Kuw Duwkalumi: The Arawak Sacred Routes

of Migration, Trade, and Resistance

Silvia N. Viual, Instituto Venezolano de
Investigaciones Cientcas
Abstract. Kuwe oi Kuwai is a poweiul culruial heio among rhe Aiawak o rhe
oirhwesr Amazon. 1his airicle analyzes Kuwe reachings anu sacieu ioures as
polirical, ieligious, migiaroiy, anu riaue sriaregies o iesisrance. 1hese ioures weie
useu Ly rhe Waiekena anu rhe Baie Inuians ro iesisr rhe colonial anu posrcolonial
encioachmenr on rheii ancesrial reiiiroiies uuiing rhe eighreenrh cenruiy.
1his airicle analyzes Kuwe Duwkalumi, oi Kuwe reachings anu sacieu
ioures, as polirical, ieligious, migiaroiy, anu riaue sriaregies o iesisrance.
Duiing rhe eighreenrh cenruiy rhese sriaregies weie useu Ly poweiul In-
uian waiiioi-shaman chies anu rheii olloweis ro evaue oi challenge rhe
Luiopean colonial sysrem. Ar rhis rime rhe ancesrois o rhe conrempo-
iaiy Waiekena anu Baie Inuians weie oiganizeu inro uieienr mulrierhnic
coneueiacies, such as rhe Demanao, Nauwaka, NaiaLirana, Guaypu-
navi, Umasevirauna, anu Daiivazauna.
1
1he Luiopean uocumenrs uesciiLe
rhese poweiul Aiawakan-speaking gioups as associareu wirh each orhei
rhiough riauing nerwoiks, Inuian ieLellions, anu sacieu places. By rhe
ninereenrh cenruiy seveial Aiawakan-anu 1ukanoan-speaking gioups iom
rhe oirhwesr Amazon weie acrive pairicipanrs in uieienr millenaiian
movemenrs whose leaueis anu memLeis weie also using Kuwe ioures as
a sriaregy ro suivive rhe piocesses o exploirarion anu uepiivarion iesulr-
ing iom rhe iuLLei Loom (Hill anu Wiighr 1,88, Viual anu Zucchi 1,,6,
Wiighr anu Hill 1,86). In rhe lasr rhiee uecaues o rhe rwenrierh cenruiy,
conrempoiaiy Waiekena anu Baie srill riaveleu Ly Kuwe Duwkalumi ro
iegain rheii economic, polirical, anu culruial iighrs.
Kuwe reachings anu sacieu ioures aie impoiranr aspecrs o rhe ieligion
Ethnohistory q,.q (summeiall zooo)
Copyiighr Ly rhe Ameiican Sociery oi Lrhnohisroiy.
66 Silvia M. Vidal
o Kuwe oi Kuwai. 1his ieligious sysrem emLiaces a hieiaichical socio-
polirical oiganizarion, a map (oi imageiy) o sacieu ioures anu places,
anu a coipus o naiiarives rhar encompasses iirual, geogiaphical, ecologi-
cal, Loranical, anu zoological knowleuge.
2
Kuwe has seiveu rhe Aiawakan-
speaking peoples (moie specically, rhe Waiekena anu Baie) as a mouel o
anu oi sociery anu rheii geopolirical anu inreierhnic ielarions on which
rhey have Luilr rheii sriaregies o iesisrance. In shoir, Kuwe Duwkalumi
have seiveu as a means ro pairicipare in as well as ro evaue anu challenge
rhe colonial (anu posrcolonial) uominion.
As sriaregies o iesisrance, Kuwe Duwkalumi uiiecrly challenge rwo
impoiranr iueas o rhe Luiopean (Wesrein) culruial riauirion anu knowl-
euge. rhose o rime (hisroiy) anu space[place (geogiaphy[cairogiaphy). 1o
unueisranu rhe sriaregies useu Ly rhe Waiekena anu Baie oieLeais, I have
rhus oiienreu my analysis inro rwo inreiconnecreu elus. (1) rhe conion-
rarion anu uialogue among Luiopean anu Inuian ways o consriucring anu
inreipiering rhe pasr, anu (z) rhe imposirion anu insrirurionalizarion o Lu-
iopean cairogiaphy on Ameiinuian geogiaphical anu geopolirical knowl-
euge. I have also rheoierically Laseu rhis airicle on newanrhiopological in-
reipierarions o rhe iole o culruie, myrh, hisroiy, anu place[space (Asau
1,8,, Bonl Baralla1,8,, Cohn1,8,, Comaio anu Comaio1,,z, Iiieu-
man 1,,z, Gupra anu Ieiguson 1,,,, Hill 1,88, Rosaluo 1,8o, Sahlins
1,81, 1,8, 1uinei1,88L, Whire1,,o, Whireheau1,,a, 1,,q, Wol 1,8z).
3
Recenr erhnological anu erhnohisroiical sruuies o narive oirhwesr Ama-
zon anu orhei Sourh Ameiican iegions have also Leen consiueieu (Aivelo-
]imenez anu Bioiu Casrillo 1,,q, Aivelo-]imenez er al. 1,8,, Cheinela
1,,, Gonzlez nez 1,8o, Hill 1,,, C. Hugh-]ones 1,,,, S. Hugh-
]ones 1,,,, ]ackson 1,8, Noiales anu Aivelo-]imenez 1,81, Noiey 1,,,
Reichel-Dolmaro 1,,, Roosevelr 1,,q, Whireheau 1,88, 1,,o, Wiighr
1,81).
4
Iinally, cuiienr erhnogiaphical anu hisroiical nuings oLraineu
iomieseaich conuucreu Ly some Waiekena, Baniva, Kuiiipako, Baie, anu
Yeial Inuians (narive erhnogiaphy) have also Leen consiueieu.
5
1o analyze Kuwe Duwkalumi as an Inuian moue o consriucring rhe
pasr, I have auopreu a shamanic oi shamanisric way ro ieconsriucr anu
inreipier oirhwesr Amazon hisroiy (Hill 1,,6c). Accoiuing ro icholas
1homas anu Caioline Humphiey (1,,6. 1), rhe anrhiopological lireiaruie
on shamanism is heavily Liaseu rowaiu cuiing, riance, anu meuical as-
pecrs, rowaiu chaiacreiizarion o whar aie supposeuly geneial symLols
oi ecsraric rechniques, anu rowaiu rhe shaman as a singulai iirual piacri-
rionei. 1hus, rhey piopose ro view shamans as polirical acrois oi meuia-
rois o hisroiically consrirureu social conriauicrions anu iesisrances (iLiu..
1). 1o rhe Aiawak shamans anu orhei iirual specialisrs, Kuwe Duwkalumi
1he Aiawak Sacieu Roures 6,
aie nor only sriaregies ro conionr unequal anu hieiaichical powei ielarion-
ships wirhin colonial anu posrcolonial sysrems, Lur rhey aie also a mouel o
inuigenous ways oi consriucring anu inreipiering myrh, hisroiy, culruie,
anu place.
1he shamanic way also consrirures a poweiul mouel oi rhe
Aiawakan-speaking peoples oi consriucring anu inreipiering erhnic anu
polirical iuenriries. Accoiuing ro ]onarhan D. Hill (1,,6c), rhe shamanic
way is a moue o polirical hisroiy rhar oims pair o rhe piocess o con-
sriucring polirical communiries. In rhe colonial anu posrcolonial piocesses
rhe conionrarion Lerween rhe shamanic anu rhe narional (ocial) pio-
uucrion[consriucrion o rheii own iespecrive hisroiy cieareu newaienas o
sriuggles oi Inuian peoples ro piorecr, cieare, oi ieLuilu new culruial anu
polirical spaces wirhin rhe colonial anu narional srares. Because rhe Inuians
weie nor passive oi mure vicrims in rhese piocesses, anrhiopologisrs anu
orhei social scienrisrs neeu ro change rhe concepr o culruie ro one rhar in-
cluues rhe iuea rhar rhe Inuian peoples have no choice Lur ro cieare new
iuenriries . . . |oi] iesisring iuenriries, rhar is, rhey have ro sriuggle ro ie-
asseir rheii place in hisroiy (Hill 1,,6c. z).
Since rhe 1,8os new anrhiopological inreipierarions have sriongly
quesrioneu sraric, ieuucrive, anu essenrialisr poiriayals o culruie, hisroiy,
myrh, anu sociery anu have ieconguieu rhese caregoiies in ways ai ui-
eienr iom Luiocenriic conceprions. Alreinarive ways o rheoiizing rhe
pasr nowseek ro inregiare aichaeological anu erhnological uara anu wiirren
hisroiical iecoius wirh inuigenous inreipierive mouels o hisroiy. Iuirhei-
moie, myrh anu hisroiy aie vieweu as uynamic pairneis oi rhe hisroiical
inreipierarion o Inuians pasr oi as moues o hisroiical consciousness oi
inuigenous peoples in rheii sriuggles wirh anu suivival wirhin narion-srares
(Hill 1,88, 1,,6, Rosaluo 1,8o, Sahlins 1,81, 1uinei 1,88a).
6
1he eighreenrh cenruiy was a peiiou in which rhe Spanish anu Poi-
ruguese Ciowns weie uevoreu ro sysremaric exploiarions o rheii colonial
reiiiroiies as well as rhe uemaicarion anu conriol o rheii oveiseas posses-
sions. 1his piocess meanr senuing civil anu miliraiy exploieis ro uieienr
iegions, elaLoiaring maps anu invenroiies o naruial iesouices, expelling
oieign inriuueis, anu using Inuian gioups anu reiiiroiies as maikeis o
rhe exrension o rheii colonial soveieignries. Duiing rhis cenruiy rhe Amei-
inuian cairogiaphy was ieplaceu Ly rhe colonial geogiaphy rhar Lecame
ocial, in rhis way rhe Luiopean space-reiiiroiial parrein was implanreu.
1he alien parrein uiviueu Ameiinuian Sourh Ameiica inro colonial srares
anu Luiopean municipaliries, villages, anu paiishes. 1his colonial cairog-
iaphy anu Luiopean parrein has Leen useu since 1,,, as a space-reiiiroiial
anu polirical mouel oi rhe ciearion anu uelimirarion o Larin Ameiican
68 Silvia M. Vidal
narion-srares. In orhei woius colonialism anu posrcolonialism iepiesenr,
ro rhe Inuian popularions o lowlanu Sourh Ameiica, rhe compulsoiy uis-
placemenr anu suLsrirurion o rheii spario-geogiaphical anu geopolirical
knowleuge o rheii own inreiconnecrions Ly Luiopean sparial uisriiLurions
anu hieiaichies o powei.
