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Contents
Editors Comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 TWEEBUFFELSMETEENSKOOTMORSDOODGESKIETFONTEIN Development and integration of ventilation simulation tools for colliery ventilation practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 Use of Baseline Personal DPM Exposure Data for Mine Ventilation Planning A South African Journey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 MVS 2010 Conference 13 - 15 May 2010 Emperors Palace, Kempton Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 Bulk air cooling system close to completion on Tanzanian Mine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 Electra Mining Africa 2010 - World renowned mining and industrial show . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
CSIR Property, Cnr Rustenburg and Carlow Road, Emmarentia P O Box 291521 Melville 2109 Tel: 011 482-7957 Fax: 011 482-7959 / 086 660 7171 E-mail: secretary@mvssa.co.za info@mvssa.co.za Website: http://www.mvssa.co.za
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Advertising and Production: Delinds Publications 12 Delta Rd Blairgowrie Randburg PO Box 72366 Parkview 2122 Tel: (011) 886-5985 Fax: (011) 886-1332 Cell No: 083-266-6662 E-mail: delinds@mweb.co.za Advertising: Debbie Myer Production: Lindsay Myer The opinions expressed by contributors do not necessarily represent the official view of the Society. Products and services advertised in the Journal are not necessarily endorsed by the Society. Material in this publication may not be reproduced in any form whatsoever without written permission from the Editor. Copyright 2010 of the Mine Ventilation Society of South Africa
TWEEBUFFELSMETEENSKOOTMORSDOODGESKIETFONTEIN
Those of us fortunate enough to live in this southern tip of Africa will understand the title above from the Afrikaans language. It literally means the water hole where two buffaloes were killed, stone-dead, with one shot. It is a very "telegraphic" and descriptive and yet, in its own way, long-winded phrase. recognised that atomised water dust suppression (or fogger) systems had the potential to reduce the levels of respirable dust in atmospheres containing crystalline silica. This was recognised as a "leading" practice and was further researched and adapted for a number of applications. For its troubles, the MOSH team collected both bouquets and brick-bats! Some saw the application of fogger systems as a "patch" for an essentially flawed system - in this case, the application of such systems to main rock-tipping and rock-transfer arrangements. Although the criticism is unfortunate considering the good intent and success in some applications, it is significant in pointing out that the flaw lies in the design of modern rock-tips and ore-pass systems. Through the years, tried and tested designs have been discarded for the sake of expedience and to save time and cost at the expense of providing an effective dust capturing system from the beginning. This example is perhaps extreme but it exposes the fact that, despite the dedication and hard work of many, we often address the symptom rather than the cause so that we might find a quick and inexpensive solution. It is for this reason that we might not be able to achieve the milestones. This is just one example but it may be applicable to other situations. Whether or not we will succeed, irrespective of when, depends very much on our attitude in addressing these hazards and on how determined we are in challenging flawed systems and short-sighted attitudes alike. We must be able to get to the root causes and address these issues directly before we might have a chance to succeed. The adoption of new designs, strategies and systems is essential in this strategy. There is little time left. The MOSH adoption teams provide real answers to these challenges. They must be assisted and supported as much as possible. At the same time, to make a significant difference, we must address the real causes as these become apparent. The desired outcome might not be realised in three years' time, but if we start now we will be three years ahead than if we had continued in the present manner. Although it might not be possible to "shoot" both "buffaloes" with one shot as planned, we do have a chance with a well directed second "shot". We have been talking about this for decades. The time is now to make a difference.
Journal of the Mine Ventilation Society of South Africa, April/June 2010
Editorial
Marco Biffi Honorary Editor
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The two "buffaloes" about to be shot in this case are the hazards posed by noise and silica dust and more specifically the actions planned to reduce their impact on the health of workers. A set of milestones were proposed in 2003 and adopted by the Chief Executive Officers of various South African mining companies in 2005 whereby: By December 2008, 95% of individual exposures to silica dust will be less than 0.1 mg/m3 averaged over an eight hour shift. After 2013, no new cases of silicosis will be detected amongst previously unexposed individuals, using current (2003) diagnostic methods By December 2008, there will be no deterioration in hearing capacity greater than 10% amongst occupationally exposed individuals After 2013 the total noise emitted by all equipment in any workspace will not exceed a sound pressure level of 110dB(A).
