Acknowledgements I would like to take this time to express our greatest thanks to my Project supervisor, Mrs.

Ajita Selvapandi for her time to give her invaluable advice and help during the course of the project. I would like to thank my school for providing me with the equipment and other material, which helped me in my project. To all those who have helped in one way or another during the course of the project, Thank you.

Table of Contents Title

Abstract
1 Introduction 1.1 Back ground 1.2 Specification 1.3 Statement of problem 1.4 Functional block diagram 6 1.41 Description of the block 7 1.42 Overall operation of the block 8 1.5 Objectives 9 1.6 Justification of the project 10 1.7 Scope and Limitation

Page
4
5 5 5

2 Theory of components and diagram 11 2.1 Light 11 2.2 Optical detectors 12 2.21 Design of sensory unit 19 2.3 Voltage comparator 21 2.4 Power supply 27 2.41 Transformer 30 2.42 Rectifier 34

2.43 Filters and regulation 41 2.44 Voltage regulator 43 2.45 Design of power supply 45 2.5 48 2.51 Design of the output section 53 3 Complete circuit 55 Relays

List of Figures Title

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 55 Functional block diagram Light spectrum Photo transistor Photo diode Photo conductor cell Photo valtic cell Photo multiplier Design of sensory unit Hex inverter Schmitt trigger Inverting Schmitt trigger design of control unit Transformer principle operation Half wave rectifier Positive half cycle Negative half cycle Bridge full wave rectifier Negative cycle Bridge output voltage Fixed positive linear voltage regulator Adjustable positive linear regulator Fixed negative linear regulator Stepdown transformer Rectification and filtering Voltage regulator Relay connection Design of output section Complete circuit diagram

Page
6 11 12 14 17 17 18 19 23 25 27 31 35 36 37 38 39 39 43 44 45 45 47 48 50 53

1.0 INTRODUCTION The automatic light activated switch refers to a circuit that employs a photo detector that senses the amount of light intensity. It will automatically switch ON or OFF the lamps depending with the amount of light intensity. A light activate switch circuit is an electronic circuit that using light to control the relay for open or close circuit home appliances. When photo transistor detects light, relay is working by starting those connected electric home appliance. When photo transistor does not detect light, the relay is not working and immediately stopping those electric appliances. Light activate switch is Simple and inexpensive circuit, suitable for many applications like the automatic switching of the lights in a shop-window or a room, according to the ambient light level. Suitable for alarm systems, production control, remote controls etc. The circuit uses a light dependent resistor that changes its value according to the amount of light it receives and three transistors which are used to
5

amplify the signal from the LDR and operate a mains rated relay.

1.1 BACKGROUND Whenever the sun goes down, many people are gripped with fear. The fear of being robbed even in the early hours of the night will make people leave their work stations early just to save their lives and property. Thus in the major busy towns and other small trading centers upcountry, the need for security lights is crucial. Such security lights will be installed in residential areas for safety purposes. Therefore vices and other incidents that occur at night are curbed completely from the society. The automatic light activated switch refers to a circuit that employs a photo detector that senses the amount of light intensity. It will automatically switch ON or OFF the lamps depending with the amount of light intensity.

1.2 SPECIFICATIONS Supply voltage Vcc is 12V DC Mains supply voltage is 240V to 250V, 50Hz frequency Vref is 5V DC 1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Due to the rising cases of insecurity, it is paramount that people take security measures to protect themselves from crime. One of these measures is installation of security lights of which this project is meant to achieve. 1.4 FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM
240V A.C. INPUT RELAY SECURITY LIGHT

240V A.C. INPUT

240V TO 12V STEP-DOWN TRANSFORM ER

RECTIFIER FILTER REGULATO R 12V DC OUTPUT

LDR

SCHMITT7 TRIGGER

Fig1: Functional block diagram of automatic light activated switch

1.41 DESCRIPTION OF THE BLOCKS AC input power from the mains supply is of about 220V to 240V. It supplies power to the powering unit of the circuit and the security lights. Powering unit It consists of a 240V to 12V step down transformer, bridge rectifier, filter capacitor and regulator. It provides the necessary positive voltage Vcc to power the Schmitt trigger, voltage regulator and the relay.
8

Sensory unit It comprises of the voltage divider and photo resistor. The photo resistor senses the light or darkness falling on it. The voltage divider that has two resistors will set the sensitivity of the sensory unit. Control unit The control unit comprises of the Schmitt trigger and a PNP transistor. The Schmitt trigger is an electronic circuit whose output switches suddenly to either positive saturation or negative saturation depending on the input voltage.

Output section It comprises of the relay and the security lights. The relay is an electronic circuit that opens and closes under the control of the Schmitt trigger. If there is flow of current through the relay windings then its contacts close hence lights ON the security lamps and the lights will be OFF if theres no current flow.