1o rhe Aiawak shamans anu orhei iirual specialisrs, Kuwe Duwka-
lumi iepiesenr rheii mouel o consriucring anu inreipiering geogiaphy anu
place. 1he anrhiopological lireiaruie on shamanismhas also sriesseu rhe as-
sociarion Lerween shamans rechniques o ecsrasy anu mysrical geogiaphy
(Lliaue 1,6q. 18z). Similaily, orhei anrhiopological appioaches have ciiri-
cizeu rhe naruializeu associarions o culruie, people, anu place, especially
wirhin hieiaichical anu unequal powei ielarionships (Gupra anu Ieiguson
1,,,), rhey have openeu up alreinarive sruuies in seaich o nonimpeiial
geohisroiical caregoiies (Coionil 1,,6). ]onarhan Boyaiin (1,,q. q), oi ex-
ample, menrions rhar social scienrisrs ueliLeiarions usually pioceeu as i
culruie anu sociery weie playeu our wirhin a Cairesian woilu. 1his is
rhe iesulr o rhe close genealogical connecrion rhar links Cairesian (iario-
nal) caregoiies o space (anu rime) in rhe Luiopean culruial riauirion, rhis
connecrion means close ielarionships Lerween mapping, Lounuaiy serring,
inclusion, anu exclusion o places anu peoples (iLiu.). In auuirion, Akhil
Gupra anu ]ames Ieiguson (1,,,. ) suggesr rhar rhe piesumprion rhar
spaces aie auronomous has enaLleu rhe powei o ropogiaphy successully
ro conceal rhe ropogiaphy o powei.
Accoiuing ro Walrei Nignolo (1,,. zzzz, zz,), rhe move rowaiu
colonizarion anu ieconguiarion o space (Luiopean cairogiaphy) in rhe
colonial piocess inriouuceu a uouLle peispecrive. Ir piouuceu, on rhe one
hanu, rhe uissociarion Lerween a cenrei uereimineu erhnically anu a cen-
rei uereimineu geomeriically rhar complemenrs rhe erhnic one, anu, on rhe
orhei hanu, rhe assumprion rhar rhe locus o oLseivarion (geomeriic cen-
rei) uoes nor uisiupr oi inreieie wirh rhe locus o rhe enunciarion (erhnic
cenrei). Nignolo (iLiu.. zz) also suggesrs rhar rhe powei o rhe cenrei
uoes nor uepenu necessaiily on rhe geomeriic iarionalizarion Lur . . . |is]
enacreu aiounu rhe powei o rhe erhnic cenrei.
Ameiinuian anu Wesrein geogiaphical imaginaiies anu rheii conion-
rarions aie cenrial ro rhe unueisranuing o rhe hisroiical piocesses in Luilu-
ing uominanr gloLal cairogiaphies. Ioi Nichael ]. Shapiio (1,,,. ix) rhese
conionrarions piouuce rhe insrirurionalizarion o rhe uominanr colonial oi
narion-srare geogiaphical imaginaiy ovei Ameiinuian cairogiaphic knowl-
euge. 1his insrirurionalizarion incluues rhe mapping o sparial anu geo-
giaphical conrexrs wirhin which uominanr poweis anu sriong polirical
uecision makeis calculareu, maue choices, anu gave meanings ro sparial
1he Aiawak Sacieu Roures 6,
uisriiLurion anu economic exploirarion o colonizeu peoples. 1his piocess
also ignoies rhe impoiranr conriiLurion o colonizeu peoples ro Luiopean
cairogiaphy o rhe Ameiicas. In rhis sense rhis airicle iepiesenrs an eoir
ro ieconsriucr rhe Aiawakan-speaking gioups cairogiaphy as well as rheii
geohisroiical, geopolirical, anu geoieligious imaginaiies anu knowleuge.
Cuiienr erhnogiaphical anu hisroiical ieseaich conuucreu Ly some
Aiawakan-speaking gioups have sriongly inuenceu my analysis o rhe
myrhs anu oial hisroiy o rhe conrempoiaiy Waiekena anu Baie. 1heii nu-
ings anu my analysis weie comLineu wirh Luiopean wiirren iecoius ro ex-
amine Kuwe Duwkalumi. 1o conrempoiaiy Aiawakan-speaking gioups,
rhese sriaregies weie useu Ly rheii ancesrois ro iesisr Luiopean anu Luio-
ciiollo encioachmenrs on rheii lanus.
Ethnographical Background of the
Contemporary Warekena and Bar
1he conrempoiaiy Waiekena anu Baie inhaLir seveial rownships o rhe
Uppei Guainiaegio iegion in rhe Venezuelan Amazon (Iiguie 1). 1heie
aie aLour six hunuieu Waiekenas anu rwo rhousanu Baies in Venezuela,
Lur rhey aie inregiareu inro a macioiegional sociopolirical sysrem wirh
some orhei oiry rhousanu 1ukanoans, Nakuans, anu Aiawaks living in
Venezuela, ColomLia, anu Biazil. 1his sysrem is chaiacreiizeu Ly exrensive
mulrilingualism anu exogamy (Wiighr 1,81, ]ackson 1,8, Hill 1,8, 1,,,
Cheinela 1,,, Viual 1,,).
1he Waiekena anu Baie gioups have an inreinally hieiaichical socio-
polirical sriucruie rhar is oiganizeu in seveial pariilineal, localizeu, anu
exogamic phiariies, each consisring o rwo oi moie siLs iankeu accoiu-
ing ro rhe Liirh oiuei o rhe ancesrial myrhic Liorheis. 1he piacrice o
exogamy allows Aiawakan-speaking gioups anu suLgioups ro associare
wirh each orhei anu orhei socieries. Hieiaichy is nor only rhe ciireiion Ly
which ro classiy people anu place rhem in a given srarus, ir also inuences
inria- anu inreigioups alliances anu plays an impoiranr iole in piocesses
anu mechanisms o erhnogenesis anu social iepiouucrion. Lach phiariy anu
siL aie iuenrieu wirh a specic aiea wirhin irs gioups reiiiroiy. Localizeu
phiariies anu siL exeicise polirical anu economic conriol ovei rhe iiveis,
sacieu places, anu naruial iesouices o rheii reiiiroiies. Howevei, rhis reiii-
roiial conriol can Le negoriareu rhiough economic Laigaining anu polirical
alliances among phiariies anu gioups.
1his sociopolirical sriucruie is giounueu on Lorh an exrensive ner-
woik o polirical ielarions wirh orhei peoples anu rhe shaieu Kuwe ieli-
gious sysrem, which is uiviueu inro myrhical cycles. Lach cycle consisrs o
6qo Silvia M. Vidal
Figure . Map of Territories and Townships of the Bar, Warekena, and Other Arawakan-
Speaking Groups in the Venezuelan Amazon. Source: Vidal eld notes , , .
1he Aiawak Sacieu Roures 6q1
a coipus o naiiarives (sroiies, myrhs, chanrs, songs, piayeis, auvice, erc.),
iirual knowleuge, puLeiry iires, anu esrivals anu compiises a wiue vaiiery
o iueological-symLolic anu piacrical coues. 1hese coues reach impoiranr
knowleuge rhar has Leen associareu wirh Kuwe oi Kuwai anu rhe 1iick-
srei Ciearoi (piiiikuli oi piiuli). In shoir, rhese coues have inuenceu
anu oiienreu Inuian peoples sriaregies ro ace evenrs anu siruarions o rheii
iirual anu seculai lives.
In rhis mannei Lorh rhe hisroiical inreipierarion anu rhe myrhic iepie-
senrarion o rhe woilu, naruial Leings, sociery, anu humankinu aie closely
ielareu ro rhe Waiekena anu Baies sysremo ancienr Lelies. Nyrhic naiia-
rives anu oial hisroiy aie rhus rwo complemenraiy genies rhar inuence one
anorhei, rhiough rhese merhous people naiiare, rell, anu inreipiere rheii
hisroiical piocesses o change.
7
Accoiuing ro rhe Waiekena anu rhe Baie,
Kuwe oi Kuwai is rhe voice o rhe ciearion rhar openeu up rhe woilu.
8
He
is rhe monsrious, piimoiuial human Leing (Hill 1,,. xvii), masrei o all
visiLle anu invisiLle Leings (Wiighr 1,,), anu capaLle o conriolling rhe
sky anu rhe univeise rhiough his poweiul knowleuge. Nosr o all, how-
evei, he came ro rhis woilu ro reach people all o his sacieu iirual poweis.
1hese poweis oi Kuwe reachings aie secierly leaineu Ly men uuiing ini-
riarion oi puLeiry iires. RoLin N. Wiighr (1,,. ,,) rhus calls ir rhe culr
o rhe sacieu ures anu riumpers . . . iepiesenring rhe isr ancesrois o rhe
phiariies.
Kuwes culr is associareu wirh a hieiaichical polirical anu ieligious
oiganizarion known as secier male socieries rhar iepiesenr Kuwe anu
his rioops. 1he sociery incluues chies, masreis (iirual specialisr), wai-
iiois, shamans, anu seivanrs. 1he ielarionship Lerween secier male soci-
eries anu rhe iuea o Kuwe anu his rioops is Laseu on rhe associarion
rhar rhe Aiawakan-speaking gioups esraLlisheu Lerween rhe myrhic oi
isr ancesrois (rhe inpe mik nwi, such as Kuwe, piiuli, Puiunaminali,
anu Dzuli) anu rhe living elueis oi pjnawji.
9
1he Kuwe ieligion is also a
link ro collecrive uearh anu ieLiirh, woilu uesriucrion anu ienewal. Hill
(1,,. 16) srares rhar rhe culr o Kuwi anu o rhe ancesroi spiiirs has
conrinueu ro seive rhe Wakuenai |anorhei Aiawak gioup] as a powei ie-
souice oi negoriaring inreierhnic ielarions along rhe lowei Guainia Rivei
in Venezuela.