The deadlines set for the first set of milestones have come and gone and the deadlines for the last set of milestones are approaching Please send your seemingly at a fast rate. comments and Although one does not want to criticise such opinions to well-intended objectives, it is fair to say that info@mvssa.co.za aspects remain ambitious. In particular, and more importantly, is the eradication of silicosis after 2013. The number of cases of this occupational disease is diminishing at an alarmingly low rate. If one adds to that the fact that the cases identified today are as the result of exposure over anything from five to twenty year periods, then the possibility of meeting such a challenge becomes less evident. There is no doubt that the eradication of silicosis must remain a priority but not enough time has been focussed on providing meaningful engineering solutions. In 2007 the Chamber of Mines established the Mining Industry Occupational Safety and Health (MOSH) Leading Practice Adoption System to facilitate the achievement of occupational safety and health targets and milestones to be attained by industry. In March 2008 industry expert and the MOSH dust team
COUNCIL MEMBERS
Mr R Cornelissen, Mr B Doyle, Mr R H McIntyre, Mr M Beukes, Mr D Labuschagne, Mr AR Nundlall , Mr P Botha, Mr D Farlam, Mr LJ de Villiers.
Mr M Biffi (Hon. Editor), Dr BK Belle, Mr AD Unsted, Mr B Doyle, Mr F von Glehn, Ms Debbie Myer.
BRANCH REPRESENTATIVES
The Free State Branch Mr D van Greuning The Collieries Branch Mr B Doyle The Western Branch Mr J van Sittert The Northern Branch Mr D Stanton
Details of communication (please state what the exact nature of your communiqu is):
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Development and integration of ventilation simulation tools for colliery ventilation practice
L van den Berg, K van Zyl, & WM Marx Bluhm Burton Engineering, South Africa C. Thomson Anglo Coal Operations Limited - Anglo Coal South Africa
Abstract
Effective tools are not only essential for the design of practical and efficient underground mine ventilation systems but must also play an integral part in the operation of the mine. One such tool is VUMA-coal ventilation simulation software. VUMA-coal is Windows-based and has been specially designed for the simulation of underground coal mines and includes user-friendly coal specific interfaces and three-dimensional graphics designed to facilitate in the construction and analysis of networks. VUMA-coal can be utilised during the design phase of new collieries, be used to conduct what-if and optimisation studies, and be integrated into the day-to-day ventilation related operations. In addition, VUMAcoal can be used to simulate dust and gas distribution in a ventilation network, as well as predict the impact of control measures. This paper describes the interactive VUMA-coal ventilation simulation software and its underlying design features and outlines a case study of how VUMA-coal has been integrated into Anglo Coals Ventilation and Occupational Hygiene Engineering [VOHE] department as part of the standard planning and evaluation process in their operational mines as well as long term planning and future mining operations.
1 Introduction
The global increases in the demand of resources has lead to bigger mines being developed and continually drives efforts to develop more efficient and rapid mining methods. This leads to large, complex and last changing underground infrastructures that needs to be ventilated. To effectively ventilate these complex mining networks requires a fast and accurate ventilation planning and design process. By replacing manual calculation methods with fast and accurate ventilation simulation software the ventilation planning and design process is significantly improved. With this in mind, VUMA-network ventilation software was developed. Over the past decade VUMA-network
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has been used in the analysis of environmental control networks ranging from mining narrow reefs, massive ore bodies and underground collieries. The programme may be used equally effectively as a planning tool and as a means of verifying environmental performance parameters of operational mines. VUMA-network is a Windows based software program for the simulation of steady-state environmental conditions encountered in underground mines. VUMA-network is used to predict airflow and pollutant [dust, gas, radon, smoke, heat] distribution throughout the ventilation circuit. The software includes graphics enhancements that facilitate the creation, editing and management of mine ventilation networks.
Although VUMA-network can be successfully used to model underground collieries, a need for a coalspecific network simulator, which excludes thermodynamic aspects, with specific focus on coal mining practices and terminology was identified. By developing a coal specific version of VUMA-network [VUMA-coal], not only will the simulation software be made more user-friendly to coal mining ventilation practitioners, but a reduction in price of VUMA-coal compared to VUMA-network, due to the removal of the thermodynamic aspects, could be affected making the software more accessible to a larger user group. To satisfy this need a new product, VUMA-coal was developed based on the tried and tested VUMA-network simulation software and added to the VUMA suite of simulation software.