1.42 OVERALL OPERATION OF THE BLOCK The input section supplies power to the powering unit of the circuit and the security lights which is around 220-240V. This is stepped down by a transformer to 12V i.e. a low AC voltage that is rectified to DC by the bridge rectifier. Its then filtered by a filter capacitor and regulated by a 3 terminal voltage regulator. The powering unit provides the necessary positive Vcc to power the Schmitt trigger, voltage regulator and the relay. This then is inputted to the sensory unit that has a photo detector and voltage divider R1 and R2. The photo resistor senses either light or darkness and falling on it. When light falls on it, its resistance decreases and will increase with darkness. Resistors R1 and R2 set the sensitivity of the sensory circuit. Resistor R2 is a preset resistor that is used to just turn OFF the security lights at dawn or turn them OFF at sunset by adjusting its movable arm. At the control unit and output section, Schmitt trigger produces two voltages; upper threshold voltage VUT and lower threshold voltage VLT. The output of the
10

Schmitt trigger switches to positive saturation when its voltage at its input is greater than VUT and switches negatively when its voltage at its input is less than VLT. Output of the Schmitt trigger is connected to the base of a PNP transistor driving it to cut off thereby cutting off current and making the relay contacts remain open. This makes the security lights remain OFF during the day. During the night, the Schmitt trigger switches to negative saturation driving transistor to near saturation. Current therefore flows through the relay winding closing its contacts and allowing current to flow hence lighting ON the security lights.

1.5 OBJECTIVES The broad objective is to design and construct an automatic light activated switch that controls the switching of on and off the security lights. The specific objectives will be; 1. To design the various blocks an come up with a schematic diagram 2. To construct the automatic light activated switch

11

3. To test the working of the blocks at each input and output and the overall operation of the block

1.6 JUSTIFICATION OF THE PROJECT In order to curb the rising insecurity in our society, it is necessary that people take precautions of their own safety. This can be achieved by installing such security measures as security lights in their homes which is what the project is meant to achieve.

1.7 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS 1.71 SCOPE The main aim of designing this project is to come up with a workable project employing a photo detector that will sense the amount of light intensity and automatically switch on or off the security lights. 1.72 LIMITATIONS 1) Lack of some components used in the design 2) High cost of some of the components 3) Time allocated was minimal

12

2.0 THEORY OF COMPONENTS AND DESIGN 2.1 LIGHT The Quantum theory states that light consists of discrete packets of energy called photons. The energy contained in a photon depends on the frequency of light and is expressed as = hf where = energy h = planks constant i.e. 6.624 10-34 Joules/ second f = frequency As frequency increases so does the energy and vice versa. Light is usually referred in terms of wavelength.

=V F

Any light source emits light over a limited range of wavelength. When the amount of energy is plotted

13

against a wavelength, the graph is the emission spectrum.

Invisible light

Invisible light

Visible light Decreasing wavelength Green Blue Indigo Violet

Infrared

Red

Orange

Yellow

Ultra Violet

Fig 2: Light spectrum

2.2 OPTICAL DETECTORS Optical detectors are devices that convert optical energy or light into electrical energy. There are two types of conversions: Photo voltaic effect This is where optical energy is converted to electrical voltage Photoconductive effect This is where light is converted into an electrical voltage. a) Photo transistor The photo transistor consists of a normal bi-polar transistor that is packaged in a transparent casing to
14

enable light reach the base of the transistor. The base is an open circuit and a normal biasing is provided between the collector and the emitter as shown below.
C o l l e c t o r B a s e E m i t t e r

Symbol

Ic
Light

VCE Fig 3a. With no illumination, only the leakage current (ICEO) flows in the collector-emitter junction. When the
15

base/collector junction is illuminated, holes electrons pairs are generated and a minority photo current flows across the junction. This increases the forward bias of collector. Thus the collector current is the sum of the photo current and electron current from the emitter. This amplified current makes the phototransistor very sensitive. b) Photodiode A photo diode is a P-N junction silicon diode that is packaged with a transparent window that allows light to pass through. In operation, the P-N junction diode is reverse biased whereby in this mode the value of reverse current will depend on the amount of illumination on the junction. Only a small reverse current will flow. In dark conditions, it is near zero and under bright, its in tens or hundreds of M Amps.

Symbol

The magnitude of a photocurrent depends on the number of charge carriers generated.

16

Below is a series of characteristics obtained from various levels of illumination.

