Controlling of Electrical Equipments by RF

CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE
INTRODUCTION
SRI SAI ADITYA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (249)
1. Introduction
A project work gives to students an opportunity to make a detailed study of the various practical and theoretical aspects of the subject under study. It is quite essential for students to choose a particular topic and get acquired with the practical parts of it. Also a study of the theory is a must for the students, apart from class subjects which they study. A project work is an added advantage, since it improves their thinking power and creates an interest for the subject. It also makes the students to approach the subject properly and have a clear understanding of various topics. It enables to think own to achieve something remarkable. Hence he undertaking of a project work by students is very necessary. It also makes hem to achieve something remarkable
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
HARDWARE COMPONENTS:
POWER SUPPLY MICRO CONTROLLER RF MODULE DEVICES
HARDWARE EXPLAINATION
Power supply
The power supplies are designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular function. A d.c power supply which maintains the output voltage constant irrespective of a.c mains fluctuations or load variations is known as Regulated D.C Power Supply
For example a 5V regulated power supply system as shown below:
TRANSFORMER: A transformer is an electrical device which is used to convert electrical power from one electrical circuit to another without change in frequency. Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power. Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is AC. Step-up transformers increase in output voltage, step-down transformers decrease in output voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage to a safer low voltage. The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils; instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up. The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the ratio of the voltages. A stepdown transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.
An Electrical Transformer Turns ratio = Vp/ VS = Np/NS Power Out= Power In VS X IS=VP X IP Vp = primary (input) voltage Np = number of turns on primary coil Ip = primary (input) current
RECTIFIER:
A circuit which is used to convert a.c to dc is known as RECTIFIER. The process of conversion a.c to d.c is called rectification
TYPES OF RECTIFIERS: Half wave Rectifier