coal mine ventilation systems. VUMA-coal is an interactive network simulation program that allows for the simultaneous simulation of airflow, gas and dust emissions in an underground coal mine. VUMA-coal caters for most typical coal mining methods. A fundamental feature of VUMA-coal is the incorporation of user-friendly interfaces that allow for rapid construction of simulation networks. These networks can be used for long term strategic planning, current ventilation system optimisation, or to conduct what-if studies to assess the impact of ventilation changes at an operational level. VUMA-coal is based on the following principles of operation: Mine ventilation network is graphically constructed. VUMA-coal consists of multiple and single roadway branches, starting and ending with a node. The branches can be used to depict network components such as multiple and single intake and return roadway systems, declines, shafts, etc. Only information relating to the geometry, air resistance characteristics and ventilation wall construction of the roadways need be entered. Input data for roadways is used to calculate the air pressure drop in roadways, leakage resistance factors for ventilation walls and contaminant sources/sinks in specific branches of a network. VUMA-coal also incorporates control manager elements that assist with the design and control of airflow in the model. Typical control managers include ventilation wall leakage paths, workshop commitments, regulators, fixed flows, fans, etc. Input data for nodes consists of the X, Y and Z coordinates and barometric pressure [BP]. The BP only needs to be set for the startnode as the BP is calculated for other nodes throughout the rest of the network. Simulation networks are constructed in a two dimensional [2-D] graphical editor on a
seam-byseam basis. Different levels are then interconnected, typically by declines and shafts. A network is viewed in 2-D format in either geometric, strike, or section view. Input data for each roadway or control manager is entered in a relevant input screen for that type of branch or control manager before a solution is obtained for airflow and contaminants properties. Iterative network solution algorithms are used to solve for airflow, gas and dust. VUMA-coal contains an extensive help function to assist with the development of a simulation model. A three-dimensional (3-D) graphical viewer is used to view the network in 3-D to conduct fault analysis and visually assess airflow, contaminant and pressure distributions in the network. In addition to the 2-D and 3-D graphics output display, results can be exported in spreadsheet format.
engineers and practitioners uncomplicated. By using terminology that is familiar to practitioners VUMAcoal was accepted as a coal mining specific design. The introduction of the terminology also reduced ambiguity and made the construction and interpretation of models easier.
3 VUMA-Coal Features
There are four main factors that distinguish VUMA-coal from VUMAnetwork. The first, as mentioned above, is that VUMA-coal does not support a thermodynamic solution and is limited to a maximum depth of 500m below surface. For South African collieries in general thermodynamic aspects of ventilation and depths of greater than 500m is not a concern. The other three changes include: Exclusive use of coal mining terminology; Simplified methodology to simulate vent wall leakage; and Main development branch input format.
3.1 Terminology
A distinctive differentiating feature between VUMA-network and VUMAcoal is the change in general terminology. By introducing the change in terminology from general hard rock to general colliery terminology made the introduction of VUMA-coal to colliery ventilation
wall, an equivalent pressure related fixed resistance is calculated and a control manager element between the intake and return airways is inserted in the model. Depending on the simulated static pressure differential between the intake and return airway, the control manager leaks air from the intake to the return. This leakage is equivalent to the total leakage that can be expected at the highest pressure differential between intake and return airways for the defined equivalent length leakage branch. By constructing the simulation model in this manner the overall leakage of a mine can be accurately modeled. Figure 1 shows how VUMA-coal graphically represents this type of layout. By varying the equivalent length leakage branch and varying the standard vent wall resistance, existing mines vent system can be accurately calibrated. For new mines current best practice wall resistance values [as a result of experience of typical resistance values of existing mine calibration] are used. Simulation models of typical South African collieries showed that the resistance values for walls of similar quality do not vary significantly from mine to mine [within a mining group].
pressure would reach a greater distance than a mine with higher pressure difference for the same airflow quantity. Therefore, it is obvious that two collieries with the same wall standard / quality can have significantly different leakage characteristics depending on the mine system pressure.
4 Mine ventilation system design and simulation process 4.1 Current situation
The increasing size and dynamics of modern underground coal mines makes it progressively more difficulty to predict the airflow behaviour and to ensure adequate ventilation in all sections of a mine. With modern and accurate simulation tools such as VUMA-coal, a mine ventilation system can be designed to provide the necessary airflow at the lowest capital and operating cost while ensuring effective mine ventilation conditions and the associated benefits of worker safety and health.
Figure 2. Air requirements as mining distance increase In most of the literature on South African coal mine ventilation, little attention is given to ventilation network design. One of the reasons for this might be a lack of confidence in ventilation network simulators available to date. The following sections aim to demonstrate the relevance and potential benefit of using VUMA-coal to simulate coalmine ventilation systems, with a specific example from Anglo Coal. Obtain base case solution and calibrate to ensure correlation with operational data. Determine critical snap-shots over Life-of-Mine [LoM] where significant changes to the system occur or where certain horizons are reached. Determine airflow profiles over LoM. Construct snap-shot simulation models based on operational models. Solve airflow networks, evaluate results and optimise airflow distribution through what-if analysis. Solve contaminant distribution and re-optimise airflow distribution. Liaise with mine planning team and iterate to obtain optimum mine planning and design. Document inputs and results, and formulate conclusions and recommendations. Ventilation planning and design is one component of the broader mine planning system, and recommendations could include changes to the original layout and physical parameters such as fan specifications, shaft location and timing, roadway sizes, etc.