Ie (mA)

Increasing illumination

Vce (V)

Fig 3b Below is a spectral Germanium diodes

Response Silicon

response

for

silicon

and

Germanium

17

 1.0

Fig 3c c) Photo conductive cell/ LDR/ photo resistor A Light Dependent Resistor also known as the Photoconductive cell consists of a semiconductor material above which a transparent window whose surface is exposed to light allows light to pass through. Light When allows the more current to flow within by the the semiconductor material. light photons are absorbed semiconductor, the electrons acquire enough energy to break the bonds that hold them in a covalent structure. This is by moving from valence band to the conduction band. The higher the light intensity, the more the free electrons in the conduction band. Since the conductivity of the material increases as number of free electrons increases, the electrical resistance of the semiconductor decreases with increase in light intensity.
18

Electrical conduction occurs when free charge carriers are available when an electric field is applied. In certain semiconductors light energy falling on them is of the correct order of magnitude to release charge carriers which increase the flow of current produced by an applied voltage. The increase in current with increase in light intensity with the applied voltage remaining constant means that the resistance of semiconductors decreases with increase in light intensity. The most commonly used photoconductive

semiconductor materials are Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) with a band gap of 2.42eV and Cadmium Selenide (CdSe) with a band gap of 1.74eV. Both have a very high resistivity at ambient temperature which gives a high value of resistance. When the cell is in darkness, its resistance is known as dark resistance. It may be as high as 10 1012 . Resistance depends on the physical character of photoconductive layer, dimensions of the cell and its geometric configurations. The figure below shows a symbol for an LDR;
19

Symbol

Light intensity

Resistance Fig 3d d) Photovoltaic cell / Solar cell Its a device that converts light energy to electrical energy by photovoltaic effect. Photons of light produce electrons and holes in a PN junction diode. Light

P N

20

Fig 3e A solar cell consists of a P- semiconductor region and N semiconductor region. The photons of light cause electrons to move from valence to conduction band creating a hole as a result. Holes move to the P region and electrons move to the N region resulting in accumulation of positive charge in the P region and accumulation of negative charge in the N region. This creates a pd/voltage. e) Photomultiplier These are devices constructed from vacuum tubes. They contain a photocathode anodes and dynodes.
Anode

Cathode

Focusing electrodes Dynodes

Fig 3f

21

Light photons strike the photocathode and electrons are produced as a result of the photoelectric effect. These electrons are directed by the focusing electrodes towards the electron multiplier that consists of electrodes known as dynodes. Each dynode is held at a more positive voltage than the previous one. As the electrons move towards the first dynode, they are accelerated by the electrical field. On striking the dynode, more electrons are emitted and accelerated. This process goes on and the overall effect is that a large number of electrons accumulate at the anode compared with those at the photocathode. This constitutes amplification of light. Extremely low levels of luminous intensity can be measured or detected by means of photomultiplier tubes which utilize many successive stages of secondary emission to boost up the output current from its initial very low value. 2.21 DESIGN OF THE SENSORY UNIT

22

Vcc

R1 47k R2

5 0 k T o
LDR

S c h m i t t

t r i g g e r

It comprises of the voltage divider R1, R2 and LDR1. The LDR senses the amount of light intensity falling upon it. Resistors R1 andR2 set the sensitivity of the sensory unit.

The preset resistor R2 is used to just turn off the security lights at dawn or dusk by adjusting its movable arm. During the day, light falls on LDR1 which makes its resistance to reduce. Since it is in a voltage divider network, the voltage across it reduces according to the Voltage Divider Rule.
23

During the night, the reverse happens. The resistance 10 Lux Min Typical Max 80k 160k 240k across LDR1 increases proportionate Dark Min 2M to the darkness

falling upon it. The voltage developed across LDR1 thus increases according to the Voltage Divider Rule

The voltage across the LDR1, denoted by Vldr, is given by:

LDR 1 Vldr = LDR 1 + R1 + R2
.. (i)

For LDR, part number VT33N3, the specifications are as follows: From equation (i), when there is light of 10 Lux, the resistance of LDR1 as seen in the specifications above is 160,000k. (NB: The Typical value is usually taken as the default value.) Thus
24

Vldr =

160,000 160,000 + R1 + R2

And when there is darkness, the minimum value of LDR1 resistance is 2M, from the specifications above. Hence the voltage across LDR1 when there is darkness is given by:

Vldr =

2,000,000 2,000,000 + R1 + R2

2.3 VOLTAGE COMPARATORS A voltage comparator is a device used to compare two voltage levels. The output of the comparator will show which of the outputs is larger. Therefore it acts as a switching device, producing a high output when one input is larger than the other and switching to a low output if the other input becomes larger. An operational amplifier is used as a voltage comparator by operating with no feedback and by connecting two voltages to be compared to the inverting and non inverting inputs. The amplifier output is driven to one of its output voltage limits

25

when there is a very small difference between its input levels due to a very large open loop gain.