SRI SAI ADITYA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (249) 8
Full wave rectifier 1. Centre tap full wave rectifier. 2. Bridge type full bridge rectifier.
Comparison of rectifier circuits: Type of Rectifier Parameter Number of diodes 1 PIV of diodes Vm 2Vm Vm 2 3 Half wave Full wave Bridge
D.C output voltage
Vm/
2Vm/
2Vm/
Vdc,at
0.318Vm
0.636Vm
0.636Vm
no-load
Ripple factor Ripple Frequency Rectification Efficiency Transformer Utilization Factor(TUF) RMS voltage Vrms 0.287 f
1.21
0.482
0.482
2f
2f
0.406
0.812
0.812
0.693
0.812
Vm/2
Vm/2
Vm/2
Full-wave Rectifier: From the above comparison we came to know that full wave bridge rectifier as more Advantages than the other two rectifiers. So, in our project we are using full wave bridge rectifier circuit.
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Bridge Rectifier: A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve full-wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally. A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement as shown in fig (a) to achieve full-wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.
Bridge Rectifier
OPERATION:
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During positive half cycle of secondary, the diodes D2 and D3 are in forward biased while D1 and D4 are in reverse biased as shown in the fig(b). The current flow direction is shown in the fig (b) with dotted arrows.
During negative half cycle of secondary voltage, the diodes D1 and D4 are in forward biased while D2 and D3 are in reverse biased as shown in the fig(c). The current flow direction is shown in the fig (c) with dotted arrows.
FILTER:
A Filter is a device which removes th a.c component of rectifier output but allows the d.c component to reach the load
Capacitor Filter: We have seen that the ripple content in the rectified output of half wave rectifier is 121% or that of full-wave or bridge rectifier or bridge rectifier is 48% such high percentages of ripples is not acceptable for most of the applications. Ripples can be removed by one of the following methods of filtering: (a) A capacitor, in parallel to the load, provides an easier by pass for the ripples voltage though it due to low impedance. At ripple frequency and leave the d.c to appear the load. (b) An inductor, in series with the load, prevents the passage of the ripple current (due to high impedance at ripple frequency) while allowing the d.c (due to low resistance to d.c) (c) Various combinations of capacitor and inductor, such as L-section filter section
filter, multiple section filter etc. which make use of both the properties mentioned in (a) and (b) above. Two cases of capacitor filter, one applied on half wave rectifier and another with full wave rectifier. Filtering is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the DC supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying DC voltage from the rectifier is falling. The capacitor charges quickly near the Peak of the varying DC, and then discharges as it supplies current to the output. Filtering significantly increases the average DC voltage to almost the peak value (1.4 RMS value). To calculate the value of capacitor(C).
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REGULATOR: Voltage regulator ICs is available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable output voltages. The maximum current they can pass also rates them. Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators include some automatic protection from excessive current ('overload protection') and overheating ('thermal protection'). Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs has 3 leads and look like power transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator shown on the right. The LM7805 is simple to use. You simply connect the positive lead of your unregulated DC power supply (anything from 9VDC to 24VDC) to the Input pin, connect the negative lead to the Common pin and then when you turn on the power, you get a 5 volt supply from the output pin.
A Three Terminal Voltage Regulator
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78XX:
The Bay Linear LM78XX is integrated linear positive regulator with three terminals. The LM78XX offer several fixed output voltages making them useful in wide range of applications. When used as a zener diode/resistor combination replacement, the LM78XX usually results in an effective output impedance improvement of two orders of magnitude, lower quiescent current. The LM78XX is available in the TO-252, TO-220 & TO-263packages,
Features:
Output Current of 1.5A Output Voltage Tolerance of 5% Internal thermal overload protection Internal Short-Circuit Limited No External Component Output Voltage 5.0V, 6V, 8V, 9V, 10V, 12V, 15V, 18V, 24V Offer in plastic TO-252, TO-220 & TO-263 Direct Replacement for LM78XX
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Diodes
Diodes is a P-N junction semi-conductor unilateral device, in the for ward bias. The depletion layer width is reduced majority carries can cross the junction. Thus the junction resistance is reduced current flows. In the reverse bias. The width of the depletion layer increase due to this resistance increases and current does not flow.
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Forward Biased P-N junction: When external voltage applied to the junction is cancels the potential barrier. Thus permitting flow of current. It is called forward biasing. Suppose positive battery terminal is connected to P-region of a semiconductor and the negative battery terminal to the N-region as shown in Fig is called bias. Forward bias permits easy flow of current across the junction. The current flow may be explained as the following ways. As soon as the battery connections are made, holes are repelled by
the positive battery terminal ad electronics are repellld by the negative battery terminal with the holes are driven to wards the junction. This movement of electronics and holes constitutes a large current flow through the semiconductor. The diode offers low resistance in forwards direction. The applied forward voltage reduced the height of potential
barrie4r at the junction. It allows more caries cross the junction, more
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current to flow across the junction. Forward bias reduced the thickness of depletion layer.
Reverse Biased P-N junction: When the external voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction that potential barrier is increased. It is called reverse biasing.
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Suppose a negative terminal of the battery is connected to Pregion of the diode and the positive battery terminal the N-region as shown in Fig is called reverse bias. In this case holes are attracted by the negative battery terminal and electrons by the positive terminal so that both holes and electronics move away from the junction since there is no current flow and the junction offers high resistance. The applied reverse voltage V increase the potential barrier there by blocking the flow of majority carries. The rever4se bias increases the thickness of depletion layer. Although under reverse bias condition, there is practically no current due to majority carries, yet there is a small amount of current due to flow of minority carries. This current is called reverse saturation current lo.
Since, minority carriers are thermally generated lo is extremely temperature dependent lo found to double to every 100C rise extremely temperature dependent. lo is found to double to every 100C rise for germanium and for every 60 C rise in silicon. L0 is in order of mA for germanium and nH for silicon. If reverse voltage is increased continuously the kinetic energy of minority electronics will become high enough to knockout electronic from the semiconductor atom. At this stage break down of the junction occurs, characterized by a sudden rise of reverse current and a sudden fall of the resistance of barrier region. This may destroy the junction permanently.
CAPACITORS
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Introduction: A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component considering of at least two conduction surfaces separated by on insulation medium called dielectric. The conduction surfaces may be in the from of circular or rectangular or cylindrical in shape the most common dielectric material used in capacitors are Mica, air, paper, ceramic, etc,. the kind of dielectric material used names the type of capacitor, like resister, capacitors are also available in fixed and variable types.
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Behavior of a Capacitor: The process of storing electric charge in a capacitor is know as charging and the release of stored energy is known as discharge. Properties of Capacitor: It is a two terminal passive element. It stores electric charge. it allows AC and blocks DC in the CKT. It opposes the instantaneous charge of voltage in the CKT.
Capacitance: Capacitance is the property exhibited by a capacitor and may be defined as ability of a capacitor to store electric charge per unit operatically difference. It is represented by the letter C. the unit of capacitor is per paired and is CKT symbol is
It has been observed that quantity of charge a is proportional to the applied voltage V in volt.0
Q = CV C = Q/V
Hence one served is defined as the capacitance of a capacitor which requires a charge a one coulomb to establish aspect one volt between its plates. 1Farad=1Coloumb/1Volt The unit of capacitance farad is two large for practical purpose. Hence much smaller like F and picoF are qeheraly. Employed
CLASSIFICATION OF CAPACITORS: According to the physical construction Fixed capacitor:
Whose capacitance volume cannot be varied mechanically or by one other external means. Variable capacitor: Whose capacitance value can be varied quite frequently or Less frequency. Ex: Tuning capacitor, and trimming capacitor.
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According to the Polarization: Polarized:
Used in PC application. Ex: Aluminum, tantalum, electrolytic capacitor. Non Polarized: Used in AC application. Ex: Aluminum, tantalum, electrolytic capacitor. (Mica, Ceramic) According to Voltage Rating: Low voltage capacitors (<50V) Ex: Ceramic, electrolytic capacitors. High voltage capacitor (>100V) Ex: mica, glass, ceramic, capacitor. Specifications of Capacitors: Capacitor value. Dielectric constant Dielectric strength Power factor
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Tolerance Insulation resistance Temperature rang Frequency rang and Stability.
FIXED CAPACITOR Paper capacitor: These are two types 1. Impregnated paper capacitor, 2. Metalised paper capacitors. Properties: 0.05F They are mechanically very strong. They are very cheap. They are quick balky. They are usually high-voltage (7100V) capacitors. Their capacitance value is usually between 0.0024F and
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They have poor high frequency characteristics.
Applications: Used as R.F suppression capacitors in CKF where noise
interference from R.F. sources can occur. Used as by pass capacitors in amplifiers. Used in high voltage DCCKF. Used in communicating CKF of SCR.\
Mica Capacitors: These are two types Stacked mica capacitors Severed mica capacitors.
Properties: Mica capacitors have good mechanical strength. They can be operated to temperatures as high a 9000C. They can with stand very high frequency operation. They are suitable for very high frequency operation.
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The capacitance value is generally between 5.3300PF. The capacitance value is highly stable. They are cheaper than polyester capacitors.
Applications: Used as high-voltage capacitors in low frequency power
applications. Used as high voltage R.F. capacitors. Used as high voltage transmitter capacitors.
LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED)