part of ventilation planning for collieries. Greenside Colliery in the Witbank region is expanding its operations to the north of their current main upcast and downcast infrastructure. The mine already re-located three out of four sections to the north and is planning to move a fourth section north from its current location in the south. The northern mining boundary is significantly further away from the ventilation infrastructure than the southern boundary. In order to maintain a last through road velocity of 1.5 m/s in all sections will require an additional 45 m3/s airflow in the north when four sections are situated in this area. Currently the mine has no additional air available to be redirected to the north and strategies will have to be put in place to provide the required 45 m3/s. One such strategy is to seal off worked out areas to save air, which can then be supplied to the north. The following air quantities are currently supplied to areas in the south that could potentially be sealed: Table 1: VUMA-coal simulation results Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Section to be moved Total: 15 20 25 50 110 m3/s m3/s m3/s m3/s m3/s
Table 2 below gives the results of VUMA-coal simulations where each area in the model has been progressively sealed. The table shows the cumulative impact of each of the sealing strategies on the additional available air quantity in the north, total upcast quantity and total leakage. The results show that with more areas sealed in the south, more air is forced towards the northern boundary and the mine system pressure increases. The simulations clearly show how the increase in pressure results in a simultaneous reduction of upcast quantity [fan duty] and increase in overall system leakage. After completing the sealing work and moving the section, of the saved 110 m3/s in the south only 45 m3/s
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Table 2: VUMA-coal simulation results for sealing strategy Sealing strategy Cumulative Air Available for North [m3/s] 0 15 25 30 45 Total Upcast Volume [m3/s] 515 510 505 495 475 Cumulative Leakage [m3/s] 125 125 135 142 150
was effectively available in the north. The airflow loss can be accounted for as follows: 40 m3/s reduction in total upcast quantity due to increased fan pressure [515 m3/s down to 475 m3/s] 25 m3/s increase in leakage due to higher system pressure [125 m3/s increased to 150 m3/s] Only 41% of the perceived saved air will reach the new section in the north. Simulations indicate that it will be Figure 3. VUMA-coal Main Development branch input screen possible to move the section to the north and supply the required 45 m3/s once the sealing work is completed. A further issue that had to be considered was how far the section can advance away from the main infrastructure before the available air will be insufficient to maintain the minimum last through road. VUMAcoal simulations showed that the section can only advance another 1 000 m before it would run out of air. At this point new ventilation infrastructure would be required which can be sized using VUMA-coal simulation software. From information from the mine, the section started to run out of air at the 1 000 m mark as predicted by VUMAcoal.
group and assists in standardisation in planning, reporting and evaluation of the VOHE business unit functions. The planning and evaluation process is further supplemented by planning and evaluation documentation including methodologies, reporting templates, graphs, tables and spreadsheets. The VOHE planning and evaluation system ensures a standard planning process and document that covers short term and LoM, as well as a standard evaluation process and document to compare key VOHE parameters as a measure of performance. VUMA-coal has been integrated into the full VOHE process and forms part of the long term planning and evaluation process as well as the dayto-day operational aspects. Detail VUMA-coal models are constructed and calibrated for all the Anglo Coal underground collieries
once a year. These calibrated base models are used in the LoM planning process of the various shafts to conduct what if studies related to current and required new infrastructure. The calibrated models are also used by the mine ventilation department to quickly and accurately clarify day-to-day ventilation issues that may arise during the year. Anglo Coal has achieved significant benefits from the process and some of the highlights are quantified and/or qualified below: Long term planning simulations showed that a number of previously considered Raise Bored Holes [RBH] and associated fan stations will ultimately not be required. A rough estimate of the Capital Expenditure [CAPEX] saving related to this RBH and fan station capital is $155 million [2006]. Ventilation system snap shots simulations for LoM allowed scheduling of ventilation infrastructure according to LoM production planning. This resulted in significant capital expenditure to be delayed by a number of years. Ventilation simulations of proposed mining scenarios indicated new ventilation infrastructure requirements [and scheduling] to
ensure planned production is achieved. Production would have suffered if the correct infrastructure was not in place on time. VUMA-coal models specified all future fan station aerodynamic design criteria. The work produced VOHE planning documents that will allow continuity in future as LoM OPEX and CAPEX are scheduled.
6 Conclusion
The VUMA-coal simulation programme is an essential tool to assist colliery ventilation engineers, practitioners to assist and mine planners and management to design optimal and cost effective underground coal mines by effectively and confidently incorporating ventilation aspects as part of the decision making process. This will enhance the holistic approach required for modern mine planning and design, and the everincreasing demands for quick, accurate and reliable answers. VUMAcoal can be used to develop effective
solutions for complex and interactive ventilation networks. Effective integration of simulation software into the operational and long term planning of a coal mining group has been achieved. Anglo Coal is maximising the benefits from applying simulation software in operational mines, long term planning and future mines. The continued profitability of existing operations and the viability of future mining prospects will be determined by operators ability to provide a safe and healthy working environment cost effectively. The use of precise and reliable simulation and planning tools for the design of underground ventilation systems will become more of a necessity rather than a luxury in future.