Myths and Oral History of the
Contemporary Warekena and Bar
1he Waiekena anu rhe Baie shaie wirh orhei Aiawakan-speaking gioups o
rhe oirhwesr Amazon rhe Kuwe oi Kuwai culr anu some orhei impoiranr
6qz Silvia M. Vidal
aspecrs o rheii myrhologies anu ieligious sysrems (Hill 1,8, 1,,, 1,,6L,
Hill anu Wiighr 1,88, Viual 1,8,, 1,,, Wiighr 1,81, 1,,, Wiighr anu Hill
1,86).
10
Yer rheie aie also some uieiences rhar Wiighr (1,,. ) has in-
reipiereu as vaiianrs o a single anu complex riauirion Lecause rhey uiei
in ways rhar aie moie rhan a simply quesrion o local conrexr anu uerail.
Despire rhe uieiences, rhe similaiiries aie inreipiereu Ly rhe conrempo-
iaiy Waiekena anu Baie nor only as eviuence ro piove rhe valiuiry o rheii
ancienr oial riauirions, Lur also o rheii shaieu oiigins. 1hey consiuei rhar
each Aiawakan-speaking gioup has kepr an impoiranr anu valuaLle pair
o rhis ancienr knowleuge rhar is conrinually useu ro ieconsriucr rheii his-
roiies anu socieries.
1he myrhohisroiical anu iirual naiiarives o rhe Waiekena anu rhe
Baie can Le sepaiareu inro rhiee cycles (oi sers o naiiarives) rhar ourline a
complex piocess o erhno- anu cosmogenesis.
11
Some o rhem aie linguis-
rically a mixruie o Waiekena anu Baie languages, rhis speaks oi rheii
close hisroiical anu iirual ielarionships, which, accoiuing ro rheii oial ria-
uirions, Legan ar an iniriarion esrival celeLiareu Ly rhe rwo gioups anu
orhei Inuian peoples ar rhe Casiquiaie Rivei. 1he isr cycle o naiiarives
Legins ar Hipana, an ancienr communiry locareu in rhe Ayaii Rivei anu rhe
myrhical place o rhe Leginning o rhe woilu. Irs piincipal chaiacreis aie
piiuli, Amiuyawa (piimoiuial woman), rhe isr Kuwe, anu a gioup o
human-animal Leings. piiuli cieareu rhe isr woilu anu was enriusreu ro
eliminare all o rhe uangeious animals anu impeiecrions. 1his woilu was
uesrioyeu Ly a giear inunuarion iom which only piiuli, Amiuyawa,
anu some human-animal Leings suiviveu.
1he seconu cycle naiiares rhe expansion o rhe miniaruie woilu unril
ir ieaches irs naruial size wirh mounrains, iiveis, anu oiesrs, rhe cenrial
acrois aie piiuli, rhe rhiee sons o piiuli, Amiuyawa, rhe seconu
Kuwe, Kli, some human-animal Leings, anu rhe isr ancesrois. 1his cycle
explains rhe lie anu uearh o Kuwe, oi rhe voice rhar openeu up (expanueu)
rhe woilu. He raughr agiiculruie (kaltani) anu rhe sacieu iiruals o iniria-
rion ro rhe isr ancesrois.
12
Ar rhe enu o rhe isr iirual, Kuwe peioimeu
oi rhe isr ancesrois, rhen piiuli killeu him in a giear ie anu Kuwe
ler rhe woilu anu wenr ro heaven. Iiom his ashes spiour rhe mareiials
oi making rhe sacieu ures anu riumpers (his voice) playeu in iniriarion
anu orhei sacieu iiruals rouay. Howevei, Amiuyawa anu orhei women
srole rhe sacieu insriumenrs iom rhe iniriareu men, anu rhis acr o Amiu-
yawa anu hei rioop o women ser o a long chase (opening rhe woilu again)
iom rhe Ayaii anu Isana Riveis ro uieienr places in rhe Oiinoco, egio,
anu Amazon Basins. 1his long chase enueu when piiuli anu his men ie-
gaineu conriol ovei Kuwes insriumenrs. Accoiuing ro rhe Waiekena anu
1he Aiawak Sacieu Roures 6q
rhe Baie, rhe uearh o Kuwe anu rhe chase o women weie rwo impoiranr
hisroiical momenrs rhar changeu oievei rhe culruie anu sociery o rheii
ancesrois, arei rhose evenrs, rhe oieLeaieis o conrempoiaiy Aiawakan-
speaking gioups Legan garheiing ro celeLiare iniriarion iiruals.
1he rhiiu cycle o naiiarives accounrs oi ielarionships among people,
Lerween people anu rheii ancesrois, anu Lerween human Leings anu powei-
ul spiiirs iomorhei pairs o rhe cosmos, as well as rhe connecrions among
uieienr iegions o rhe cosmos. Ir naiiares rhe human pasr o myrhic an-
cesrois (piiuli, Amiuyawa), anu rhe cenrial chaiacreis aie Puiunami-
nali (oi rhe givei o names), Pumeyawa, Kumasi, anu some orhei ieal anu
myrhic oieLeais. 1his ser o naiiarives mosrly rakes place in Waiekena anu
Baie ancesrial lanus anu is connecreu wirh some o rheii economic, migia-
roiy, commeicial, polirical, anu shamanic acriviries.
Accoiuing ro rhe Waiekena anu rhe Baie, rhe hisroiy o rheii ancesrois
can Le uiviueu inro rhiee impoiranr phases oi peiious rhar ieecr vaiious
piocesses o unicarion o uieienr peoples anu o sociopolirical anu ieli-
gious riansoimarion. 1he isr peiiou occuiieu in rhe Isana Rivei, when
rhe woilu was cieareu, anu ir is ielareu ro rhe isr cycle o myrhical naiia-
rives. 1he seconu phase ueals wirh rhe riansoimarion o iiruals o iniria-
rion anu rhe Kuwe culr in a ieligion rhar incluues an oiganizarion o wai-
iiois anu secier male socieries. Ir Legan uuiing rhe rime o rhe gianuarheis
Deie-ueie(-nwi) anu BenLena, when rhey inriouuceu iniriarion iires oi
young giils. By Kuwe ioures rhey riaveleu ro uieienr places, inviring iela-
rives, in-laws, anu iienus ro rhe iirual, anu all rhe people mer ar Naiacoa
(now known as San Ieinanuo ue AraLapo, in rhe uppei Oiinoco). Larei,
in Capihuaia anu orhei places o rhe Casiquiaie Basin, rhe oiearheis pei-
oimeu an impoiranr iniriarion iire oi rhe uaughreis o gianuarhei Siwali
(an ancienr chie oi caprain o rhe Waiekena). 1heie was a giear concen-
riarion o uieienr peoples rheie (ancesrois o rhe Baie, rhe Waiekena, rhe
Baniva, anu so on), leu Ly DepenaLe, rhe masrei o rhe iire, anu Dzuli as
rhe giear shaman. Arei rhis evenr, many gioups ielareu ro rhe Waiekena,
Baie, Baniva, anu rheii in-laws anu allies sraireu ro celeLiare rhe iniriarion
ceiemonies oi men anu rhe Kuwe ieligion Legan.
1he rhiiu peiiou Legan when rhe Kakhau people muiueieu Pume-
yawa anu hei husLanu in rhe Aguachapira Rivei, an auenr o rhe Casi-
quiaie, Pumeyawa saw rheii Kuwe, anu in rhis way she Lioke rhe sacieu
laws o rhe ieligion. Beoie uying, howevei, she gave Liirh ro Kumasi (oi
Kumari in Baie), who was piorecreu anu iaiseu Ly Inmalu anu Iniliwiyu
peoples. When he giew oluei, Kumasi wageu a wai againsr rhe Kak-
hau, rheii allies anu in-laws. He anu his men killeu Caprain Ipichipimehli
anu mosr o rhe Kakhau. Kumasis vicroiy geneiareu a new piocess o
6qq Silvia M. Vidal
sociopolirical ieoiganizarion, which sraireu anorhei geneiarion o gioups
oi peoples.
In rhese oial hisroiies rhe names o some o rhe myrhical anu hisroiical
ancesrois o rhe Waiekana anu rhe Baie aie inreimingleu, especially rhose
o some waiiioi-chies o rhe eighreenrh cenruiy, such as Cocui, Davipe,
CaLi, Cayama, anu Basimunaie, among orheis. Ir is inreiesring ro high-
lighr rhar in rhese naiiarives rhe ancesrois aie poiriayeu as people Luiluing
anu opening ioaus (Kuwe Duwkalumi), wiiring messages anu reachings
in iiveiine srones (perioglyphs), anu riaveling Ly Kuwe ioures.
Kuw Sacred Routes and Travels
1he Kuwe culr is associareu wirh a map oi imageiy o sacieu ioures anu
places, which can Le uesciiLeu as a symLolic iniasriucruie rhar connecrs
meaningul lanuscapes anu spiiirual locarions o rhis anu orhei woilus (rhar
is, orhei iegions oi levels o rhe cosmos). Hill (1,,6L. 111z) explains.
1he use o sparial movemenrs as meraphois oi rhe social consriucrion
o hisroiy is given irs mosr complere elaLoiarion in male anu emale iiru-
als. 1he map o sacieu ioures anu places is pair o Kuwes geogiaphi-
cal, ecological, Loranical, anu zoological reachings anu knowleuge. Kuw
Duwkalumi lireially means wheie Kuwe passeu Ly anu incluues myrhi-
cal ouineys (rhe poweiul naming piocess o geogiaphical places uuiing
a shamanisric iirual oi orhei ieligious esrival) anu a complex nerwoik o
ioures rhar connecr uieienr iegions o Sourh Ameiica.
13
1hese ioures com-
Line moLilizarion rhiough lanu anu warei, rhar is, rhiough iiveis, cieeks,
lakes, anu sea, as well as Ly ioaus, riails, anu naiiow parhs rhiough riopi-
cal oiesrs anu savannas. 1hese lanu ioures link rhe heauwareis o seveial
iivei Lasins. Ir is rhis comLinarion o using Lorh lanu anu warei ioures rhar
gave (anu srill gives) Aiawakan-speaking gioups ways ro uevelop sriare-
gies o iesisrance. Kuwe ioures (Iiguie z) also iepiesenr rhe locarion o anu
rhe connecrion wirh sacieu places ielareu ro rhe ciearion o rhe woilu, o
people, anu o rhe social oiuei as well as rhose ielareu ro rhe peioimance
o ceiemonies o rhe Kuwe ieligion anu shamanic iiruals. 1he ioures aie
linkeu ro sacieu anu seculai sriaregic iesouices (i.e., golu, silvei, srones)
anu ro people anu places, oi sociopolirical, migiaroiy, anu commeicial
puiposes.