Properties of operational amplifiers are; 1) Infinite input impedance 2) Zero output impedance 3) Infinite voltage gain 4) Infinite bandwidth 5) Characteristics temperatures Uses of op amps Scale changing Analog computer operations Instrumentation and Control systems In phase and oscillator circuits that do not change with

SCHMITT TRIGGER The Schmitt trigger is a regenerative comparator. The output can only take up either one of two possible values. The Schmitt trigger is employed to convert an arbitrary input signal into a square wave output. The
26

circuit can either be obtained in either inverting or non inverting versions and may be made using either discrete components or an op amp.
V1 V2 R2 Vout

R1

Vref

Fig 4a: A 7414 hex inverter Schmitt trigger The output voltage can have only one of two possible values. The output voltage will be higher e.g. +3.3V for a TTL version, when the input is greater than a positive going threshold voltage and will remain in this value until such time as the input voltage falls below the negative going threshold voltage. The difference between the two input voltages V1 and V2 at which switching takes place is known as the hysteresis of the circuit. From the voltage characteristics, when the sinusoidal input voltage becomes more positive than the upper threshold V1, the circuit switches to give an output voltage of +Vout. The output voltage will remain at this value until the input voltage falls below the lower
27

threshold voltage V2 and at this point the output voltage suddenly switches to -Vout. The output voltage will now remain at Vout until the input voltage exceeds the upper threshold voltage V1. Hysteresis provides some noise protection to a circuit. The larger the hysteresis, the greater the noise protection afforded. Transfer characteristics
+

V1

Vin

It shows how the output voltage changes from one value to another as the input voltage is increased to the upper threshold voltage V1.
+ V2

Vin

28

It shows how the output voltage suddenly reverts to its original value when the input voltage is reduced below the lower threshold voltage V2.

characteristics
V2 V1 1

Shows
Vin

the

complete

transfer

Inverting Schmitt Trigger

Vin R1

Vout

R2

Fig 4b: Inverting Schmitt trigger For an inverting Schmitt Trigger: When Vref is 0, we find that

V R1 + R2 0
1

Therefore when the output is at its negative limit (V0 = -Vmax)

29

V R1 + R2 ref
2

R1 + R2

( V )
max

Then Lower threshold level is

LTL =

R +R
1

2 2

REF

R +R
1

1 2

( V )
MAX

Similarly, when V0 = + Vmax, Vin must rise to;

UTL =

R +R
1

2 2

REF

R +R
1

1 2

(+V )
MAX

Where +Vmax is the maximum positive output voltage -Vmax is the maximum negative output voltage The hysteresis of the Schmitt trigger is defined as the difference between the input trigger levels. Hysteresis = Upper threshold level Lower threshold level =

( +V ) R (V ) R +R R +R
1 1 MAX MAX 1 2 1 2

If the maximum output voltages are equal, we have

2 R Hysteresis = V max 1 R +R
1 2

For non inverting Schmitt trigger, the lower and upper trigger levels are;
30

Lower threshold level = LTL = R1 ( +V MAX )

Upper threshold level = UTL = R1 ( V MAX )

31

2.31 DESIGN OF THE CONTROL UNIT SCHMITT TRIGGER

VCC

Input From Sensory Unit

+ U3 LM7805
IN OUT COM

U2 LM324 R4 10k

Output to Base of PNP transistor

VCC

VREF

R3 1k

The 12V that has been regulated is now fed to the Schmitt trigger. The 3-terminal 5v voltage regulator U3 and resistors R3 and R4 set the upper threshold voltage, Vut and lower threshold voltage, Vlt. The Schmitt trigger has 2 voltages associated with it; Vut and Vlt The output of the Schmitt Trigger switches to positive saturation whenever the voltage at its input is greater than the Upper Threshold Voltage VUT. Similarly, it switches to negative saturation whenever the voltage
32

at its input is less than the Lower Threshold Voltage VLT.

The Upper Threshold Voltage VUT is given by;

(i)

And the lower Threshold voltage VLT is; .. (ii) Where V(+) is the positive saturation at the output of the Schmitt trigger

Vref is the reference voltage R3 and R4 set Vut and Vlt output of the Schmitt trigger

V(-) is the negative saturation voltage at the

Since in this circuit the Schmitt trigger is connected only to one positive voltage, Vcc, the negative

33

saturation voltage V (-) is zero volts. Thus the lower threshold voltage Vlt is given as;

(iii) The hysteresis voltage, VH , is the voltage difference between the upper threshold voltage and lower threshold voltage. (iv) Thus hysteresis voltage VH, becomes; . (v) Now since the negative saturation, V (-) is 0Volts, the hysteresis voltage becomes; .. (vi) Taking VH to be 3 volts and V (+) to be 11v to account for the drops across the transistors in the operational amplifier, then;
R3 3= (11) R3 + R 4

. (vii)

After simplifying this becomes;

34

R 4 = 2.7 R3 ..