Acknowledgements
Anglo Coal for their support of VUMA and for allowing the examples and case study to be published in this paper.
References
Bluhm, S.J., Marx W.M., von Glehn, F.H. & Biffi, M. VUMA mine ventilation software.
Journal of the Mine Ventilation Society of South Africa, vol 54, 2001. Martinson, M.J., Leakage between intake and retrun airways in bord and pillar workings, 2nd US Mine Vent Symposium, Rheno, NV, September 1985. Marx, W.M., Biffi, M., Von Glehn, F.H., and Bluhm, S.J. VUMA network: a simulation tool for mine ventilation and cooling networks, Australian Centre of Geomechanics, International Seminar on Deep and High Stress Mining, Perth, Australia, November 2002. Marx, W.M., Biffi, M., Von Glehn, F.H., and Bluhm, S.J.. VUMA (Ventilation of Underground Mine Atmospheres)- A mine ventilation and cooling network simulation tool, 7th International Mine Ventilation Congress, Krakow, Poland, September 2001. Marx, W.M. and Belle, B.K. Simulating airflow conditions in a South African coalmine, using the VUMA-network simulation software. North American/Ninth U.S. Mine Ventilation Symposium, Toronto, June 2002. Marx, W.M., Bluhm, S.J., Von Glehn, F.H., and Biffi, M. The simulation of mine ventilation and cooling networks using the VUMA suite of software, Australian Centre of Geomechanics, Second International Seminar on Deep and High Stress Mining, Johannesburg, South Africa, February 2004.
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Use of Baseline Personal DPM Exposure Data for Mine Ventilation PlanningA South African Journey
by B. K. Belle, Anglo American plc, Johannesburg, South Africa
1. Introduction
The use of diesel engine locomotives in SA mines can be traced to Van Dyk Consolidated Mines Ltd on the Witwatersrand gold mines in 1928 as a replacement for battery locomotives. The advantages and disadvantages were recognised in those days, and surprisingly, there are no significant additions to this list, but only refinements. The recognised advantages were viz., no installation cost, high mobility, greater power. The disadvantages were, viz., heat input into the air, noxious gases exhausted into the air, danger of explosions (in coal mines) or fires. The mining regulations at the time required that the proportion of CO and CO2 should not be more than 0.01 % and 0.1 % respectively. This translated to a dilution factor of 0.0168 m3/s/kW for the diesel engines used at the time (Barratt, 1941). In the last decade or two, the solid component of the diesel exhaust, called DPM has been recognised as a health hazard. Unlike the gold and platinum mines, which are generally at low levels of diesel mechanisation, coal mines use large numbers of diesel vehicles for transportation, materials handling and other support operations like longwall, and section belt moves. In recent years, small diesel vehicles are commonly used for worker transportation from surface to underground. In South Africa, DPM research in the 1990s was focused on diesel exhaust and control measures in underground workings (Haase, Unsted and Denysschen, 1995; Unsted, 1996). However, advances in DPM measurement technology has resulted in OELs for DPM being set in most of North America, Australia and Europe. With the impending legislation surrounding
Abstract
The use of diesel engine locomotives in South African mines can be traced to Van Dyk Consolidated Mines Ltd on the Witwatersrand gold mines in 1928 as a replacement for battery locomotives. The advantages and disadvantages were recognized in those days, and surprisingly, there are no significant additions to this list, but only refinements. The recognized advantages were viz., no installation cost, high mobility, greater power. The disadvantages were, viz., heat input into the air, noxious gases exhausted into the air, danger of explosions (in coal mines) or fires. In the last decade or two, the solid component of the diesel exhaust, called Diesel Particulate Matter (DPM) has been recognized as a health hazard. Exposure monitoring for DPM in South Africa (SA) is likely to be introduced in the future and SA is expected to follow the DPM legislation route in the USA. In the absence of any Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL) for DPM in SA, the Mine Safety and Health Administration (USA) rule is currently being used as a benchmark for the ventilation design of new underground mines or expansion projects or for assessment purposes. In this regard, some local mines took an initiative to quantify personal DPM levels in order to cater for any anticipated legislative controls, as part of the legislated risk assessment process (MHSA, 1996). This paper discusses the ongoing SA journey of measurement and limitations of exposure data for ventilation planning and regulatory purposes. Preliminary SA personal DPM measurements and the data on total carbon (TC)/Elemental carbon (EC) ratios have highlighted the DPM issue and shown the limitations of the adoption of overseas limits. The currently accepted DPM limits are based upon the belief that they are economically and technically feasible for the mines to reach and are not necessarily health based. For SA underground platinum mines, a median TC/EC ratio of 1.8 with a range of 1.2 to 5.8 was observed. For SA coal mines, a median TC/EC ratio of 1.44 with a range of 1.25 to 2.13 was observed. This is in comparison to the median TC/EC ratio of 1.3 with a range of 1.25 to 1.67 that was observed in the 31-Mine Study (USA). While it is common practice in the USA to use the ratio of TC/EC for metal mines to be 1.3, the ratio found in local metal mines is exceeding 2.0 (platinum); diamond mines it is 1.95 and for coal mines, the ratio was 1.53 which is lower than Australian studies, i.e., 1.96. While the TC/EC ratios are being debated overseas and the result of a NIOSH DPM health effects study is awaited, most SA mines are carrying out baseline exposure measurements to understand the range of TC/EC ratios for varying mining conditions and engine controls. The preliminary measurements have provided an understanding of personal DPM exposures in the SA mines. It has been shown that a need for critical analysis of TC/EC ratios exists, and possible reasons for variance must be understood before stringent adoption of overseas recommended limits for DPM. Furthermore, the collation of appropriate ratios (TC/EC or OC/EC) from various local measurements would provide enough data for discussion purposes. It is hoped that the findings from this paper would provide input to scientific approaches in developing appropriate conversion factors and limits for DPM and also in ensuring appropriate error factors (currently 1.14 for TC and 1.2 for EC) for compliance determination.
