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INTRODUCTION
As next-generation electronic information systems evolve, it is critical that all people have access to the information available via these systems. Examples of developing and future information systems include interactive television, touch screen-based information kiosks, and advanced Internet programs. Infrared technology, increasingly present in mainstream applications, holds great potential for enabling people with a variety of disabilities to access a growing list of information resources. Already commonly used in remote control of TVs, VCRs and CD players, infrared technology is also being used and developed for remote control of environmental control systems, personal computers. For individuals with mobility impairments, the use of infrared or other wireless technology can facilitate the operation of information kiosks, environmental control systems, personal computers and associated peripheral devices. For individuals with visual impairments, infrared or other wireless communication technology can enable users to locate and access talking building directories, street signs, or other assistive navigation devices. For individuals using augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices, infrared or other wireless technology can provide an alternate, more portable, more independent means of accessing computers and other electronic information systems. In this presentation/paper, an introduction to wireless communication in general is first presented. A discussion specific to infrared technology then follows, with advantages and disadvantages of the technology presented along with security, health and safety issues. The importance of establishing a standard is also di sc us s ed wi t h r el ev an c e t o t he di s a bi l i t y fi el d.
2. WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
Wireless communication, as the term implies, allows information to be exchanged between two devices without the use of wire or cable. A wireless keyboard sends information to the computer without the use of a keyboard cable; a cellular telephone sends information to another telephone without the use of a telephone cable. Changing television channels, opening and closing a garage door, and transferring a file from one computer to another can all be accomplished using wireless technology. In all such cases, information is being transmitted and received using electromagnetic energy, also referred to as electromagnetic radiation. One of the most familiar sources of electromagnetic radiation is the sun; other common sources include TV and radio signals, light bulbs and microwaves. To provide background information in understanding wireless technology, moreover the electromagnetic Spectrum is first presented and s o m e b a s i c t e r m i n o l o g y d e f i n e d . The electromagnetic spectrum classifies electromagnetic energy according to frequency or wavelength (both described below). As shown in Figure 1, it is clear that from the below given figure, the electromagnetic spectrum ranges from energy waves having extremely low frequency (ELF) to energy waves having much higher frequency, such as x -ra ys.
A horizontal bar represents a range of frequencies from 10 Hertz (cycles per second) to 10 to the 18th power Hertz. Some familiar allocated frequency bands are labeled on the spectrum. Approximate locations are as follows. (Exponential powers of 10 are abbreviated as 10exp.)
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10 Hertz: extremely low frequency or ELF. 10exp5 Hertz: AM radio. 10exp8 Hertz: FM radio. 10exp10 Hertz: Television. 10exp11 Hertz: Microwave. 10exp16 Hertz: Infrared (frequency range is below the visible light spectrum). 10exp16 Hertz: Visible Light. 10exp16 Hertz: Ultraviolet (frequency range is above the visible light spectrum). 10exp18 Hertz: X-rays.]
A typical electromagnetic wave is depicted in Figure 2, where the vertical axis represents the amplitude or strength of the wave, and the horizontal axis represents time. In relation to electromagnetic energy, frequency is: 1. The number of cycles a wave completes (or the number of times a wave repeats itself) in one second 2. expressed as Hertz (Hz), which equals once cycle per second
3. INFRARED TECHNOLOGY
Infrared technology is highlighted because of its increasing presence in mainstream applications, its current and potential usage in disability-related applications, and its advantages over other forms of wireless communication as depicted in Fig. 1, infrared radiation is the region of the electromagnetic spectrum between microwaves and visible light. In infrared communication an LED transmits the infrared signal as bursts of non-visible light. At the receiving end a photodiode or photoreceptor detects and captures the light pulses, which are then processed to retrieve the information they contain. Some of the common applications of infrared t e c h n o l o g y w e r e l i s t e d a s s h o w n b e l o w : 1. Augmentative communication devices 2. Car locking systems 3. Computers a. Mouse b. Keyboards c. Floppy disk drives d. Printers 4. Emergency response systems 5. Environmental control systems a. Windows b. Doors c. Lights d. Curtains e. Beds f. Radios 6. Headphones 7. Home security systems 8. Navigation systems 9. Signage 10. Telephones 11. TVs, VCRs, CD players, stereos 12. Toys Infrared technology offers several important advantages as a form of wireless communication. Advantages and disadvantages of IR are first presented, followed by a c o m p a r a t i v e l i s t i n g o f r a d i o f r e q u e n c y ( R F ) a d v a n t a g e s a n d d i s a d v a n t a ge s .
The ATtiny2313 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVR enhanced RISC architecture with 2K Bytes in-System Programmable Flash. The AVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose working registers. All the 32 registers are directly connected to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), allowing two independent registers to be accessed in one single instruction executed in one clock cycle. ecture.