(viii)

Thus taking R3 to be 10k , then R4 becomes 27k . Substituting the values of R3 and R4 into equations (i) and (iii) for VUT and VLT, they result into;
VUT = 6.62V

. (ix) (x)

And

VLT = 3.65V

2.4 THE POWER SUPPLY The essence of having a power supply is to have a voltage that will be able to power the circuit according to the requirements of either filtered or unfiltered, regulated or unregulated which varies according to different circuits to provide the necessary dc operating voltages and currents. The main requirements of a power supply are: To provide the rated voltages for the circuit to be supplied with a specified tolerance. To be able to supply the rated maximum current to be supplied to the circuit without the supply voltage falling outside the specified limits.

35

 To maintain the supply voltage constant within specified limits as the load changes or the mains supply input voltage varies or the ambient temperature changes. The power supply consists of a step down transformer, rectifier circuit, smoothening capacitors and voltage stabilizer.

2.41 TRANSFORMERS A transformer is a device that uses mutual induction to change values of alternating currents and voltages.

Transformer principle of operation

I1 Pry wdgs N1 turns Sec wdgs N2 turns I2

V1

V2 Ferro magnetic core

Fig 5 When the secondary is an open circuit and an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary winding, a small current called the no load current, Io
36

flows which sets up a magnetic flux in the core. The alternating flux links with both primary and secondary coils and induces in them Emfs E1 and E2 respectively by mutual induction. E=-N of flux Therefore E1 / N1 = E2 / N2 If there are no losses for an ideal transformer; E1 = V1 and E2 = V2
=
d dt

volts

where

d dt

= rate of change

V V

1 2

N N

1 2

E E

1 2

I I

2 1

Where:

V V

1 2

Is the voltage ratio

N Is the transformation ratio N

1 2

If N2 is less than N1 then V2 is less than V1 thus the device is a step down transformer and vice versa for a step up transformer. For an ideal transformer, primary and secondary ampere turns are equal. EMF equation of a transformer

37

The magnetic flux set up in the core of a transformer when alternating voltage is applied to its primary winding is also alternating and sinusoidal. If m is the magnetic flux value and f the frequency of the supply, the time for one cycle for the alternating flux is periodic time T where T = 1/F The flux rises sinusoidally from zero to maximum value in a quarter cycle. Change of flux = m / T = 4F m wb/s This is the average induced EMF in each turn. Form factor = Rms value Average value = 1.11

Rms value = form factor average value = 1.11 4F m = 4.44 F m volts EMF induced in the primary winding E1 and E2; E1 = 4.44 F mN1 volts E2 = 4.44 F m N2 volts Dividing the two equations: E1 / E2 = N1 / N2 Transformer efficiency

38

 = output power 100 input power Transformer regulation Secondary voltage drops with the loading of the transformer. As the power factor decreases, this voltage drop increases. This is called regulation of the transformer i.e. This is the change in secondary terminal voltage between no load and full load at a given power factor.
V 2 Regulation = E 2 100

Transformer losses 1. Copper losses It occurs because the winding have a resistance causing a power loss in them which can be accounted for by a resistor in series with each winding.

2. Iron losses a) Hysteresis losses

39

This is the heating of the core due to internal molecular structure reversals that occur as the magnetic flux alternates. b) Eddy current losses This is the heating of the core due to EMFs being induced in the transformer windings and core. Alternating magnetic flux induces Emf causing eddy currents. Eddy currents can be reduced by increasing the resistivity of the core material or laminating the core to increase eddy current path resistance and reduce the value of eddy currents. 2.42 RECTIFIERS A rectifier converts the A.C. input voltage to a pulsating D.C. voltage. A rectifier could be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. Modes of rectification There are three typical methods of rectification: 1. Half wave rectification 2. Center tapped full wave rectification 3. Bridge rectification.

40

a) Half wave rectifier

Half wave rectified voltage OPERATION

+ + V i n I

Fig 6a

RL

Fig 6b When Vin goes positive, the diode is forward biased and conducts current through the load resistor. The current produces an output voltage across RL thats the same shape as the input voltage.