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DPM in SA and in the absence of any previous work specific to DPM measurement, this paper discusses the ongoing SA journey of measurement and limitations of exposure data for ventilation planning and regulatory purposes.
exposure. Therefore, to evaluate the exposure of workers to DPM, personal DPM sampling strategy is followed in SA. Also, by measuring personal exposure, a mine would be able to estimate the engine exhaust using the known ventilation air quantities. It is believed that the personal DPM measurement will enable verification of the state of maintenance of an engine and the need for tailpipe exhaust measurement or control measures. Personal DPM exposure monitoring is similar to sampling of dust in mines except that the DPM sampling filter cassette is different. The DPM sampler consists of a cyclone, a pre-packed filter cassette with SKC jewel impactor, a length of tubing, lapel clips and a constant flow sampling pump (Figure 1). The purpose of the impactor is to eliminate respirable coal dust particles larger than 0.9 m in size. The presence of this impactor reduces, but does not completely eliminate the potential for other carbon-based compounds such as coal dust to interfere with the DPM analysis. It is now commonly accepted that the respirable combustible dust (RCD) method developed in Canada is not favored due to accuracy limitations as levels are reduced, and the use of EC as the DPM surrogate. Regardless of the method used to analyse the sample, DPM sample collection is similar to the gravimetric sampling requirements as per DME Sampling Guidelines (2002) except the following points discussed hereafter. The pump flow rate is set at 2.0 Lpm in accordance with the supplier specification (SKC DPM cyclone) and the minimum sampling period is 300 minutes. Ideally, blank filters from each batch of filters (i.e. pack of 10) should be kept as field blanks for analysis as a quality control (background DPM
Figure 1. DPM sampler (right) worn by surface operator (left) and an underground LHD operator (centre).
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levels). However, due to the high cost of DPM sampling, it is advised that appropriate judgment be made based upon the availability of resources. After a DPM sample is collected, it must be sent to an accredited laboratory for analysis (CSIR-Johannesburg, the only accredited laboratory in SA). If the DPM sample is collected to quantify the volatile organic compounds (VOCs), the DPM sample must be stored in a refrigerator immediately after sampling.
B = control filter DPM (EC or OC) in g/cm2 FL = sample flow rate in litres per min ST = sampling time in min A = DPM filter deposition area, cm2 An 8-hour time-weighted average DPM sampling concentration (DPMST) is obtained as follows:
((DPMST x ST) TWA - 8h = 480 (2)
For example, the NIOSH 5040 method recommends a filter deposit area of 8.55 cm2 for a 37 mm filter when using a three piece style cassette. However, a study by NIOSH (Noll et al., 2005) using SKC impactor produced areas of DPM deposit between 8.11 and 8.21 cm2. For calculation purposes, the value used by the MSHA (USA) of 8.04 cm2 is recommended (Haney, 2006). It was noted during a few initial platinum baseline studies, a DPM filter deposition area of 8.4 cm2 was used.
