosome, usually through the function of a transposable element. transposon A type of transposable element which, in addition to genes involved in transposition, carries other genes; often conferring selectable phenotypes such as antibiotic resistance. The formation of peptide bonds betweent the short peptides present in the cell wall polymer, peptidoglycan. The synthesis of protein using the genetic information in a messenger RNA as a template. Used to describe genetically modified plants or animals containing foreign genes inserted by means of recombinant DNA techniques. transfection The transformation of a prokaryotic cell by DNA or RNA from a virus. Used also to describe the process of genetic transformation in eukaryotic cells. transfer RNA (tRNA) A type of RNA that carries amino acids to the ribosome during translation; contains anticodon. transformation 1. Transfer of genetic information into a prokaryotic cell via free DNA. 2. A process initiated by infection with certain viruses, whereby a normal animal cell becomes a cancer cell.

transposon mutagenesis Insertion of a transposon into a gene; this inactivates the host gene leading to a mutant phenotype and also confers the phenotype associated with the transposon gene. tricarboxylic acid cycle (= TCA cycle, citric acid cycle, Krebs cycle) A series of metabolic reactions by which pyruvate is oxidized completely to carbon dioxide, also forming NADH, which allows ATP production. trichome A trichome is a row of cells which have remained attached to one another following successive cell divisions. The cells in the trichome are usually separated by septa but some of the adjacent cells can communicate with one another via small pores (microplasmodesmata) which are not found in a simple chain of bacterial cells such as chains of streptococci. The cells of a trichome may or may not be covered by a common sheath. Trichomes are formed by many cyanobacteria and e.g. by species of Beggiatoa. tuberculin test A test for previous infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. tumor Excessive tissue caused by uncontrolled cell growth. upper respiratory tract The nasopharynx, oral cavity, and throat. upstream position Refers to nucleic acid sequences on the 5'-side of a given site on a DNA or RNA molecule. Compare with downstream position. vaccination Artificial introduction of a killed or attenuated pathogen to promote protective immunity. See vaccine. vaccine Material used to induce specific protective immunity against a pathogen. vector

1. A plasmid or virus used in genetic engineering to insert genes into a cell. 2. An agent, usually an insect or other animal, able to carry pathogens from one host to another. vehicle Nonliving source of pathogens which infect large numbers of individuals; common vehicles are food and water. viable Alive; able to reproduce. viable count Measurement of the concentration of live cells in a microbial population. vibrio 1. A curved, rod-shaped bacterial cell. 2. A bacterium of the genus Vibrio. virion A virus particle; the virus nucleic acid surrounded by protien coat and in some cases other material. viroid A small RNA molecule with virus-like properties. virulence Degree of pathogenicity of a parasite. virus A genetic element containing either DNA or RNA that is able to alternate between intracellular and extracellular states, the later being the infectious state. wandering macrophage A macrophage that leaves the blood and migrates to infected tissue. wart An epidermal tumor of viral origin Wassermann test

A complement fixation test used to diagnose syphilis. water activity (aw) An expression of the relative availability of water in a substance. Pure water has an water activity of 1.000. The water activity of a solution is one-hundredth its relative humidity. water mold A common term for a member of the division Oomycota.

wine vinegar Vinegar produced by the oxidation of alcohol in wine by members of the genus Acetobacter. Winogradsky column A glass column with an anaerobic lower zone and an aerobic upper zone, which allows growth of microorgansims under conditions similar to those found in a nutrient-rich lake. wobble

whey The fluid protion of milk that separates from curd. white piedra A fungal infection (tinea albigena) caused by the yeast Trichosporon beigelii that forms light-colored nodules on the beard and mustache. whooping cough (pertussis) An infectious disease characterized by catarrh of the respiratory tract and peculiar paroxysms of coughing, ending in a prolonged crowing or whooping respiration. It is caused by Bordetella pertussis. western blot See immunoblot. Widal test (pronounced vidal) A test involving agglutination of typhoid bacilli when they are mixed with serum containing typhoid antibodies from an individual having typhoid fever; used to detect the presence of Salmonella typhi and S. paratyphi. wild type A strain of microorganism isolated from nature. The usual or native form of a gene or organism. wilt A plant disease in which bacteria invade the vessels of herbaceous plants, interfere with movement of water and nutrients, and produce certain toxins that cause wilting and the eventual death of the plant. In reference to reading the genetic code, the concept that nonstandard base pairing is allowed between the anticodon and the third position of the condon. wort The filtrate of malted grains used as the substrate for the production of beer and ale by fermentation.