Accoiuing ro rhe Waiekena anu rhe Baie (anu rheii anes), rheie
aie ar leasr eighreen main Kuwe ioures (Iiguies anu q). Duiing his lie
Kuwe anu his rioops riaveleu ro all o rhese places, anu arei his uearh
orhei myrhical ancesrois anu living elueis conrinueu riaveling ro rhe noirh,
wesr, anu easr o rhe Amazon Basin. Duiing rhe eighreenrh cenruiy some
1he Aiawak Sacieu Roures 6q
Figure . Map of Kuw Routes. Source: Vidal .
6q6 Silvia M. Vidal
Figure . Map of Sacred and Secular Places Related to Kuw Routes. Source: Vidal , .
1he Aiawak Sacieu Roures 6q,
Figure . Main Kuw Routes According to the Bar and Warekena Oral Traditions.
Aiawakan-speaking poweiul leaueis anu rheii gioups weie impeisonar-
ing Kuwe anu his rioops, rhey weie riaveling, migiaring, riauing, anu Lar-
rling Ly using rhe Kuwe sacieu ioures. In his inreipierarions o Kuwais
ouineys among rhe Aiawakan Hohouene, Wiighr (1,,) concluues rhar
rhese riavels iepiesenr rheii norions o reiiiroiialiry anu collecrive iuen-
riry as well as rheii sense o cumularive hisroiical knowleuge, incluuing
rheii expeiiences o conracr, riauing nerwoiks, anu wais wirh orhei erhnic
gioups. In shoir, rhe inregiarion anu ielarionship Lerween rhe secier male
socieries anu Kuwe reachings anu knowleuge consrirures a mouel o anu
6q8 Silvia M. Vidal
oi rheii socieries anu rheii geopolirical ielarions. 1he inregiarion anu iela-
rionship Lerween secier male socieries anu Kuwe Duwkalumi rhus oim
rhe sociopolirical anu ieligious Lasis o rhe iegional leaueiship o poweiul
Aiawakan-speaking waiiioi-chies anu gioups.
Warekena and Bar Routes of
Migration, Trade, and Resistance
Iiom rhe sixreenrh ro miu-sevenreenrh cenruiies rhe ancienr oieLeais o
rhe Waiekena anu rhe Baie weie pair o rhe popularions oiganizeu inro rhe
Nanoa maciopoliry anu some orheis (also known as macioiegional poliri-
cal anu economic sysrems, see Viual 1,,) o rhe lowei egio Rivei anu
orhei aieas o rhe oirhwesr anu Cenrial Amazon iegions.
14
1hese macio-
poliries weie mulrierhnic, mulrilingual, sociopolirical, anu economic sys-
rems rhar hau an inreinal inreierhnic hieiaichy leu Ly a paiamounr chie
(loiu oi king) anu a poweiul elire o seconuaiy chies, leaueiship was
heieuiraiy (Whireheau 1,,q, Viual 1,,). Laily Luiopean uocumenrs o
rhe giear iivei Lasins o rhe Oiinoco anu Amazon ieei ro rhe exisrence
o exrensive connecrions Lerween gioups (iiveiine anu hinreilanu peoples)
wirhin anu among uieienr iegions (Acuna 186q, Almesro 1,86, Cueivo
18,,q, De la Ciuz 1,86, Ieueimann 1,16, Simon 188z, Llanos Vaigas
anu Pineua Camacho1,8z, Whireheau1,88, 1,,a). Nosr o rhese connec-
rions incluueu iegional riaue sysrems.
Luiopean colonizarion o rhe egio Rivei Lasin Legan Ly rhe miu-
sevenreenrh cenruiy. Poiruguese, Spanish, Durch, Iiench, anu Biirish colo-
nial empiies weie compering among rhemselves anu wirh some Ameiinuian
leauei gioups o local maciopoliries ro rake conriol ovei Inuian popula-
rions anu iegional riaue sysrems o rhe Oiinoco anu Amazon Riveis. De-
spire rhis, ir seems rhar rhe poweiul leaueiship o rhe Nanoa maciopoliriry
manageu ro lasr unril rhe lare 16os, when ir Legan ro lose irs polirical anu
economic uominance ovei rhe iegion. Duiing16, anu166o wai Lioke our
Lerween rwo impoiranr Inuian acrions o rhe lowei egio Rivei (which
pioLaLly incluueu such gioups as rhe Guaianacoacena, rhe Nanacuiu, rhe
Yumaguaiis, anu rhe CaLuiicena) Lecause o rhe uearh o rheii paiamounr
chie. In 16,z rhe Poiruguese aurhoiiries Legan rhe piacrice o capruiing
rhe chiluien o impoiranr Inuian chies ro inuocriinare rhemin rhe Carholic
ieligion anu ro reach rhem rhe Yeial language. 1hey also iniriareu rhe pei-
securion anu enslavemenr o Ameiinuian shamans as an ocial sriaregy ro
eliminare iuolariy (oi narive ieligion sysrems) anu Inuian ieLellions (Beren-
uoi 1,1o. q,q). Soon arei rheie weie auuirional conionrarions anu con-
icrs among rhe Nanao, rhe Baie, rhe Caiiaya, rhe Cuianao, anu orhei
1he Aiawak Sacieu Roures 6q,
gioups oi rhe polirical anu economic conriol o rhe miuule egio Rivei
(Ieiieiia 188. 86, RiLeiio ue Sampaio 18z. ,,,1o,).
By rhe enu o rhe sevenreenrh cenruiy rhe Nanoa anu orhei macio-
poliries o rhe egio, Oiinoco, anu Amazon Riveis weie expeiiencing
uynamic piocesses o riansoimarion anu uisinregiarion. Inreinal socio-
polirical conriauicrions anu conicrs, rhe uemogiaphic uecimarion o
Ameiinuian popularions (Ly uisease, enslavemenr, anu rhe like), anu rhe
Luiopean colonizarion o rhe egio Rivei leu ro iauical uisiuprions. 1hese
piocesses causeu a new coopeiarion anu moLilizarion o Inuian gioups,
which Lecame known Ly rhe eaily eighreenrh cenruiy as rhe new socio-
polirical oimarions calleu mulrierhnic coneueiacies (Viual 1,,). 1hese
mulrierhnic coneueiacies, oi riauing-miliraiy moues o leaueiship anu
poliries (Whireheau1,,q. ,), weie exiLle anu vaiieu in rheii erhnic mem-
Leiship anu weie leu Ly chaiismaric shaman-waiiioi chies. 1hese powei-
ul chies Laseu rheii polirical aurhoiiry on rheii aLiliry ro Luilu peisonal
ollowings (kinolks, in-laws, anu allies), on rheii skills as iegional riau-
eis, especially o Luiopean goous, anu on rheii shamanic knowleuge
anu powei. Borh Luiopean wiirren iecoius
15
anu rhe oial hisroiy
16
o
Aiawakan-speaking gioups allow rhe conclusion rhar rhese chies oi cap-
rains anu rheii ollowings conuucreu Lig mulrierhnic iirual esrivals ie-
lareu ro rhe Kuwe ieligion. 1hese esrivals incluueu visirs ro sacieu places,
special anu piivare houses oi men, whipping anu asrings ceiemonies,
anu such musical peioimances as uancing, singing, anu playing riumpers,
ures, anu uiums. Inueeu, in Inuian villages anu mission rowns rheie weie
special houses oi chies rhar weie Liggei rhan rhe orheis anu ueuicareu
ro male meerings anu iirual esrivals (Ieiieiia 1886. 1,,). Also, in laigei
Inuian villages rheie was a iirual house oi each chie anu impoiranr poliri-
cal leauei. Ar rhose houses rhe iniriareu men ieceiveu visirois anu pei-
oimeu iirual whippings anu comLars, which somerimes enueu wirh a
ew waiiiois wounueu oi ueau. Despire rhese casualries, howevei, rhese
meerings Lerween poweiul chies anu rheii rioops also piomoreu new a-
nal ielarionships anu peace agieemenrs.
17
Luiopean anu Ameiinuian naiiarives also ieveal rhe ioures connecring
seveial riaue sysrems iom rhe egio Rivei ro suiiounuing iegions. 1iaue
sysrems anu sacieu places weie connecreu iom rhe egio Rivei ro sui-
iounuing iegions Ly seveial Kuwe ioures.
18
In auuirion ro having impoiranr
esoreiic anu ieligious value, sacieu places weie also sriaregic sires oi rhe
ueense anu riaue o Inuian leaueis anu gioups.
19
Lighreenrh-cenruiy wiir-
ren iecoius ieei ro uieienr sacieu iirual places anu Inuian maiker cenreis
rhar weie highly valuaLle ro Lorh Luiopean aurhoiiries anu Inuian leaueis
(Noiey 1,,, Sweer 1,,, Hemming 1,,8, Whireheau 1,88). 1he impoi-
6o Silvia M. Vidal
rance o rhese sacieu places, as ueraileu in rhe Luiopean wiirren souices anu
in rhe Inuian oial hisroiy, vaiieu uuiing rhe eighreenrh cenruiy accoiuing
ro rheii ielevance oi rhe commeicial acriviries anu rhe polirical alliances o
Luiopeans anu Inuians. Some o rhese sacieu places weie Cumaiu, Aruies
anu Naipuies Ialls, Yauira oi Yavira (a sire locareu ar rhe 1emi Cieek in rhe
uppei AraLapo Basin), CocoiuLi Ialls, Naiie Rivei, Naiacoa (rhe sourh-
ein pair o rhe acrual village o San Ieinanuo ue AraLapo), Aurana Rivei
(a cieek o rhe uppei Oiinoco Basin), Iniiiua Rivei, Pasiva Lagoon anu
orhei places on rhe Casiquiaie Rivei, 1omo Rivei (locareu ar rhe uppei
Guainia Basin), Vaupes Ialls, anu Isana Ialls.