V i n +

+
RL

41

Fig 6c When Vin goes negative during the second half cycle, diode is reverse- biased. No current flows so RL voltage is 0V. Thus only positive half cycles of the A.C. input voltage will appear across the load.

b) Full wave rectifier A full wave rectifier allows only unidirectional current through the load during the entire 360 degrees of the input cycle. This results to an output voltage with a frequency twice the input frequency that pulsates every half cycle of the input. 1) Centre tapped full wave rectifier

It use two diodes connected to the secondary of a centre tapped transformer. The input voltage is coupled through the transformer to the centre tapped secondary. Half of the total secondary voltages appear between the centre tap and each end of the secondary winding Positive half cycle
42

+ + +

D1

+ RL I

Fig 6d Negative half cycle

D2

+ +

D1

+ + RL -

D2

Fig 6e During the positive half cycle, D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased and during the negative half cycle, D1 is reverse biased and D2 is forward biased. Because the output current during both the positive and negative portions of the input cycle is in the same direction through the load,
43

the

output

voltage

developed across the load resistor is a full wave rectified D.C. voltage.

2)

Bridge full wave rectifier

It uses four diodes. Positive cycle

D 3
Vin

D 1

D 2

D 4
RL I

Fig 7a During the positive half cycle, diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased and conduct current in the direction shown above. A voltage is developed across the load

44

resistor similar to the one at the output. D3 and D4 are reverse biased.

Negative cycle

D 3
Vin

D 1

D 2

D 4
RL I

Fig 7b During the negative half cycle, D3 and D4 are forward biased and conduct current through the load resistor in the same direction as the positive half cycle and D1 and D2 are reverse biased. As a result, a full wave rectified output voltage appears across RL. Bridge output voltage

+ -

D 3

D 1( 0 . 7 v )

Vpri

Vsec

D 2 D 4 ( 0 . 7 v )

RL

45

Fig 7c During the positive half cycle of the total secondary voltage D1 and D2 are forward biased. The secondary voltage appears across the load resistor (neglecting voltage diode drops). Same is true when D3 and D4 are forward biased during negative half cycle. VP = VP (sec) If diode drops are now considered i.e. two diodes are always in series with RL the output voltage is VP (out) = VP (sec) - 1.4V Peak inverse voltage Assuming diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased and D3 and D4 reverse biased. D1 and D2 are shorts and therefore D3 and D4 have a peak inverse voltage equal to the peak secondary voltage as the output voltage is ideally equal to the secondary voltage.

46

P.I.V. = VP (out) If diode drops are included; P.I.V. = VP (out) + 0.7V

Advantages of full wave over half wave Its more efficient Little D.C. magnetization of transformer occurs Ripple voltage is twice the supply frequency making it easier to reduce the percentage ripples to the desired level.

2.43 FILTERS AND REGULATORS A filter is a capacitor connected from the rectifier output to ground. It eliminates the fluctuations in the rectified voltage and produces a relatively smooth D.C. voltage. For a half wave rectifier a capacitor input is used. During the first quarter cycle of the input, diode is forward biased allowing capacitor to charge to 0.7V of input peak. When the input begins to decrease below
47

its peak, capacitor retains its charge and the diode becomes reverse biased because cathode is more positive than the anode. During the other part of the cycle, capacitor discharges through the load resistor at time constant determined by RLC. During the next cycle, diode becomes forward biased and input voltage exceeds capacitor voltage by approximately 0.7V. A full wave is easier to filter because of the shorter time between peaks. When filtered, full wave rectification has smaller ripples than half wave for same RL and capacitor values. Capacitor discharges less during shorter intervals between full wave pulses.

Less effective filtering More effective filtering

48

Half wave Full wave Comparison of ripple voltages for half wave and full wave rectified voltages with the same filter capacitor and load with same Vin with both having the same capacitor discharge rate.

Half wave

Full wave

Fig 8

Ripple factor (r) This is the indication of effectiveness of the filter r=

Vr V

( pp) dc

Where Vr voltage

(pp)

is the peak to peak ripple voltage

Vdc is the average DC value of filters output

49

The lower the ripple factor the better the filter. It can be lowered by increasing the value of filter capacitor or load resistance. For full wave rectifier with capacitor input filter;
(1) ( frlc )

Vr

(pp)

Vp (rect)

Where Vp (rect) is the unfiltered peak rectified voltage Surge current in the capacitor input filter is prevented by connecting a surge- limiting resistor that has smaller value than RL. Diodes should also have a forward surge current rating that can withstand momentary surge of current. 2.44 VOLTAGE REGULATORS A voltage regulator provides a constant D.C. output voltage thats independent of the input voltage, output load current and temperature. The input voltage comes from the filtered output of the rectifier derived from an A.C. voltage.