PIN DESCRIPTIONS:
VCC:
Digital supply voltage In Standby mode, the crystal/resonator Oscillator is running while the rest of the device is sleeping. This allows very fast start-up combined with low-power consumption. The device is manufactured using Atmels high density non-volatile memory technology. The On-chip ISP Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed In-System through an SPI serial interface, or by a conventional non-volatile memory programmer. By combining an 8-bit RISC CPU with In-System Self-Programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel ATtiny2313 is a powerful microcontroller that provides a highly flexible and cost effective solution to many embedded control applications. The ATtiny2313 AVR is supported with a full suite of program and system development tools including: C Compilers, Macro Assemblers, Program Debugger/Simulators, In-Circuit Emulators, and Evaluation kits.
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Port D (PD6..PD0) -- Port D is a 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running.
RESET -- Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a reset, even if the clock is not running. Shorter pulses are not guaranteed to generate a reset. The Reset Input is an alternate function for PA2 and dW.
XTAL1 -- Input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. XTAL1 is an alternate function for PA0.
XTAL2 -- Output from the inverting Oscillator amplifier. XTAL2 is an alternate function for PA1.
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Clock Sources
The device has the following clock source options, selectable by Flash Fuse bits as shown below. The clock from the selected source is input to the AVR clock generator, and routed to the appropriate modules. The various choices for each clocking option is given in the following sections. CPU wakes up from Power-down, the selected clock source is used to time the start-up, ensuring stable Oscillator operation before instruction execution starts. When the CPU starts from reset, there is an additional delay allowing the power to reach a stable level before commencing normal operation. The Watchdog Oscillator is used for timing this real-time part of the start-up time. The number of WDT Oscillator cycles used for each time-out is shown in Table 3. The frequency of the Watchdog Oscillator is voltage dependent as shown in ATtiny2313 Typical Characteristics.
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The Oscillator can operate in three different modes, each optimized for a specific frequency range. The operating mode is selected by the fuses CKSEL3..1 as shown in Table 4.
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Reset Sources
The ATtiny2313 has four sources of reset: Power-on Reset. The MCU is reset when the supply voltage is below the Power-on Reset threshold (VPOT). External Reset. The MCU is reset when a low level is present on the RESET pin for longer than the minimum pulse length. Watchdog Reset. The MCU is reset when the Watchdog Timer period expires, the Watchdog is enabled, and Watchdog Interrupt is disabled. Brown-out Reset. The MCU is reset when the supply voltage VCC is below the Brown-out Reset threshold (VBOT) and the Brown-out Detector is enabled.
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Power-on Reset
A Power-on Reset (POR) pulse is generated by an On-chip detection circuit. The detection level is defined in Table 15. The POR is activated whenever VCC is below the detection level. The POR circuit can be used to trigger the start-up Reset, as well as to detect a failure in supply voltage.A Power-on Reset (POR) circuit ensures that the device is reset from Power-on. Reaching the Power-on Reset threshold voltage invokes the delay counter, which determines how long the device is kept in RESET after VCC rise. The RESET signal is activated again, without any delay, when VCC decreases below the detection level.
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5. IR Advantages:
1. Low power requirements: therefore ideal for laptops, telephones, personal digital assistants 2. Low circuitry costs: $2-$5 for the entire coding/decoding circuitry 3. Simple circuitry: no special or proprietary hardware is required, can be incorporated into the integrated circuit of a product 4. Higher security: directionality of the beam helps ensure that data isn't leaked or spilled to nearby devices as it's transmitted 5. Portable 6. Few international regulatory constraints: IrDA (Infrared Data Association) functional devices will ideally be usable by international travelers, no matter where they may be 7. High noise immunity: not as likely to have interference from signals from other devices
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6. IR Disadvantages:
1. Line of sight: transmitters and receivers must be almost directly aligned (i.e. able to see each other) to communicate 2. Blocked by common materials: people, walls, plants, etc. can block transmission 3. Short range: performance drops off with longer distances 4. Light, weather sensitive: direct sunlight, rain, fog, dust, pollution can affect transmission 5. Speed: data rate transmission is lower than typical wired transmission
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7. CONCLUSION:
Infrared technology is highlighted because of its increasing presence in mainstream applications, its current and potential usage in disability-related applications, and its advantages over other forms of wireless communication as depicted in Fig. 1, infrared radiation is the region of the electromagnetic spectrum between microwaves and visible light. In infrared communication an LED transmits the infrared signal as bursts of non-visible light. At the receiving end a photodiode or photoreceptor detects and captures the light pulses, which are then processed to retrieve the information they contain. Some of the common applications of infrared t e c h n o l o g y w e r e l i s t e d a s s h o w n b e l o w : Infrared technology offers several important advantages as a form of wireless communication. Advantages and disadvantages of IR are first presented, followed by a c o m p a r a t i v e l i s t i n g o f r a d i o f r e q u e n c y ( R F ) a d v a n t a g e s a n d d i s a d v a n t a ge s . 1. Augmentative communication devices 2. Car locking systems 3. Computers a. Mouse b. Keyboards c. Floppy disk drives 4. Emergency response systems 5. Environmental control systems a. Windows b. Doors c. Lights d. Curtains 6. Headphones 7. Home security systems 8. Navigation systems 9. Signage 10. Telephones 11. TVs, VCRs, CD players, stereos 12. Toys
d. Printers
e. Beds
f. Radios
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