20
Ioi example, rhe Cumaiu
sire was locareu Lerween rhe Aiii (oi Aiiia) anu Unini Riveis in ionr o
rhe mourh o rhe Bianco Rivei (RiLeiio ue Sampaio 18z. 1oz). Cumaiu
(larei known as rhe ciry o Poiaies) ieceiveu rhe name o ]uiupaiipoiacei-
rua, oi place wheie ]uiupaii oi Kuwe uances. 1he CaLuiicena (rhe an-
cienr oiearheis o rhe conrempoiaiy Baie anu orhei Aiawakan-speaking
gioups) anu many orhei gioups helu rheii iirual esrivals ar rhis sire (iLiu.).
1his sacieu place was ielareu ro rhe riauing ioure connecring rhe ]apui
anu uppei Amazon Riveis wirh rhe Bianco Rivei anu rhe Guianas. 1hus,
as eil L. Whireheau (1,,a. z,,6) anu I (1,,. 1o1q, 1qoq, 1z,
1,8,) have noreu, rheie was an ancienr riaue sysrem Lerween rhe uppei
Ucayali, egio, Oiinoco, rhe Guianas, anu rhe CaiiLLean. 1hiough rhis
riaue nerwoik ciiculareu uieienr irems (golu oLecrs, gieensrones, Luio-
pean manuacruies, anu rhe like) as well as people anu inoimarion.
Berween 1,oo anu 1,z, Aiawakan-speaking gioups anu rheii allies
iegioupeu ro oim oui mulrierhnic coneueiacies. rhe Nanao coneuei-
acy
21
(Nanao, Baie, Naku, 1iLuii, NaLazaii, ]avaii, Bumaana, Naia-
pena, anu orheis), rhe Cauauiicena coneueiacy
22
(rhe Baie, Caiayai, Guai-
punavi, anu orhei gioups iom rhe lowei anu miuule egio Rivei), rhe
Aianacoacena coneueiacy (rhe Baie, Cuianao, anu orhei gioups iom rhe
miuule anu uppei egio Basin), anu rhe CaLeiie coneueiacy
23
(rhe Ca-
Leiie, Amaiisano, Achagua, Lnagua, Naipuie, Avane, Aruie, Sliva, anu
orhei gioups iom rhe Guaviaie anu uppei Oiinoco Basins). Nosr o rhese
coneueiareu gioups anu rheii leaueis weie uevoreu ro an inrense riaue o
rheii own commeicial piouucrs anu slaves wirh each orhei as well as wirh
Poiruguese, Iiench, Spanish, anu Durch colonies in exchange oi guns anu
orhei Luiopean goous.
While rhe Nanao coneueiacy mainraineu irs economic anu polirical
auronomy Ly ieely riauing wirh orhei Ameiinuian poliries, as well as wirh
rheii Durch, Spanish, anu orhei Luiopean commeicial pairneis, rhe Aiana-
coacena, Cauauiicena, anu CaLeiie coneueiacies weie polirical allies anu
economic pairneis ro colonial aurhoiiries.
1he Aiawak Sacieu Roures 61
Duiing rhis peiiou rheie weie many uieienr Luiopean camps, known
as arraiales oi coiials, which weie useu ro keep caprive Inuian slaves anu ro
conriol Ameiinuian anu oieigneis riac Lerween colonies. 1wo o rhese
aiiaiales weie locareu in rhe Lugai ue Alvaiaes (in rhe Amazon, Lerween
rhe 1ee anu Paiaguaii Riveis) anu in rhe Ioiraleza ue Baiia uo Rio egio
(larei known as Nanaus). Iiom rhese places Poiruguese aurhoiiries leu
enslavemenr pairies anu campaigns o exreiminarion (so-calleu usr wais)
againsr such Inuian gioups as rhe 1aium.
Iiom rhe 1,oos ro rhe 1,zos rheie weie wais Lerween rhe Nanao,
Cauauiicena, anu Aianacoacena coneueiacies oi conriol ovei impoiranr
aieas o rhe miuule egio Rivei ielareu ro rhe Luiopean goous riaue iom
anu ro rhe Durch colonies (RiLeiio ue Sampaio18z. ,,,1o,, Ieiieiia188.
86). As a iesulr rhe Nanao anu rheii Baie allies exrenueu rheii uominance
ro rhe Daia, Pauauii, anu Bianco Riveis, as well as ro orhei zones o rhe
egio Rivei rhar useu ro Le unuei conriol o rhe Caiaai, Cuianao, anu
orhei gioups. 1he Nanao coneueiacy, unuei rhe leaueiship o rhe chie
AuiicaLa, weie rhus in conriol o many commeicial anu sacieu ioures anu
weie using rhem in rheii riaue sysrem iom rhe Cumaiu sire ro rhe So-
limoes anu rhe Guianas. Berween rhe lare 1,zos anu eaily1,os rhe Nanao
coneueiacy was ar wai wirh Poiruguese colonial aurhoiiries. Arei 1,z8,
when rhe Nanao coneueiacy was uismemLeieu Ly rhe Poirugueses usr
wai, mosr o rhe Nanao (rhe Nanao, Uiumanao, Iiiumanao) anu orhei
gioups ielareu ro rhe Waiekena anu rhe Baie oiearheis (rhe Naiapena,
Caianai, Uipuaii) weie emigiaring ro rhe uppei egio, AraLapo, anu Oii-
noco Riveis Ly impoiranr Kuwe ioures.
On rhe one hanu rhe insraLiliry o rhese new erhnic oimarions, rheii
possession o a giear numLei o Luiopean weapons, anu rheii uenirive in-
seirion in rhe colonial commeicial nerwoiks o Luiopean goous leu ro com-
peririon anu inreinecine conicrs among rhe leauing o rhese Inuian con-
eueiacies. On rhe orhei hanu Luiopean economic amLirions anu eais o
rhese poweiul Inuian gioups pusheu colonial aurhoiiries ro inrensiy rheii
exploiarions anu pariolling o some impoiranr commeicial ioures anu ro
compere wirh rhe Ameiinuian poliries anu orhei oieign poweis ro gain
conriol o sriaregic aieas o rhe egio anu Oiinoco Basins. 1he Luiopean
colonial sysrem irsel anu inreiacrions among Luiopeans anu Inuians weie
rhus uecisive oi rhe ciearion anu riansoimarion o rhese newerhnic socio-
polirical oimarions.
Berween 1,o anu 1, rhe piocesses o ieoiganizarion anu usion
o Ameiinuian socieries gave iise ro oui new coneueiacies. rhe Dema-
nao coneueiacy
24
(rhe Baie, Nanao, Waiekena, CuLeo, Naku, anu orhei
gioups iom rhe miuule anu uppei egio Rivei), rhe Nauwaka coneuei-
6z Silvia M. Vidal
acy
25
(rhe Baie, Baie-Nauwaka, Waiekena, Yahuie, Guinau, Anauy, Ba-
niva, Desana, Naku GuaiiLa, Yekuana, anu orhei gioups iom rhe uppei
egio, uppei Oiinoco, anu Casiquiaie Basins), rhe Boape-Naniva coneu-
eiacy
26
(rhe Boape oi 1aiiana, Baniwa oi Kuiiipako, NaLana, Neoana oi
Aiapaco, NaLei, CuLeo, Yapoa, Naku, Chapuena, anu orhei gioups iom
rhe Vaupes anu Isana Basins), anu rhe Guaipunavi coneueiacy
27
(rhe Guai-
punavi, Waiekena, Naipuie, Piapoco, CaLeiie, Paiene, Puinave, anu orhei
gioups o rhe uppei Oiinoco, Guaviaie, anu Guainia Riveis).
Borh rhe vicroiy o rhe Nanao ovei rhe Aianacoacena anu Cauauii-
cena in rhe miuule egio Rivei anu rheii ueear Ly Poiruguese colonial
oices weie uiiecrly ielareu ro rhe emeigence o rhe Guaipunavi coneuei-
acy anu rheii migiarion ro rhe uppei Oiinoco iegion. 1he Uipuaii, Ipunawa
oi Guaipunavi, unuei rhe leaueiship o Nacapu, migiareu iom miuule
egio via rhe Isana ioure (Iiguie q. A.1) ro rhe uppei Oiinoco. In rhis ie-
gion rhey conuucreu a laige wai againsr rhe CaLeiie, whom rhey expelleu
ro mission rowns anu orhei places in rhe miuule Oiinoco aiea. By 1,o rhe
Guaipunavi weie one o rhe poweiul gioups o rhe uppei Oiinoco iegion
(Gili 1,6, Vega 1,,q, Ramos Peiez 1,q6).
Ciossing ovei rhe Loiuei Lerween Poiruguese anu Spanish colonies
was a common sriaregy useu Ly rhe Guaipunavi anu orhei gioups uuiing
rhis peiiou. Bur rhe Guaipunavi uiu ir Ly using a Kuwe sacieu ioure, which
gave rhem rhe oppoiruniry ro iegain rheii polirical, economic, anu ieli-
gious powei ovei orhei Aiawakan-speaking gioups o rhe uppei Oiinoco
Basin. In rhis way rhey came ro conriol an impoiranr sacieu anu sriaregic
place, rhe rownship o Naiacoa (nowknown as San Ieinanuo ue AraLapo)
locareu on rhe iighr maigin o rhe lowei AraLapo Rivei, ar rhe conuence o
rhe uppei Oiinoco, Guaviaie, anu Nanapiaie Riveis. 1hese sriaregic places
anu villages o Guaipunavi piincipal leaueis (Nacapu anu Cuceio) weie
oirieu ar rhe Iniiiua, AraLapo, Oiinoco, anu Aurana Riveis (Alrolaguiiie
1,q, Gili 1,6).
Arei rhe ueear o rhe Nanao, rhe Demanao coneueiacy, leu Ly Chie
Camanao, conriolleu rhe ioures Ly rhe Naiie, CaLaLuii, anu Bianco 1he
Riveis. 1he Demanao conriolleu CocoiuLi Ialls (known rouay as Sao
GaLiiel uas Cachoeiias) anu rhe aiea o rhe Cucui Rock, rwo sacieu anu
sriaregic places o rhe Aiawakan-speaking gioups. Camanao anu his gioup
weie also impoiranr riauing anu miliraiy pairneis o rhe Poiruguese au-
rhoiiries.
1he people o rhe Boape-Naniva coneueiacywhich emLiaceu
gioups ielareu ro rhe Baie anu rhe Waiekena oiearheis oi rheii anes,
such as rhe Buope (1aiiana) anu rhe Paiiana (Yavireio, Baniva)riaueu
golu anu orhei goous iom rhe Isana anu Vaupes Riveis ro rhe Oiinoco
1he Aiawak Sacieu Roures 6
anu Solimoes as well as orhei impoiranr places in Sourh Ameiica (Iiguie q.