Fixed positive linear voltage regulators

50

C1

P o s i t i v e i n p u t

78XX
IN OUT COM

P o s i t i v e o u t p u t
C2

Fig 9a The input capacitor is used to prevent unwanted oscillations when the regulator is some distance fro the power supply filter. The output acts as a line filter to improve transient response. The input voltage must be at least 2V above the output voltage so as to maintain regulation. The circuit has internal thermal overload protection and short circuit current limiting features. Thermal overload occurs when internal power dissipation becomes excessive and temperature of the device exceeds a certain value thus a heat sink is used.

Adjustable Positive linear voltage regulator

51

P o s i t i v e i n p u t

LM317
IN OUT COM

P o s i t i v e o u t p u t
R1 + C3

C1

A d j u s t m e n t
+ R2 C2

Fig 9b Capacitors are used for decoupling and they do not affect the D.C. operation. Fixed resistor R1 and variable resistor R2 provide output voltage adjustment. It acts as a floating regulator because its adjustments not connected to ground but floats to whatever voltage is across R2. This allows the output voltage to be much higher than that of a fixed regulator.

Fixed negative linear voltage regulators Its a 7900 series 3-teminal I.C regulator that provides a fixed negative output voltage.
79XX
IN OUT COM

N e g a t i v e i n p u t

N e g a t i v e o u t p u t
+ C3

C1

52

Fig 9c 2.45 DESIGN OF THE POWER SUPPLY STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER

F1 100mA T1

2 4 0 V A . C . I n p u t

1 5 V A . C . T o O u t p u t

f u l l w a v e

b r i d g e

r e c t i f i e

From the mains supply 240V AC input is obtained. This voltage is stepped down to 12V by a step down transformer rated at least one ampere. A step down transformer rated at 12V, 50Hz, 300mA is readily available in the market thus the reason for opting for it. Since a regulator is used in the power supply, it is paramount that at least 3V is available from the supply voltage apart from the regulator voltage. This voltage is referred to as drop out voltage and is the voltage across the input and output terminals of the voltage regulator that enables it to operate effectively and maintain a constant output voltage.

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By using a step down transformer with an output of 12V after filtering, a peak voltage of 17V is obtained from the rectified voltage as shown below. Vpeak = 2 Vrms = 2 (12V) = 17V At the primary side, a fuse has been connected to prevent short circuits and blowing of components. For an ideal transformer; VpIp = VsIs 240Ip = 121 Therefore Ip = 12/240 = 50mA Therefore the fuse should be rated at 250V, 100mA to accommodate the Ip= 50mA. RECTIFICATION AND FILTERING

F r o m S t e p d o w n T r a n s f o r m e r

D1 D4

D2
V o u t

D3
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+

C1

1000uF, 25V

The 12Vrms voltage is rectified by a full wave bridge rectifier formed by diodes D1 through D4. The diodes Part Number is 1N4007. These diodes were chosen because of the following characteristics; i.
ii. iii.

Forward current, If = 1A Reverse breakdown voltage, Vbr = 1000V Forward voltage, Vf = 0.7V

The filter capacitor C1 rated 1000F, 25V was chosen because the higher the value of capacitance, the better the filtering thus less ripples. Capacitor C1will therefore charge to Vpeak of Vsec. From Vpeak = 2Vrms = 2 (12V) = 17V Due to diode drops when the load is connected Vout = Vpeak 2 diode drops (each 0.7V) = 17V - 1.4V = 15.6V
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Since the filter capacitor C1 charges to 17V, its rated voltage was chosen to be 25V so as to accommodate Vpeak without blowing. VOLTAGE REGULATION

F r o m f i l t e r c a p a c i t o r

U1 LM7812
IN OUT

Vcc

COM

C2

10uF,16V

Vout (15.6V) is now regulated to 12V by a voltage regulator LM7812. This regulator was chosen because it requires fewer external components and has an internal overload protection. 2.5 RELAYS A relay is a device consisting of a coil wound on soft iron core. It is an electrically operated switch. When current flows through the coil of the relay, a magnetic field is set up which attracts the iron arm of the armature of the core of the magnet. The set of contacts of the armature and relay frame close completing a circuit across its terminals. When
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the magnet is de-energized, the return spring returns the armature to the open position and the contacts open breaking the circuit across the terminals. The coil current can be on or off so relays have to switch and they are double throw or change over switches. Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the first. Current flowing through the relay coil creates a magnetic field that suddenly collapses when the current is switched off. The sudden collapse of the magnetic field causes or induces a brief high voltage across the relay coil. These high voltage spikes can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent damage a protection diode is connected across the relay coil. It allows the induced voltage to drive a brief current through the coil and diode so the magnetic field dies away quickly rather than instantly. This prevents the induced voltage from becoming high enough to cause damage to transistors and ICs.