Light-emitting diodes are elements for light signalization in electronics. They are manufactured in different shapes, colors and sizes. For their low price, low consumption and simple use, they have almost completely pushed aside other light sources- bulbs at first place. They perform similar to common diodes with the difference that they emit light when current flows through them.
Fig LED Interfacing with 89C51 Microcontroller
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It is important to know that each diode will be immediately destroyed unless its current is limited. This means that a conductor must be connected in parallel to a diode. In order to correctly determine value of this conductor, it is necessary to know diodes voltage drop in forward direction, which depends on what material a diode is made of and what color it is. There are three main types of LEDs. Standard ones get full brightness at current of 20mA. Low Current diodes get full brightness at ten times lower current while Super Bright diodes produce more intensive light than Standard ones. Since the 8051 microcontrollers can provide only low input current and since their pins are configured as outputs when voltage level on them is equal to 0, direct connecting to LEDs is carried out as it is shown on fig 3.3.1(Low Current LED, cathode is connected to out pin of 89C51)
LED INTERFACING WITH THE MICROCONTROLLER:

LED stands for Light Emitting Diode. LEDs are the most widely used input/output devices of the 8051.Microcontroller port pins cannot drive these LEDs as these require high currents to switch on. Thus the positive terminal of LED is directly connected to Vcc, power supply and the negative terminal is connected to port pin through a current limiting resistor. This current limiting resistor is connected to protect the port pins from sudden flow of high currents from the power supply. Thus in order to glow the LED, first there should be a current flow through the LED. In order to have a current flow, a voltage difference should exist between the LED terminals. To ensure the voltage difference between the terminals and as the positive terminal of LED is connected to power supply Vcc, the negative terminal has to be connected to ground. Thus this ground value is provided by the microcontroller port pin. This can be achieved by writing an instruction CLR P1.0. With this, the port pin P1.0 is initialized to zero and thus now a voltage difference is established between the LED terminals and accordingly, current flows and therefore the LED glows. LED and switches can be connected to any one of the four port pins.
Vcc P1.0
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Fig LED Interfacing with 89C51 In this project, LEDS are used as the display units to indicate the level of the petrochemical liquid in the processor container which is to be purified, motor running indication and the relay on condition.
MICROCONTROLLERS
INTRODUCTION: Microprocessors and microcontrollers are widely used in embedded systems products. Microcontroller is a programmable device. A microcontroller has a CPU in addition to a fixed amount of RAM, ROM, I/O ports and a timer embedded all on a single chip. The fixed amount of on-chip ROM, RAM and number of I/O ports in microcontrollers makes them ideal for many applications in which cost and space are critical. The Intel 8051 is Harvard architecture, single chip microcontroller (C) which was developed by Intel in 1980 for use in embedded systems. It was popular in the 1980s and early 1990s, but today it has largely been superseded by a vast range of enhanced devices with 8051-compatible processor cores that are manufactured by more than 20 independent manufacturers including Atmel, Infineon Technologies and Maxim Integrated Products. 8051 is an 8-bit processor, meaning that the CPU can work on only 8 bits of data at a time. Data larger than 8 bits has to be broken into 8-bit pieces to be processed by the
CPU. 8051 is available in different memory types such as UV-EPROM, Flash and NVRAM. The microcontroller used in this project is At89s52. Atmel Corporation introduced this at89s52 microcontroller. This microcontroller belongs to 8051 family. This microcontroller had 128 bytes of RAM, 4K bytes of on-chip ROM, two timers, one serial port and four ports (each 8-bits wide) all on a single chip. At89s52 is Flash type 8051. The present project is implemented on Keil Uvision. In order to program the device, proload tool has been used to burn the program onto the microcontroller. The features, pin description of the microcontroller and the software tools used are discussed in the following sections.
3.2 FEATURES OF At89s52:

4K Bytes of Re-programmable Flash Memory. RAM is 128 bytes. 2.7V to 6V Operating Range. Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz. Two-level Program Memory Lock. 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM. 32 Programmable I/O Lines. Two 16-bit Timer/Counters.
Six Interrupt Sources. Programmable Serial UART Channel. Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes.
DESCRIPTION:
The At89s52 is a low-voltage, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4K bytes of Flash programmable memory. The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industrystandard MCS-51 instruction set. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel At89s52 is a powerful microcomputer, which provides a highly flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications. In addition, the At89s52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning. The power-down mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset.
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PIN DIAGRAM
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Fig 4.2.1: Pin diagram
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Fig :Block diagram of at89s52
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PIN DESCRIPTION:
VCC: Pin 40 provides supply voltage to the chip. The voltage source is +5V. GND: Pin 20 is the ground. XTAL1 and XTAL2:
XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier that can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 11. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven, as shown in the below figure. There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be observed.
Fig : Oscillator Connections
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C1, C2 = 30 pF 10 pF for Crystals = 40 pF 10 pF for Ceramic Resonators
Fig : External Clock Drive Configuration
RESET:
Pin9 is the reset pin. It is an input and is active high. Upon applying a high pulse to this pin, the microcontroller will reset and terminate all the activities. This is often referred to as a power-on reset.
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EA (External access):
Pin 31 is EA. It is an active low signal. It is an input pin and must be connected to either Vcc or GND but it cannot be left unconnected. The 8051 family members all come with on-chip ROM to store programs. In such cases, the EA pin is connected to Vcc. If the code is stored on an external ROM, the EA pin must be connected to GND to indicate that the code is stored externally.
PSEN (Program store enable):
This is an output pin.
ALE (Address latch enable):
This is an output pin and is active high.
PORTS 0, 1, 2 & 3:
The four ports P0, P1, P2 and P3 each use 8 pins, making them 8-bit ports. All the ports upon RESET are configured as input, since P0-P3 have value FFH on them.
PORT 0(P0):
Port 0 is also designated as AD0-AD7, allowing it to be used for both address and data. ALE indicates if P0 has address or data. When ALE=0, it provides data D0-D7, but when ALE=1, it has address A0-A7. Therefore, ALE is used for demultiplexing address and data with the help of an internal latch. When there is no external memory connection, the pins of P0 must be connected to a 10K-ohm pull-up resistor. This is due to the fact that P0 is an open drain. With external pull-up resistors connected to P0, it can be used as a simple I/O, just like P1 and P2. But the ports P1, P2 and P3 do not need any pull-up resistors since they already have pull-up resistors internally. Upon reset, ports P1, P2 and P3 are configured as input ports.
PORT 1 & PORT 2:
With no external memory connection, both P1 and P2 are used as simple I/O. With external memory connections, port 2 must be used along with P0 to provide the 16bit address for the external memory. Port 2 is designated as A8-A15 indicating its dual function. While P0 provides the lower 8 bits via A0-A7, it is the job of P2 to provide bits A8-A15 of the address.
PORT 3:
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Port 3 occupies a total of 8 pins, pins 10 through 17. It can be used as input or output. P3 does not need any pull-up resistors, the same as port 1 and port 2. Port 3 has an additional function of providing some extremely important signals such as interrupts.
Table: Port 3 Alternate Functions
Addressing Modes:
While operating, processor processes data according to the program instructions. Each instruction consists of two parts. One part describes what should be done and another part indicates what to use to do it. This later part can be data (binary number) or address where the data is stored. All 8051 microcontrollers use two ways of addressing depending on which part of memory should be accessed:
CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE Direct Addressing:
On direct addressing, a value is obtained from a memory location while the address of that location is specified in instruction. Only after that, the instruction can process data (how depends on the type of instruction: addition, subtraction, copy). Obviously, a number being changed during operating a variable can reside at that specified address. For example: Since the address is only one byte in size ( the greatest number is 255), this is how only the first 255 locations in RAM can be accessed in this case the first half of the basic RAM is intended to be used freely, while another half is reserved for the SFRs.
Indirect Addressing:
On indirect addressing, a register which contains address of another register is specified in the instruction. A value used in operating process resides in that another register. For example: Only RAM locations available for use are accessed by indirect addressing (never in the SFRs). For all latest versions of the microcontrollers with additional memory block (those 128 locations in Data Memory), this is the only way of accessing them. Simply, when during operating, the instruction including @ sign is encountered and if the specified address is higher than 128 (7F hex.), the processor knows that indirect addressing is used and jumps over memory space reserved for the SFRs.
MACHINE CYCLE FOR 8051:

The CPU takes a certain number of clock cycles to execute an instruction. In the 8051 family, these clock cycles are referred to as machine cycles. The length of the machine cycle depends on the frequency of the crystal oscillator. The crystal oscillator, along with on-chip circuitry, provides the clock source for the 8051 CPU.
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The frequency can vary from 4 MHz to 30 MHz, depending upon the chip rating and manufacturer. But the exact frequency of 11.0592 MHz crystal oscillator is used to make the 8051 based system compatible with the serial port of the IBM PC. In the original version of 8051, one machine cycle lasts 12 oscillator periods. Therefore, to calculate the machine cycle for the 8051, the calculation is made as 1/12 of the crystal frequency and its inverse is taken. The assembly language program is written and this program has to be dumped into the microcontroller for the hardware kit to function according to the software. The program dumped in the microcontroller is stored in the Flash memory in the microcontroller. Before that, this Flash memory has to be programmed and is discussed in the next section.
PROGRAMMING THE FLASH