A, B). PioLaLly as a iesulr o inreinal conicrs anu rhe Poiruguese cam-
paign againsr rhe Nanao, Ly 1,z anu 1,z6 rhe Paiiana migiareu iom rhe
uppei Vaupes ro rhe Guainia anu uppei AraLapo Basins, using Kuwe ioures
(Iiguie q. C.1o, D.116). 1he Nauwaka coneueiacy (rhe Umasevirauna
anu Daiivazauna) conriolleu rwo impoiranr riaue ioures (Iiguie q. C.1o,
L.18) anu shaieu anorhei ioure wirh rhe Nanao (Iiguie q. C.1q).
Iiom rhe 1,os ro rhe lare 1,,os rhe piogiessive piocess o Luiopean
economic uominion ovei rhe Ameiinuian polirical economy Legan. Duiing
rhis peiiou rhe Ciowns o Spain anu Poirugal signeu a uelimirarion rieary
ro uemaicare rheii iespecrive oveiseas possessions. 1he Loiuei uemaica-
rion, rhe expansion o colonial ionrieis, was ueuicareu ro uenirive reiiiro-
iial conriol, ro rhe expulsion o oieign inriuueis anu comperirois, anu ro
rhe polirical, legal, economic, anu culruial inregiarion (oi oiceu amalga-
marion) o Inuian popularions ro rhe impeiial Ciowns. As a consequence,
new sociopolirical changes anu violence rook place in rhe Oiinocoegio
iegion. Berween 1, anu 1,6, rheie weie many Inuian ieLellions in rhe
miuule anu uppei egio anu in rhe uppei Oiinoco Riveis (Caulin 18q1,
Ieinnuez ue Bovauilla 1,6q, Ramos Peiez 1,q6, Nenuoa Iuirauo 1,o6,
Ieiieiia 188, 1886, 188,, 1888). While some ieLel gioups ueenueu rheii
lanus anu sacieu places againsr Luiopean encioachmenr, orheis oughr ro
iegain conriol ovei sriaregic nerwoiks o riaue.
28
Ioi example, Imo (oi
Immo), rhe piincipal leauei o rhe NaiaLirana coneueiacywirh moie
rhan rwo hunuieu NaiaLirana, Amuisana, anu Guaipunavi men anu
womenarrackeu rhe Spanish mission o San ]uan epomuceno ue Aruies
(Szenrmaironyi 1,,, in Wiighr 1,81, Gili 1,6, Ramos Peiez1,q6). Beoie
rheii arrack Imo anu his gioup peioimeu a sacieu iirual, which incluueu
playing ures, riumpers, anu uiums (Gili 1,6 . 18q8). 1he puipose o
rhis arrack was pioLaLly ro srop Spanish expansion iom rhe miuule Oii-
noco ro rhe egio Rivei.
Iiom1, ro 1,,o rhe Ameiinuian coneueiacies o rhe uppei egio
anu uppei Oiinoco Riveis weie leu Ly sriong waiiiois-shaman chies who
weie uiiecrly associareu wirh rhe Kuwe ieligion. In acr, rhe wiirren iecoius
say rhar Cuceiu, Imo, Cocui, Amuni, Naia, Davipe, Inao, anu orheis leu
secier (waiiioi) male socieries rhar iequiieu special men houses, whip-
ping anu asring ceiemonies, anu sacieu places (Alrolaguiiie 1,q, Ramos
Peiez 1,q6, Vegas 1,,q). Arei rheii iiruals anu meerings rhese poweiul
chies anu rheii olloweis useu ro go our on waiaie anu riaue pairies.
Bur rhese evenrs meanr a ueepei involvemenr o rhese Inuian gioups in
rhe colonial sysrem. 1his involvemenr piouuceu a conrinuous ueseirion o
some inuigenous gioups iomLuiopean rowns anu villages, while oi orhei
6q Silvia M. Vidal
gioups ir enraileu a uecline o rheii economic anu polirical auronomy. 1hese
inciuenrs helpeu ro susrain some Inuian coneueiacies (i.e., rhe Guaipu-
navi, rhe Nauwaka) Lur also avoieu rhe emeigence o orheis, such as
rhe NaiaLirana,
29
rhe Daiivazauna,
30
rhe Umasevirauna,
31
rhe Uiumanavi,
32
anu rhe Amuisana,
33
which Lecame moie poweiul in rhe uppei egio
CasiquiaieGuainiauppei Oiinoco iegion.
Berween1,6 anu1,6o Luiopean expeuirions o uelimirarion o colo-
nial ionrieis occuiieu in rhe uppei egiouppei Oiinoco Region. Nili-
raiy anu civilian aurhoiiries riieu ro impose some changes in rhe oiganiza-
rion o rheii iespecrive colonies, new ounuarions o rowns anu oiriesses
Legan, anu mission rowns weie riansoimeu inro seculai villages unuei
rhe conriol o new Luiopean anu Inuian aurhoiiries. Luiopeans piohiLireu
Ameiinuian gioups ro ieely move wirhin anu among colonial reiiiroiies.
Duiing rhis peiiou Luiopeans Legan ro impiove rheii geogiaphical knowl-
euge o rhe iegion, anu in rhis way rhey sraireu rhe piocess o imposing
rheii colonial cairogiaphy ovei rhe Ameiinuian one.
A giear conringenr o Poiruguese soluieis, ocials, anu expeirs riav-
eleu Ly rhe egio Rivei anu Legan using inuigenous chies anu gioups
as meuiarois anu erhnic miliria againsr orhei inuepenuenr Inuian gioups.
1his Poiruguese campaign geneiareu a giear Inuian ieLellion in 1,,. In-
ueeu, seveial allieu Ameiinuian coneueiacies anu Inuians iom mission
rowns aceu rhe Poiruguese aimy ar So GaLiiel Ialls. 1his wai seveieu rhe
Inuian-Poiruguese ielarionships anu causeu many Inuian migiaroiy move-
menrs iom rhe miuule egio Basin ro rhe uppei egiouppei Oiinoco
iegion ro rhe Spanish colony. As a consequence, rhe conionrarion Lerween
rhe Guaipunavi anu rhe NaiaLirana sraireu. Borh coneueiarions compereu
oi rhe polirical conriol o rhe Inuian slaves anu Luiopean goous riaue sys-
rem rhiough rhe enriie iegion (Gili 1,6 . 1oq, HumLolur 1,6 . 1z).
Spanish aurhoiiries causeu moie changes wirh rheii inreivenrion in
Inuian-Luiopean inreiacrion. 1he aurhoiiries riieu ro negoriare rheii poliri-
cal piorecrion ro Inuians in exchange oi inuigenous suLecrion ro rhe Span-
ish Ciown. By 1,, many poweiul Ameiinuian leaueis o rhe Guaipunavi
anu NaiaLirana coneueiacies weie peioiming puLlic ceiemonies o vas-
salage ro Spanish aurhoiiries ar San Ieinanuo ue AraLapo. 1his vassalage
weakeneu rhe leaueiship o Cuceio anu Imo anu uiiecrly aecreu rhe Guai-
punavi coneueiacy, causing irs iapiu uisinregiarion. 1he inuence o orhei
leaueis like Cocui incieaseu, howevei. Cocui Lecame rhe piincipal chie
o rhe NaiaLairana anu orhei smallei coneueiacies o rhe Uppei egio
iegion.
By rhe enu o eighreenrh cenruiy mosr o rhe places along maoi iiveis
ioures (rhe uppei Oiinoco anu uppei egio) weie viirually uninhaLireu
1he Aiawak Sacieu Roures 6
(]eiez 1,6oa, 1,6oL, RiLeiio ue Sampaio 18z, HumLolur, 1,6, vol. q,
Ieiieiia 188, 1886, 188,, 1888), anu seveial gioups on rhe egio Rivei
hau Leen riansoimeu iom gentiles (inuepenuenr peoples) inro abalizados
(assimilareu inuiviuuals anu amilies) (ero 1,88) oi gioups unueigoing
uiasric ieuucrions in rheii polirical auronomy (Viual 1,,). Duiing rhis
same peiiou a new Ameiinuian caregoiy emeigeu. canicur (ero 1,88.
z, Sriauelli 1,z,. ,). 1he reim lireially meanr riairoi, anu ir was
useu Ly rhe Nanao, rhe Baie, anu orhei gioups o rhe uppei egio ie-
gion ro ieei ro inuiviuuals anu gioups who weie ar rhe seivice o rhe colo-
nial poweis. By rhe close o rhe cenruiy rhe Luiopean economy, cairog-
iaphy, anu colonial sysrem uominareu rhe Oiinoco-egio iegion. Despire
rhis, some Inuian gioups manageu ro suivive anu iesisr colonial uominion
Ly riansoiming rheii sociopolirical sriucruies anu ieuening rheii erhnic
iuenriries. Inueeu, some o rheii leaueissuch as rhe NaiaLirana Cocui
anu rhe Umaseviruana Davipeweie aLle ro ieinsrare rhe Kuwe ieligion
ar rhe Cucui Nounrain sire anu in rhe 1omo, San Niguel, anu 1iiiquin
Riveis.
34
Duiing his visir ro San Cailos ue Rio egio, Lerween 1,,, anu
18oo, Aleanuio ue HumLolur (1,6, vol. q) was aLle ro lisren ro rhe sacieu
ures anu riumpers o Kuwe oi Kachimanai (Loruros) ar rhe 1omo Rivei,
he also leaineu aLour rhe achievemenrs anu poweiul iirual knowleuge o
Cocui, rhe giear cacique o rhe NaiaLirana.
Conclusion
1he Kuwe Duwkalumi weie useu uuiing rhe eighreenrh cenruiy Ly rhe
Waiekena anu rhe Baie oieLeais as polirical, ieligious, migiaroiy, anu
riaue sriaregies o iesisrance. Duiing rhis peiiou poweiul shaman-waiiiois
leu mulrierhnic coneueiacies, oi miliraiy-riauing poliries. 1he poliries weie
exiLle anu highly vaiiaLle erhnic oimarions rhar weie uiiecrly srimulareu
Ly rhe Luiopean-Inuian inreiacrions, rhey iepiesenreu a quick iesponse anu
sriaregy oi suivival anu ieuenirion o Inuian erhnic iuenriries.