1.96 (Roger and Mace, 2005). For the underground platinum mines, the average TC/EC ratio was 1.98. For the underground diamond (kimerlite) mines, the average TC/EC ratio was 1.95, while other metal mines had much higher TC/EC ratios as found from preliminary results. These differ from the findings from the US metal/nonmetal mines (31-mine study), i.e., 1.3. The OC levels in surface mines were much higher than the underground mines for both coal and platinum mines. Due to the limitations of the TC/EC ratio due to interferences of coal dust, adsorption of vapour phase OC on quartz filters, size and concentration of dust etc. the use of TC/EC ratio be carefully applied (Noll and Birch 2004; Birch and Noll, 2004). Depending on the effects of the interferences, the TC/EC ratio might not be an accurate conversion factor (Noll, 2007). In coal mines, the average OC to EC ratio for all underground measurements was at 50% indicating the presence of coal dust particles in the collected DPM samples. There may also be other sources of OC such as vapor phase OC. From coal mines, it was noted that the highest measured DPM levels was during belt move operations involving the contractors with a specialised crew of approximately 10 workers who completed the belt extension within approximately 4 hours, involving extensive use of up to 3 LHD diesel vehicles. It must be noted that, in coal mines, the highest exposure shifts,
Figure 4 TC/EC ratios from various mining commodities. such as belt extension, do not happen everyday and a worker present during these activities is usually on the fresh air side of the belt. The DPM measurement data in coal mines indicate that at surface mines or under normal underground mining conditions, the DPM exposure is well below the anticipated future DPM compliance limits. The reasons for high DPM exposures can be attributed to the increased number of diesel operating engines, diesel vehicle conditions, engine maintenance and hard working engines during the belt moves and continuous idling of diesel engines. The disruptions in section ventilation layout during belt moves may have contributed to the high DPM exposure. It is understood that all of the diesel engines use water-cooled scrubber filtration systems. It was noted that all the SA mines use low-sulphur diesel fuel (< 500 ppm). Another interesting observation was that even though there was no diesel equipment present during a normal coal cutting operation, the section environment still contained DPM levels (example., a CM section where there was no LHD present during the shift had measured levels of 27.22 g/m3 EC). Figure 5 shows the relationship between the number of dieseloperated vehicles emitting a fixed DPM emission of 2.5 grams/hour at the tailpipe, DPM concentration (TC) in g/m3 and ventilation quantity in m3/s. This model can be used to determine the ventilation quantity or specific need for the diesel engine control requirements after the personal measurement data. For example, if the personal DPM exposure level of the LHD driver during a belt extension was 1054 g/m3. From the plot (Figure 5), the following interpretations can be made, viz., firstly, the belt extension area where the LHD operator was busy was not well ventilated due to obvious ventilation disruptions caused by the belt move; secondly, assuming the
area was well ventilated, indicating that the LHD emission was above the coal mine DPM standard of 2.5 grams/hour. In an another example, an average of three personal DPM samples collected during the belt extension, i.e., 534 g/m3 (1039 g/m3; 240 g/m3; 321 g/m3) with a worst case scenario of 3 LHDs operating with an assumed air quantity of 30 m3/s at the belt extension area, would result in an estimated DPM emission of 20 grams/hour which is 8 times the current tailpipe standard, indicating that the current controls do not provide sufficient protection against DPM exposure. This would indicate a requirement for both control measures, i.e., increased ventilation during the belt extension, as well additional engine control devices. The control parameters that are available for lower DPM exposure are viz., use of low sulphur fuel; good engine maintenance; exhaust aftertreatment, good ventilation control, control of the number of diesel vehicles and non-idling in the section. Therefore, for high exposure activities, this would require applying engineering controls at the diesel engine and generalised controls such as increasing ventilation to a given workplace. However, this must be done in conjunction with appropriate economic and technical analyses and risk assessment of controls. For
example, during the belt move operation, section ventilation requires control of air movement so as to dilute the DPM and exhaust it to the return air as soon as possible by using brattices or small jet fans. Other engine based control methods involve after-treatment filters such as a commercially available disposable diesel emission filter. Various practical information on maintenance of the diesel engines can be found at the MSHA website (http://www.msha.gov). This information can be used on selected high DPM emitting engines.
combustible dust, adsorption of vapor phase OC on quartz filters, size, and concentration of dust, engineering controls and operating conditions. It is accepted that the actual TC/EC ratio could vary from mine to mine, and even from one section in a mine to another, based on the mix of controls at a mine. It was noted that clean engines have more of an impact on reducing OC levels. Alternative fuels, ventilation, and work practices seem to lower EC and TC at similar rates, while diesel particulate filters (DPF) and environmental cabs appear to be more effective in reducing EC levels (EPA, 2005). While the TC/EC ratios are being debated overseas and the results of NIOSH DPM health effects study is awaited, many SA mines are carrying out baseline exposure measurements to understand the range of TC/EC ratios for varying mining conditions and engine controls. The preliminary measurements have provided an understanding of personal DPM exposures in the SA mines. It has been shown that a need for critical analysis of TC/EC ratios exists, and possible reasons for such variance must be understood before stringent adoption of overseas recommended limits for DPM. Furthermore, the collation of appropriate ratios (TC/EC or OC/EC) from various local measurements would provide enough data for discussion purposes. It is hoped that the findings from this paper would provide an input to scientific approaches in developing appropriate conversion factors and limits for DPM and also in ensuring appropriate error factors (currently 1.14 for TC and 1.2 for EC) for compliance determination.