The At89s52 is normally shipped with the on-chip Flash memory array in the erased state (that is, contents = FFH) and ready to be programmed. The programming interface accepts either a high-voltage (12-volt) or a low-voltage (VCC) program enable signal. The low-voltage programming mode provides a convenient way to program the At89s52 inside the users system, while the high-voltage programming mode is compatible with conventional third party Flash or EPROM programmers. The At89s52 is shipped with either the high-voltage or low-voltage programming mode enabled. The respective top-side marking and device signature codes are listed in the following table.
Table 4.3.1: Top side marking & Device Signature codes
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The At89s52 code memory array is programmed byte-byte in either programming mode. To program any nonblank byte in the on-chip Flash Memory, the entire memory must be erased using the Chip Erase Mode.
Programming Algorithm:
Before programming the At89s52, the address, data and control signals should be set up according to the Flash programming mode table. To program the At89s52, the following steps should be considered: 1. Input the desired memory location on the address lines. 2. Input the appropriate data byte on the data lines. 3. Activate the correct combination of control signals. 4. Raise EA/VPP to 12V for the high-voltage programming mode. 5. Pulse ALE/PROG once to program a byte in the Flash array or the lock bits. The bytewrite cycle is self-timed and typically takes no more than 1.5 ms.
Repeat steps 1 through 5, changing the address and data for the entire array or until the end of the object file is reached.
Data Polling:
The At89s52 features Data Polling to indicate the end of a write cycle. During a write cycle, an attempted read of the last byte written will result in the complement of the written datum on PO.7. Once the write cycle has been completed, true data are valid on all outputs, and the next cycle may begin. Data Polling may begin any time after a write cycle has been initiated.
Ready/Busy:
The progress of byte programming can also be monitored by the RDY/BSY output signal. P3.4 is pulled low after ALE goes high during programming to indicate BUSY. P3.4 is pulled high again when programming is done to indicate READY.
Chip Erase:
The entire Flash array is erased electrically by using the proper combination of control signals and by holding ALE/PROG low for 10 ms. The code array is written with all 1s. The chip erase operation must be executed before the code memory can be reprogrammed.
Reading the Signature Bytes:
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The signature bytes are read by the same procedure as a normal verification of locations 030H, 031H, and 032H, except that P3.6 and P3.7 must be pulled to a logic low. The values returned are as follows. (030H) = 1EH indicates manufactured by Atmel (031H) = 51H indicates at89s52 (032H) = FFH indicates 12V programming (032H) = 05H indicates 5V programming
Programming Interface:
Every code byte in the Flash array can be written and the entire array can be erased by using the appropriate combination of control signals. The write operation cycle is self timed and once initiated, will automatically time itself to completion. All major programming vendors offer worldwide support for the Atmel microcontroller series.
Table: Flash Programming Mode
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Fig: Programming the Flash
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PROGRAM OF MICROCONTROLLER OF RF:
org 0h mov p1,#00h mov p2,#0ffh start: jnb p2.0,l1 jnb p2.1,l2 jnb p2.2,l3 jnb p2.3,l4 sjmp start l1: mov p1,#00001100b acall del mov p1,#00000110b acall del mov p1,#00000011b acall del mov p1,#00001001b acall del sjmp l1 l2: mov p1,#00001001b acall del
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CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE mov p1,#00000011b acall del mov p1,#00000110b acall del mov p1,#00001100b acall del sjmp l2 l3: mov p1,#00001000b acall del mov p1,#00001100b acall del mov p1,#00000100b acall del mov p1,#00000110b acall del mov p1,#00000010b acall del mov p1,#00000011b acall del mov p1,#00000001b acall del mov p1,#00001001b acall del sjmp l3
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CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE l4: mov p1,#00001001b acall del mov p1,#00000001b acall del mov p1,#00000011b acall del mov p1,#00000010b acall del mov p1,#00000110b acall del mov p1,#00000100b acall del mov p1,#00001100b acall del mov p1,#00001000b acall del sjmp l4 del: mov r0,#6 h3:mov r1,#10 h2:mov r2,#250 h1:djnz r2,h1 djnz r1,h2 djnz r0,h3
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CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE ret end
RELAYS Relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and they are double throw (changeover) switches. Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits; the link is magnetic and mechanical.
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The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value required for the relay coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification.
Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available. For further information about switch contacts and the terms used to describe them please see the page on switches.
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Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to the pins providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay. The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil will be obvious and it may be connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high voltage 'spikes' when they are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent damage you must connect a protection diode across the relay coil. The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can see a lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever moves the switch contacts. There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another behind them, making the relay DPDT.
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The relay's switch connections are usually labelled COM, NC and NO:
COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch.
NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is on.
Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is off.
Choosing a relay You need to consider several features when choosing a relay: 1. Physical size and pin arrangement If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to ensure that its dimensions and pin arrangement are suitable. You should find this information in the supplier's catalogue. 2. Coil voltage the relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit powering the relay coil. Many relays have a coil rated for a 12V supply but 5V and 24V relays are also readily available.
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Some relays operate perfectly well with a supply voltage which is a little lower than their rated value. 3. Coil resistance the circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. You can use Ohm's law to calculate the current: supply voltage Relay coil current = coil resistance 4. For example: A 12V supply relay with a coil resistance of 400 passes a current of 30mA. This is OK for a 555 timer IC (maximum output current 200mA), but it is too much for most ICs and they will require a transistor to amplify the current. 5. Switch ratings (voltage and current) the relay's switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to control. You will need to check the voltage and current ratings. Note that the voltage rating is usually higher for AC, for example: "5A at 24V DC or 125V AC". 6. Switch contact arrangement (SPDT, DPDT etc). Most relays are SPDT or DPDT which are often described as "single pole changeover" (SPCO) or "double pole changeover" (DPCO). For further information please see the page on switches Protection diodes for relays
Transistors and ICs (chips) must be protected from the brief high voltage 'spike' produced when the relay coil is switched off. The diagram shows how a signal diode (eg 1N4148) is connected across the relay coil to provide this protection. Note that the diode is connected 'backwards' so that it will normally not conduct. Conduction only occurs when the relay coil is switched off, at this moment current tries to continue flowing through the coil and it is harmlessly diverted through the diode. Without the diode no current could flow and the coil would produce a damaging high voltage 'spike' in its attempt to keep the current flowing.
Reed relays Reed relays consist of a coil surrounding a reed switch. Reed switches are normally operated with a magnet, but in a reed relay current flows through the coil to create a magnetic field and close the reed switch.
Reed relays generally have higher coil resistances than standard relays (1000 for example) and a wide range of supply voltages (9-20V for example). They are capable of switching much more rapidly than
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standard relays, up to several hundred times per second; but they can only switch low currents (500mA maximum for example).
Relays and transistors compared: Like relays, transistors can be used as an electrically operated switch. For switching small DC currents (< 1A) at low voltage they are usually a better choice than a relay. However transistors cannot switch AC or high voltages (such as mains electricity) and they are not usually a good choice for switching large currents (> 5A). In these cases a relay will be needed, but note that a low power transistor may still be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil! The main advantages and disadvantages of relays are listed below: Advantages of relays:

Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC. Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot. Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A). Relays can switch many contacts at once.
Disadvantages of relays:
Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.
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Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many times per second.
Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
Relays require more current than many chips can provide, so a low power transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.
RF- MODULE:
The RF Module 3.5a is an optional package that extends the COMSOL Multiphysics modeling environment with customized user interfaces and functionality optimized for the analysis of electromagnetic waves. This particular module solves problems in the general field of electromagnetic waves, such as RF and microwave applications, optics, and photonics. The application modes included here are fully multiphysics enabled, making it possible to couple them to any other physics application mode in COMSOL Multiphysics or the other modules. For example, to analyze stress-optical effects in a waveguide, you would first do a plane strain analysis using the Structural Mechanics Module followed by an optical mode analysis show the resulting split of the fundamental modes. The underlying equations for electromagnetics are automatically available in all of the application modesa feature unique to COMSOL Multiphysics. This also makes nonstandard modeling easily accessible.
The documentation set for the RF Module consists of the RF Module Users Guide, the RF Module Model Library, and the book you are reading, the RF Module Reference Guide.
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ULN2003 (MOTOR DRIVE) DEFINITION:

Motor drivers are essentially little current amplifiers; their function is to take a low-current control signal, and turn it into a proportionally higher-current signal that can drive a motor. Stepper motor also has a motor driver circuit to drive it.uln 2003 is one of the motor driver circuit.
INTERNAL DESCRIPTION OF ULN2003:
The ULN2003 is a monolithic high voltage and high current Darlington transistor arrays. It consists of seven NPN Darlington pairs
that feature high-voltage outputs with common-cathode clamp diode for switching inductive loads. The collector-current rating of a single Darlington pair is 500mA. The Darlington pairs may be paralleled for higher current capability. Applications include relay drivers, hammer drivers, lamp drivers, display drivers (LED gas discharge), line drivers, and logic buffers. pair for operation directly with TTL or 5V CMOS Devices.
WORKING OF ULN 2003:

Motor are used for the motion of any body for example to move a robot, to move gate near the railway gates etc. generally motor work on the 12volts or the 5volts during the interface of the any motor to the micro controller we need to have a motor driver circuit. Motor driver is used as the amplifier to which contains transistor connected in the form of the Darlington pair. The Darlington transistor (often called a Darlington pair) is a compound structure consisting of two bipolar transistors (either integrated or separated devices) connected in such a way that the current amplified by the first transistor is amplified further by the second one. This configuration gives a much higher current gain than each transistor taken separately and, in the case of integrated devices, can take less space than two individual transistors because they can use a shared collector. Integrated Darlington pairs come packaged singly in transistor-like packages or as an array of devices (usually eight) in an integrated circuit.
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So the motor driver circuit I placed in middle of the micro controller and the motor what we are using, the below figure explains ULN driver to motor connection. We have the connection of micro controller to the driver and the driver to the motor. By this the motor can rotate in its individual direction. Motor has the clock wise direction and anti clock wise direction depend upon the application. Micro controller works on 5volts has the motor needs the 12v or the 5v
Interfacing uln2803 to micro controller:
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FEATURES OF ULN2003:
Output current (single output): 500 mA max High sustaining voltage output: 50 V min Inputs compatible with various types of logic Package Type-APG: DIP-16pin
DC MOTOR: A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC) electricity. DC motors were used to run machinery, often eliminating the need for a local steam engine or internal combustion engine. DC motors can operate directly from rechargeable batteries, providing the motive power for the first electric vehicles. Today DC motors are still found in applications as small as toys and disk drives, or in large sizes to operate steel rolling mills and paper machines. Modern DC motors are nearly always operated in conjunction with power electronic devices. Types of motors Permanent-magnet electric motors A permanent-magnet motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, instead relying on permanent magnets to provide the magnetic field against which the rotor field interacts to produce torque.
Compensating windings in series with the armature may be used on large motors to improve commutation under load. Because this field is fixed, it cannot be adjusted for speed control. Permanent-magnet fields (stators) are convenient in miniature motors to eliminate the power consumption of the field winding. Most larger DC motors are of the "dynamo" type, which have stator windings. Historically, permanent magnets could not be made to retain high flux if they were disassembled; field windings were more practical to obtain the needed amount of flux. However, large permanent magnets are costly, as well as dangerous and difficult to assemble; this favors wound fields for large machines. Brushed DC electric motor
Workings of a brushed electric motor with a two-pole rotor and permanent-magnet stator. ("N" and "S" designate polarities on the inside faces of the magnets; the outside faces have opposite polarities.) DC motors have AC in a wound rotor also called an armature, with a split ring commutator, and either a wound or permanent magnet stator. The commutator and brushes are a long-life rotary switch. The rotor consists of one or more coils of wire wound around a laminated "soft" ferromagnetic core on a shaft; an electrical power source feeds the rotor windings through the commutator and its brushes, temporarily magnetizing the rotor core in a specific direction. The commutator
switches power to the coils as the rotor turns, keeping the magnetic poles of the rotor from ever fully aligning with the magnetic poles of the stator field, so that the rotor never stops (like a compass needle does), but rather keeps rotating as long as power is applied. Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the need for brushes to press against the commutator. This creates friction. Sparks are created by the brushes making and breaking circuits through the rotor coils as the brushes cross the insulating gaps between commutator sections. Depending on the commutator design, this may include the brushes shorting together adjacent sections and hence coil ends momentarily while crossing the gaps. Furthermore, the inductance of the rotor coils causes the voltage across each to rise when its circuit is opened, increasing the sparking of the brushes. This sparking limits the maximum speed of the machine, as too-rapid sparking will overheat, erode, or even melt the commutator. The current density per unit area of the brushes, in combination with their resistivity, limits the output of the motor. The making and breaking of electric contact also generates electrical noise; sparking generates RFI. Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance (on larger motors) or replacement (on small motors). The commutator assembly on a large motor is a costly element, requiring precision assembly of many parts. On small motors, the commutator is usually permanently integrated into the rotor, so replacing it usually requires replacing the whole rotor. While most commutators are cylindrical, some are flat discs consisting of several segments (typically, at least three) mounted on an insulator. Large brushes are desired for a larger brush contact area to maximize motor output, but small brushes are desired for low mass to maximize
the speed at which the motor can run without the brushes excessively bouncing and sparking (comparable to the problem of "valve float" in internal combustion engines). (Small brushes are also desirable for lower cost.) Stiffer brush springs can also be used to make brushes of a given mass work at a higher speed, but at the cost of greater friction losses (lower efficiency) and accelerated brush and commutator wear. Therefore, DC motor brush design entails a trade-off between output power, speed, and efficiency/wear. Brushless DC electric motor Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the brushless design. In this motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator/brushgear assembly is replaced by an external electronic switch synchronised to the rotor's position. Brushless motors are typically 8590% efficient or more, efficiency for a brushless electric motor, of up to 96.5% was reported[19] whereas DC motors with brushgear are typically 7580% efficient. Brushless DC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, as in computer disk drives or in video cassette recorders, the spindles within CD, CD-ROM (etc.) drives, and mechanisms within office products such as fans, laser printers and photocopiers. They have several advantages over conventional motors: Switched reluctance motor The switched reluctance motor (SRM) has no brushes or permanent magnets, and the rotor has no electric currents. Instead, torque comes from a slight mis-alignment of poles on the rotor with poles on the stator. The rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field of the stator, while the stator field stator windings are sequentially energized to rotate the stator field.
The magnetic flux created by the field windings follows the path of least magnetic reluctance, meaning the flux will flow through poles of the rotor that are closest to the energized poles of the stator, thereby magnitizing those poles of the rotor and creating torque. As the rotor turns, different windings will be energized, keeping the rotor turning. Coreless or ironless DC motors Nothing in the principle of any of the motors described above requires that the iron (steel) portions of the rotor actually rotate. If the soft magnetic material of the rotor is made in the form of a cylinder, then (except for the effect of hysteresis) torque is exerted only on the windings of the electromagnets. Taking advantage of this fact is the coreless or ironless DC motor, a specialized form of a brush or brushless DC motor. Optimized for rapid acceleration, these motors have a rotor that is constructed without any iron core. The rotor can take the form of a winding-filled cylinder, or a self-supporting structure comprising only the magnet wire and the bonding material. The rotor can fit inside the stator magnets; a magnetically soft stationary cylinder inside the rotor provides a return path for the stator magnetic flux. A second arrangement has the rotor winding basket surrounding the stator magnets. In that design, the rotor fits inside a magnetically soft cylinder that can serve as the housing for the motor, and likewise provides a return path for the flux. Printed armature or pancake DC motors A rather unusual motor design, the printed armature or pancake motor has the windings shaped as a disc running between arrays of highflux magnets. The magnets are arranged in a circle facing the rotor with space in between to form an axial air gap. This design is commonly known as the pancake motor because of its extremely flat profile,
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although the technology has had many brand names since its inception, such as ServoDisc. The printed armature (originally formed on a printed circuit board) in a printed armature motor is made from punched copper sheets that are laminated together using advanced composites to form a thin rigid disc. The printed armature has a unique construction in the brushed motor world in that it does not have a separate ring commutator. The brushes run directly on the armature surface making the whole design very compact. Universal motors Modern low-cost universal motor, from a vacuum cleaner. Field windings are dark copper colored, toward the back, on both sides. The rotor's laminated core is gray metallic, with dark slots for winding the coils. The commutator (partly hidden) has become dark from use; it's toward the front. The large brown molded-plastic piece in the foreground supports the brush guides and brushes (both sides), as well as the front motor bearing. A series-wound motor is referred to as a universal motor when it has been designed to operate on either AC or DC power. It can operate well on AC because the current in both the field and the armature (and hence the resultant magnetic fields) will alternate (reverse polarity) in synchronism, and hence the resulting mechanical force will occur in a constant direction of rotation.
Selection of motor :
Among these above motors dc brushed motors are more preferable for the demo project due to its low cost and high reliyability.
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Brushed DC motors are one of the oldest motor topologies in existence today. They use stationary brushes mounted to the stator frame which rub against commutator segments on the rotor, which in turn are connected to the rotating coil segments. As the rotor spins, different rotor coils are connected and disconnected in such a way that the net magnetic field produced by the rotor is stationary with respect to the stator frame, and properly oriented with the stator magnetic field so as to produce torque. As the commutator segments rotate past the brushes, the electrical contacts to those particular rotor coil segments will be broken. Since the rotor coils are inductive, and inductors oppose changes in their current by generating a high flyback voltage, sparks are produced between the brushes and the disconnected commutator segments. These sparks result in many negative consequences, such as electrical noise, reduced efficiency, and in some cases, hazardous operation. Furthermore, the brushes must be spring loaded against the commutator segments in order to insure good electrical contact. This further reduces efficiency, and requires periodic maintenance to replace the brushes.
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CONCLUSION
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CONCLUSION
The project has been successfully designed and tested. Integrating features of all the hardware components used have developed it. Presence of every module has been reasoned out and placed carefully thus contributing to the best working of the unit. Secondly, using highly advanced ICs and with the help of growing technology the project has been successfully implemented.
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Controlling of Electrical Equipments by RF