By riauing, migiaring, anu iesisring, rhese poweiul chies anu rheii
olloweis emulareu Kuwe anu his rioops, in rhis way rhey challengeu anu
weakeneu rhe Luiopean colonial sysrem. 1hese leaueis anu rheii olloweis
riansoimeu rhe Kuwe culr inro a sriong ieligious sysrem rhar was shaieu
Ly many Inuian gioups o rhe oirhwesr Amazon (incluuing rhe 1ukano-
ans, Nakus, anu orhei gioups) (Amoiim 1,z8, Hill 1,8, 1,,, Gonzlez
nez 1,8o, Reichel-Dolmaro1,8, 1,,6, Wiighr 1,81, 1,,, Viual 1,8,,
1,,). 1his ieligious sysrem, as an iueological suppoir o miliraiy-riauing
poliries, also came ro avoi rhe emeigence anu conrinuiry o a pan-Inuian
polirical-ieligious hieiaichy in rhe noirhwesr Amazon uuiing rhe nine-
66 Silvia M. Vidal
reenrh cenruiy. 1his pan-Inuian oiganizarion came inro acrion uuiing rhe
iuLLei Loom eia as poweiul Inuian shaman-piophers leu millenaiian
movemenrs (Hill anu Wiighr 1,88, Wiighr anu Hill 1,86).
1he Kuwe ieligion anu secier male socieries consrirureu impoiranr
aspecrs o rhe shamanic way o consriucring hisroiy, culruie, anu sociery
oi rhe Waiekena anu rhe Baie oiearheis. 1his polirical anu ieligious
sriaregy alloweu rhe Waiekena anu rhe Baie ancienr leaueis ro Luilu poliri-
cal communiries anu new culruial iuenriries wirhin rhe colonial iegime o
rhe eighreenrh cenruiy. 1his airicle has shown rhar Kuwe ioures consri-
rureu an exrensive nerwoik o uvial, reiiesriial, anu uvio-reiiesriial con-
necrions rhar rieu rogerhei uieienr Ameiinuian gioups anu ample aieas
o rhe Sourh Ameiican lowlanus. 1he ioures aie uiiecrly ielareu ro a com-
plex anu vaiieu ancienr knowleuge anu a map o sacieu anu seculai places.
1his map iepiesenrs rhe ancienr Ameiinuian geopolirical knowleuge rhar
incluues oimei sociopolirical, ieligious, economic, anu culruial ielarion-
ships wirhin anu among Inuian peoples o rhe giear iegion Lerween rhe
Oiinoco anu Amazon Riveis. Bur rhe mosr impoiranr aspecr o rhis map
is rhar ir consrirureu rhe cairogiaphic knowleuge o rhe Waiekena anu rhe
Baie oiearheis useu ro oiganize anu inreipier rhe Ameiicas. 1his cairo-
giaphic knowleuge was conrinually conresreu Ly rhe Luiopean cairogiaphy
anu rhe ropogiaphy o colonial powei.
Kuwe reachings anu sacieu ioures also iepiesenr rhe valuaLle inoi-
marion conraineu in rhe myrho-hisroiy anu oial hisroiy o rhe Waiekena
anu rhe Baie. 1his inoimarion is ciucial oi unueisranuing rhe hisroii-
cal piocesses o rhe Sourh Ameiican lowlanus. 1his airicle shows rhar Ly
comLining Ameiinuian myrho-hisroiy anu oial hisroiy (incluuing Inuian
caregoiies anu rypologies) wirh orhei uara (aichaeological, erhnohisroiical,
erhnogiaphic eviuences), ir is possiLle ro oLrain an insighrul appioach ro
rhe naruie o Lorh inreierhnic anu commeicial nerwoiks as well as rhe mi-
giaroiy piocesses o rhe Aiawak anu orhei peoples o rhe Sourh Ameiican
lowlanus.
As rhis airicle has ueraileu, rhe Baie anu Waiekena oieLeais useu rhe
Kuwe reachings anu sacieu iouresoi rhe Kuwe ieligionnor only ro pai-
ricipare in rhe riauing nerwoik o Inuian slaves anu Luiopean goous (espe-
cially ieaims, knives, macheres) Lur also ro evaue oi challenge rhe colonial
uominion. On rhe one hanu rheii pairiciparion in iegional riauing sysrems
alloweu rhe Waiekena anu Baie leaueis ro iegain powei anu piesrige, Lur
rhis sriaregy leu ro rhe collapse o rheii local anu iegional leaueiship wirhin
rhe colonial sysrem. On rhe orhei hanu rhe migiaroiy movemenrs o rhe
Waiekena, rhe Baie, anu orhei gioups causeu rhe pairial ailuie o rhe Poi-
ruguese anu Spanish missionaiy, miliraiy, anu civil aurhoiiries ro uevelop a
1he Aiawak Sacieu Roures 6,
sraLle colonial sysrem uuiing mosr o rhe eighreenrh cenruiy in rhe uppei
Oiinocouppei egio iegion.
By pairiciparing, iesisring, anu ghring rhe colonial iegimes, rhe Waie-
kena anu rhe Baie oieLeais weie aLle ro ieLuilu anu conriol rheii own
culruies, iuenriries, reiiiroiies, anu socieries. Bur rhe mosr impoiranr rhing
was rhar rheii conrinual piocess o ieLuiluing polirical anu culruial com-
muniries also conriiLureu ro rhe emeigence o yer anorhei polirical anu cul-
ruial communiry. rhar o rhe ciiollo oi cieole popularions o rhe oirhwesr
Amazon iegion o Venezuela, ColomLia, anu Biazil.
Lven rouay rhe Baie anu rhe Waiekena riavel Ly Kuwe ioures. 1he
Baie aie srill ghring ro iecovei rheii polirical anu economic auronomy. 1he
Waiekena srill oiganize rhemselves in secier male socieries, anu in rhis way
Kuwe anu his rioop o iniriareu Waiekenas conrinue opening anu closing
rhe woilu ar rhe sacieu places o rhe San Niguel Rivei. Bur rhe mosr im-
poiranr legacy o rheii ancesrois is rhar rhe Waiekena anu Baie srill in-
voke Kuwe Duwkalumi as a poweiul sriaregy ro conriol rheii own pasr
anu ro ueenu rheii culruial iighrs anu riauirional lanus. In acr, uuiing
rhe 1,8os anu 1,,os rhe Waiekena riaveleu anu migiareu Ly way o Kuwe
ioures ro iesisr golu mining exploirarion anu invasion o rheii lanus. Ioi
rhe lasr rhiee uecaues Lorh rhe Waiekena anu rhe Baie have Leen ralking ro
rhe Venezuelan aurhoiiries aLour Kuwe reachings anu ioures as sacieu anu
legal insriumenrs ro ieclaim rheii iighrs ro rheii ancienr reiiiroiies.
Notes
A veision o rhis airicle was piesenreu ar rhe annual meering o rhe Ameiican
Anrhiopological Associarion, San Iiancisco, zozq ovemLei 1,,6, in rhe sympo-
sium Reconsriucring anu Deconsriucring Colonial Peiiparerics in Venezuela. cc-
Nici1 (rhe Venezuelan Council oi 1echnological anu Scienric Reseaich) anu ivic
(rhe Venezuelan Insrirure o Scienric Reseaich) pioviueu me wirh rhe unus ro ar-
renu rhis symposium. I amueeply giareul ro rhe Waiekena, Baie, anu Baniva elueis,
colleagues, anu iienus oi shaiing wirh me rheii oiearheis reachings anu sacieu
knowleuge. I woulu like ro rhank in pairiculai elly Aivelo-]imenez, ]onarhan D.
Hill, Beira L. Peiez, ALel Peiozo, eil L. Whireheau, anu AlLeira Zucchi oi rheii
conriiLurions, commenrs, anu suggesrions. I also rhank Cailos Quinreio oi elaLo-
iarion o rhe maps.
1 By multiethnic I mean rhar rhe Inuian popularions o rhese coneueiacies Le-
longeu ro uieienr erhnic-linguisric gioups o rhe Aiawakan, 1ukanoan, Na-
kuan, anu orhei linguisric amilies.
z Ieinanuo Sanros Gianeio (1,,8) srares rhar rhe Yanesha (oi Amuesha, anorhei
Aiawakan-speaking gioup iom Peiu) also pieseive rheii hisroiical memoiy
Ly uieienr anu complex piacrices, incluuing rhar o wiiring hisroiy inro rhe
lanuscape. 1he aurhoi calls rhis piacrice as ropogiaphic wiiring (iLiu.. 1z).
68 Silvia M. Vidal
In his airicle Sanros Gianeio menrions rhar rhe Wakuenai (anorhei Aiawakan-
speaking gioup iom Venezuela) anu rhe Paez (an Inuian gioup iom rhe Co-
lomLian Anues) also shaie rhis piacrice.
See also Auoino1,86, Asau1,,1, Basso1,,, Boyaiin1,,q, Coionil 1,,6, Hill
1,,6, Nignolo 1,,, Seeu 1,,1, Shapiio 1,,,, 1uinei 1,88a, 1,,1, Whireheau
1,,z, 1,,L.
q See also Baei 1,,q, Bioiu Casrillo1,8, Burr-Colson1,8, Cheinela1,8, 1,88,
Hill 1,8, 1,,6a, 1,,6L, ]ouiner 1,88, Neiia 1,,a, 1,,L, Noiales Nenuez
1,,,, 1,8q, 1,,o, Reichel-Dolmaro 1,,6, Sanros Gianeio 1,,q, Viual 1,8,,
1,,, Whireheau 1,,1, 1,,6a, 1,,6L, Wiighr 1,,, Wiighr anu Hill 1,86.
Since rhe enu o 1,8os, some Waiekena, Baniva, Kuiiipako, Baie, anu Yeial
iirual specialisrs, elueis, anu reacheis have Legun conuucring rheii own ieseaich
on rheii culruies anu hisroiies. I was honoieu wirh rhe invirarion ro ieau anu
uiscuss wirh rhem mosr o rheii woik anu nuings.
6 1ouay many Larin Ameiican peoples (Inuians, Aio-Ameiicans, anu ciiollos)
cenrei rheii social anu polirical sriuggles on rheii own uenirions anu inreipie-
rarions o hisroiy (Guzmn Bocklei 1,8). Dening anu conriolling rhe pasr is
rhe ulrimare oim o hegemony (Hill 1,,6a. 16), iepiesenring rhe compliciry o
rhe ocial hisroiy wirh empiies (Nignolo 1,,, Guha 1,8,, Guha anu Spivak
1,88).