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12V

P r o t e c t i o n d i o d e

N O N o r m a l l y R e l a y c o i l C O M

o p e n

I n p u t

N O R e l a y T r a n s i s t o r
0V

c o n t a c t s

Fig 10: Relay connections Factors to consider while choosing a relay 1. Physical size and pin arrangement 2. Coil voltage i.e. the relays coil voltage rating and resistance must coil. 3. Coil resistance the circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. 4. Voltage and current switch ratings 5. Switch contact arrangement (SPDT, DPDT) Advantages of relays 1) Relays can switch A.C. and D.C. while transistors can only switch D.C 2) Relays can switch high voltages while transistors cant.
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suit the circuit powering the relay

3) Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (>5A) 4) Relays can switch many contacts at once.

Disadvantages of relays 1) Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching

small currents. 2) Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays) but transistors can switch many times per second. 3) Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil. 4) Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relays coil. Relay switches A relay will switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil in one of these ways. Normally open contacts Normally open contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated and the circuit is disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a make contact.
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Normally closed contacts Normally closed contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated and the circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. Its also called a break contact.

Change over contacts Its a double throw contact controlling two circuits; one normally open contact and normally closed contact with a common terminal. Its also called transfer contact. Types of switch contacts Normally closed timed open This type is normally closed when the coil is unpowered or de-energized. The contact is opened with the application of power to the relay coil but only after the coil has been continuously powered for the specified period of time. The direction of the contacts motion either to close or to open is identical to a regular normally closed contact but there is a delay in the opening direction. Because the delay occurs in direction of the coil energization, the contact is called normally closed on delay.
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Normally closed timed open This type of contact is normally closed when the coil is unpowered and opened by the application of power to the relay coil. However unlike the normally closed timed open contact, the timing action occurs upon deenergization rather than upon energization. Because the delay occurs in the direction of coil deenergization, the contacts are also called normally closed off delay.

Normally open timed closed contact This type of contact is normally open when the coil is unpowered. The contact is closed by the application of power to the relay coil but only after the coil has been continuously been powered for a specified amount of time. The direction of the contacts motion is identical to a regular normally open contact but there is a delay in closing direction. Because the delay occurs in the direction of coil energization, its also called normally open on delay. Normally open timed open contact
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This contact is normally open when the coil is unpowered and closed by the application of power to the relay coil. Unlike the normally open timed closed contact, the timing action occurs upon deenergization. Because the delay occurs in the direction of the coil de-energization, the contact is also called normally open off delay. 2.51 DESIGN OF THE OUTPUT SECTION

From mains supply

240V A.C. supply to security lights

RLY1

D5 1N4007

From output of Schmitt trigger

Q1 BD712

Now, the voltage developed across LDR1 is fed to the input of the Schmitt Trigger. During the day, the resistance of LDR1 decreases leading to the voltage across it reducing. The moment the voltage across LDR1 reduces to a value below the Lower Threshold Voltage VLT, the output of the Schmitt Trigger switches to positive saturation. The output of the Schmitt

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Trigger is connected to the base of the PNP transistor, Q1. This drives it to cut-off.

With transistor Q1 into cut-off, no current flows through it and in effect the relay winding. This makes the relay, RLY1 contacts remain open. The mains power supply to the security lights is connected through the relay contacts which act as a switch. Thus, with the contacts open, no power flows to the security lights and they remain off during the day.

During the night, the voltage across LDR1 increases due to the increase in its resistance. Any moment this voltage increases to a value greater than the Upper Threshold Voltage VUT, the Schmitt Trigger switches to negative saturation. Transistor Q1 is driven into nearsaturation and current flows through the relay winding making it close its contacts. This allows current to flow to the security lights and they light up.

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3.0 COMPLETE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM SHOWING TEST POINTS

2 40V TO ST EPD O WN 1 2A V , 4 , 3 0 1 0 N m 4 A 0 0 7 T R A N S F O R M UE 1R D 1 D 2 LM 7 812
B
I NO U T COM

V cc

T1

D4 D3

C 1 1 0 0 0 uC F2 1 0 u F 25 V 16 V
+ +

240 V A.C . INP UT V cc R 14 7 k R2 50k Vc c RL Y1

2 40V A. C. OU T PUT T O S ECU RI TY L IGHT V cc 1N 400 7 D 5

U 2+ L M 3 2 4Q 1 E R4

B D71 2

LD R1 10 k L M 7 8 0 5 R 31 k V c c I NO U T C O MU 3
D

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Conclusion In this project, I learnt a lot about the Light activate switch system of the electric appliances using intelligent sensors. It gave me an opportunity to explore the various sensors and different automation technique differently used in the electronic product environment. After all the efforts, Light activate switch system has been developed to meet the specification defined in the proposal. Due to time constraint the project has been completed with Prototype model. But, it works well to the level, which was mentioned in the proposal.

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