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Controlling of Electrical Equipments by RF

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CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

SRI SAI ADITYA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (249)

CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

SRI SAI ADITYA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (249)

CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

SRI SAI ADITYA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (249)

CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

POWER SUPPLY MICRO CONTROLLER RF MODULE DEVICES

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CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

SRI SAI ADITYA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (249)

CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

For example a 5V regulated power supply system as shown below:

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CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

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CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

TYPES OF RECTIFIERS: Half wave Rectifier

CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

D.C output voltage

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CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

SRI SAI ADITYA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (249)

CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

SRI SAI ADITYA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (249)

CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

SRI SAI ADITYA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (249)

CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

A Three Terminal Voltage Regulator

SRI SAI ADITYA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (249)

CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

SRI SAI ADITYA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (249)

CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

SRI SAI ADITYA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (249)

CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

SRI SAI ADITYA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (249)

CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

SRI SAI ADITYA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (249)

CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

SRI SAI ADITYA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (249)

CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

SRI SAI ADITYA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (249)

CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

CLASSIFICATION OF CAPACITORS: According to the physical construction Fixed capacitor:

SRI SAI ADITYA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (249)

CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

According to the Polarization: Polarized:

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CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

Tolerance Insulation resistance Temperature rang Frequency rang and Stability.

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CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

They have poor high frequency characteristics.

Applications: Used as R.F suppression capacitors in CKF where noise

SRI SAI ADITYA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (249)

CONTROLLING OF INDUSTRIAL APPLIANCES USING REMOTE

Applications: Used as high-voltage capacitors in low frequency power

LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED)

Fig LED Interfacing with 89C51 Microcontroller