, Nyrhic anu hisroiical naiiarives aie known ro rhe Baie as |a]chelekawa (ro nai-
iare, rell, oi ielare). Nyrhic naiiarives Legin wirh rhe expiession o Idabaka
beuku yajanei (when rhe uay[lighr Legan oi in rhe Leginning o rhe woilu),
while oi oial hisroiy rhe Baie use peisonal names o ancesrois oi kinship rei-
minology, olloweu Ly rhe sux -mi (as a piereiir maikei). 1he Waiekena uis-
ringuish Lerween myrhic naiiarives (kasaleta, ro rell, ielare, naiiare) anu oial
hisroiy (panina), Lur when rhey aie naiiaring, rhey ollow rhe same parrein as
rhe Baie. Ioi example, Ale tapaka puna (when rhe uay[lighr Legan oi in rhe
Leginning o rhe woilu). 1hey also use rhe sux -mi.
8 Also known ro rhe Baie, Baniva, anu Yavireio as Karsimnai, rhe shiimp earei.
Baniva anu Yavireio aie rwo orhei Aiawakan-speaking gioups o rhe uppei
egiouppei Guainia iegion.
, Inepe miki nawi means rhe ieal oi myrhic ancesrois ioma veiy uisranr pasr.
piiuli is rhe 1iicksrei-Ciearoi, Puiunaminali is rhe givei o names anu a
poweiul shaman-waiiioi, anu Dzuli is rhe isr shaman who raughr rhe Waie-
kena anu Baie oieLeais his knowleuge on shamanism. Pjnawji oi pinjli-nwi
means rhe elueis. 1hese aie rhe living olu people who have impoiranr hisroii-
cal, shamanisric, iirual, anu piacrical knowleuge.
1o 1hey also shaie rhese culr anu ieligious Lelies wirh rhe 1ukanoan-speaking
gioups o rhe same iegion (see Cheinela 1,8, 1,,, C. Hugh-]ones 1,,,,
S. Hugh-]ones 1,,,, 1,88, ]ackson 1,8).
11 See Hill 1,8, 1,,, Viual 1,8,, 1,,, anu Wiighr 1,81, 1,, oi moie inoima-
rion on rhe myrhohisroiical naiiarives o orhei Aiawakan-speaking gioups.
1z Kaltani, meaning rhe riee o all iuirs anu vegeraLles, is rhe name o a moun-
rain locareu ar rhe Aurana Rivei, a small Lianch o rhe uppei Oiinoco Rivei.
1 In some maps Kuwe ioures also appeai as Passage o rhe Devil oi as Yuiu-
paii, a name oi Kuwai in rhe Yeial language. Duiing iiruals Waiekena anu
Baie shamans, elueis, anu iniriareu men can spiiirually anu symLolically riavel
ro visir sacieu places locareu in rhis anu orhei levels o rhe cosmos. 1hey also
1he Aiawak Sacieu Roures 6,
Lelieve rhar Kuwe can come ro rhe giounu (i.e., he visirs rhis woilu) uuiing
iirual esrivals oi rhar he can Le Lioughr uown ro rhis woilu Ly iirual spe-
cialisrs.
1q In rhe wiirren iecoius rhe Waiekena aie known as Oieones, Guaiequena, Aii-
quena, oi Ueiekena, anu rhe Baie as Baiena, Balenu, anu Bale (oi orhei names
anu ieeiences, see Viual 1,,). 1he Waiekena o rhe uppei egio weie also
menrioneu as using a soir o quipu wiiring sysrem arei rhe mannei o rhe
ancienr Peiuvians (Baena 18q. z,8, RiLeiio ue Sampaio 18z. 11q). I askeu rhe
Waiekena elueis aLour rhis quipu, rhey inoimeu me rhar rheii oieLeais useu
ro have a sysremo coius anu knors ro senu messages iomone place ro anorhei,
some Waiekena srill iememLei pair o rhis sysrem.
1 Berenuoi 1,1o, Caulin 18q1, Cueivo 18,,q, Daniel 1,16, Ieinnuez ue Bo-
vauilla 1,6q, Ieiieiia 188, Iiirz 1,18, Gili 1,6, HumLolur 1,6, ]eiez 1,6oa,
1,6oL, Llanos Vaigas anu Pineua Camacho 1,8z, Nenuoa Iuirauo 1,o6,
Ramos Peiez 1,q6, RiLeiio ue Sampaio 18z, Simon 188z, Sweer 1,,, Szenr-
maironyi, in Wiighr 1,81, Vega 1,,q, Viual 1,,, Viual anu Zucchi 1,,6,
Wiighr 1,81.
16 Ioi example, in Amoiim1,z8 rheie aie many Ameiinuian naiiarives rhar men-
rion rhese shaman-waiiioi chies, such as Buope (1,zoo), Cocui (1,qo,o),
anu orheis. 1hese chies anu rheii waiiiois peioimeu Kuwe iiruals anu esri-
vals Leoie rhey wenr on wai pairies anu riauing riavels.
1, One o rhese iirual whippings, comLars, anu meerings was uocumenreu oi
rhe Nanerivirano (oi NaiaLirana) anu rhe Guaipunavi in rhe AraLapo Rivei
(Ramos Peiez 1,q6). Ielipe Salvauoi Gili (1,6, vol. ), an eighreenrh-cenruiy
missionaiy, also menrions rhar Guaipunavi leaueis anu shamans useu ro sing
anu uance a vaiiery o songs, incluuing one he heaiu nameu maiiye. 1his song
is cuiienrly sung uuiing Kuwe iiruals among rhe Waiekena.
18 Accoiuing ro Whireheau (1,,a. z,6), rhe myrhology o rhe Lokono (anorhei
Aiawakan-speaking gioup) anu rhe eighreenrh-cenruiy wiirren iecoius aLour
rheminuicare rhar rheii polirical geogiaphy exrenueu iighr acioss rhe Guayana
shielu inro ColomLia anu onro rhe Pacic coasr. 1his consrirures anorhei ex-
ample o rhe secier anu seculai knowleuge o rhe Aiawakan-speaking gioups
ielareu ro riaue nerwoiks anu ioures.
1, 1o rhe Aiawakan-speaking gioups, sacieu places incluue iocks, mounrains,
lagoons, iapius, anu alls. Perioglyphs anu orhei oims o iock air anu iirual
sriucruies aie also associareu wirh rhese places.
zo Alrolaguiiie y Duvale 1,q, Gili 1,6, HumLolur 1,6, Llanos Vaigas anu
Pineua Camacho 1,8z, Nenuoa Iuirauo 1,o6, Ramos Peiez 1,q6, RiLeiio ue
Sampaio 18z, Sweer 1,,, Vega 1,,q, Wiighr 1,81.
z1 1he leauei o rhe Nanao coneueiacy was AyuiicaLa (AuiicaLa), anorhei im-
poiranr leauei was Camanuaiy (Camanuiy).
zz Cuiunam was rhe paiamounr leauei o rhe Cavauiicana coneueiacy, he was
also in conriol o rhe sacieu sire Cumaiu.
z By rhe eaily eighreenrh cenruiy rhe leauei o rhe CaLeiia coneueiacy was eii-
cagua.
zq 1he mosr amous leauei o rhe Demanao coneueiacy was Camanao.
z 1he Nauwaka coneueiacy was leu in rhe lare sevenreenrh anu eaily eighreenrh
cenruiies Ly a paiamounr chie calleu Guaicana. Larei, Amuni was rhe leauei
o rhis coneueiacy, anu Ly rhe 1,6os an Inuian woman, Naviueo, uaughrei o
66o Silvia M. Vidal
rhe giear Guaicana, anu hei uncle Cachupa aie menrioneu as rhe coneueiacys
inuenrial aurhoiiries.
z6 1he Boape-Naniva coneueiacy was leu Ly Boape, Lur Cunaguaii is menrioneu
as irs leauei as well.
z, By rhe 1,os, when rhe Guaipunavi aiiiveu in rhe uppei Oiinoco, rheii leauei
was Nacapu. Larei, Ly rhe1,os, rhe coneueiacy was leu Ly Cuceiu (Ciuzeio).
z8 Ioi example, rheie weie rwo impoiranr Inuian ieLellions uuiing rhis peiiou.
one was rhe ieLellion o rhe so-calleu Rio egio Inuians in rhe CocoiuLi Ialls
(also known as Sao GaLiiel uas Cachoeiias), rhe orhei was rhar o rhe NaiaLi-
rana, Guaypunavi, anu orheis gioups o rhe Naipuie Ialls. Borh ieLellions hau
rhe puipose o iegaining conriol o rhe uppei Oiinocouppei egio iegion.
z, 1he gioups Lelonging ro rhe NaiaLirana coneueiacy weie rhe Baie, Nanao,
Guinao, Caraiapene, Yahuie, Naku, GuaiiLa, Waiekena, anu Baniva. Ar isr,
Imo (Immo, Imocon) was rheii piincipal leauei, Lur larei Cocui (Cucui, CucuLi)
was rhe mosr inuenrial waiiioi-shaman chie o rhe NaiaLirana.
o 1he gioups Lelonging ro rhe Daiivazauna oi Daiivazana coneueiacy weie rhe
Baie, Piapoco, Waiekena, Puinave, CuLeo. 1heii leauei was Nai, anu his sec-
onuaiy chies weie Doo anu NaLiu.
1 1he gioups Lelonging ro rhe Umasevirauna coneueiacy weie rhe Waiekena,
Baie, anu Baniva.
z 1he gioups Lelonging ro rhe Uiumanavi coneueiacy weie rhe Baie anu Nanao.
1he gioups Lelonging ro rhe Amuisana coneueiacy weie rhe Baniva, Yavireio,
Deesana, anu Baie.
q Cocui was a amous Baie waiiioi-chie who was rhe heau o rhe Baie in rhe
uppei egio anu in rhe ciry o San Cailos ue Rio egio ar rhe enu o rhe eigh-
reenrh cenruiy. Davipe (Dauipe) was a amous Waiekena chie who was rhe
ounuei o San Niguel ue Davipe, rhe isr mission-rown oi rhe Waiekena Inui-
ans on rhe San Niguel Rivei.
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