7 References
Barratt, A.G., 1941, Notes on the Use of a Diesel Locomotive Underground at Van Dyk Consolidated Mines, Ltd., Third Empire Mining and Metallurgical Congress, 1941, SA, pp. 489-496. Unsted, A.D., 1996, Control of Diesel Emissions in Underground Workings, GEN 208, SIMRAC Report, SA, pp 214. HEI, 1995, Diesel Exhaust: A Critical Analysis of Emissions, Exposure, and Health Effects. Report of the Special Working Group on Diesel of the Health Effects Institute, Cambridge MA. EPA, 2005, Diesel Particulate Matter Exposure of Underground Metal and Nonmetal Mines, Federal Register: September 7, 2005, Volume 70, Number 172, Proposed Rules Page 53279-53293. NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods (NMAM), method 5040, Fourth Edition Haase, H., Unsted, A.D., and Denysschen, C., 1995, Control of Diesel Exhaust in Underground Workings, GEN010, SIMRAC Report, South Africa, 269p. Noll, J D., Timko, R J., McWilliams, L., Hall, P and Haney, R.A., Sampling Results ., of the Improved SKC DPM Cassette. Journal of Occupational & Environmental Hygiene, Volume 2, No.1, January 2005, pp. 29-37. Noll, J.D., M. E. Birch., 2004, Evaluation of SKC DPM Cassettes for Monitoring Diesel Particulate Matter in Coal Mines. J. Environ. Monit., No. 6, 973 - 978. Birch, M.E.; J.D. Noll., 2004, Sub micrometer elemental carbon as a selective measure of diesel particulate matter in coal mines. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, No.6, 799-806. Noll, J.D., 2007, Personal Communications, NIOSH, USA Haney, R.A., 2006, Personal Communications, USA. Rogers, A., and Mace, G, 2005, Diesel Particulate Exposure-Monitoring in Australian Mines, Power Point Presentation, pp 19. NIOSH 1988, Carcinogenic Effects of Exposure to Diesel Exhaust. Current Intelligence Bulletin 50. NIOSH Publication No 88-116 IARC, 1989, Diesel and Gasoline Engine Exhausts and Some Nitroarenes. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, Vol 46, Lyons, France. Pomroy, B., 2007, Recent Developments in DPM, The 12th Annual Underground Stone Safety Seminar, December 4-5, 2007, Executive Inn Louisville, Ky, USA.
6 Acknowledgements
The author wishes to express his sincere gratitude and appreciation to various mines for pro-actively addressing the DPM issue and sharing relevant information for this paper; and to the Anglo Technical Division for permission to publish this paper.
Exhibitor: GFG
Exhibitor: NAPAS
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Exhibitor: Afrox
Theresse Stanton, David Stanton, Marie Ackermann, Johan Tucker, Dirk van Greuning, Marco Biffi
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Dr S Bluhm, Wynand Marx, Russell Ramsden with Cheryl Allen and Brian Keen from Vale Inco Ltd Canada
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These include refrigeration machines, cooling towers, primary and secondary air coolers and in-stope chilled water systems. At concept level, BBE examines alternative refrigeration and cooling distribution systems and identifies optimum systems for specific circumstances. BBE has expertise in the detailed engineering design of mine refrigeration systems, the preparation of detailed engineering specifications, cost estimating and project execution and management for existing mines and new projects. BBE also has experience in the operational aspects of refrigeration systems and are often involved in assessment and modification work on existing refrigeration machinery.
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tional response we've had from exhibitors and early visitor pre-registration." "Halls 5, 6, 7, 8,9 and 10 are expected to be full to capacity with local and international exhibitors and the outside precinct areas, creatively expanded and designed, will be host to an array of exciting and innovative exhibits and live product demonstrations. There's huge equipment on display - always a draw card - and entertainment will be big this year". "The broad scope of these shows brings these coinciding industry sectors together at one location for visitor and exhibitor convenience," says John Kaplan, Group Managing Director and CEO, Specialised Exhibitions. "It's a platform to showcase the latest developments, technologies, trends, products and services in all sectors of these industries." "This combined with the co-located conferences such as the two morning workshops with the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, and the Inward Buying Missions organised together with the DTI and the South African Equipment Export Council, makes for an extremely informative, interactive and exciting experience for all visitors." Electra Mining Africa 2010, Elenex Africa 2010 and Transport Expo 2010 are being hosted at the newly revamped MTN Expo Centre - home of the Broadcast Media Centre for the FIFA World Cup, NASREC, Johannesburg, from 4-8 October. Entrance without a ticket, or a business card, or pre-registering at www.electramining.co.za is subject to a R20 entrance fee. For further information contact Specialised Exhibitions, Tel: +27 11 835 1565 or email veda@specialised.com or cwood@specialised.com
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